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THE 

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 

CYCLOPEDIA 

»/ 

FORMULAS 



PARTLY BASED UPON THE 
TWENTY-EIGHTH EDITION 

OF 

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA 
OF RECEIPTS, NOTES AND QUERIES 



EDITED BY 

ALBERT A. HOPKINS 

QUERY EDITOR OF THE "SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN" 



15,000 FORMULAS 



NEW YORK 

MUNN & CO., Inc. 
1919 



f^^ 



i4^ 



Copyright 1910 

BY 

MuNN & Co., Inc. 

Matter Copyright 1891, 1892, 1900, 1901, 1902, i9J3, 1904 

1905, 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909 by Munn & Co. 

All Rights Reserved 

Right of Translation Reserved into all languages 
including the Scandinavian 




[H] 



PREFACE 

tj^OR sixty-five years the Scientific American has annually given 
its readers the experience of practical experimenters in every branch 
of the useful arts, all over the world. Some twenty years ago the Editor 
of the present volume spent about two years in collecting and garnering 
formulas and other items of information. The result was the ''Scientific 
American Cyclopedia of Receipts, Notes and Queries." It at once be- 
came the standard authority among English-speaking people^ and not- 
withstanding the fact that it has had many imitators it is still recognized 
as the most reliable compilation ever published devoted to formulas. 
The world, however, has rapidly advanced. Each year a vast amount of 
technical literature accumulated. Instead of attempting to make any 
drastic revision, it was therefore deemed wise to recompile and rewrite 
the entire book. This work required the constant attention of a staff of 
experts and professional indexers for a period of two years. The old 
book was not thrown out in its entirety, possibly some thirty per cent, 
of the formulas were retained. The remainder, however, is entirely from 
new sources, the chief of which is the Scientific American, after which 
come the American and Foreign drug and technical journals. Concern- 
ing the question of credit, it may be stated that practically all the drug 
and technical journals of the world have been laid under contribution. 
A special list of sources credited is published elsewhere. The mass of 
material which has been handled is enormous; over 150,000 formulas re- 
main in the Editor's files, which were not included, owing primarily to 
lack of space. When it is considered that the present volume contains 
only 15,000 formulas, it will be seen that one in ten has been selected. 
From this it will be noted that the present work has been compiled with 
much more care than any similar book. The Editor wishes to express 
his appreciation of the services of Miss Julia E. Elliott, who has been 
largely responsible for the classification and indexing of the almost ap- 
palling number of formulas. It has required infinite patience in sifting 
and comparing. To Mr. A. R. Bond of the Editorial Staff of the Scien- 
tific American thanks are due for assistance in the preparation of the 

[Till 



chapter on "Alloys," and to Mr. F. C. Beach for help on the Photographic 
chapter. Messrs. Stillwell & Gladding have freely opened their technical 
laboratory for sketches. Mr. Thomas J. Keenan, Editor of the ''American 
Druggist," has kindly looked over the sections on '' Poisons" and ''Chemical 
Manipulation." 

In closing, it is hoped that this mine of information, which is by far 
the most ambitious and extensive ever published, will prove of even more 
value than its predecessor. 

Albert A. Hopkins. 

New York, December 15, 1910. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Chapter I. 


Chapter II. 


Chapter 


III. 


Chapter IV. 


Chapter 


V. 


Chapter 


VI. 


Chapter 


VII. 


Chapter 


VIII. 


Chapter IX. 


Chapter 


X. 


Chapter 


XI. 


Chapter 


XII. 


Chapter 


XIII. 


Chapter 


XIV. 


Chapter 


XV. 


Chapter 


XVI. 


Chapter 


XVII. 


Chapter 


XVIII. 


Chapter 


XIX. 


Chapter 


XX. 


Chapter XXI. 


Chapter XXII. 


Chapter XXIII. 


Chapter XXIV. 


Chapter 


XXV. 


Chapter XX\^. 


Chapter 


XX^TI. 



Introduction 1-3 

Accidents and Emergencies 5-24 

Agriculture 25-59 

Alloys and Amalgams 61-128 

Art and Artists' Materials 129-166 

X Beverages 167-269 

Cements, Glues, Pastes, Mucilages 271-336 

Cleansing, Bleaching, Renovating 337-431 

Coloring of Metals 433-449 

Dyeing 451-^57 

Electrometallurgy and Hot and Cold Coating of Metals . . 459-487 

Glass ; 489-508 

Heat Treatment of Metals, Annealing, Brazing, etc 509-519 

- Household Formulas 521-545 

Ice Cream, Confectionery and Chewing Gum 547-558 

Insecticides and Extermination of Vermin 559-569 

Lapidary Art, Artificing in Ivory, Bone, etc 571-594 

Leather 595-611 

Lubricants 613-621 

Paints, Varnishes, Bronzing, Lacquers, etc 623-672 

Photography 673-734 

Preser\'ing and Canning, Condiments, etc 735-777 

Rubber 779-795 

Soap and Candles 797-821 

Soldering 823-835 

Toilet Preparations and Perfumes 837-892 

Waterproofing and Fireproofing „ . . . 893-905 

Writing Materials 907-929 



APPENDIX 

I. Miscellaneous Formulas 933-977 

II. Chemical Manipulation 979-1044 

III. Weights and Measures 1045-1052 

INDEX 



^V] 



AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 



Allgemeine Fischereizeitimg 
AUgemeines Journal der Uhrmacherkunst 
Amateur Art Printer 
American Building News 
American Druggist 
American Soap Journal 
Annals of Surgery- 
Apothecary, The 
Apotheker Zeitung 
Archives of Dentistry 
Baden Gewerbezeitung 
Baker's Helper 
Bautechnische Zeitschrift 
Berliner Drog. Zeitung 
Brass World 
Brewer and Distiller 
British and Colonial Druggist 
British Journal of Photography 
British Medical Journal 
Builder, Decorator and Wood-worker 
Bulletin of Pharmacy 
Bulletin of Photography- 
Canadian Druggist 
Chemical News 
Chemical Trade Journal 
Chemiker Zeitung Repertorium 
Chemisch Technische Fabrikant, Der 
Chemische Zeitung 
Chemist-Druggist 
Chronique Industrielle 
Circular Bureau of Entomology 
Comptes Rendus 
Confectioners' Journal 
Cooley's Receipts 
Cosmos 

Country Gentleman 
Dekorationsmaler, Der 
Deutsche Drog. Zeitung 
Deutsche Goldschmiede Zeitung 
Deutsche Handwerk, Das 



Deutsche Maler Zeitung 
Deutsche Topfer und Ziefler Zeitung 
Dietrich's Manual 
Dingler's Polytechnic Journal 
Domestic Engineering 
Drog. Rundschau 
Drogisten Zeitung 
Drug Topics 
Druggists' Circular 
Electrical Review 
English Mechanic 
Farben Zeitung 
Farmers' Bulletin 
Forraulaire Industrie! 
Formulary. The 
Garden, The 
Gardeners' Chronicle 
Gewerbeblatt 
Gummi Zeitung 
Hide and Leather 
Ice Cream Trade Journal 
lUustrirte Zeitung fiir Blechindustrie 
niustrirte Zentral Blatter 
Indu^ries 
Industrie Blatter 
Industrial Record 
Industriose Geschaftsmann, Der 
Inland Printer 
Jewelers' Journal 
Journal der Goldschmiedekunst 
Journal of Applied Microscopy 
Journal of the British Dental Association 
Journal of the Franklin Institute 
Journal of Gas and Sanitary Engineering 
Journal of Pharmacy 
Journal Society of Chemical Industry- 
Journal Suisse d'Horlogerie 
Keramische Rundschau 
La France Horlogere 
La Nature 
La Science en Famille 



[VI] 



La Vie Scientifique 

Lack und Farben Industrie 

Ladies' Home Journal 

Legierungen, Die 

L'Electricita 

L'Electrochimie 

L'Industrie Textile 

Le Genie Civil 

Le Praticien 

Leipziger Farber und Zeugdrucker Zeitung 

Leipziger Muster-Zeitung fiir Faerberei 

Les Corps Gras Industriels 

London Optician, The 

Magazine of Pharmacy 

Maler Zeitung 

Metallarbeiter 

Meyer Bros. Druggist 

Mineral Water Trade Review 

Mining and Scientific Press 

Mntsch. f. Prakt. Derm. 

Monatschr. fur Dermatologie 

Montreal Pharmaceutical Journal 

Miinchener Medicinische Wochenscrift 

National Builder 

jN' ational Druggist 

National Glass Budget 

Neueste Erfindungen und Erfahrungen 

Nouvelles Scientifiques 

Oils, Colors and Drysalteries 

'^ maha Druggist 

..per Digest 
, apier-Zeitung 
Parfumer, Der 
Pharmaceutische Zeitung 
Piiarmaceutische Centralhalle 
Pharmaceutical Era 
Pharmaceutical Journal 
Pharmaceutical Journal and Pharmacist 
Fiiarmaceutical Journal Formulary 
Lharmaceutische Rundschau 

hotographic Annual 

hotographic Chronicle 

loto. Correspondenz 
hotographic News 
i oto Times 

ytech. Centralblatt 
yt. Notizblatt 
J ular Science News 

')ttery Gazette 
Poultry Journal 



Practical Druggist, The 

Practical Engineer 

Praktischer Wegweiser 

Process Engravers' Monthly 

Railroad Herald 

Railway Review 

Revue Chronometrique 

Revue de la Droguerie 

Revue des Produits Chimiques 

Revue Industrielle 

Revue Photographique 

Revue Suisse de Photographie 

Science, Arts and Nature 

Science Pratique 

Science Record 

Scientific American 

Scientific American Supplement 

Seifenfabrikant, Der 

Seifensieder Zeitung 

Shoe and Leather Facts 

Soda Dispenser 

Soda Fountain 

Southern Dental Journal 

Southern Druggists' Journal 

Southern Journal of Pharmacy 

Spatula 

Stationery Trades Jom-nal 

Stein der Weisen, Der 

Sudd. Apoth. Zeitung 

Supply World 

Technisches Centralblatt 

Technische Notizen 

Technische Rundschau 

Textile Record 

Textil Zeitung 

Trade Journals Review 

Uhland's Technische Rundschau 

Verzinnen Verzinken Vernickeln, Das 

Werkmeister Zeitung 

Western Druggist 

Western Jeweler 

Western Painter 

Wiener Drogisten Zeitung 

Wiener Gewerbe Zeitung 

Wiener Siefensieder Zeitung 

Workshop Receipts 

Zeitschrif t fiir die Gesammte Kohlensaure 

Industrie 
Zeitschrift fiir Offentliche Chemie 
Ztsch. Oest. Ap. Ver. 



[VIII 



INTRODUCTION 



A LTHOUGH the greatest care has heen exercised in the selection of 
the formulas and processes in the revision of the proof sheets, neither 
the Editor nor the Publishers can be held liable for any inaccuracies or 
errors. It is believed that the errors in the text are neither numerous nor 
of serious importance. It is not claimed that formulas for secret prepara- 
tions which occur in this book are the original formulas in the possession 
of the proprietors of such preparations, and great care should be taken to 
avoid the infringement of vested rights. The "Food and Drugs Act," or 
what is commonl}^ known as the "Pure Food Law,'' cannot be stated author- 
itatively in a book of this kind, as it is a question of interpretation by the 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, to which Department all 
requests for information relative to the law should be directed. The 
information which will be given will largely be in the form of answers to 
categorical questions. 

True medical formulas and cooking' receipts are not germane to a 
technical book of formulas : they have, therefore, been omitted. 

Of course, it would be advisable if only tested formulas could be 
included, but this is absolutely prohibitive in a book of this size, and it is 
questionable if a work of this kind would be a commercial possibility, the 
price wo aid certainly be very prohibitive, and it is quite within the possibil- 
ities that the interval of time which, must elapse between the beginning of a 
book of this nature and its fulfillment would result in many of the formulas 
becoming useless in the period. 

The light in which a formula should be viewed is that it is more or 
less of an approximation to the ideal formula, and that it should be used 
as a basis of experiment, each individual case requiring more or less modifi- 
cation. The product should not be compared with the articles manufactured 

[1] 



INTRODUCTION 

by well-known makers on a large scale. Their own secret fonntda has 
probably cost thousands of dollars and years of careful experimenting on 
the part of their experts and chemists. 

One question which presents itself in the selection of formulas is that 
the number of individual formulas devoted to one special thing is apt to be 
enormous. There is, however, a very good reason for this. For example, a 
manufacturer may wish to make a certain perfume which we will call "X," 
and he is desirous of producing the cheapest possible synthetic perfume 
intended to be sold in a five and ten cent store : this results in one type of 
formula. The next maker wishes a fair grade formula calling for both 
synthetic preparations and also a certain admixture of the real essential 
oil obtained by enf I enrage and distillation. A third manufacturer wishes 
a very high grade perfume and is willing to use the most expensive essential 
oils in its production. Still another manufacturer wishes to make the same 
perfume, only he requires the addition of musk, to give permanency. Thus 
we have a concrete example of four types of formulas, all of which are 
intended for a different class of trade, and require four distinct classes of 
formulas. It must not be thought for a moment that the Editor used 
everything he could lay his hands on. The intention is never to duplicate 
where it is possible to avoid it, but to show all types, always bearing in mind 
that tests are apt to differ, and that prices change with the qualities. The 
aim has been to produce a book of universal application which will prove 
of value in every laborator}^, factory, ofhce, and home. Another reason for 
a plurality of formulas is that very often the ingredients called for in one 
formula are not always obtainable, especially in a small town. This is an 
added reason for seeming liberality in the printing of formulas. Enough 
explanation, however, is given to prevent any confusion in the use of the 
formulas. 

The chapter on chemical, pharmaceutical, and technical manipulation 
has been prepared with the co-operation of well-known technical and com- 
mercial chemists. The information given is eminently practical, and a 
careful study of it will go far toward economy both of money and time. 
Amateurs are apt to waste both if not properly guided. Specific instruc- 

[2] 



INTEODUCTION 

tions are not possible in a work dealing with thousands of formulas. The 
best advice which can be given is to always experiment on a small scale, 
the smaller the better. It should also be remembered at the time of making 
articles like shoe-blacking, soaps, perfumes, etc., that the experimenter is 
at first at a great disadvantage, as he cannot obtain raw materials at as 
low prices as the large manufacturers, there is lack of special plant, and, 
above all, experience. These handicaps can only be obviated by an expend- 
iture of time and money. 

It is believed that the new arrangement into chapters will prove of the 
greatest possible benefit. Thus, instead of dividing up the one class of 
materials such as adhesive substances, we have one heading for cements, 
glues, pastes, mucilages, and other adhesive preparations. This plan tends 
to bring related subjects, between which the line of demarkation is never 
very clear, into harmony and order. This has resulted in some chapters of 
exceptional merit which really form a whole treatise on the subject, such 
as alloys, glass, leather, artists^ materials, writing materials, etc. 

The reader is strongly urged to never look up a subject without a 
perusal of the Index, which has been made with special care and is the key to 
the whole work. The arrangement under the various chapters is a common- 
sense subject-grouping which has been evolved after an experience of twenty 
years in aiding the experiments of over a hundred thousand inquirers. 
Still, the book may be used without undue reference to this classification 
by a proper use of the Index. 



131 



CHAPTER I. 



ACCIDE]S^TS AJS^D EMEEGEIS^CIES 



No book of Receipts would be deemed 
complete without its chapter on accidents 
and emergencies. The following short 
resume of what should be done in case of 
unusual and serious accidents, is compiled 
from a valuable little series of books 
which are now out of print, which were 
issued in 1905 by the Mutual Life Insur- 
ance Company of New York City, and 
copyrighted by that company in 1903, 
1904, and 1905. Republished by permis- 
sion : 

An accident usually assembles a crowd 
around the victim. The first thing to be 
done is to get the people away from the 
injured person. A space of at least ten 
feet on every side should be kept wholly 
free from everybody except the one or two 
who are in charge of the operations for 
relief. If others are needed to assist in 
some special duty, as lifting, removing the 
dress, etc., they can be specially selected 
from the crowd for the moment and then 
dismissed. The kindest thing a bystander 
can do is to insist upon a free space 
around the injured person, and to select 
from the crowd those who will hold them- 
selves in readiness to start for whatever 
the physician or the individual in charge 
of the case may require. 

If the person has been thrown from a 
carriage, injured by a blow, a fall from 
a height, or in some similar manner, while 
there may be no evidence of fracture or 
other external injury, the nervous system 
has received what is called a "shock," 
manifesting itself in faintness or complete 
unconsciousness. 

A person suffering with such symptoms 
should be placed flat on his back,' and the 
limbs at the same time straightened out, 
if practicable, so that the heart, which 
is already depressed in action, may acl at 
as little disadvantage as possible. The 
cravat, collar and everything else calcu- 
lated to impede the circulation toward the 
head or the movements of the chest should 
be loosened or removed. If the injury is 
slight, reaction will soon take place after 
giving the patient a sip of cold water, 



brandy (a teaspoonful in a tablespoonful 
of cold water), or aromatic spirits of am- 
monia (twenty drops in a teaspoonful of 
cold water), repeated in a few minutes. 
Gentle friction to the extremities, a few 
drops of cologne-water on a handkerchief 
to the nostrils, hot flannels applied to the 
limbs and epigastrium (pit of the stom- 
ach), are likewise useful in assisting re- 
action. 

By this time, should a surgeon have ar- 
rived, he will examine and decide upon the 
special nature of the injury, and inaugu- 
rate measures of special relief. If he has 
not appeared, and it is thought best to 
remove the patient to the hospital or his 
home, a stretcher should be procured, or 
a substitute in the shape of a settee or 
shutter. Upon this the injured person 
should be gently placed, the body being 
supported as much as possible along its 
length, and the face covered so as to pre- 
vent, as far as practicable, the uncom- 
fortable feeling of being stared at by 
passers-by. Four persons of uniform gait 
should then gently lift the stretcher and 
slowly carry the person to his destination. 
In most cities appliances for carrving in- 
jured persons are kept at the "station- 
house, and can be obtained on application, 
as well as the services of a good police- 
man._ The latter is almost invaluable in 
keeping away the crowd while conveving 
the person through the streets. If" the 
patient is to be taken to the hospital, a 
dispatch from a police-station would se- 
cure, free of charge, an ambulance with 
competent attendants. 

Directions for the treatment of frac- 
tures and dislocations are given elsewhere. 

Asphyxia. 

This word commonly signifies an ab- 
sence of respiration. It states a condition, 
but not the cause, and indicates suspended 
animation, produced by the non-conversion 
of the venous blood in the lungs into ar- 
terial. The supply of good air to the lungs 
being cut off by some cause, the necessary 
purification at that point no longer takes 



Always consult the Index when using this boolc. 

[5] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Burns and Scalds) 



place, and death of the entire body ensues 
from the absence of arterial blood. 

There are several varieties of asphyxia : 

(1) Asphyxia from submersion in water 
or other fluids, as in ordinary drowning ; 

(2) asphyxia from mechanical causes, as 
by strangulation or hanging, or from 
foreign bodies in the windpipe or its ap- 
proaches ; (3) asphyxia by inhalation of 
gases, known as suffocation ; (4) asphyxia 
from torpor of the medulla oblongata (an 
important portion of the brain at the 
junction of the spinal cord and what is 
called the brain) produced by the intro- 
duction into the blood of certain poisons. 

For treatment see the specific cause of 
asphyxiation. 

Burns and Scalds. 

When the clothing catches fire, throw 
the person on the floor or ground, so that 
the flames will not rise toward the mouth 
aud nostrils. Then without a moment's 
delay roll the person on the carpet, or, 
if possible, in a hearth-rug, so as to stifle 
the flames. If no rug can be had, use 
your coat. Keep the flame as much as 
possible from the face, so as to prevent 
the entrance of the hot air into the lungs. 
This can be done by beginning at the neck 
and shoulders with the wrapping. 

If the burn or scald involves consider- 
able surface, symptoms of shock, varying 
from mere weakness to utter prostration, 
appear. This requires immediate atten- 
tion, and a few drops of aromatic spirits 
of ammonia in water or a little brandy 
should be given, and repeated in a few 
moments until the return of strength is 
apparent. A burn, superficial as far as 
depth is concerned but covering a large 
surface, especially in the case of small 
children and aged people, is usually con- 
sidered more serious than a burn smaller 
in extent but deeper and more complete. 
If there is reason to suppose that hot air 
or steam has been inhaled, no time should 
be lost in obtaining the opinion of a phy- 
sician as to the result of the injury to 
the throat or lungs. 

Treatment. — The burned surface should 
be cleansed carefully by allowing water to 
trickle over it. The skin over a blister 
should not be cut off, but should be 
snipped with scissors near the edge, and 
the water gently squeezed out. This al- 
lows the skin to remain as a protective. 
If the blister re-forms, it may be neces- 
sary to repeat this operation. 

If the burn or scald is slight in charac- 
ter, one of the best applications is the 
cold-water dressing, keeping the linens 
used constantly wet. 



(Bums by Lime) 



In more severe cases a very good appli- 
cation is carron oil, which is a mixture of 
linseed oil and limewater in equal parts. 
Sweet oil alone is very good. Vaseline, 
with a little boric acid rubbed up with it, 
is also very soothing. Lard and baking 
soda mixed will relieve pain. Wheat flour 
is often dusted over the burn ; but this 
hardens with the discharges, and is of as 
little comfort as an application of small 
crusts of bread would be to the injured 
part. Cotton wool (carded cotton, cotton 
batting) is often used, but the fibers be- 
come imbedded in the discharges, and then 
cannot be detached without pain and dis- 
turbance of the wound. Talcum powder 
or fullers' earth is very useful as a dry- 
ing powder after the blister has been cut 
or any of the skin has become detached. 

If the burn or scald, particularly the 
latter, is superficial in character, a simple 
and useful dressing is the application, 
with a brush or a soft wisp of old muslin, 
of the white of egg to the injury. As 
soon as the first layer dries, another 
slaould be applied. A lather of soap from 
the shaving-cup, applied with the brush 
in the same way, is often followed by im- 
mediate relief. These substances protect 
the irritated nerves beneath from the ac- 
tion of the air. 

If a physician has been sent for, it is 
better not to make any domestic appli- 
cations, except cold water, to the burned 
parts. They may prevent his using those 
better adapted, and keep him from form- 
ing a correct estimate of the real extent 
of the injuries. 

If there is much shock and depression, 
stimulants will be needed, such as aro- 
matic spirits of ammonia, brandy or whis- 
key. If there is much pain, laudanum 
can be given, five drops every two or three 
hours, until four or five doses have been 
administered. 

Bums by Acid. — Sulphuric Acid (Oil of 
Vitriol), Nitric Acid (Aqua Fortis), 

Etc. 
As alkalies destroy the living tissues 
with which they come in contact, so will 
acids of sufficient concentration. In such 
cases application of water will dilute them 
beyond their capacity to injure. Alkalies 
neutralize acids, and cooking soda, wash- 
ing soda or saleratus can be used for this 
purpose. Common earth, gathered almost 
anywhere, applied in handfuls, usually 
contains alkali enough to be of value. 

Bums by Lime, Caustic Potash, and 
Other Alkalies. 
As a rule, these are troublesome, since 



[6] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Burns by Lime) 



there is not only removal of the cuticle 
(superficial skin), but destruction of the 
soft parts below. Lime is a powerful al- 
kali, and rapidly destroys the parts with 
which it comes in contact. As it is use- 
less to attempt to pick it off, an applica- 
tion should at once be made of something 
to unite with the alkali, so as to form a 
comparatively harmless compound. Vin- 
egar diluted with water, lemon juice or 
any other dilute acid, will answer. These 
things do not undo what has been done ; 
they only prevent further mischief. The 
subsequent treatment is the same as for 
other burns. What has been said about 
lime is also correct for the other alkalies, 
potash, soda, ammonia, etc. 

Ointment for Burns. — The following 
formulae are given by Lucas-Champion- 
ni§re in Pratique de la chirurgie antisep- 
tique : 

1. — Retinol and wax, 100 grams ; oil 
of geranium, 15 drops ; oil of thyme, 15 
drops; oil of origanum, 15 drops; oil of 
vervain, 15 drops. 

2. — Petrolatum, 100 grams ; oil of ge- 
ranium, 15 drops ; oil of thyme, 15 drops ; 
oil of vervain, 15 drops ; oil of origanum, 
15 drops ; sodium naphtholate, 0.30 gram. 

The author says that he has found 
these ointments to assist materially in the 
restoration of the cuticle. They are anti- 
septic and absolutely non-irritant. 

Rice's Burn Mixture. — The formula of 
this preparation, which is remarkably effi- 
cacious as an application to burns, being 
superior to carron oil or any of the prepa- 
rations ordinarily used, is as follows : 

White gelatin, 7 1-3 oz. ; Glycerin, 1 
fl.oz. ; carbolic acid, 1 fl.oz. ; water, 16 
fl.oz. Soak the glue in the cold water 
until it is soft ; then heat it on a water 
bath until it is melted. Add the glycerin 
and continue heating until a firm, glossy 
skin begins to form on the surface of the 
mixture, in the intervals of stirring. Now 
add the carbolic acid and mix intimately. 

This mixture may be kept ready pre- 
pared, and is best preserved in well-closed 
glass or porcelain jars. When it is wanted 
for use it is heated on a water bath until 
just melted, and applied with a soft, flat 
brush over the burned part, where it will 
form a strong, flexible skin. 

Carbonic-acid Gas. 

1. Asphyxia by this gas takes place as 
soon as the person inhales it. A sudden 
sense of suffocation is felt, with dizziness 
and inability to stand. This gas, some- 
times known under the name of "choke 
damp," is produced in the ordinary 
process of fermentation and in burning 

[ 



(Carbonic-acid Gas) 



or slacking lime ; it is also found in mines, 
particularly coal mines, and in wells, cel- 
lars, or caves which have long been closed. 
It is considerably heavier than the atnios- 
phere, and is consequently found lying 
at the bottom of the cavity where con- 
fined: 

Z. Symptoms: Pains, head and throat; 
giddiness ; sleepiness ; insensibility ; heart 
and breath hurried-; coma. Treatment : 
Fresh air ; artificial respiration ; ammo- 
nia respd.; friction; stimulants; oxygen 
douche; transfusion or bleeding (?). 

No well, vat, old cellar, or cavern of any 
kind, should ever be entered without firs4: 
lowering a lighted candle into the deepest 
point. If the flame is extinguished, or 
burns dimly, this indicates the presence of 
this gas, and no one, under any circum- 
stances, should be permitted to enter until 
this foul air has been removed. It lies at 
the bottom, because it is too heavy to 
ascend. However, a strong current of 
common air will often dislodge it. Buckets 
of water dashed down into the well, or 
masses of lighted shavings or blazing 
paper, give enough movement to the air to 
dislodge the gas from its resting place. 
Freshly slacked lime also rapidly absorbs 
it. Then test the success of the efforts by 
again introducing the lighted candle, and 
if it burns brightly a person may enter 
with impunity. 

Sometimes there may be no carbonic- 
acid gas in the cavity, and yet the efforts 
of Ihe workmen may dislodge it from an 
adjacent space into the one in which they 
are breathing. This possibility should 
never be lost sight of. 

When a person is overcome by this car- 
bonic-acid gas he is, of course, wholly un- 
able to help himself, and must be removed 
at once. Sometimes a grapnel-hook can 
be used with advantage, but often the 
better way is to lower rapidly some bold, 
clear-headed person, with a rope securely 
fastened around his middle, who can seize 
and bring the unfortunate individual to 
the surface. No time should be lost in 
descending or rising, as the person lowered 
depends upon doing everything in the time 
during which he can hold his breath ; for, 
of course, should he inhale the gas his 
position in this respect would be but little 
better than that of the man he attempts 
to rescue. A large sack may be thrown 
over the head and shoulders of the person 
who descends. It contains enough air to 
serve for several inhalations, while the 
texture of the material prevents the ad- 
mission of the deleterious gas to a hurtful 
degree. 

The person suffering from asphyxia, im- 
7] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Charcoal) 



mediately after being brought out from 
the gas, should be placed on his back, the 
neck and throat bared, and any other ob- 
stacle to breathing quickly removed. His 
body should then be quickly stripped, and, 
if he has not fallen into water on being 
overpowered by the gas. his head, neck 
and shoulders should be freely dashed with 
cold water. Remember, this is not 
"sprinkling," as commonly practiced, but 
a person should stand off some distance 
with a bowl of cold water, and throw its 
contents with as much force as possible 
against the parts. Other bowlfuls should 
follow as rapidly as possible for half a 
minute, while one can count thirty slowly, 
then the dripping water should be dried 
with a towel. This should be repeated 
from time to time, as required. Some- 
times, if a brook of water is near, the 
stripped person might be repeatedly dip- 
ped into it, care being taken, of course, 
not to dip his face. Artificial respiration 
should be used as soon as possible. 

If the person has fallen into water and 
become chilled, the use of the cold water 
in this manner should be avoided, as the 
evaporation of the moisture absorbs more 
heat than can be manufactured by the 
exhausted and overpowered system. In 
such a case the person should be put into 
a warmed bed. while hot applications and 
artificial respiration should be resorted to 
at once, as in asphyxia from drowning or 
hanging. While using artificial respira- 
tion, friction applied to the limbs should 
be kept up. 

Charcoal. 

Carbonic-oxide, a very poisonous gas, is 
given off during the burning of charcoal, 
and when inhaled quickly proves fatal. 
The person soon drops insensible, and dies 
of asphyxia, in much the same way as j 
when one succumbs to carbonic-acid gas. 
The treatment recommended for asphyxia 
from carbonic-acid gas should be carried 
out at once. 

Chilblain. 

The most useful thing for these annoy- 
ing symptoms is to keep away from the 
fire, and every night, before retiring, 
bathe the feet in cold water, or rub them 
with snow. They should then be well 
dried, without friction. After this, the 
application of the ordinary compound 
resin-ointment of the apothecaries is often 
of use in stimulating the circulation 
through the part. The efficiency of this 
ointment can be increased by adding to 
an ounce of it a couple of drams of oil of 
turpentine. It may be remarked that per- 



(Coal Gas) 



sons who suffer in winter from cold feet 
are often benefited to a surprising degree 
by bathing them at night, before retiring, 
in cold water. Such persons should al- 
ways keep their feet away firom the fire. 

Coal Gas. 

Anthracite and bituminous coal, when 
burned in a close room (as in the ease of 
a kitchen shut up for the night with an 
open stove of burning coals), gives off, to 
some extent, the peculiar poisonous gas 
alluded to as coming from burning char- 
coal — carbonic-oxide — as well as other 
noxious gases. Persons sleeping in such 
a room, unless awakened as the air be- 
comes fouled, will soon die or be found in 
a stupor. The treatment should be the 
same as described for asphyxia from in- 
haling carbonic-acid gas. 

Contusions. 

These common injuries are termed 
"bruises" by most people, and are the 
only injuries, besides wounds and frac- 
tures, produced by blows or pressure. The 
injury may be of the simple form — only 
a slight shaking or jarring of the texture, 
with no visible change except that result- 
ing from the rupture of the blood-vessels. 
Tliis is the most frequent. In the more 
severe but less frequent form, the con- 
tusion means broken blood-vessels and 
muscles, and tissues between and around 
them : the parts are thoroughly crushed, 
sometimes to a pulp, and damaged be- 
yond recovery. 

In contusions the first conspicuous 
symptom is that of shock, which general- 
ly, but not always, is proportionate to the 
extent of the injury. Thus a crushed 
finger is attended, as a rule, with much 
less shock than a crushed hand or foot. 
Contusion of certain parts, as the larger 
joints, breasts and other portions of the 
body, is followed by most severe symp- 
toms of shock. The pain is not always 
as severe as might at first be thought, for 
the nerves may be so much injured as to 
be deprived of their ability to receive and 
transmit impressions. 

The quantity of blood escaping from 
the ruptured vessels depends chiefly upon 
the size and number of the vessels in- 
jured, but in some degree upon the space 
in which the blood can accumulate. A 
single divided vessel in the scalp, owing to 
the looseness of the tissue in which the 
vessels are distributed, may permit a 
swelling, the result of the escape of blood, 
extending in area over half of one side of 
the head. 

Discoloration is due to the color of the 



[8] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Dislocations) 



escaped blood, seen through the cuticle, 
and varies from blackness, usually indi- 
cating intense injury, through dark blue, 
purple and crimson, down to delicate 
pink, indicating only a blood-stained fluid. 

Treatment. — In the milder contusions 
there is but little shock. When the shock 
is severe, place the patient on his back, 
head not elevated, and give stimulants as 
directed. The next thing is to limit the 
consequences likely to ensue from the rup- 
tured blood-vessels. This is best done by 
elevating the part, if possible, above the 
heart, and applying cold, in the shape of 
powdered ice tied up in towels, to it and 
along the course of the larger vessels 
leading to the injury. 

A common accident is a "mashed finger," 
resulting from the member being caught 
in closing a window, or from lack of pre- 
cision in using a hammer. The firm bone 
beneath and the blow above usually con- 
tuse (bruise) the tissues (veins, vessels, 
muscles, etc.) between, and often the pain 
and other symptoms last some days. 
Wrap up in a bandage of old muslin, and 
keep constantly wet with cold water. If 
there is much pain add laudanum, and 
drill a small hole through the nail, so as 
to let out the accumulated blood. The 
discoloration and swelling may remain 
some days after the pain subsides. Stimu- 
lating liniments can now be used to en- 
courage an extra flow of pure blood to 
the part. 

Dislocations. 

These occur when one bone is displaced 
from another at a joint. Little can be 
done to reduce them except by surgical 
aid. If possible, do not remove the 
patient. 

Dog Bites. 

Remove the clothing, if any, from the 
bitten part, and apply a temporary liga- 
ture above the wound. This checks the 
circulation of the part, and to that extent 
delays absorption of the poisonous saliva. 
While other things are hurriedly pre- 
pared, some one whose lips and mouth 
are free from breaks might attempt suc- 
tion of the wound. The material extracted 
by sucking should, of course, be at once 
ejected from the mouth of the person 
giving the assistance. The bite is really 
a lacerated and contused wound, and lying 
in the little roughnesses, and between the 
shreds, is the poisonous saliva. If by any 
means these projections and depressions 
affording the lodgment can be removed, 
the poison must go with them. If done 
with a knife, the wound would be con- 



( Drowning) 



verted into a incised wound, and would 
require treatment as such. If a surgeon 
is about, he would probably stand a probe 
upright in the wound, and with a sharp 
knife cut out the entire injured portion. 
Professional aid is not always at com- 
mand, and in such a case it would be well 
to take a poker or other suitable piece of 
iron, heat it red hot, at least, in the flre, 
wipe off, and destroy the entire surface 
of the wound. As fast as destroyed, the 
tissue becomes white. An iron at white 
heat gives less pain than one "black hot," 
as smiths say ; for in the latter instance 
the heat is scarcely sufficient to destroy, 
but only irritates, while in the former the 
greater heat at once destroys the vitality 
of the part with which it comes in con- 
tact. With a properly heated iron, not 
only the surface is destroyed, but the de- 
structive influence extends beyond and 
into the healthy tissue far enough, if no 
point is neglected, to assure against in- 
fection. 

If the wound is at once well wiped out, 
and a stick of solid nitrate of silver (lu- 
nar caustic) rapidly applied to the entire 
surface of the wound, little danger is to 
be apprehended. It acts, but in a milder 
degree, like the heat of the iron upon the 
tissues. In case the heat or the caustic 
has been used, poultices and warm fo- 
mentations should be applied to the in- 
jury to hasten the sloughing of the parts. 
The Pasteur treatment is recommended 
where possible, if near a Pasteur Insti- 
tute, which is maintained in many large 
cities. No delay should be brooked. 

Drowning. 

Rules for Artificial Respiration in the 
Treatment of the Drowned. — Rule I 
(Fig. 1). — To Drain and Force Water 
from the Lungs and Stomach. — Instantly 
place patient face downward, a hard roll 
of clothing being placed beneath the pit 
of the stomach, to raise it as much as 
possible above the level of the mouth. 




Fig. 1.— Expelling Water From the Body. 



[9] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Drowning) 



Put one wrist of the patient under his 
forehead to raise his mouth off the 
ground. With hands well spread upon the 
patient's back, above the roll of clothing, 
throw upon it your whole weight with a 
forward motion, and keep up the pressure 
about three seconds, so as to force all 
water from the stomach and lungs out of 
the mouth, ending the pressure with a 
push which will help to jerk you back to 
your upright position. Repeat this once 
or twice, and then quickly proceed with — 

















( k^ 




f % 


W, 


P 






iY 


.."^^^^^^^^^ 


rvl 


tr. 


i 




V 




U. 


b3i. 








r*. . 






^ 


r^^? 



Fig. 2. — Movements to Produce Inspira- 
tion. 

Rule II (Fig. 2).— To Make the Pa- 
tient Breathe. — Turn the patient face up- 
ward, the same hard roll of clothing being 
now beneath his back, the shoulders 
slightly drooping over it. Bend the head 
backward and downward, putting the 
throat on the stretch to the utmost. Place 
the hands of the patient on the top of his 
head ; one twist of a handkerchief or 
string around the crossed wrists will keep 
them there. Rip or strip all clothing from 
waist and neck. Now kneel astride the 
patient's hips. Grasp the front part of 




(Drowning) 



Fig. 3. — Movements to Produce Expira- 
tion. 

the chest on both sides of the pit of the 
stomach, your thumbs pointing ^ to pa- 
tient's chin, and your fingers fitting into 
the grooves between the short ribs. Fix 



.< 


^f 




'fc 


E^z:^ 





Fig. 4. — Movements by One Person to 
Produce Inspiration. 

your elbows firmly, making them one with 
your sides and hips, and then, firmly 
pressing the sides of the patient together, 
and using your knees as a pivot, throw 
yourself slowly forward two or three sec- 
onds until your face almost touches the 
face of the patient and your whole weight 
presses upon his chest. End this pressure 
with a short push which suddenly jerks 
you back again to the upright kneeling 
position. 

Rest three seconds while the ribs spring 




Fig. 5. — Movements by One Person to 
Produce Expiration. 

back ; then repeat this bellows-blowing 
movement as before, gradually increasing 
the rate from seven to ten times a minute ; 
but take the utmost care, on the occur- 
rence of a natural gasp, not to interrupt 
it ; but, as the ribs fall, gently press them 
and deepen the gasp into a longer breath. 
Continue this until the natural breath- 
ing, which you are imitating, needs no 
further assistance. If all fails, keep on, 
because any moment within an hour's 
effort you may be unexpectedly rewarded 
with success. 

Avoid impatient vertical pushes ; the 
force must be upward and inward, in- 
creased gradually from zero to the maxi- 
mum the age, sex, etc., may indicate. 



[10] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Earache) 



If a second person be present and can 
do it, the tongue should be held out of one 
corner of the mouth by the thumb and 
finger, armed with a piece of dry cotton 
or linen rag. 

Earache. 

Evaporate the alcohol from a teaspoon- 
ful of laudanum ; add half as many drops 
as you started with of glycerine or sweet 
oil ; make this milk-warm, and pour into 
the ear, taking hold of the upper tip and 
pulling toward the crown of the head ; or, 
wet a scrap of linen in a teaspoonful of 
laudanum, dry before a fire, cut into bits, 
place in the bowl of a tobacco-pipe, light 
it, cover with a coarse handkerchief, in- 
sert end of the stem (mouthpiece), suit- 
ably protected so as not to hurt, into the 
ear. Then apply the lips to the bowl and 
blow the smoke from the burning opium 
of the laudanum into the ear. 

Eye, Foreign Bodies in. 

Particles of cinder, dust or fragments 
of metal often get into the eye, and cause 
a great deal of trouble. Generally they 
are dislodged and washed out by the extra 
secretion of tears due to the irritation, 
but sometimes it is necessary to resort to 
some process of extraction. A popular 
and often successful plan is to take hold 
of the lashes of the upper lid and separate 
it from the eyeball, so that the lashes of 
the lower lid will slip up into the space, 
acting as a brush to the inner surface of 
the upper eyelid. This cannot, as a rule, 
remove anything from the eyeball. A 
better way is to hold a knitting needle or 
a match over the upper lid, close to and 
just under the edge of the orbit, firmly, 
but without much pressure. Then seize 
the lashes of that lid with the fingers of 
the disengaging hand, and gently turn the 
lid upward and backward over the needle, 
or the substitute used. Movement of the 
eyeball by the sufferer, in a strong light, 
usually reveals the presence of the intrud- 
ing body, so that by means of a corner of 
a silk or cambric handkerchief it can be 
detached and removed. 

Should the foreign body be imbedded 
in the mucous membrane covering the eye- 
ball or the eyelid (conjunctiva), a steady 
hand and a rigid instrument will usually 
lift it out. A very useful spud for such 
a purpose is the butt of a clean pen. A 
drop or two of cocaine solution, five or ten 
per cent., will deaden the sensibility of the 
eye, and materially facilitate the removal 
of the foreign body. This solution dilates 
the pupil, but the effect passes off in a 
few hours. 

[ 



(Fish Poisoning) 



Face-ache. 

This usually is neuralgic, and the appli- 
cation of heat is always grateful. A small 
hop-pillow heated and held to the face is 
useful ; or the face may be bathed with 
laudanum, tincture of arnica or any 
soothing substance. Mustard plasters 
should not be used, as they leave a con- 
spicuous mark, and may blister. Ordinary 
Cayenne pepper mixed into a stiff paste 
with an equal bulk of Indian meal and 
honey is quite as active and useful, and 
does not blister the skin. 

Fainting. 

1. The head of the person who has 
fainted should be kept lower than the rest 
of the body. Should he be sitting in a 
chair at the moment, stand behind the 
chair, extend your hands over in front, so 
as to grasp the sides of the chair, take a 
step backward, and then slowly depress 
the back, the head being supported until 
the floor is reached. An assistant holding 
the knees will prevent the patient slipping 
from the seat of the chair. It is so rapid- 
ly and easily done, besides so effective in 
its operation, that little else remains to 
do. Usually the back of the patient's 
head scarcely reaches the floor before con- 
sciousness returns. If it does not suffice, 
some stimulant should be given, as stated 
in the treatment of "Shock." 

2. Stimulant in Fainting Spells. — 
Medecine moderne says that from 15 to 
20 drops of either of the following rem- 
edies produces rapid recovery from a 
fainting spell : 

a. — Alcohol, 5 parts ; ether, 5 parts ; 
chloroform, 5 parts ; menthol, 1 part ; 
liquor ammoniae, 1 part. Mix. Pour on 
a handkerchief and let patient inhale 
same. 

b. — Alcohol, 10 parts ; ether, 5 parts ; 
menthol, 1 part ; pyridin, 2 parts ; acetic 
acid, glacial, 3 parts. M. Sig. As above. 

Fish, Poisonous. 

Several varieties of fish, at all seasons 
of the year, are reputed to be poisonous. 
These should, of course, always be let 
alone. Should they have been eaten by 
accident, the best treatment is that given 
under the head of "Poisoning by Mush- 
rooms." 

Shellfish, at certain seasons of the year, 
after spawning, are considered poisonous ; 
at least, they are unwholesome. This 
process of nature is known to be very ex- 
hausting, and during it, or just afterward, 
the shellfish is so reduced in vitality as to 
be unable to resist the ordinary tendency 
to decomposition. Oysters in hot weather 
11] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Fish Bones in Throat) 



are often unwholesome, perhaps from the 
causes suggested. 

Fish Bone in the Throat. 

A raw egg taken immediately will carry 
down a fish bone that cannot be gotten up 
from the throat. 

Foul Air in Drains and Privies. 

This usually consists of sulphuretted 
hydrogen, and arises from the decompo- 
sition of the residual matters found in 
these situations. Great caution, on this 
account, should always be observed on 
opening and entering such places, or 
places in possible communication with 
them, especially if they have been long 
closed. A small quantity of pure sul- 
phuretted hydrogen, if inhaled, is usually 
fatal ; but in the cases referred to the gas 
usually exists diluted with common air. 
The breathing becomes difficult, the person 
loses his strength, falls, becomes insensible 
and cold, the lips and face are blue, and 
the mouth is covered with bloody mucus. 
The person should be removed as quickly 
as possible beyond the influence of the 
foul air, and the treatment described for 
asphyxia by carbonic-acid gas should be 
applied. 

The possibility of such a disaster should 
always be borne in mind in opening long- 
closed or privy-vaults, and the danger 
lessened by taking a few pounds of 
chloride of lime (bleaching powder), dis- 
solving it in a pailful of water, and dash- 
ing it into the cavity. In the absence of 
this, lime and water in the form of the 
common "whitewash" may be employed. 
This gas readily combines with lime, to 
that extent freeing the air of the poison- 
ous compound. 

Fractures. 

Very little can be done in case of frac- 
ture till a physician arrives. In a simple 
fracture only the bone is broken and there 
IS no break in the skin ; in a compound 
fracture the skin is also broken, and some- 
times the bone protrudes. There is always 
some shock and great pain in the broken 
bone. If surgical assistance can be ob- 
tained without removing the patient, he 
should be left lying quietly. All that need 
be done is to cut the clothing over the 
affected part and put on it cloths wet 
with cold water, which will allav the pain 
to some extent. If no surgeon can be had. 
It will be necessary to make a splint which 
will hold the limb immovable. Two pieces 
of board will answer. Thev should be 
well padded with cotton batting, or any- 
thing else which will be soft enough to 

[12 



(Ice, Slipping on) 



take off the pressure of the direct boards. 
Canes or umbrellas have been used in ex- 
treme cases. The patient should then be 
placed very gently on a litter made of a 
shutter or bench, and carried very care- 
fully home. The treatment for a com- 
pound fracture is about the same as for 
a simple fracture. 

Freezing. 

In general freezing (short of actual 
death), keep the patient away from the 
heat. Take him to a cold room and rub 
him vigorously, especially the extremities, 
with snow, or cloths wet with cold water. 
The friction will re-establish the circu- 
lation slowly ; whei-eas the rapid thawing 
out caused by immediate application of 
heat is apt to be followed by sloughing of 
the frozen parts. 

The above applies to dry heat, t. e., 
direct from a fire. It is advised by some, 
however, to put the frozen person at 
once in a warm or hot bath, and leave 
him there until thoroughly warmed 
through. If the breatliing has stopped or 
is very slow, try to re-establish it or help 
it by artificial respiration. When the 
patient begins to breathe naturally and to 
regain consciousness, give stimulants, a 
little brandy or whiskey, or hot beef tea, 
or hot milk, or hot coffee, very little at a 
time and frequently ; that is, one or two 
teaspoonfuls every two or three minutes, 
until he has revived enough to take a 
larger quantity with ease. Until sure that 
no portion of the body — for example, a 
hand or foot — is still frozen, do not ex- 
pose the patient to the direct heat of a 
fire, but bring him into warmer air grad- 
ually. When fully restored from the acute 
frozen condition, a few days of rest and 
careful feeding and good nursing will gen- 
erally end in full recovery. 

Gas. 

Persons retiring at night very often 
leave the gas "turned down," and the 
flame becomes extinguished. Enough gas 
may then escape to give trouble to the 
sleeper, unless the room is well ventilated. 
Persons have been known to "blow it out" 
as they would a candle, and suffocation 
more or less complete has followed. Treat 
as in the asphyxia from carbonic-acid gas, 
just described. 

Ice, Protection Against Slipping on, Etc. 

Let 50 grams of thick turpentine, 2(X) 
grams of rosin, 50 grams of benzine and 
250 grams of alcohol stand in a bottle in 
a warm place until a dissolution of the 
turpentine and the rosin has taken place. 
] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Lightning) 



With this solution coat the shoe soles 
several times and allow the liquid to soak 
in. This medium, which has been named 
"leather-sole fluid" by E. Soxhlet, also 
preserves the leather. 

Lightning. 

A person struck by lightning is usually 
rendered unconscious or nearly so. A 
temporary paralysis of the body may re- 
sult for a while. When death takes place 
it is from shock to the brain and nervous 
system. When the person exhibits little 
or no sign of life, the clothing should be 
removed rapidly and the body subjected 
to a dashing of cold water, then dried and 
placed in bed and warmth applied, par- 
ticularly to the pit of the stomach, by 
means of hot cloths or rubber bottles filled 
with hot water. Artificial respiration 
should be kept up for an hour or so, or 
until natural breathing is resumed. Re- 
coveries after an hour of supposed death 
are on record. Brandy or aromatic spirits 
of ammonia should be given. 



Meats, Poisonous. 

The eating of meat from diseased ani- 
mals is often followed by symptoms of a 
poisonous character. Animals otherwise 
in perfect health, but which have been 
butchered and prepared for food after 
long and exhaustive confinement, are unfit 
for eating. Not only is the meat of such 
animals lacking in nutritive character, 
when compared with the meat of animals 
killed from the pasture without excite- 
ment, or after being kept until proper 
recovery from the effects of the journey 
to market, but it is much less savory, and 
shows a disposition to decompose much 
more readily. It has been estimated by 
competent authorities that between the 
two kinds of meat there is, so far as nutri- 
ment is concerned, a difference of nearly 
fifty per cent, in favor of the meat of 
healthy animals butchered after complete 
recovery from the excitement and fatigue 
of drive or carriage to market. The ad- 
ditional cost per pound of meat to cover 
the expenses of extra care and precaution 
before butchering would amount to but a 
small fraction of the percentage named, 
leaving the rest of it a true profit to the 
consumer. 

The eating of this overdriven meat is 
sometimes followed by symptoms of irrita- 
tion of the stomach and bowels ; but these 
symptoms can scarcely be said to be of a 
poisonous character, in the ordinary sense 



(Poison Ivy) 



such meat may temporarily derange th- 
health. 

Mushrooms. 

When poisoning from eating mushroom 
takes place, the contents of the stomacl 
should at once be evacuated with ai 
emetic. After vomiting has commenced 
it should be promoted by draughts o 
warm water or barley water, but particu 
larly by drinking copiously of warm mill 
and water, to which sugar has been added 

What has passed into the bowels shouh 
be hurried out as fast as possible, witl 
some cathartic, before further absorptioi 
into the blood can take place. 

If there is much prostration, som< 
easily procured stimulant may be useful 
as aromatic spirits of ammonia or brandy 
A very excellent antidote is tincture o' 
belladonna, ten drops in a little wate: 
every hour, until four or five doses havi 
been taken. 

Poison Ivy. 

1. — Symptoms : Contact with, anc" 
with many persons the near approach to 
the vine gives rise to violent erysipela 
tons inflammation, especially of the fac( 
and hands, attended with itching, red- 
ness, burning and swelling, with waterj 
blis-ters. Treatment : Give saline laxa 
tives and apply weak lead water anc 
laudanum, or lime water and sweet oil 
or bathe the parts freely with spirits oi 
niter. Anointing with oil will preveni 
poisoning from it. 

2. — It is claimed tha* if those pa^ts 
which have been touched by the poison- 
ous plant be promptly washed with 7C 
per cent, alcohol there will be no mani- 
festations of the poisonous symptoms. 
Alcoholic solution of sugar of lead is said 
to give prompt relief when the poison has 
been effective. 

3. — One of the best preparations is the 
fluid extract of serpentaria, freely ap- 
plied to the affected part. 

4. — Bicarb, soda. 375 gr. ; powdered 
borax, 150 gr. : carbolic acid, 160 min. ; 
rose Abater. 33 1-3 fl.oz. Mix and filter. 
Apply freely to the poisoned parts. If 
much inflamed wet a cloth and keep in 
contact with the parts affected. 

5. — Poison Oak. — a. — Dr. James J. Le- 
vick. of Philadelphia, writes to The Medi- 
cal Neics: "In a case of poisoning of the 
hands from Rhus toxicodendron — poison 
oak — recently under my care, which had 
reached the vesicular stage and was at- 
tended with much swelling and burning, 
the happiest results promptly followed 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Poisons) 



on the affected parts. The change was 
almost magical, so sudden and so prompt 
was the relief afforded. 

b, — Saturated solution of lead acetate 
in 50 or 75 per cent, alcohol. The milky 
fluid should be well rubbed into the af- 
fected part, and the operation should be 
repeated several times during the course 
of a few days. The itching is at once 
relieved and the further progress of the 
malady arrested. The remedy had been 
tried in a large number of cases and had 
always proved successful. It must be 
remembered, however, that it is a violent 
poison when taken internally, and hence 
care in its use must be exercised. No 
doubt an ointment of lead acetate, pre- 
pared with lanolin or other bland oint- 
ment base, would be equally effective. 



POISONS AND ANTIDOTES 

General Principles. 

The following notes on treatment in 
cases of poisoning, by Edmund White, 
B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C., are reprinted, by 
permission, from the "Pharmacopoeia of 
St. Thomas's Hospital" : 

1. Remove by lavage or emesis any 
poison which remains in the stomach, or 
chemically neutralize it. 

For lavage, use a soft stomach-tube and 
warm water containing the appropriate 
chemical antidote, if such be available, in 
solution or suspension. 

For emetics, see list below. 

(Caution! avoid lavage and emesis in 
poisoning by corrosive substances.) 

2. Administer the physiological anti- 
dote, if one be known. See list below. 

3. Hasten elimination of the poison. — 
Intravenous infusion of normal saline so- 
lution in poisoning with alkaloids. -Aper- 
ients. (Caution! Avoid castor oil in phos- 
phorous poisoning.) 

4. Treat other symptoms as they arise : 
Collapse. — Hot bottles. Caution ! Be- 
ware of burning an unconscious patient. 
Hot blankets. Strong coffee by mouth or 
rectum. Elevate foot of bed. 

Syncope. — Recumbency. Subcutaneous 
injections of ether or strychnine. Arom. 
sp. of ammonia in water, by the mouth. 
Faradism. Mustard papers to precordial 
region. 

Respiratory Failure. — Artificial respi- 
ration. Cold affusion. Tracheotomy, if 
there is laryngeal obstruction. Oxygen in- 
halation. 

Pain, if severe. — Morphine hypodermic- 

5. When poisor, has been dnninated, 



(Antidotes) 



as far as possible, give demulcents (see 
following list). 



List of Antidotes. 

The following articles are the most use- 
ful antidotes in cases of poisoning. The 
quantities given are for adults and for a 
single dose, which must be repeated, with- 
in the limits of safe dosage, according to 
the severity of the symptoms and the 
quantity of poison ingested. 
Emetics. 

1. Apomorphine Hydrochloride, 1-10 
gr. for hypod, inj. 

2. Powd. Ipecac, (not Pulv. Ipecac. 
Co., 30 gr. in water. 

3. Liq. Ext. of Ipecac, 20 m. in water. 

4. Mustard, one tablespoonful in 8 oz. 
water. 

5. Common Salt, one tablespoonful in 
warm water. 

6. Zinc Sulphate, 30 gr. in 8 oz. warm 
water. 

If there is delay in obtaining emetics 
tickling the fauces may be resorted to. 
Demulcents. 

7. Milk. 

8. Olive Oil. 

9. Thick Gruel (fine oatmeal, 1 oz., 
mixed and boiled with 10 oz. of water). 

10. White of Egg. 
Stimulants. 

11. Brandy, % oz. in 2 oz. water. 

12. Strychnine Hydrochloride, 1-60 gr. 
for hypod. inj. 

13. Ether, 30-60 m., for hypod. inj. 

14 . Arom. Spt. of Ammonia, 60 m. in 
water. 

15. Smelling bottle, for ammonia in- 
halation. 

16. Coffee, 2 oz. to be boiled with % 
pint water. 

17. Mustard Papers, to be moistened 
with tepid water. 

Chemical Antidotes. 

18. Chalk, Whiting, or Wall Plaster, 
Vz oz. stirred up in water. 

19. Sodium or Potassium Bicarbonate, 
120 gr. in water (only used for acids in 
absence of magnesia and chalk, on account 
of the rapid evolution of gas). 

20. Magnesia, % oz, stirred up in 
water. 

21. Sacch. Sol. of Lime, 1-2 fl.drm. in 
water. 

22. Citric or Lemon Juice, 1 oz. di- 
luted with water. 

24. Magnesium or Sodium Sulphate, 
V2 oz. in 8 oz. of water. 

25. Hydratfed Ferric Oxide, produced 
when rpfinirpH bv adding to V? oz. Sol. of 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Poisons) 



Magnesia or 2 fl.drm. Sol. of Ammonia 
(not Liq. Ammon. Fort.). 

26. Copper Sulphate, 2i^ gr. in 2 or 
3 oz, of water. 

27. French Turpentine or Sanitas, 30 
m. in 1 oz. of water, repeated about four 
times in the first hour. 

28. Potassium Permanganate, 5 gr. in 
^ pint of water. 

29. Tannic Acid, 20 gr. in water, or 
strong overdrawn tea. 

Physiological Antidotes. 

30. Amyl Nitrite Capsules, 3 m., for 
inhalation. 

31. Atropine Sulphate, 1-60 gr. for 
hypod. inj. 

32. Chloral Hydrate, 40 gr. in 3 oz. of 
water, by rectum or mouth. 

33. Chloroform for inhalation. 

34. Digitalis Tincture, 20 m. for 
hypod. inj. 

35. Morphine Tartrate, 1-3 gr. for 
hypod. inj. 

30. Pilocarpine Nitrate, % gr. for 
hypod. inj. 

37. Potassium Bromide, 30-60 gr. in 
water, by the mouth. 

Normal Saline Solution. 

38. Common Salt, 60 gr. in 1 pint of 
sterilized water at body temperature. 

Treatment in Special Cases. 

The various poisons are arranged in 
groups, alphabetically, under the name of 
the active principle or typical member of 
each group. Apply in all cases the gen- 
eral principles of treatment, modified or 
supplemented as described under each 
group. The numbers refer to the numeri- 
cal arrangement of the substances in the 
list of antidotes. 

Acids, Mineral. — Hydrochloric, Nitric, 
Sulphuric, Spirit of Salt, Muriatic. Aqua 
Fortis, Acetic, Butter of Antimony, 
Soldering Fluid, Battery Fluids. 

Caution ! Lavage or emesis inadmis- 
sible. Chemical antidotes, 20, 18, 19, 21. 
Demulcents, 7, 10, 9. 

Acid, Oxalic. — Salt of Sorrel, Salt of 
Lemon. 

Caution ! Lavage or emesis only if 
case is treated soon after ingestion of 
poison, and then cautiously. Chemical 
antidotes, 18, 21, not 19 or 20. 

Acid, Carbolic. — Creosote, Disinfecting 
Fluids. 

Lavage with care. Wash out with 24. 
Demulcents, 8, 7. Stimulants freely. 
Intravenous or rectal injection of saline 
solution. 

Acid, Hydrocyanic. — Cyanides, Bitter 
Almond Oil. 

[15 



(Poisons) 



Treatment for respiratory failure. 
Stimulants, 13, 14, 15, 11. 

Aconite. — Monkshood, Aconitine. 

Treatment for respiratory failure. 
Stimulants, 12, 11. Saline infusion. 

Alcohol. 

General principles, especially cold affu- 
sion, Faradism and artificial respiration. 

Alkalies. — Potash, Soda, Ammonia, 
Hartshorn, Weed-killer. 

Caution ! Lavage or emesis inadmis- 
sible. Chemical antidotes, 22, 23. De- 
mulcents, 8, 7, 10. Stimulants. 

Antimony Salts. — Tartar Emetic, But- 
ter of Antimony. 

General principles, especially stimu- 
lants and treatment for collapse. Cau- 
tion ! Avoid lavage after Butter of 
Antimony (see Acids). Emesis gener- 
ally occurs from action of poison ; give 
copious draughts of warm water. Chemi- 
cal antidote, 29. Demulcents, 7, 10. 

Arsenic Compounds. — White Arsenic, 
Weed Killers, some Vermin Killers, 
Sheep Dips, some Fly Papers. 

General principles, unless in poisoning 
by strongly alkaline weed killers, when 
lavage must be applied cautiously or not 
at all. Chemical antidote, 25. Demul- 
cents. 

Atropine. — Nightshade, Belladonna, 
Stramonium, Hyoscyamus. 

General principles, especially treat- 
ment for respiratory failure. Chemical 
antidote, 29. Physiological antidote, 36. 

Barium Salts. 

General principles. Chemical anti- 
dote, 24. 

Camphor. — Camphorated Oil ( Lin. 
Camph.). 

General principles. 

Cantharides. 

General principles. Caution ! Pro- 
ceed carefully if mouth or esophagus be 
blistered. Demulcents. 

Chloroform. 

General principles, especially fresh air, 
stimulation and artificial respiration. 
Physiological antidote, 30. 

Cocaine. 

General principles, with stimulants, 14, 
15, 12. Physiological antidote, 30. 

Copper. — Blue Vitriol, Verdigris. 

General principles. Chemical antidote, 
19 (or Potassium Ferrocyanide, 10 gr. in 
2 oz. of water). Demulcent, 7, copi- 
ously. 

Digitalis. — Foxglove. 

General principles. Chemical anti- 
dote, 29. 

Gases. — Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Di- 
oxide, Coal Gas, Sewer Gas, Acetylene, 
Chlorine, Nitrous Fumes. 
] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Poisons) 



General principles, particularly artifi- 
cial respiration and oxj'gen inhalation. 

Hypnotics. — Chloral Hydrate, Chloral- 
amide, Sulphonal, Paraldehyde. 

General principles. Stimulants, par- 
ticularly 12. 

Iodine. 

General principles. Chemical antidote, 
21. Demulcents, copiously. 

Irritants, Vegetable. — Unidentified 
Plants, Violent Purgatives, Nicotine, To- 
bacco, Savin, Squill. 

General principles. Demulcent, 7, 
freely by stomach tube. 

Lead Salts. 

General principles. Chemical anti- 
dote, 24. 

Mercury Salts. — White Precipitate, 
Red Precipitate. 

General principles. Demulcents, 10 
and 7, freely. 

Mineral Oils. — Benzoline, Paraflin, Pe- 
troleum. 

General principles. Demulcent, 8, 
freely, followed by free lavage with milk. 

Morphine. — Opium, Codeine, Syrup of 
Poppy, Soothing Syrups, Chlorodyne, 
Laudanum, Paregoric. 

General principles. Chemical anti- 
dote, 28, freely washing out after use. 
Physiological antidote, 31. Stimulants 
freely, but do not overdo rousing, forced 
movements and exposure. 

Phosphorus. — Rat Pastes. 

General principles. Chemical anti- 
dotes, 20, 27. Demulcents. Caution ! 
avoid oil. 

Ptomaines. — Stale Food, Canned Food. 

General principles, especially treat- 
ment for collapse. Chemical antidote, 29. 

Silver Salts. 

General principles. Chemical anti- 
dote, 55. 

Strychnine. — Vermin Killer. 

General principles. Chloroform by in- 
halation, emesis by apomorphine, or 
lavage as soon as patient is under in- 
fluence of chloroform. Chemical anti- 
dote, 29. Physiological antidote, 37 
or 32. 

Turpentine — Polishing Fluids or 
Pastes. 

General principles. Lavage with milk. 

Zinc Salts.— White Vitriol, Burnett's 
Fluid, Soldering Fluid. 

Caution ! Lavage and emesis inad- 
missible except in poisoning with neutral 
zinc salts. Chemical antidote, 19. De- 
mulcent, 7, copiously. 

Medicinal aifd Fatal Doses of Poisons. 

Acetic Acid, Glacial. — Symptoms : Cor- 
rosion, perforation, odor, abdominal pain, 

[16 



(Poisons) 



collapse. Treatment : Not stomach pump ; 
soap and water, lime, magnesia, milk, oil, 
thick gruel. Morphia against shock. 

Aconite, monkshood, wolfsbane, blue 
rocket. — Symptoms : Tingling and numb- 
ness, warmth at pit of stomach, paralysis 
from below up. Pulse and respiration 
depressed ; mind clear. Treatment : Stom- 
ach pump or emetic ; stimulants ; atropia, 
hypodermic. Keep warm and recumbent. 
Digitalis hypodermic ; amyl nitrite. Ar- 
tificial respiration. 

Alcohol, brandy. — Symptoms : Intoxi- 
cation, giddiness ; lips livid ; convulsions ; 
coma ; stupor. Treatment : Stomach 
pump or apomorphia hypodermic ; bat- 
tery, coffee, douche, amyl nitrite. 

Almonds, oil of bitter. See Hydrocy- 
anic Acid. 

Ammonia. — Symptoms : Burning pain 
in mouth, stomach and chest. Mem- 
branes swollen, red ; difficult breathing, 
bloody vomiting ; pulse slow ; pallor, loss 
of voice. Treatment : Not stomach pump. 
Vinegar, lemon juice ; remulcent drinks ; 
tracheotomy ; inhalation of steam or 
chloroform ; morphia, hypodermic, for 
shock. 

Antimony, Tartar Emetic. — Symp- 
toms : Metallic taste, vomiting, choking 
sensation ; pain in stomach, purging ; 
thirst, cramps, cold sweat ; head conges- 
tion, faintness ; pulse and breathing 
weak ; collapse. Treatment : Tannic or 
gallic acid ; tea, coffee, demulcent drinks ; 
stimulants ; morphia, hypodermic. 

Antipyrine. — Antipyrine, antifebrin, 
acetanilid and many other anti remedies 
which are used for headaches and neural- 
gia are poisonous in large doses. They 
act chiefly by depressing the heart's ac- 
tion. Besides emetics, the treatment con- 
sists of the free administration of stimu- 
lants, such as aromatic spirits of am- 
monia, coffee, whisky, etc. 

Aquafortis. See Nitric Acid. 

Arsenic, Vermin Killers, etc. — Symp- 
toms : Faintness, depression, burning 
pain ; vomiting, purging ; cramp, tight- 
ness in throat, thirst ; pulse slow, breath 
painful, skin clammy ; collapse. Treat- 
ment : Stomach pump, or apomorphia, 
hypodermic. Empty and wash the stom- 
ach well. Dialys. iron ; magnesia, castor 
oil. Stimulants : Mucilaginous drinks. 
Warmth. Morphia, hypodermic. 

Arum Maculatum, Cuckoo paint ; lords 
and ladies, cows and calves ; wake-robin. 
— Symptoms : Vomiting, purging, con- 
vulsions ; pupils dilated ; coma ; tongue 
swells. Treatment : Emetic, castor oil, 
coffee. 

Atropine, Belladonna. See Belladonna. 

] 



MEDICINAL AND FATAL DOSES OF POISONS. 



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Accidents and Emergencies 



(Poisons) 



Barium, Baryta. — Symptoms : Vomit- 
ing, pain in bowels, purging ; pulse anJJ 
breathing distorted ; cramps, paralysis, 
giddiness. Treatment : Stomach pump 
or emetic ; sulphates ; warmth. Stimu- 
lants : Morphia, hypodermic. 

Belladonna, Deadly Nightshade. — • 
Symptoms : Mouth, throat hot ; eyes 
sparkling, face flushed, pupils dilated ; 
delirium, staggering; rash (?), Treat- 
ment : Stomach pump or emetic. Stimu- 
lants : Coffee ; pilocarp., hj^podermic ; ar- 
tificial respiration. 

Benzol, Benzine. — Symptoms: Nar- 
cotic ; twitching, difficult breathing, 
head noises. Treatment : Stomach pump 
or emetic. Stimulants : Atropia, hypo- 
dermic ; douches, battery, artificial respi- 
ration. 

Brucine. See Strychnine. 

Calabar Bean. See Physostigmine. 

Camphor. — Symptoms : Odor : faint- 
ness, languor, delirium, convulsions, cold- 
ness ; pulse quick, breathing difficult. 
Treatment : Stomach pump or apomor- 
phia, hypodermic. Stimulants : Warmth ; 
douche. 

Cantharides, Spanish Fly. — Symp- 
toms : Burning pain, throat and stom- 
ach ; diarrhea, salivation, albuminous 
urine ; high temperature, headache, quick 
pulse ; insensibility, convulsions. Treat- 
ment : Stomach pump (?) or emetic; 
demulcent drinks, no oil ; morphia ; 
baths : linseed poultice. 

Carbolic Acid. — Symptoms : Burning 
pain in mouth and stomach ; mucous 
membrane, white, hardened; skin, cold; 
pupils, contracted ; urine, dark ; insensi- 
bility ; coma : collapse. Treatment : 
Stomach pump or emetic ; soda or sacch. 
lime ; white of egg ; castor oil ; stimu- 
lants : warmth ; battery ; atropia, hypo- 
dermic ; nitric amyl ; bleeding. 

Carbonic Acid. See Main Alphabet in 
this chapter. 

Caustic Potash or Soda. See Potash. 

Chloral. — Symptoms: Sleep; loss_ of 
muscular power ; reflex action ; sensibil- 
ity diminished : stertorous breathing. 
Treatment : Stomach pump or emetic ; 
warmth; rousinsr; coffee; strychnine, 
hypodermic ; nitric amyl ; artificial respi- 
ration. 

Chlorine. — Symptoms: Tightness: irri- 
tation, chest ; cough ; difficult breathing, 
swallowing. Treatment: Fresh air: in- 
hale steam : dilute ammonia ; sulphur ; 
hydrogen : chloroform : ether. 

Chloroform. — If swallowed : Stonaach 
pump or emetic : carbonate soda solution ; 
rousing ; mustard to the heart ; nitric 
amyl. If inhaled: Fresh air; douche; 

[ 



(Poisons) 



artificial respiration ; nitrite amyl ; bat- 
tery. 

Choke Damp. See Carbonic Acid. 

Coal Gas. — Symptoms : Giddiness ; in- 
sensibility ; difficult breathing ; asphyxia ; 
coma. Treatment : Mustard to the heart. 
Also as for carbonic acid. 
Cocaine. 

1. — Cocaine is the active principle of 
Erythroxylon Coca, and is a prompt poi- 
son in overdose. It is largely used by 
surgeons as a local anesthetic in small 
operations, especially on the eye and 
nose. It has the power of reducing tem- 
porarily the congestion and swelling of 
inflamed mucous membranes. For that 
reason it is often introduced into pow- 
ders and liquids which are to be sniffed 
up the nose for cold in the head or hay 
fever. These must be used with great 
care or else the cocaine habit will be 
formed, which is quite as serious as the 
opium habit. Acute poisoning may oc- 
cur, though rarely, when used in this 
way. 

In doses of four or five grains, taken 
internally, it has caused poisonous symp- 
toms. These resemble closely those of 
opium poisoning, but the pupil of the eye 
is dilated instead of contracted and the 
respirations are not so diminished. The 
treatment is essentially the same as for 
opium poisoning, though the need for ar- 
tificial respiration is not so great. 

2. — Equal parts of amyl nitrite and 
alcohol. M. et sig. : Inhale the vapors 
thus produced. 

Cocculus Indicus. See Picrotoxine. 

Colchicum, Meadow Saffron. — Symp- 
toms : Vomiting ; purging ; throat irrita- 
tion ; thirst ; sweat ; twitchings ; de- 
lirium. Treatment : Stomach pump or 
emetic ; tannic, gallic acid ; demulcent 
drink ; stimulants ; morphia. 

Colocynth. — Symptoms : Vomiting ; 
purging ; cold ; weak pulse ; collapse. 
Treatment : Stomach pump or emetic ; 
i camphor, and similar to colchicum. 
I Conine, Hemlock. — Symptoms : Stag- 
gering ; loss of muscular power ; sight ; 
difficult breathing, swallowing ; asphyxia. 
Treatment : Stomach pump or emetic ; 
tannic, gallic acid ; warmth ; artificial 
respiration ; stimulants ; atropia, hypo- 
dermic. 

Copper. — Symptoms : Colic, griping ; 
metallic taste; vomiting, purging; thirst, 
sweating, coldness, giddiness, coma. 
Treatment : Stomach pump or emetic ; 
demulcent drink ; morphia, hypodermic ; 
linseed poultice. 

Chromium, Chromates. — Symptoms : 
Vomiting ; purging ; cramps ; depression ; 

18] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Poisons) 



suppression urine ; pupils dilated. Treat- 
ment : Stomach pump or emetic ; mag- 
nesia carbonate ; chalk ; gruel. 

Croton Oil. — Symptoms : Abdominal 
pain, purging, vomiting ; cold skin, col- 
lapse. Treatment : Stomach pump or 
emetic ; camphor, stimulants, morphia ; 
gruel ; linseed poultice. 

Gurarine. — Symptoms : Paralysis of 
motors and respiration. Treatment : Ar- 
tificial respiration ; stimulants ; ligature 
and wash wound. 

Cyanides. See Hydrocyanic Acid. 

Daturine. See Atropine. 

Digitalis ( Foxglove ) . — Symptoms : Ab- 
dominal pain, purging, vomiting ; head- 
ache, small pulse, delirium, convulsions ; 
cold skin, sweat ; pupils dilated. Treat- 
ment : Stomach pump or emetic ; stimu- 
lants ; tannic acid ; keep patient lying. 

Ergot. — Symptoms : Tingling, cramps, 
vomiting, diarrhea. Treatment : Stom- 
ach pump or emetic ; tannic, gallic acid ; 
nitrate amyl ; stimulants : keep warm, 
lying down. 

Ether. — Symptoms : Anesthetic action. 
Treatment : Artificial respiration ; fresh 
air ; douche, stimulants ; blows on chest 
if heart stops. 

Fly Powders. — Generally treatment for 
arsenic. 

Gas. See Goal Gas. 

Gelsemium. — Symptoms : Giddiness ; 
pain eyes and brows, double sight, weak- 
ness, suffocation, coma. Treatment : 
Stomach pump or emetic ; douche ; stimu- 
lants ; artificial respiration. 

Hydrochloric Acid, Muriatic acid ; spir- 
its ; salts. — Symptoms : Burning pain, 
vomiting, thirst. Treatment : Not stom- 
ach pump (?); bicarbonate soda; mag- 
nesia, lime water, soap water, demulcent 
drinks ; morphia, hypodermic. 

Hydrocyanic Acid, Prussic acid. — • 
Symptoms : Insensibility ; pupil dilated, 
skin cold, sweating, diflScult breathing. 
Treatment : Stomach pump or emetic ; 
ammonia inhaled ; stimulants ; atropia, 
hypodermic ; artificial respiration ; bat- 
tery. 

Hyoscyamine. See Belladonna. 

Iodine. — Symptoms : Stomach, throat 
pain, vomiting, purging, giddiness, faint- 
ness (starch test). Treatment: Stom- 
ach pump or emetic ; starch ; nitrite 
amyl ; morphia. 

Jahorandi. — Same treatment as pilo- 
carpine ; stomach pump or emetic. 

Laburnum. — Symptoms : Purging, vom- 
iting, drowsiness, convulsions. Treat- 
ment : Douche ; stimulants ; coffee. 

Lead. — Symptoms : Metallic taste, 
thirst, colic, cramps, cold sweat, paraly- 

[ 



(Poisons) 



sis. Treatment : Stomach pump or 
emetic ; sulphates ; iodide potassium ; 
morphia. 

Lemons, Salt of. See Oxalic Acid. 

Lobelia. — Symptoms : Vomiting, giddi- 
ness, tremors, convulsions, depression, col- 
lapse. Treatment : Stomach pump or 
emetic, tannic acid ; warmth ; stimulants ; 
keep lying down. 

Morphia. See Opium. 

Muscarine, Fly fungus, mushrooms. — 
Symptoms : Colic, purging, vomiting, ex- 
citement, coma. Treatment : Stomach 
pump or emetic ; stimulants, castor oil, 
warmth ; atropia, hypodermic. 

Nicotine. See Tobacco. 

Nitrate of Potassium, Saltpeter. — 
Symptoms : Nausea, purging, vomiting, 
coldness, tremors, convulsions, paralysis, 
collapse. Treatment : Stomach pump or 
emetic ; demulcent drinks, stimulants, 
warmth, nitrite amyl ; atropia, hypoder- 
mic. 

Nitric Acid. — Symptoms : Corrosion, 
vomiting, abdominal pain ; diflBcult 
breathing. Treatment : Not stomach 
pump ; magnesia, lime water, gruel, oil ; 
morphia, hypodermic ; tracheotomy. 

Nitro-benzol, Artificial Essence Al- 
monds. — Symptoms : Nausea, diflacult 
breathing, drowsiness, stupidity ; coma. 
Treatment : Stomach pump or emetic ; 
stimulants ; douche ; artificial respira- 
tion ; battery ; atropia, hypodermic. 

Nitrous Oxide. — Symptoms : Anesthe- 
sia. Treatment : Fresh air, oxygen ; arti- 
ficial respiration. 
Opium. 

1. — This substance, or the numerous 
preparations such as morphine, etc., is 
one of the most frequent causes of poi- 
soning. A common mistake is that of 
confounding laudanum and paregoric. A 
teaspoonful of laudanum contains six 
grains of opium, but a teaspoonful of 
paregoric contains only one-quarter of a 
grain. 

Treatment. — What is in the stomach 
must be taken out, to prevent further ab- 
sorption, and what is in the blood must 
be worked out, under proper guidance, by 
the processes of nature constantly en- 
gaged with such products. The patient 
must be kept warm by blankets and hot- 
water bottles, care being taken that the 
latter do not blister him. An active 
emetic, like ground mustard, must be 
given at once, remembering that trouble 
may be found in getting it to act because 
of the diminished sensibility to its pres- 
ence from the local stupefying action of 
the opium upon the mucous membrane 
of the stomach. The action of the mus- 
19] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Poisons) 



tard should be assisted by tickling the 
inside of the throat with the finger or a 
feather. 

2. — Symptoms : Intoxication ; sleep ; 
pupils contract ; respiration and pulse 
slow, depressed. Treatment : Stomach 
pump or emetic ; rouse ; inhale ammonia ; 
douche ; battery ; atropia, hypodermic ; 
nitric amyl ; artificial respiration. 

Oxalic Acid. — Symptoms : Vomiting, 
purging, cramps. Treatment : Chalk, 
sacch. lime ; purgatives ; no potash, soda 
or ammonia. 

Phosphorus (matches) . — Symptoms : 
Odor ; vomiting ; purple spots ; delirium. 
Treatment : Emetic ; French oil of tur- 
pentine ; copper sulphate ; purgative. 

Physostigmine, Calabar bean. — Symp- 
toms : Faintness, prostration, twitching, 
giddiness ; no delirium. Treatment : 
Stomach pump or emetic, stimulants ; ar- 
tificial respiration ; atropia, hypodermic ; 
chloral ; strychnia, hypodermic. 

Picroioxine. — Symptoms : Vomiting, 
weakness, sleep, eruption. Treatment : 
Stomach pump, chloral, potassium bro- 
mide. 

Pilocarpine. — Symptoms : Sweating, 
salivation, headache, quick pulse. Treat- 
ment : Atropia, hypodermic, or bella- 
donna by mouth. 

Potash. — Symptoms : Caustic ta^e, 
corrosion, painful purging, skin cold. 
Treatment : Not stomach pump ; vinegar, 
lemon juice, oil, demulcent drink. 

Prussic Acid. See Hydrocyanic Acid. 
— Stomach pump or emetic. 

Resorcin. — Symptoms : Prickling of 
the skin, giddiness, sweating, insensibil- 
ity, white lips, dry tongue. Treatment : 
Albumen, soda, sacch. lime ; stimulants ; 
warmth, battery, nitrate amyl ; atropia, 
hypodermic. 

Savin. — Symptoms: Vomiting, painful 
purging, coma, convulsions. Treatment : 
Emetic, linseed poultice, purgative ; mor- 
phia, hvpodermic. 

Soda. See Potash. 

Soothing Sirup. See Opium. 

Stramonium. Thorn apple. — Symp- 
toms: Pupils dilated, delirium, rash on 
skin, paralysis, coma. Treatment : Stom- 
ach pump or emetic ; coffee, stimulants ; 
pilocarp., hypodermic ; artificial respira- 
tion ; mustard douche to limbs. 

Strychnine. — Symptoms : Convulsions. 
Treatment : Stomach pump or emetic ; 
potassium bromide : anemi ; charchi ; ni- 
trite amyl ; curare : artificial respiration. 

Tartaric Acid. See Acids. — Symptoms : 
Convulsions. Treatment : Alkalies (pot- 
ash and soda) and ammonia, not suitable. 
Use lime, castor oil. 

[ 



(Ring, To Remove) 



Tohacco. — Symptoms : Vomiting, dim 
vision, weak pulse and cold skin. Treat- 
ment : Stomach pump or emetic ; stimu- 
lant, strychnia, hypodermic ; tannic acid ; 
hot application to skin ; keep patient 
lying down. 

Turpentine. — Symptoms : Intoxication, 
coma, collapse, pupils contracted. Treat- 
ment : Stomach pump or emetic ; apomor- 
phia if necessary ; magnesia, sulphur ; de- 
mulcent drink. 

Teratrine. — Symptoms: Thirst, vomit- 
ing, painful diarrhea, headache, weak 
pulse. Treatment : Stomach pump or 
emetic ; coffee, stimulants ; warm applica- 
tion ; keep patient lying down. 

Zinc. — Symptoms : Painful vomiting, 
quick pulse and breathing, paralysis, 
coma. Treatment : Potassium or sodium 
carbonate ; tannic or gallic acid ; milk, 
eggs ; morphia, hypodermic. 

Ring, How to Remove. 

When a ring is fixed on the finger from 
the swelling "of the skin or joint, rub the 
finger with soap and cold water, and it 
will then generally admit of its removal. 
If this fails, take a strong thread or piece 
of fine twine, and, beginning at the end 
of the finger, wind it regularly around 
and around it, with the coils close to- 
gether, till the ring is reached ; then slip 
the end through the riug from the side 
next the end of the finger, and begin to 
unwind the string, which, as it progresses, 
carries the ring with it. Sometimes, how- 
ever, when the finger is very much 
swollen, and when the ring is deeply em- 
bedded, even this plan will not succeed, 
and the only resource is to cut through 
the ring with a pair of cutting pliers, 
first slipping under it a thin piece of 
metal or cardboard to protect the skin 
from injury'. 

Sewer Gas. 

Symptoms : Livid lips, conjunctivae in- 
jected, pupils dilated, insensible, tonic 
convulsions, high temperature. Treat- 
ment : Fresh air, artificial respiration, 
ammonia. Coffee. Hot and cold douche. 

Shock. 

Mild forms of shock, or collapse, as 
they are sometimes called, are often, by 
the non-professional, confounded with 
fainting (syncope), and an ordinary at- 
tack of fainting is analogous to shock. 
The symptoms of the two vary rather in 
degree and duration than in kind. In 
certain extreme cases where there is sud- 
den and powerful emotion, or a blow in 
20] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Shock) 



the pit of the stomach, life may be de- 
stroyed without leaving any sign. This is 
called "death from shock." There is pal- 
lor of the whole surface of the skin, the 
lips are bloodless and pale, the eyes lose 
their luster, and the eyeball is usually 
partially covered by the drooping upper 
lid. The skin is covered with a cold, 
clammy moisture, the temperature is low, 
and perhaps the person shivers. The 
mind is bewildered, the patient often in- 
sensible. Sudden and serious injuries, 
particularly if extensive, cause shock, as 
does a powerful current of electricity. 
The loss of blood produces or aggravates 
shock. Hence a slight injury with much 
loss of blood may be attended with 
more shock than a comparatively more 
severe injury without the loss of blood. 
A weak system is more easily affected by 
shock than a strong system. As a person 
grows older, there is less power available 
to meet injuries, therefore the aged are 
slow to rally from the effects of shock. 

Treatment. — First place the patient flat 
on his back, with the head low. This is 
an important point. The vital powers 
being depressed, stimulants are required. 
The aromatic character of brandy enables 
it to be retained by the stomach when 
whisky and other forms of alcohol are 
rejected. A teaspoonful on cracked ice 
every minute, until six or eight have been 
taken, is the best way to give it. If the 
temperature of the body is raised by it, 
and there seems a revival of the action 
of the heart, enough brandy has been 
given. Twenty drops of aromatic spirits 
of ammonia in a teaspoonful of water 
may be given every two minutes, until 
four or five doses have been taken. Ap- 
plications of heat to the extremities and 
"pit of the stomach" are very useful, in 
the shape of flannels wrung out in hot 
water, or bottles of hot water properly 
wrapped up. Mustard plasters may be 
used, but they are so inferior to heat for 
the purpose, if that can be applied, and 
so apt to blister, thereby making it im- 
possible to use anything else on the sur- 
face, that some reluctance is felt in ad- 
vising them. 

Nausea and vomiting are often present 
in shock, and can best be allayed by get- 
ting the patient to swallow small chips 
of ice whole. Ice can be chipped easily 
by standing the piece of ice with the 
grain upright and splitting off a thin 
edge with the point of a pin. 

Ammonia (smelling salts) applied to 
the nostrils is often useful, and cologne, 
on a handkerchief, is frequently pungent 
enough to be of service in the same way. 

[ 



(Snake Bite) 



Snake Bite. 

1. — Treatment : Cauterization and liga- 
ture. Stimulants: Permanganate, liquor 
potassae ; artificial respiration ; ammonia 
injection. 

2. — Dr. Corislano d'Utra, of Brazil, 
says that persons suffering with snake 
bite may be cured in all cases by taking 
three doses, two hours apart, of 30 grains 
of calomel in an ounce of lemon juice. 
He further declares that whoever will 
carry about his person a bag containing 
from 75 to 300 grains of corrosive subli- 
mate need have no fear of serpents. 
They will flee from him, and, if by chance 
he is bitten, the bite will be harmless ! 

3. — Dr. B. M. Ricketts {Cincin. Lanc- 
Clinic, Vol. XLI, No. 9, 1898) is author- 
ity for the following : The copperhead, 
coral-snake and rattlesnake are the only 
serpents in the United States which pos- 
sess fangs at the base of which is a sac 
containing poisonous fluid. The result of 
inoculation depends upon the dose and 
the size of the human being or animal. 
Most of the authentic cases of death of 
these serpents have been among children. 
No authentic record of death, as the re- 
sult of the bite of any of these snakes, 
has been found in the adult man by him- 
self. If death does not result within a 
few hours it is not the venom, but other 
agencies that produce it. The bite of the 
cobra is not so deadly as is generally 
supposed. Overstimulation from alcohol 
and other agencies is oftener the cause 
of death than virus inoculation. The ef- 
fect upon the body is more severe if the 
virus is injected into blood vessels. There 
seems to be no subject which is sur- 
rounded by so much uncertainty and ex- 
aggeration. 

The treatment is general and local. 
Strychnine nitrate hypodermically every 
twenty minutes until its physiological ef- 
fects are produced, or until coma is over- 
come. Alcohol, digitalis, atropine and 
nitroglycerine are all more or less bene- 
ficial. 

Locally the writer advises the use of 
a 1 per cent, solution of chromic acid ; 
chloride of gold or permanganate of po- 
tassium may be substituted for chromic 
acid. Among other drugs he believes 
jaborandi, administered internally, to be 
of undoubtful benefit. Massage of the 
swollen parts and lavage of the stomach 
aid greatly in combating the poisoning. 

Sprains. 

These are due to the stretching and 
tearing of the ligaments around a joint, 
21] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Suffocation) 



and are accompanied by great pain and 
swelling. Hot-water applications are the 
best to relieve the pain and reduce the 
swelling. The joint should be kept abso- 
lutely at rest. The best way to secure 
this is to strap the joint for some distance 
above and below with adhesive plaster, 
layer upon layer. Any weak spot which 
develops in the dressing can be easily re- 
inforced by an extra layer or two. Care 
should be taken that the strapping is not 
so tight as to interfere with the circula- 
tion of the blood. This can be determined 
by noting whether the part below the 
strapping remains warm. If it becomes 
cold and remains so, the strapping is 
probably too tight and should be promptly 
removed. After all, sprains are very un- 
satisfactory to treat. Not infrequently 
they take a longer time to heal than a 
fracture, and the joint is usually left 
weakened. 

Suffocation. 

There are several gases which, when in- 
haled, are followed by symptoms of as- 
phyxia. The condition is very similar to 
drowning, for these gases are not able to 
purify the blood by giving oxygen to it. 
Some of them, besides, are directly poi- 
sonous. (See cause of suffocation.) 

Sunstroke. 

Heat exhaustion differs from heatstroke 
in that the condition is one of very great 
depression, with a rapid, feeble pulse and 
heart action and a cold, moist skin and 
body temperature, instead of a hot skin 
with high fever. The treatment required 
is radically different from that employed 
in sunstroke. Take the person at once 
to a cool, shady, quiet place and give him 
plenty of fresh air and loosen the cloth- 
ing around the neck. Send for a doctor 
on the first appearance of the symptoms. 

Heat Exhaustion. — If the skin is cold 
and clammy, the case is one of heat ex- 
haustion and must be treated accordingly. 
Do not apply cold to the surface, but ap- 
ply heat by means of hot-water bottles or 
hot flannels and by rubbing the limbs. 
Give a tablespoonful of whisky or brandy 
in hot water or a teaspoonful of aromatic 
spirits of ammonia in water, or give 
strong tea or coffee. The object is to re- 
lieve the depression. 

Sunstroke or Heatstroke. — On the con- 
trary, for sunstroke or heatstroke, loosen 
the clothing around the neck and carry 
the patient to a cool place. If the skin 
is hot and the person seems feverish, cold 
applications are necessary. 

If there is a bathtub at hand, fill it 

[ 



(Throat, Bodies in) 



with cold water ; put ice in the water if 
you can get it. Place the patient in the 
tub, all except the head, over which an 
ice cap should be placed. To make this, 
mash a piece of ice in a towel. Keep the 
patient in the tub for fifteen minutes and 
then put him in bed, between blankets, 
without drying him. If in fifteen min- 
utes he shows no signs, or very feeble 
ones, of returning consciousness, replace 
him in the bath and treat him as before. 

If there is no bathtub at hand, take off 
his clothes, wrap him in a sheet and. keep 
this wet with cold water. If this can- 
not be done sponge head, neck, chest or 
other parts of the body with cold water, 
and if ice can be had, use this freely by 
rubbing over the chest and applying to 
the head and armpits. Repeat the baths 
at intervals of fifteen minutes until the 
patient stays conscious and the body re- 
mains cool. 

If natural breathing does not return, 
perform artificial respiration, Sylvester's 
method. If ice cannot be obtained, wet 
towels with cold water and wrap the 
head in them, changing them frequently. 
The treatment is, in brief, to use any 
means to reduce the temperature of the 
body by applying cold externally. 

Continue such treatment until the tem- 
perature of the skin is reduced. If the 
patient improves, but the symptoms of 
fever recur, renew the cold applications 
as before. If the patient is able to swal- 
low, frequent drinks of cold water may 
be given him, but do not give any whisky 
or other alcoholic stimulants. Take care 
that the patient does not become stupid 
and his body hot again. If this hap- 
pens, repeat the same methods. Medi- 
cines do not seem to be of much avail. 

Throat, Foreign Bodies in. 

In case an article of food, or other 
substance, gets into the back of the mouth 
and cannot be swallowed, it should be 
dragged out with the aid of a hairpin 
straightened and bent at the extremity. 
If the body is firm in character, a pair of 
scissors, separated at the rivet and one 
blade held by the patient, will furnish a 
loop with which it may be extracted. 

Toothache. 

This is sometimes neuralgic and some- 
times due to decay. Heat applied to the 
face outside, and a heated half of a fig 
held inside, often relieve the former kind, 
and sometimes afford temporary relief in 
the latter kind. If the cavity can be 
cleansed out with a broom-splint and 

22] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Wasp and Bee Stings) 



filled with cotton steeped in evaporated 
laudanum much comfort will be found. 

Wasp and Bee Stings. 

Carbolic acid in crystals, 1 dram ; 
glycerine, 4 drams ; distilled water, 1 
dram. Dissolve the acid by the aid of 
a little heat. Two or three drops of the 
preparation should be placed on a little 
cotton wool, which, if possible, should be 
tied over the wound, so keeping the air 
away. Care should always be taken to 
see that the sting is not left in the flesh. 
That of the bee almost always is and 
keeps on injecting its poison. 

Other remedies are a solution of am- 
monia and bicarbonate of soda made into 
a paste with water and vinegar. 

Wounds. 

For systematic study wounds may be 
classed according to their direction, or 
depth, or locality, but for our purpose 
they may be arranged after the mode of 
their infliction: (1) Incised wounds, as 
cuts or incisions, including the wounds 
where portions of the body are clearly 
cut ofE ; (2) punctured wounds, as stabs, 
pricks or punctures; (3) contused 
wounds, which are those combined with 
bruising or crushing of the divided por- 
tions ; (4) lacerated wounds, where the 
separation of tissue is effected by or com- 
bined with the tearing of them; (5) poi- 
soned wounds, including all wounds into 
which any poison, venom or virus is in- 
jected. 

Any of these wounds may be attended 
with excessive hemorrhage or pain or the 
presence of dead or foreign matter. As 
all wounds tend to present several com- 
mon features, a few words will be said 
about these before describing the distinc- 
tive characteristics of each. 

The first is hemorrhage (bleeding). 
This depends, as to quantity, upon sev- 
eral conditions, the chief of which is the 
size of the blood-vessels divided and to 
some extent upon the manner in which it 
has been done. A vessel divided with a 
sharp instrument presents a more favor- 
able outlet for the escape of blood than 
one that has been divided with a blunt 
or serrated instrument or one that has 
been torn across. Except in the first 
named, the minute fringes or roughness 
necessarily left around the edges of the 
vessel at the point of division retard the 
escape of blood and furnish points upon 
which deposits of blood, in the shape of 
clots, can take place. Hence, all other 
things being equal, an incised wound is 
usually attended with more hemorrhage 

[ 



(Wounds) 



than a contused or lacerated wound. 

The bleeding may be simply an oozing 
from the smallest blood-vessels, called the 
capillaries. This form of bleeding is not 
of much consequence and can easily be 
checked. 

The bleeding may be from a vein and is 
then called venous. The veins are the 
largest vessels which carry the blood back 
to the heart. The blood from them is 
purple and flows evenly, without any 
force. 

The bleeding may be from an artery 
and is then called arterial. The arteries 
are large distributing vessels which carry 
the blood from the heart to the extremi- 
ties. The blood from them is bright red 
and flows in pulsations or jets with some 
force. This is the most dangerous form 
of bleeding and the hardest to control. 

While we are not able sometimes to 
ascertain the kind of hemorrhage from 
a given wound, we should always try to 
determine it, for there may be consider- 
able difference in the treatment. 

There is always some pain present in 
a wound, and this varies largely with the 
location and extent of the injury. Often 
it is not nearly so much as we expect to 
find. 

In wounds of large size there is some 
shock, and when the wound is very ex- 
tensive and crushing the state of shock 
may be profound, even to unconscious- 
ness. In some people the mere sight of 
blood may be enough to cause fainting. 
This, of course, is very different from 
shock and much easier to treat. 

Nature stops bleeding by causing the 
blood to coagulate in little clots, which 
plug up the open mouths of the divided 
blood-vessels and prevent the further flow 
of blood. Tlie smaller the blood-vessel 
and the more sluggish the current of 
blood therein, the more quickly this is 
done. Therefore this coagulation occurs 
first in the capillaries, next in the veins 
and last of all in the arteries. All that 
we can do is to aid nature in this by 
making the current of blood flow more 
slowly or by making the mouths of the 
vessels smaller. 

If the wound is small and the bleeding 
mostly capillary oozing, the part should 
be elevated, and firm pressure applied di- 
rectly to the wound, preferably through 
a clean wet cloth. A few minutes of this 
will usually be sufficient. If this does not 
suflice, we can try again, or we can apply 
water just as hot as can be borne with- 
out scalding, or we can apply pressure 
with a piece of ice wrapped in a clean 
handkerchief or a thin cloth. Heat and 
23] 



Accidents and Emergencies 



(Wounds) 



cold contract the blood-vessels and pres- 
sure not only does this, but retards the 
current of blood. 

If the bleeding is from a small vein, 
the above treatment will usually suffice. 
If the vein is larger, the pressure may 
hare to be applied for some time. To 
do this roll up a handkerchief or clean 
cloth into a small, hard wad, wet it thor- 
oughly and then bind it firmly over the 
wound by means of another handkerchief 
or a strip of cloth. It may have to be 
kept on for some hours before the clots 
in the vessels are strong enough. The 
pressure should be sufficient to check the 
bleeding entirely. If the bleeding is from 
a small artery, the above measures will 
often be enough, but if the artery is of 
any size these alone will not do. 

If the .wound is evidently not severe, 
and the bleeding moderate, take time to 
move the patient to a quiet, comfortable 
place (if not already in such a one) and 
then attend to the bleeding. 

If the wound is a severe one and the 
hemorrhage free, act at once, and remem- 
ber that the first and most easily applied 
means of stopping bleeding is direct pres- 
sure in the wound, and that the best and 



(Wounds) 



easiest tools to use are those which you 
always have with you — namely, your own 
fingers. 

Put your finger or fingers on the bleed- 
ing point in the wound, and press firmly, 
and keep them there until you or some 
one else gets ready to do something fur- 
ther in the care of the case. You are 
stronger than the heart, and so long as 
you press on the open end of a blood-ves- 
sel, the heart cannot pump blood out 
of it. 

We should try to be as clean as pos- 
sible in all our handling of wounds, and 
therefore if you have time to do so, and 
if, for instance, you are in or near a 
drug store, where you can get aseptic 
gauze, put some of it over your fingers 
before putting them into the wound ; or, 
if you cannot get gauze, but have a clean, 
unused handkerchief, use that ; but if 
you have nothing clean at hand, use your 
fingers as they are and stop the hleeding. 
If the bleeding is moderate and you can 
get some gauze, as mentioned above, do 
not put your finger into the open wound 
at all, but pack the gauze in tightly and 
then press firmly on the gau^e or put a 
bandage tightly over it and the wound. 



[24j 



CHAPTER II 



AGEICULTUEE 
BRIEF SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 



MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 

BUTTER 

CHEESE 

FERTILIZERS 



MILK 

POULTRY 

VETERINARY FORMULAS 

WEEDS 



The subject of Insecticides is so important that it has been n^ade a separate 
chapter in connection with pests of all kinds. Attention is called to the fact that 
the Department of Agriculture issues important agricultural literature for a low 
price and many of the publications are free. Address the Department of Agricult- 
ure, Washington, D. O. Any reasonable questions will be answered free of charge. 



MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS. 
Apples. 

The utilization of the poorer grades of 
fruit is frequently an important matter 
to the grower. That portion of a crop 
which is of too low grade to market in 
the ordinary way can often be made to 
pay a large part, at least, of the expense 
of maintaining the orchard or fruit plan- 
tation if it is converted into some other 
form or handled in some way other than 
that practiced with the better grades. In 
some of the apple-growing districts the 
evaporating industry has kept pace with 
the planting of orchards and has become 
an important factor in the utilization of 
the fruit which is unfit or would prove 
unprofitable for marketing in the fresh 
state. 

Farmers' Bulletin 291, issued by the 
United States Department of Agriculture, 
entitled "Evaporation of Apples," by H. 
P. Gould, gives very valuable information 
on this subject. 

Birdlime. 

Boil the middle bark of the holly, gath- 
ered in June or July, for 6 or 8 hours in 
water, until it becomes tender ; then drain 
off the water and place it in a pit under 
ground, in layers with fern, and surround 
it with stones. Leave it to ferment for 
two or three weeks, until it forms a sort 
of mucilage, which must be pounded in a 
mortar into a mass and well rubbed be- 
tween the bands in running water until 
all the refuse is worked out ; then place 
it in an earthen vessel and leave it for 
four or five days to ferment and purify 
itself. Remarks : Birdlime may also be 
made from mistletoe berries, the bark of 



the wayfaring tree and other vegetables 
by a similar process. Should any of it 
stick to the hands, it may be removed by 
means of a little oil of lemon bottoms or 
turpentine. Use. To rub over twigs to 
catch birds or small animals. It is said 
to be discutient when applied externally. 

Branding Stock, Ink for. 

Shellac, 2 oz. ; borax, 2 oz. ; gum ara- 
ble, 25 oz. ; water, 25 oz. ; lampblack, 
sufficient. Boil the borax and shellac in 
the water until dissolved. Remove the 
mixture from the fire and, when cool, add 
the gum arable and sufficient water to 
make 25 ounces. Then add enough lamp- 
black to bring the whole to a proper con- 
sistency. For red ink use Venetian red 
instead of lampblack, for blue use ultra- 
marine. 

Grafting Wax. 

1. — T. Tidmarsh recommends in The 
Gardeners* Chronicle the following mix- 
ture: Beeswax, 1 part; rosin, 3 parts. 
Melt together. For use, remelt in a glue 
pot, the water jacket of which will retain 
it in a workable consistency for a consid- 
erable time and also prevent it from being 
overheated to a point dangerous to the 
scions. For hot climates the proportion 
of rosin should be increased to 4 to 1 of 
wax. 

2. — Yellow wax, 6 parts ; rosin, 10 
parts; turpentine, 30 parts; lard oil, 1 
part. 

3. — Black pitch, 10 parts ; white pitch, 
10 parts ; Burgundy pitch, 10 parts ; 
rosin, 10 parts ; fatty varnish, 4 parts ; 
red lead, 4 parts ; alcohol, 8 parts. Put 
the varnish and the red oxide of lead in a 
glazed earthenware vessel pf sufficient size 



Always consult the Index when using this jtraok. 

[25] 



Agriculture 



(Hay) 



to avoid accidents from bubbling over, 
mix them well and then add the rosin 
broken into small pieces. Melt them over 
a very gentle fire and stir continually. 
When fusion is complete, remove from the 
fire and add the alcohol little by little, 
with constant stirring. When all the al- 
cohol is incorporated pour the product 
into well tinned boxes and seal for preser- 
vation until wanted for use. 

4. — Melt slowly 500 parts by weight of 
Burgundy rosin ; remove from the fire and 
stir in 70 to 80 parts of 90 per cent, alco- 
hol. Keep in wide-necked glass vessels 
or tin cans. 

5. — 10 parts of rosin, 1 of turpentine, 4 
of alcohol. Stir in the alcohol last. 

6. — 35 parts of rosin, 25 of yellow wax, 
15 to 20 of alcohol. 

7. — Clay tempered with water, to which 
a little linseed oil is sometimes added. 
Used to cover the joint formed by the 
scion and stock in grafting. 

8. — Tree Wax, Liquid. — The Pharma- 
ccutische Centralhalle gives the following 
formula for tree waxes that remain liquid 
in the cold : 1 — Pine rosin, 70 parts ; yel- 
low ceresin, 7 parts ; wood alcohol, 35-40 
parts. Melt together the rosin and ceresin 
and add the alcohol with proper precau- 
tions. 2 — Rosin, 60 parts ; yellow wax, 
8 parts ; hard paraflSn, 8 parts ; Venice 
turpentine, 5 parts ; wood alcohol, 40 
parts. Mix as above directed. 

Hay. 

Two hundred and seventy cubic feet of 
new meadow hay and 21G to 243 feet from 
large or red stacks will weigh a ton ; 297 
to 324 cubic feet of dry clover will weigh 
a ton. 

Haystacks, Covering for. 

Take any coarse fabric, steep it -for a 
few hours in a strong aqueous solution of 
alum, dry and coat the upper surface with 
a thin covering of tar. 

Labels, to Preserve. 

1. — Wooden. — The following method of 
preserving wooden labels that are to be 
used on trees or in exposed places is 
recommended : Thoroughly soak the pieces 
of wood in a strong solution of sulphate of 
iron ; then lay them, after they are dry, 
in lime water. This causes the formation 
of sulphate of lime, a very insoluble salt, 
in the wood. The rapid destruction of the 
labels by the weather is thus prevented. 
Bast, mats, twine and ^ other substances 
used in tying or covering up trees and 
plants, when treated in the same manner, 

c 



(Mushrooms) 



are similarly preserved. At a meeting of 
a horticultural society in Berlin wooden 
labels thus treated were shown which had 
been constantly exposed to the weather 
during two years without being affected 
thereby. 

2. — Zinc. — For zinc plates use with 
quill pens only. 

a. — Dissolve muriate of ammonia and 
crude sal ammoniac in strong vinegar. 

b. — For large labels, dip your pen in 
concentrated sulphuric acid and write on 
the zinc, previously greased ; a sharp point 
of copper wire is better than the pen ; 
quench in water ; wash thoroughly from 
fluid when your writing is plain enough. 

c. — Dissolve about 75 cents' worth of 
chloride of platinum in hot distilled water, 
adding a very few drops of aqua regia. 
The liquid should be of a pale amber 
color ; enough for hundreds of labels. 

d. — Common lead pencil on zinc labels 
is almost indelible and becomes more dis- 
tinct with age. 

e. — Chloride of platinum solution, and 
better, sulphate of copper, may be used, 
and are perhaps somewhat more distinct. 

Mushrooms. 

Use an old bureau or chest of drawers 
as a cultivating bed. Fill the drawers to 
the depth of six or eight inches with an 
intimate mixture of good, rich soil and 
old, dry horse or cow dung in equal parts. 
Procure some fresh mushroom spawn (the 
French is the best) and insert it at vari- 
ous points on the surface of the soil. 
Sprinkle (not too heavily) the surface, 
and the beds are ready. If the drawers 
close tightly in front, the back of the 
stand should be removed and a curtain 
tacked up in such a manner as to shut 
out the light. The mushrooms will begin 
to show themselves plentifully in a few 
days, but it will be a fortnight before any 
fit to eat can be gathered. The bed will 
last, with an occasional watering, for 
many months and furnish almost daily a 
good mess of champignons. 

Potatoes in Cellars and Pits, to Prevent 

from Rotting. 

On the ground on which the tubers are 
to be piled spread a thin layer of un- 
slaked, finely pulverized lime, then a layer 
of potatoes six inches deep, then lime 
again, and so on. The tubers thus treated 
remain free from disease and where rot- 
ting has already commenced it is stopped. 
Trees. 

Coating for Amputated Branches and 
Wounds. — 1. — Shellac, dissolved in alco- 
26] 



Agriculture 



(Butter Making) 



hoi, forms an excellent coating for ampu- 
tated branches and for wounds of fruit 
trees, making a water-proof artificial skin, 
under which the wood grows until the 
wound is healed. 

2. — The following cement is used to pro- 
tect injured trees : 2 parts of yellow 
ocher; wood ashes (sifted), 1 part; white 
lead, 10 parts ; Venice turpentine, 2 parts ; 
linseed oil, q. s. to mix. 



BUTTER 

Classification. 
Butter Making. 
Coloring Butter. 
Deterioration of Butter. 
Preserving Butter. 

Butter Making. 

The following directions for butter 
making are obtained from Farmers' Bul- 
letin 241, entitled "Butter Making on 
the Farm," by E. H. Webster, M. S. 

It is needless to say that all the milk 
utensils should be kept scrupulously 
clean. There should be no hidden places 
in milk vessels. Wooden vessels should 
not be tolerated under any condition for 
holding milk, for it is impossible to keep 
them clean. A little ordinary sal soda 
and a little borax, is a cheap and effective 
cleansing agent. A brush should be used 
in preference to a cloth. The final rins- 
ing of dairy vessels should be in boiling 
hot water. The milk should not be al- 
lowed to stand in a barn after it is 
drawn, as it readily absorbs odors. It 
should not be placed in a cellar or cave 
where there are decaying vegetables or 
fruits, as it will quickly absorb the odors 
from them. Full instructions for using 
the milk separator will be found in the 
pamphlet to which we refer. Detailed 
information relative to the operation of 
separators comes with each machine. 

Up to the time of ripening the cream 
the dairyman has been trying to keep it 
as free as possible from bacteria and to 
check the growth of all that may get into 
it, but from this point on the work will 
be quite different. Cream prepared with 
the aid of a separator should be per- 
fectly sweet, and if cooled properly will 
remain so for a number of hours, and in 
fact it can be preserved for four or five 
days if kept at a temperature of 50° F. 
It may be churned in this condition and 
the quality of the butter made that is in 
demand in a limited way, but, practically 
speaking, all butter used in this country 
is churned from sour cream. Sweet 

[ 



(Butter Making) 



cream butter to most users tastes flat and 
insipid. 

The trouble with ordinary souring is 
that it may not be the desirable kind. It 
must be handled in such a way that de- 
sirable flavors will be developed and the 
undesirable ones kept in check. This can 
only be accomplished with a perfectly 
sweet cream and afterward controlling 
the souring process. This control is se- 
cured by introducing into the cream what 
is known as a "starter," which is nothing 
more nor less than nicely soured milk 
either whole or skimmed. It will contain 
those varieties of bacteria which will de- 
velop the flavors wanted and not those 
which cause putrefaction, gassy fermenta- 
tion and similar undesirable changes. To 
secure a starter containing suitable bac- 
teria the dairyman has simply to set 
away a portion of skim milk as it comes 
from the separator. If the milk is kept 
at a temperature of 70 to 80° F. it should 
sour within twenty-four hours and form a 
solid curd. A test of this curd shows 
whether or not the dairyman has kept his 
milk clean. If the taste is found pleasant 
and mildly acid, and the curd readily 
breaks when poured from one vessel to 
another, he has a good starter. On the 
other hand, if the curd is stringy and 
will not break with a square, sharp cleav- 
age, but seems to be granular, or if a 
clear whey is found on the surface, it 
shows that bacteria of a harmful species 
are present. If the souring continues too 
long too much acid is formed, the starter 
becomes sharp and unfit for use. A glass 
jar is the best vessel in which to make a 
starter, as the glass is easily cleaned and 
the butter maker can see what action is 
taking place while the milk is souring. 

If there are gas-producing germs in the 
milk little bubbles will form in the bot- 
tom and along the sides of the jar. If 
these are formed the starter should not 
be used as the effect will not be good. 

If one is churning every day, about 1 
to 1% gal. of starter to 10 gal. of cream 
is the right proportion. If the cream is 
cooled to about 60° F. it will require 
more starter than if it is set at 70° F. 
If the cream is not to be churned every 
day, but must be held from two to four 
days before enough is secured for churn- 
ing, a small amount of starter may be 
added to the first batch of cream or the 
cream may be held sweet from two to 
four milkings and the starter added in a 
larsrer quantity. 

Whole milk can be used for a starter 
instead of skim milk, but it is considered 
better to use the latter. The surface of 
27] 



Agriculture 



(Butter Making) 



the starter should be skimmed off for one- 
half inch in depth and thrown away. 
This is to prevent the possibility of dust 
and the formation of colonies of undesir- 
able bacteria. There are various types of 
churns, the barrel churn being one of the 
best. In this form of churn the concus- 
sion of the cream necessary to do the 
churning is secured by the falling of the 
cream as the churn is revolved. The 
faster it is revolved the greater the num- 
ber of concussions per minute will be 
secured. If the churn is whirled too fast 
the centrifugal force created holds the 
cream from falling so that no churning 
takes place. Wooden churns should be 
kept scrupulously clean. 

The process of churning is the gather- 
ing into a mass the butter fats of the 
cream. Butter fat exists in the cream in 
minute globules, each independent of the 
others, and any agitation tends to bring 
them together, the force of the impact 
causing them to adhere to each other. As 
the agitation is continued these small par- 
ticles of butter grow larger by the addi- 
tion of other particles until a stage is 
reached where they become visible to the 
eye, and if the churning is continued a 
sufficient length of time all will be united 
in one lump of butter in the churn. If 
the cream is quite warm the butter will 
come very quickly ; if it is too cold the 
churning may be prolonged for a con- 
siderable period. It is usually considered 
that about 30 to 35 minutes' churning 
should bring the butter. This time will 
be varied somewhat according to the tem- 
perature of the different seasons. It is 
necessary in hot weather to churn at a 
temperature as low as 50 or 55° F., wnile 
in the winter months, when the cows are 
on dry feed and the weather is cold, it is 
often necessary to raise the churning tem- 
perature to 60 or G5°. It is important to 
know at just what point to stop churning. 
The butter granules should be the size of 
beans or grains of corn, possibly a little 
larger. The churning is then stopped and 
the buttermilk allowed to drain. After 
the buttermilk is well drained from the 
butter granules an amount of water about 
equal in volume and of the same tem- 
perature as the buttermilk should be 
added and the churn given four or five 
revolutions slowly, so that the water will 
come in contact with every particle of 
butter and wash out the remaining but- 
termilk. As soon as the wash water is 
drained from the butter granules salt 
should be added, depending upon the de- 
mands of the consumer. Usually one 
ounce of salt for each pound of butter is 

[ 



(Butter Making) 



all that will be required. In the ordinary 
barrel churn the salt may be added in the 
churn. By giving the churn a few revo- 
lutions the salt will be quite thoroughly 
incorporated with the butter. It should 
be allowed to stand for a few minutes 
until the salt becomes more or less dis- 
solved before working of the butter is 
begun. 

For w^orking butter some form of table 
should be used. The old bowl and paddle 
will never give good results, because the 
butter will be greasy owing to the sliding 
motion of the paddle over the butter. If 
the salt and butter have been mixed in 
the churn the butter can be placed on the 
working table and the working begun at 
once. 

After the butter has been pressed out 
with the roller it should be divided in the 
center, one part being laid over onto the 
other and the rollers passed over again. 
The process should be repeated until the 
butter assumes what is termed a waxy 
condition. If the working is continued 
for too long a time the butter will become 
salvy, having the appearance of lard, and 
will lose its granular structure, becoming 
weak-bodied. The firmness of the butter 
must be taken into account in determin- 
ing how long it should be worked. Usu- 
ally the firmer the butter the more work- 
ing it will stand and the more time it will 
need to thoroughly incorporate the salt 
and bring out the waxy condition. 

Testing Saltiness While Working. — 
During the process of working, the butter 
should be tested frequently to determine 
its saltiness, and if by mistake too much 
salt has been added it can readily be re- 
moved from the butter by pouring a little 
cold water over it as the working con- 
tinues. The water w^ashes out the excess 
of salt. If the butter should contain too 
little salt, more can readily be added dur- 
ing the process of working. It is best 
practice to about half finish the working 
and then let the butter stand for about 
twenty minutes or half an hour before 
completing. This gives the salt an addi- 
tional chance to dissolve and there is less 
liability of mottles in the finished product. 

Mottles, Remedy for. — If after stand- 
ing a few hours the butter is found 
to show a mottled appearance, this can 
be overcome by putting it on the worker 
and giving it an additional working. The 
mottled appearance indicates that some 
step in the working of the butter has not 
been thoroughly done. It is due to an 
uneven distribution of salt and possibly 
to the presence of casein that has not 
been washed from the butter, the action 
28] 



Agriculture 



(Butter Making) 



of the salt on the occasion forming lighter 
spots in the butter. The best remedy for 
mottles is to thoroughly wash the butter 
when it is in granular form before the 
salt is added and then to work it until it 
has reached the waxy condition alluded to. 

Butter in Tubs. — If the butter is to be 
put up in tubs, the packing should be so 
done that the butter will be solid through- 
out its entire mass. Too frequently the 
butter is thrown in without sufficient 
packing and large holes will appear in the 
body of the butter. While these may not 
affect the quality they affect the appear- 
ance. If a parchment paper lining is 
used in the tub it should be put in smooth 
and the top should be turned neatly over 
the edge of the butter. Coverings that 
are put on the top, whether circles of 
parchment or cloth made for the purpose, 
should exactly fit the top of the package. 
Care should be taken that the tub does 
not show finger marks or other dirty 
spots. 

Butter in Small Packages. — It is be- 
coming more common for the markets to 
demand that butter be packed in small 
packages, such as pound prints or squares. 
Butter put up in this form should be 
neatly wrapped in parchment paper. It 
is an excellent idea for the dairyman to 
have his name or label printed on the 
parchment. This helps to establish the 
identity of the goods, which, if properly 
made, should aid the dairyman in finding 
a permanent market for them. Wooden 
packages of almost any size can be se- 
cured for packing the prints. These 
should be used, particularly if it is neces- 
sary to ship the butter to market. For 
local distribution light crates or boxes 
which will fit the prints and prevent them 
from getting out of shape in hauling 
should be used. 

Refrigerator Boxes. — In the summer 
months it is a hard matter to transport 
butter from the dairy to the market and 
keep the prints in shape, unless the dairy- 
man has ice for this purpose. Light re- 
frigerator boxes are manufactured which 
can be used to great advantage, as their 
use will keep the butter hard and firm 
and enable the maker to deliver it in that 
condition to his customers in the hottest 
weather. No one likes to buy a parcel 
of butter that is so soft that it can hardly 
be handled, and the good dairyman will 
not attempt to place butter on the market 
in that condition. 

The Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, publishes as 
Circular No. 56 "Facts Concerning the 

[ 



(Coloring Butter) 



History, Commerce and Manufacture of 
Butter," by Harry Hayward. 

Other information may be obtained 
from Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 84, 92, 
131, 201, 237, 349 and 381. The entire 
subject is being gone into by the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and the bulletins 
may be obtained, when completed, from 
that source. 



Coloring Butter. 

1. — Use a little annatto; if pure it is 
not injurious. 

2. — The coloring matters commonly em- 
ployed are annatto and turmeric or ex- 
tracts of these, but there are also a 
number of butter-coloring compounds or 
mixtures sold for this purpose. For some 
of these it is claimed that they will not 
only impart the desired color to butter, 
but will keep it sweet and fresh for an 
indefinite time. The following are a few 
of these coloring compounds in use at 
present Rorick's compound is prepared 
as follows : The materials for 1,000 lb. 
of butter are : Lard, butter or olive oil, 
6 lb. ; annatto, 6 oz. ; turmeric, 1 oz. ; 
salt, 10 oz. ; niter, 2-5 oz. ; bromochlor- 
alum, 3% oz. ; water, q. s. The lard, 
butter or oil is put into a pan and heated 
in a water bath. The annatto and tur- 
meric are then stirred into a thin paste 
with water, and this is gradually added to 
the fatty or oily matters kept at a tem- 
perature of about 110° F. The salt and 
niter are next stirred in and the mixture 
heated to boiling. The heating is con- 
tinued for from twelve to twenty-four 
hours or until the color of the mixture 
becomes dark enough. The bromochlor- 
alum is then introduced and the mass is 
agitated until cold, when it is put up in 
sealed cans. 

3. — Bogart's preparation is prepared as 
follows : The materials employed are : 
Annattoin, 5 oz. ; turmeric (pulverized), 
6 oz. ; saffron, 1 oz. ; lard oil, 1 pt. ; but- 
ter, 5 lb. The butter is first melted in a 
pan over the water bath and strained 
through a fine linen cloth. The saffron is 
made into a ^ pt. tincture, and, together 
with the turmeric and annattoin, is 
gradually stirred into the hot butter and 
oil and boiled and stirred for about fifteen 
minutes. It is then strained through a 
cloth as before and stirred until cool. 

4. — Dake's butter coloring is prepared 
by heating a quantity of fresh butter for 
some time with annatto, by which means 
the coloring matter of the butter is ex- 
tracted, and straining the colored oil and 
stirring it until cold. 
29] 



Agriculture 



(Coloring Butter) 



5. — The following is commended in a 
German agricultural journal : Alum, pul- 
verized finely, 30 parts ; extract of tur- 
meric, 1 part. With the extract dampen 
the powder as evenly as possible, then 
spread out and dry over some hot surface. 
When dry again pulverize thoroughly. 
Protect the product from the light. As 
much of the powder as will lie on the 
point of a penknife is added to a churnful 
of milk or cream before churning, and it 
gives, says the authority on the subject, 
a beautiful golden color, entirely harm- 
less. To make the extract of turmeric 
add 1 part of powdered turmeric to 5 
parts of alcohol and let macerate together 
for fully a week. 

6. — Ethereal extract annatto, 1 oz. ; oil 
(olive or cottonseed), 100 oz. 

7. — Purified annatto, powdered, 10 oz. ; 
oil, 100 oz. Digest for two hours in a 
steam or water bath, allow to stand for 
one week, then decant. Of either of the 
above liquids 6 drops added to 1 quart of 
cream is sufficient. 

8. — Annattoin, 5 av.oz. : powdered tur- 
meric, 6 av.oz. ; true saffron, 1 av.oz. ; 
odorless lard oil, 16 fl.oz. ; alcohol, 4 fl.oz. 
Rub the annattoin and turmeric with the 
oil, which may be deodorized by filtration 
through charcoal and macerate for sev- 
eral days. Prepare a tincture with the 
alcohol and saffron. After a sufficient 
maceration separate the solids from the 
oil by filtration, adding more oil through 
the filter, to keep the measure, and mix 
the tincture of saffron with this, driving 
off the alcohol by a gentle heat. 

Of late coal-tar dyes are being largely 
introduced for the same purpose. They 
are mostly azo dyes and are sold specifi- 
cally as butter dyes. However, they are 
not recommended. 

9. — Odorless Coloring. — Annatto, ^ 
oz. ; sodium bicarbonate, 1% oz. ; sugar, 
8 oz. ; potassium nitrate, 8 oz. Soften 
the annatto with about 2 oz. water, using 
the heat of a water bath. Stir in about 2 
oz. of the sodium bicarbonate, evaporate 
to dryness and mix with the remainder of 
the soda and the other ingredients. 

10. — MacEwan, in his "Pharmaceutical 
Formulas," states that vegetable annatto 
is being replaced by aniline orange, the 
following being recommended as a popu- 
lar coloring : Oil-soluble aniline orange, 
1 oz. ; olive oil, 160 fl.oz. Dissolve the 
color in the oil by gentle warming. Cot- 
tonseed oil may be used in place of olive 
oil. A teaspoonful of the coloring is suffi- 
cient for 10 gal. of cream. 



(Deterioration of Butter) 



Deterioration of Butter. 

Butter fat, and therefore butter, is very 
unstable and it is therefore very liable to 
deterioration which, if it continues, ren- 
ders it unfit for food. The butter loses 
color ; it develops a tallowy taste and 
odor. As the deterioration progresses the 
texture changes from a firm or a solid to 
a pasty mass. When this stage is reached 
it is fit only for soap grease. 

Butter may be kept stored at a low 
temperature and in a dark place from six 
to eight months. To protect butter which 
is shipped to tropical countries it is often 
made from preserved cream and packed 
in hermetically sealed cans. 

While butter cannot be prevented from 
deteriorating without the use of chemi- 
cals, which is forbidden under the Pure 
Food Law, much can be done to retard 
this deterioration by handling it in all 
stages of its production under the most 
cleanly condition, by preserving the 
cream with which it is made by guarding 
it against infection, by packing it in air- 
tight packages and holding it at low tem- 
peratures or in darkness. 

Butter that is put in packages of 
greater size than the brick or print form 
will hold its flavor longer than the smaller 
packages. Prints and pats which are 
pleasing to the eye must be uncommonly 
well wrapped so as to make an almost 
air-tight package. Glass or glazed earth- 
enware butter jars should be used in all 
households. 

Substitutes for Butter. 

At the present time there are three 
commercial substitutes for butter. These 
are oleomargarine, butterine and reno- 
vated butter. These are subject to spe- 
cial examination by the Government and 
are subject to special taxes. The laws 
relating to their manufacture are most 
rigid. For information as to the processes 
of the manufacture of oleomargarine the 
readers are referred to the Scientific 
American supplement numbers. 

Butterine is oleomargarine with which 
is mixed more or less butter. This is a 
purely commercial term and is not recog- 
nized by law. All "butterine" is legally 
oleomargarine. 

"Renovated butter" is made from lots 
of butter which have been subjected to a 
process by which it is melted, clarified 
and refined for the purpose of removing 
rancidity or any deleterious flavors, or of 
otherwise improving the rendering uni- 
form miscellaneous lots of butter which 
could not find a profitable market without 
30] 



Agriculture 



(Home Test for Butter) 



being subjected to some such process of 
renovation. 

The purpose of the Government sur- 
veillance is to see that regulations are ob- 
served whereby no unwholesome material 
or process is used so that the purchaser 
or consumer is advised of the true char- 
acter of this kind or grade of butter. 

Home Test for Butter. 

The following home test for butter is 
from Farmers' Bulletin 131 of the De- 
partment of Agriculture : The experi- 
ment may be conducted in the kitchen as 
follows : Using an ordinary coal-oil lamp 
as a source of heat, melt a piece the size 
of a small chestnut taken from the sus- 
pected sample in an ordinary tablespoon, 
hastening the process by stirring with a 
splinter of wood (a match will do). Then 
increasing the heat, bring to as brisk a 
boil as possible, and, after the boiling has 
begun, stir the contents of the spoon thor- 
oughly, not neglecting the outer edges, 
two or three times at intervals during the 
boiling, always shortly before the boiling 
ceases. Oleomargarine and renovated 
butter boil noisily, sputtering more or 
less, as a mixture of grease and water 
would naturally behave when boiled, and 
produce no foam or but very little. Reno- 
vated butter produces usually a very 
small amount of foam. Genuine butter 
ordinarily boils with less noise and pro- 
duces an abundance of foam. The differ- 
ence in regard to foam is, as a rule, very 
marked. A butter is rarely found which 
yields an uncertain result, but if uncer- 
tain it should be considered genuine but- 
ter or a case of suspicion not confirmed. 

Circular No. 100 of the Bureau of Ani- 
mal Industry, Department of Agricul- 
ture, gives a rapid method for the deter- 
mination of water in butter, by C. E. 
Gray. 

Preserving of Butter. 

1. — The best method to preserve butter 
from the air is to fill the pot to within an 
inch of the top and to lay on it common 
coarse-grained salt, to the depth of % an 
inch or % of an inch, then to cover the 
pot up with any flat article that may be 
convenient. The salt by long keeping will 
run to brine and form a layer on the top 
of the butter, which will effectually keep 
out the air and may at any time be very 
easily removed by turning the pot on one 
side. Fresh butter, 16 lb.; salt, 1 lb.; 
fresh butter, 18 lb. ; salt, 1 lb. ; saltpeter, 
1% oz. ; honey or fine brown sugar, 2 oz. 

2. — Apperfs Method. — Take fresh but- 
ter of the best quality and press it 

[ 



(Preserving Butter) 



through a clean cloth in order to make it 
as dry as possible. Then cut it into small 
pieces and pack closely into glass jars, 
leaving no vacant spaces. Close the jars 
with cork stoppers, seal hermetically and 
fasten with wire in addition ; put into 
cold water and heat to the boiling point. 
Butter thus treated will keep in a cool 
place for six months. 

3.—Breon's MetJxod. — Put fresh butter 
into tin cans, under a thin layer of water 
containing tartaric acid and sodium car- 
bonate. Fill up the cans with the liquid 
and solder on the covers. 

4. — Melted Butter. — Butter may be 
melted directly over the fire or in a water 
bath {hain-marie) . In the first case put 
it into a copper kettle and set over a 
clear, moderate fire. Any impurities will 
sink to the bottom or rise to the top in 
froth. Stir slowly and skim off the froth 
as it forms. When no more rises, cool to 
50 to 60° C. (122 to 140° F.) and pour 
into earthen jars with narrow necks. 
When the butter has hardened put a layer 
of salt over the top and close tightly with 
paper. The best way of melting is in 
the water bath ; that is, with the vessel 
containing the butter placed in another 
with boiling water. It is a good plan to 
strain the melted butter through a cloth. 
It will keep unchanged for a year, but is 
good only for cooking. 

5. — Pickled Butter. — Wash the semi- 
salted butter thoroughly and spread out 
in a thin layer on a moist table. Work 
into it 60 grams (6 parts by weight) of 
fine salt to each kilogram (100 parts) of 
butter. Pack the butter into earthen jars 
and set in a cool place for a week ; then, 
if there is any vacant space in the jar, 
fill it up with salt brine. If the butter is 
to be sent away, pour off the brine and 
put in a layer of dry salt. This salted 
butter has a good flavor and can be used 
for the table. Cut it out from the jar in 
horizontal pieces, smooth off the surface 
each time and fill the space with brine. 

6. — Preserving Paper. — Cooking salt, 
in fine powder, 160 gr. ; saltpeter, in fi'ie 
powder, 320 gr. ; whites of 20 eggs. Beat 
the albumen to a froth, mix the salts and 
add the mixture to the froth, little by 
little, with constant stirring, until a solu- 
tion is formed. In this soak a good qual- 
ity of bibulous paper and hang it across 
strings to dry. "VMien dry go over each 
sheet with a hot smoothing iron, the face 
of which is kept well waxed. 

Rancid Butter, To Sweeten. — 1.— 100 
lb. of butter is mixed with about 30 gal. 
of hot water, containing Y^ lb. of bicar- 

31] 



Agriculture 



(Preserving Butter) 



bonate of soda and 15 lb. of fine granular 
animal charcoal free from dust, and the 
mixture is churned together for half an 
hour or so. The butter is then sepa- 
rated ; after standing, warmed and 
strained through a linen cloth, then re- 
salted, colored and worked up with one- 
half its weight of fresh butter. 

2. — Rancid butter may be restored, or 
at all events greatly improved, by melt- 
ing it with some freshly burnt and 
coarsely powdered animal charcoal 
(which has been thoroughly freed from 
dust by sifting) in a water bath and then 
straining it through clean flannel. A bet- 
ter and less troublesome method is to well 
wash the butter with some good new milk 
and next with cold spring water. Butyric 
acid, on the presence of which rancidity 
depends, is freely soluble in fresh milk. 

3. — One authority advises to wash the 
butter first with fresh milk and afterward 
with spring water, carefully working out 
the residual water. This, even if effec- 
tive, will cost about as much time and 
material as to convert the milk into fresh 
butter. 

4. — Another recipe says to add 25 to 
30 drops of lime chloride to every 2 
pounds of butter, work the mass up thor- 
oughly, then wash in plenty of fresh, cold 
water and work out the residual water. 

Butter, To Clarify. — Put the butter 
into a stewpan, heat it slowly, removing 
the scum as it rises, and when quite clear, 
pour it carefully into clean and dry jars, 
leaving the sediment behind. 

Curled Butter. — Tie a strong cloth by 
two of the corners to an iron hook in the 
wall. Tie the other end of the cloth into 
a knot, but so loosely that the index 
finger may be easily passed through it. 
Place the butter in the cloth, twist it 
lightly, thus forcing the butter through 
the knot in fine short rolls or curls. The 
butter may then be garnished with parsley 
and served. Butter for garnishing hams, 
etc., should be worked until sufficiently 
soft, and then used by means of a piece 
of stiff paper folded in the form of a 
cornet. The butter is squeezed in fine 
strings through the hole at the bottom of 
the cornet, and a little experience soon 
enables the worker to execute various 
designs. 

Fairy or Feathery Butter. — ^Work the 
butter until it is sufficiently soft, then 
place it in a piece of coarse butter muslin 
or some loosely woven fabric through 
which it can be forced in fine particles 
and which must be previously wetted with 
cold water. Draw the edges of the muslin 

[ 



(Cheese Making) 



together and press the butter gently 
through, letting it fall lightly into the 
dish in which it will be served or round 
any dish it is intended to garnish. 

Molded Butter. — Butter may be shaped 
without the aid of molds, but round but- 
ter molds or wooden stamps are much 
used and are made in a variety of pat- 
terns. They should be kept scrupulously 
clean, and before the butter is pressed in 
the molds should be scalded and after- 
ward well soaked in cold water. The but- 
ter at once takes the impress of the mold 
and may therefore be turned out imme- 
diately into the butter dish. In hot 
weather a little ice should be placed either 
round or beneath the butter dish. Dishes 
with a double bottom are constructed for 
this purpose. 

CHEESE 

The following notes on cheese making 
are obtained from Farmers' Bulletin 166, 
entitled "Cheese Making on the Farm," 
by Henry E. Alvord. This subject is 
being revised by the Department of Agri- 
culture and may be obtained from that 
source when completed. In the mean- 
time Farmers' Bulletins 84, 92, 97 and 
237 contain valuable information. 

The ordinary process by which Ameri- 
can cheese is made in factories is not ap- 
plicable to the farm dairy, because it 
takes too much time and is so complicated 
that it requires years of practice to be- 
come sufficiently familiar with the vary- 
ing conditions in which milk comes to the 
vat. The various changes that take place 
in milk and which are troublesome in 
making cheese nearly all develop in the 
night's milk kept over until the following 
morning. So if milk is made into cheese 
immediately after it is drawn, no diffi- 
culty need be experienced. By employing 
a simple and short method of manufac- 
ture any one at all accustomed to han- 
dling milk can, with the appliances found 
in any well-regulated farm home, make 
uniformly a good cheese. 

Double Cream Cheese. — This is the 
most popular cream cheese in Paris and 
it is said that about 40,000 are consumed 
daily in that city. It is also called Swiss 
cream cheese. According to Pourian, it is 
made as follows : 

Ten pounds of cream and 64 pounds of 
new milk are mixed carefully and brought 
to a temperature of 55 to 57° F. Enough 
diluted rennet extract is added to make it 
coagulate in twenty-four hours. The 
curd is cut into flat pieces with a skim- 
mer and laid on a linen cloth, which is 
32] 



Agriculture 



(Cheese Making) 



folded over it so as to form a sort of 
press bag. These bags or packages are 
laid in a perforated box with boards be- 
tween them, and when the first flow of 
whey stops the top board is loaded with a 
weight of some kind. This pressing takes 
sixteen to eighteen hours, as a rule ; it 
should continue until whey ceases to 
escape. 

The curd is then spread on a large 
table and worked and kneaded by hand, 
while adding enough cream to give it a 
uniform smooth consistency ; after this it 
is left on the table some hours to become 
firmer. 

The molding may be done by taking in 
the right hand enough curd to make a 
cheese, placing it on a piece of paper and 
rolling it into a small cylinder. If many 
of the little cheeses are to be made, a 
suitable molding apparatus should be pro- 
vided, which may be constructed substan- 
tially as follows : A form, or mold, is 
made by taking an open tin box or pan 
of a depth corresponding to the length of 
the cheeses to be made, the bottom of the 
pan or box having a convenient number 
of circular openings into which tin cylin- 
ders of the desired dimensions have been 
soldered. To form the cheeses this mold 
is placed bottom uppermost on a sheet of 
perforated tinned steel somewhat larger 
than the mold and supported by short 
feet, so that it may stand on a table. 
By the aid of a wooden piston each cylin- 
der may be lined with a roll of paper. 
The curd is then dumped on top of the 
mold, pressed into the cylinders and 
struck off smoothly with a piece of board. 
The whole "form" is then lifted carefully, 
leaving the cheeses in their paper wrap- 
pings on the perforated tin plate. They 
are then ready to be packed for the 
market. 

This cheese, as analyzed by Pourian, 
has 55 per cent, water, 30 per cent, fat 
and 15 per cent, casein, etc. One dozen 
weigh about 2 pounds. 

(These descriptions of Neufchatel and 
cream cheese are taken from J. H. Mon- 
rad's book, entitled "The A B C of Cheese 
Making.") 

English Cream Cheese. — Very thick 
cream is poured carefully into a linen 
bag and this hung up, with a basin under- 
neath to catch the whey, in a cool room 
or cellar. The air in the room must be 
pure, as the cream easily absorbs odors. 
When the whey is partly drained off the 
bag is twisted tight and bound so as to 
dry the curd more ; then, after twenty- 
four to forty-eight hours, according to 
temperature and the consistency of the 

L33 



(Cheese Making) 



cream, the "cheese" is ready to eat, and 
may be molded as desired. This is hardly 
cheese, as no rennet is used. Perhaps it 
should be called a "sour cream curd." 

French Cream Cheese. — Enough rennet 
is added to the morning's milk, set in a 
jar at a temperature of 70° F., to coagu- 
late in two or three hours, and then left 
for twenty or twenty-four hours. In- 
stead of any special mold, a common hair 
sieve may be used. After pouring out 
the whey gathered on top of the curd, cut 
the latter into slices with a skimmer and 
lay it in the sieve to drain. When well 
drained, add cream in quantities to suit, 
but not more than that from a quantity 
of milk equal to that first coagulated. 
Mix the curd and cream by mashing with 
a wooden pestle, like a potato masher, 
until a uniform paste is obtained. This 
is then placed in wicker molds or baskets 
lined with muslin. In France heart- 
shaped molds are made for the purpose. 
The cheese is used when freshly made. If 
it is to be kept several days an ice-box 
will be necessary. 

Neufchatel Cheese. — The fresh morn- 
ing's milk, while still at a temperature of 
about 90° F., is set in a stone jar holding 
40 pounds or less, and enough rennet is 
added to coagulate it in about twenty- 
four hours. It should stand in a room of 
about 60° F., and a reliable rennet ex- 
tract should be used. The jar may be 
covered with a woolen blanket or the like 
to keep the temperature uniform. When 
coagulated the whole mass is poured into 
a piece of cheese cloth, which is either 
placed in a basket or hung up on four 
supports fixed for that purpose. It is 
then left twelve hours to drain. Then the 
cloth is gathered together around the curd 
and placed in a square wooden box with 
perforated bottom and sides and a press- 
board put on with weights ; a few stones 
will answer or a small lever press may 
be used. The curd is pressed for twelve 
hours and then kneaded by hand on dry 
cloth into a uniform stiff paste. It re- 
quires experience to get exactly the right 
consistency. If it is too moist, new dry 
cloths are placed under it, and it is 
worked until dry enough. But if too dry, 
it is a sign that either too much rennet 
has been used or the curd has been 
pressed too much. In this last case some 
new curd is added and carefully mixed 
with the other. When of the right con- 
sistency it is put into small molds. Little 
tin cylinders are usual, of 2i/^ inches di- 
ameter and 3 inches high. Any little tin 
can may be used by unsoldering the top 
and bottom. After smoothing both ends 

] 



Agriculture 



(Home Cheese Making) 



the cylindrical-shaped cheese is pushed 
out and salted by strewing on both ends 
and lightly rolling between the hands 
covered with salt. 

The little cheeses are then placed on 
any kind of a draining board and left for 
twenty-four hours. If made in any quan- 
tity a drying room should be prepared 
with lath shelves, on which smooth, dry 
straw is placed, and the cheeses laid upon 
the straw without touching each other. 
They are turned often enough to prevent 
loss of shape or sticking to the straw. 
Many people prefer this cheese while 
quite fresh, and it may be used at any 
time after being dried for a day. But if 
more age and maturity are preferred, 
more time and attention are required, 
with special conditions. 

Left upon the straw, white mold may 
be expected to appear after five or six 
days. Leave this undisturbed and in ten 
or fifteen days more the mold becomes 
blue and the cheeses are then said to have 
their "first skin." They should then be 
taken to a cool and rather moist cellar 
with similar shelves, placed on end on 
the straw and turned every three or four 
days. After three or four weeks in this 
place, red spots begin to appear, and the 
cheese, being then from six weeks to two 
months old, is considered to be at its best. 
It takes 6 pounds of milk for 1 pound of 
cheese. 

Instead of straw, wooden mats or 
"splashers" may be used on which to dry 
the cheese. 

This cheese is the kind commonly sold 
in this country wrapped in tinfoil. Some 
of that in the market is very poor, being 
made from skim milk, and is in reality 
nothing but cottage cheese, although sold 
under this French name. 

Notes for Home Cheese Making. 

Utensils. — A good vat — one that can be 
kept clean and sweet and large enough to 
hold whatever milk is to be used at one 
time. A press, for the product of from 
five to eight cows, a simple lever with 
weights. Accompanying the press must 
be hoops ; a good size is 10 inches in di- 
ameter and 8 inches deep, made of heavy 
tin, edges strong and no top or bottom- 
A drainer or vessel with perforated bot- 
tom, in which the curd is drained ; a large 
basket will do, lined with strainer cloth. 
A dozen cloths a yard square. A ther- 
mometer. A curd knife or knives. These 
come in pairs, one to cut horizontally and 
one vertically, but a long, slim knife will 
do or a strong piece of galvanized wire 
netting, or even a strong strip of tin. A 

[ 



(Home Cheese Making) 



suitable room for curing, with a few 
smooth, wide shelves on which to cure 
the cheese. 

Rennet. — Use about one tablespoonful 
of rennet extract for 3 gallons of milk. 
If the curd is over one-half hour in com- 
ing, increase the quantity of rennet ; if 
less, decrease it. Rennet tablets may be 
used. 

Preparation of the Curd. — Warm the 
milk to 85° F., add the rennet and mix 
thoroughly, then cover and let stand at 
this temperature for about one-half hour, 
or until the curd will break, leaving the 
whey clear. Then cut each way, leaving 
it in columns about 1 inch square. Now 
let it stand until the whey rises an inch 
on top of the curd, then warm the whole 
gradually, taking two or three hours to 
reach 98° F., lifting and stirring and 
breaking it gently with the hand all the 
time until the pieces are about the size 
of grains of corn. Be very careful not 
to crush the curd, as that will cause the 
cream or fat to escape with the whey. 
Then let stand at this temperature, stir- 
ring it occasionally to keep from packing, 
until the curd is so firm that when 
squeezed gently in the hand and the hand 
opened, it will separate into particles 
again. The whey should have a slightly 
acid taste. Then dip the curd into a 
basket lined with cloth to cool and drain. 

Salt. — Salt the curd after it is drained, 
using 4 ounces of salt to 10 pounds of 
curd, mixed in carefully but thoroughly ; 
or salt by brine bath or rubbing, after 
pressing. 

Pressure. — The pressure must be gentle 
at first or the milk fat will run out, thus 
leaving a poor cheese. Increase the pres- 
sure gradually, and in a few hours take 
the cheese out, turn it, rearrange the 
bandage and press as before. 

Curing. — This is a very important part 
of cheese making. The room for curing 
(and it may be in a basement or cellar if 
the conditions are right) should be, first 
of all, capable of being kept at an even 
and medium temperature. From 50 to 
G0° F. is now regarded as the best for 
domestic purposes, although the time in 
curing may be somewhat lengthened 
thereby. The cooler the room the slower 
the curing. If the room at any time gets 
much warmer than 65°, even for a short 
period, the cheese is likely to be perma- 
nently injured. The room should be 
fairly dry, but not too dry, and, while 
being well ventilated, should be free from 
currents of air. If too dry or subjected 
to dry currents, the cheese will lose 
weight, and be apt to crack. Great care 
34] 



Agriculture 



(Fertilizers) 



must be taken to keep out all flies. The 
bandage should be greased and rubbed 
and the cheese turned over on the shelf 
every day or two for a month ; later this 
need be done only once or twice a week. 
If the cheese should crack, paste strips of 
cheesecloth or stout paper over the open- 
ings. 

Information on Cheese Making Proc- 
esses, its Chemistry, etc., is contained in 
our Scientific American Supplement, 
Numbers *1245, 1493, *1642, 1643 and 
1647. 

For particulars about the Scientific 
American Supplement kindly refer to the 
Advertising Pages. 

FERTILIZERS 

1. — A cheap fertilizer consists of sul- 
phate of ammonia, 60 lb. ; nitrate of soda, 
40 lb. ; ground bone, 250 lb. : plaster, 250 
lb. ; salt, % bushel ; wood ashes, 3 bush- 
els ; stable manure^ 20 bushels. Apply 
the above amount to six acres. Labor in 
preparing included, it costs about $15. It 
is said to give as good results as most of 
the commercial fertilizers costing $50 per 
ton. 

2. — Artificial Manures. — a. — (Ander- 
son.) Ammonium sulphate, common salt 
and oil of vitriol, each 10 parts ; potas- 
sium chloride, 15 parts ; gypsum and po- 
tassium sulphate, each 17 parts ; saltpe- 
ter, 20 parts ; crude Epsom salts, sodium 
sulphate, 33 parts. For clover. 

b.— (Huxtable.) Crude potash, 28 lb.; 
common salt, 1 cwt. ; bone dust and gyp- 
sum, each 2 cwt. ; wood ashes, 15 bushels. 
For either corn, turnips or grass. 

c. — (Johnstone.) Sodium sulphate 
(dry), 11 lb.; wood ashes, 28 lb.; com- 
mon salt, % cwt. ; crude ammonium sul- 
phate, 1 cwt. ; bone dust, 7 bushels. As 
a substitute for guano. 

d. — Liquid Manure. — (1.) Dissolve 25 
lb. guano in 5 gal. of water. For use add 
21/^ oz. of this solution to 5 gal. water. 

(2.) Sheeps' dung, % peck to 15 gal. of 
water ; sulphate of ammonia, % oz. to 
every gallon. 

e. — Manure from Soot. — Save the soot 
that falls from the chimneys when the 
latter are cleaned. Twelve qt. soot to 1 
hhd. water makes a good liquid manure, 
to be applied to the roots of plants. 

3. — Chemical Gtiano (Grandeau). — 
Calcium nitrate, 100 parts; potassium ni- 
trate, 25 parts ; potassium phosphate, 25 
parts ; magnesium sulphate, 25 parts. 
Dissolve from 4 to 10 grams of this pow- 
der in 1 liter of water, and water each 
pot plant with this once or twice a 

[35 



(Fertilizers) 



month. The plants must be in full vege- 
tation. 

4. — Fish Fertilizers. — The fish fertiliz- 
ers on the market have much less value 
than natural fertilizers, like guano. The 
reason is that the material obtained from 
fish is poorer in soluble nitrates and 
phosphates than the natural guano, and 
that it is in an imperfect state of divi- 
sion. M. J. Carstairs claims that fish 
contain all the elements of the best guano, 
and its inferior value is due to the loss 
produced in the manufacture. He has 
adopted the following method of prepara- 
tion, consisting essentially in submitting 
the fish, dried and reduced to pieces, in 
an appropriate extractor, to the action 
of a mixture, in the state of vapor, of a 
solvent of the oil or a mixture of such 
solvents. 

The solvents, according to him, may be 
classed in three groups : Group A : Car- 
bon bisulphide, ether, benzol, benzoline, 
etc. Group B : Ethylic or methylic al- 
cohol or a mixture of these. Group C : 
Acetone, etc. 

The role played by the substances of 
Group A is well known. Alcohol, at the 
temperature at which it is vaporized, con- 
verts the soluble albuminoids into in- 
soluble albuminoids, and thus prevents 
them from mingling with the oil, to the 
detriment of its quality and its nutritive 
value as a fertilizer. 

The action of alcohol has as a result 
the solidification of the albuminoids, 
which otherwise would be converted into 
a jelly, so that the fish, freed from the oil 
and taken from the extractor, are brittle 
and may be reduced to any state of divi- 
sion desired by means of an appropriate 
machine. 

On the other hand, acetone, although 
this has in itself but a slight dissolving 
power for animal fats, considerably in- 
creases the action of the solvents, even 
when it is employed in small quantities. 

The proportion of the mixture to be 
employed depends on the special sub- 
stances of Groups A and B. When ben- 
zoline and methylic alcohol are made use 
of, the most suitable proportion is ben- 
zoline, from 80 to 85 : alcohol, 12 to 15 ; 
acetone, 3 to 5. — Translated for the Sci- 
entific Americatst Supplement, from 
La Revue des Produifs Ghimiques. 

Cheap Fertilizer from Fish. — Pass fish 
refuse through mincing machine and ex- 
pose in layers 3 in. deen in a kiln heated 
to 300° F. until properly dried. 

5. — Fertilizing Powder. — Bone dust. 9 
parts (very fine) ; plaster paris. Vo part; 
sulphate ammonia, ^2 part. Steep the 
] 



Agriculture 



(Fertilizers) 



(Fertilizers) 



seed in the drainings of a dunghill ; drain, 
but while still wet sprinkle with the pow- 
der and dry. 

Fertilizers for Special Purposes. 

Corn. — To produce 50 bushels more 
than the natural product to the acre use : 
1. — Nitrogen, 04 lb., in the form of 
sulphate of ammonia ; 

2. — Potash, 77 lb., in the form of 
chloride of potash ; 

3. — Phosphoric acid, 31 lb., in the form 
of muriate of superphosphates. 

To grow 1 ton of hay to the acre more 
than the natural product use : 

4. — Nitrogen, 36 lb., in the form of sul- 
phate of ammonia ; 

5. — Potash, 31 lb., in the form of 
chloride of potash ; 

6. — Phosphoric acid, 12 lb., in the form 
of superphosphate. 

Cotton. — Ammonia, 2.50 per cent. ; 
available phosphoric acid, 7.50 per cent. ; 
potash, 4 per cent. 

Fruit Trees. — Potassium chloride, 100 
parts ; potassium nitrate, 500 parts ; po- 
tassium phosphate, 570 parts. This total 
amount of 1,170 grams to be used for one 
tree. 

Garden Plants. — 1. — Sugar, 1 part ; po- 
tassium nitrate, 2 parts ; ammonium sul- 
phate, 4 parts, 

2. — Ferric phosphate, 1 part ; magne- 
sium sulphate, 2 parts ; potassium phos- 
phate, 2 parts ; potassium nitrate, 2 
parts ; calcium acid phosphate, 8 parts. 
About a teaspoonful of either of these 
mixtures is added to a gallon of water 
and the plants sprinkled with the liquid. 
3. — Ammonium sulphate, 10 parts ; so- 
dium nitrate, 15 parts ; ammonium phos- 
phate, 30 parts ; potassium nitrate, 45 
parts, 

Latcns. — 1. — Potassium nitrate, 30 
parts ; sodium nitrate, 30 parts ; calcium 
sulphate, 30 parts ; calcium superphos- 
phate, 30 parts, 

2. — Ashes strewn on lawns prevent the 
growth of moss and promote that of the 
grass. Soot, which is often thrown away, 
is an excellent fertilizer, particularly for 
grass, onions, potatoes and all kinds of 
radishes. Both ashes and soot have the 
property of keeping away sand fleas and 
little snails. An excellent fertilizer is 
obtained by mixing nine parts of soot 
with one of salt. 

Oats. — To produce 25 bushels of oats 
and the usual proportion of straw per 
acre more than the natural product of 
the soil, and in proportion for other quan- 
tities, use ; I 

[36 



1, — Nitrogen, 10 lb,, in the form of 
sulphate of ammonia ; 

2, — Potash, 31 lb,, in the form of chlo- 
ride of potash ; 

3, — Phosphoric acid, 8 lb., in the form 
of superphosphate. 

To produce 1,500 lb. of dried leaf to- 
bacco with the usual proportion of stalk 
more than the natural yield per acre of 
land, use : 

4. — Nitrogen, 149 lb., in the form of 
sulphate of ammonia ; 

5. — Potash, 172 lb., in the form of sul- 
phate of potash ; 

6, — Phosphoric acid, 16 lb,, in the form 
of superphosphate ; 

7, — Lime, 100 lb., in the form of sul- 
phate of lime (lime plaster). 

These mixtures should be sown over 
the land broadcast when the ground is 
well prepared, before planting, and not 
put in the hills, so that the roots may 
seek the food and not concentrate and 
thereby cause the plants to burn up. 

Orange Fertilizer. — Ammonia, 3.25 per 
cent, ; available phosphoric acid, 3,50 per 
cent. ; potash, 14.50 per cent. 

Potatoes. — To produce 100 bushels of 
potatoes per acre and their usual pro- 
portion of tops more than the natural 
proportion of the land, and other quanti- 
ties proportionally, use : 

3. — Nitrogen, 21 lb., in the form of 
sulphate of ammonia ; 

2.— Potash, 34 lb., in the form of sul- 
phate of potash ; 

3. — Phosphoric acid, 11 lb., in the form 
of superphosphate. 

Potted Plants and Flowers. — 1. — A 
plant, in order to thrive properly, must 
grow in a soil that furnishes the neces- 
sary inorganic matters as food. If these 
are not present, or present only in small 
quantity, the plant either dies, or grows 
scantily, or develops only certain portions 
of its structure. Thus grain grows only 
small and undeveloped seeds if the soil 
does not contain enough phosphoric acid. 
As regards the organic food, plants are 
less dependent on the soil, as this is de- 
rived directly or indirectly from the at- 
mosphere. As plants vary in the kind of 
mineral matter required, and the avail- 
able mineral constituents in the soil also 
differ greatly in different localities, it is 
often necessary for the proper develop- 
ment of certain plants to add certain sub- 
stances to supply the deficiency. Some 
plants require principally one kind, some 
another, as lime, silica, potash or salt. 
Experiments on vegetation have shown 
that a plant will thrive perfectly when 
the lacking substances are supplied in a 

] 



Agriculture 



(Fertilizers) 



suitable form — e.g., in the following com- 
binations : 1. Calcium nitrate, potassium 
nitrate, potassium phosphate, magnesium 
phosphate, ferric phosphate (sodium 
chloride). 2. Calcium nitrate, ammo- 
nium nitrate, potassium sulphate, magne- 
sium phosphate, iron chloride (or sul- 
phate) (sodium silicate). 

It is well known that in nature nitrates 
are formed wherever decomposition of or- 
ganic nitrogenous substances takes place 
in the air, the ammonia formed by the 
decomposition being oxidized to nitric 
acid. These conditions for the formation 
of nitrates are present in nearly every 
cornfield, and they are also the cause of 
the presence of nitrates in water that has 
its source near stables, etc. In Peruvian 
guano nitrogen is present partly in form 
of potassium nitrate, partly as ammonium 
phosphate and sulphate. In form of ni- 
trate it acts more rapidly than in form 
of ammonia, but in the latter case the 
effect is more lasting. Phosphoric acid 
occurs in guano combined with ammonia, 
potash and chiefly with lime, the last 
being slower and more lasting in action 
than the others. 

2. — Potassium nitrate, 30 parts ; potas- 
sium phosphate, 25 parts ; ammonium 
sulphate, 10 parts ; ammonium nitrate, 35 
parts. Where flowers are blooming or 
where blooming is to be promoted, the 
application of ammonium nitrate alone is 
recommended. 

3. — Ammonium chloride, 2 parts ; so- 
dium phosphate, 4 parts ; sodium nitrate, 
3 parts ; water, 80 parts. Mix and dis- 
solve. To use, add 25 drops to the quart 
of water, and use as in ordinary watering. 

4. — Ammonium nitrate, 40 parts ; am- 
monium phosphate, 20 parts ; potassium 
nitrate, 25 parts ; ammonium chloride, 5 
parts ; calcium sulphate, 6 parts ; iron 
sulphate, 4 parts. 

5. — Ammonium sulphate, 30 grams ; 
sodium chloride, 30 grams ; potassium ni- 
trate, 15 grams ; magnesium sulphate, 15 
grams ; .magnesium phosphate, 4 grams ; 
sodium phosphate, 6 grams. One gram 
to be dissolved in 1 liter of water and the 
flowers watered up to three times daily. 
Dissolve 4 grams in 1 liter of water and 
water with this solution daily. 

6.; — Potassium chloride, 12.5 grams ; 
calcium nitrate, 58 grams ; magnesium 
sulphate, 12 grams ; potassium sulphate, 
15 grams ; iron phosphate, recently pre- 
cipitated, 2.5 grams. This turbid mix- 
ture (1.16 or 1 gram in 1 liter) is used 
alternately with water for watering a pot 
of about 1 liter capacity ; for smaller or 
larger pots in proportion. After using 

[ 



(Fertilizers) 



the amount indicated, the watering is 
continued with water alone. 

7. — Sodium chloride, 10 parts ; potas- 
sium nitrate, 5 parts ; magnesium sul- 
phate, 5 parts ; magnesia, 1 part ; sodium 
phosphate, 2 parts. Mixed and bottled. 
Dissolve a teaspoonful daily in a liter of 
water and water the plants with the so- 
lution. 

8. — Sodium phosphate, 4 oz. ; sodium 
nitrate, 4 oz. ; ammonium sulphate, 2 oz. ; 
sugar, 1 oz. Use two teaspoonfuls to a 
gallon of water. 

9. — Saltpeter, 5 parts ; cooking salt, 10 
parts ; bitter salt, 5 parts ; magnesia, 1 
part ; sodium phosphate, 2 parts. Mix 
and fill in bottles. Dissolve a teaspoonful 
in 1 liter (about a quart) of hot water 
and water the flower pots with it each 
day. 

10. — Ammonium nitrate, 40 parts ; am- 
monium phosphate, 50 parts ; potassium 
nitrate, 90 parts. Two grams of this fer- 
tilizer sufiice for a medium-sized flower 
pot. 

11. — Ammonium sulphate, 10 parts ; 
sodium chloride, 10 parts ; potassium ni- 
trate, 5 parts ; magnesium sulphate, 5 
parts ; magnesium carbonate, 1 part ; so- 
dium phosphate, 20 parts ; 1 teaspoonful 
to 1 liter of water. 

12. — Ammonium nitrate, 40 parts ; am- 
monium phosphate, 20 parts ; potassium 
nitrate, 25 parts ; ammonium chloride, 5 
parts ; calcium sulphate, 6 parts ; ferrous 
sulphate, 4 parts. Make doses of 2 grams 
each, which are dissolved each in 1 liter 
of water and use the solution for water- 
ing the potted plants. 

13. — Potash niter, 20 parts ; potassium 
phosphate, 25 parts ; ammonium nitrate, 
35 parts ; ammonium sulphate, 10 parts. 
Through this mixture a luxurious foliage 
is secured. If it is desired to act more on 
the flowering the ammonium nitrate must 
be omitted. 

14. — Ammonium sulphate, 30 parts ; 
sodium chloride, 30 parts ; potash niter, 
15 parts ; magnesium sulphate, 15 parts ; 
magnesium phosphate, 4 parts ; sodium 
phosphate, 6 parts. Dissolve 1 gram in 1 
liter of water and apply three times per 
day. 

15. — Calcium nitrate, 71 parts ; potas- 
sium chlorate, 15 parts ; magnesium sul- 
phate, 12.5 parts ; potassium phosphate, 
13.3 parts ; freshly precipitated ferric 
phosphate, 3.2 parts. A solution of 1 
gram of this mixture is applied, alternat- 
ing with water, to the plants. After 
using a certain quantity, pour on only 
water. 

IG. — Ammonium phosphate, 300 parts; 
37] 



Agriculture 



(Milk) 



sodium nitrate, 250 parts ; potassium ni- 
trate, 250 parts, and ammonium sul- 
phate, 200 parts, are mixed together. To 
every liter of water dissolve 2 grams of 
the mixture and water the_ potted plants 
once a week with this solution. 

17. — Potash niter, 20 parts ; calcium 
carbonate, 30 parts ; sodium chlorate, 20 
parts ; calcium phosphate, 20 parts ; so- 
dium silicate, li parts ; ferrous sulphate, 
1.5 parts. Dissolve 1 gram of the mix- 
ture in 1 liter of water. 

18. — Calcium nitrate, 100 parts ; potas- 
sium chlorate, 30 parts ; potassium phos- 
phate, 30 parts ; magnesium sulphate, 20 
parts ; ferrous sulphate, 0.1 part. Dis- 
solve 2 grams of the solution in 1 liter of 
water. 

19. — Dissolve potash niter, 100 parts ; 
ammonium phosphate, 100 parts, and 
phosphoric acid, 2.5 parts, in 1,000 parts 
of ordinary syrup. For 1 liter of water 
add at most 10 cubic centimeters and 
apply this solution, alternating with ordi- 
nary water. For Cactaceae, Crassulaceae 
and similar plants, which do not directly 
assimilate organic substances, distilled 
water should be used instead of syrup. 
Chlorotic plants should be coated with 
dilute solution of iron, or else iron should 
be admixed to the soil, whereupon they 
will become green again. The iron is ab- 
sorbed in the form of ferric chloride or 
ferrous sulphate. 

Ycgefahles. — The formula for the vege- 
table fertilizer varies with the kind of 
vegetable which is cultivated : Ammonia, 
5 to 7 per cent. ; available phosphoric 
acid, 6 per cent. ; potash, 8 to 12 per 
cent. 

Fertilizers : Artificial, Their Nature 
and Function. Ammonia, Fixation of At- 
mospheric Nitrogen, are treated of in our 
Scientific American Supplement, Num- 
bers 1439, 1490, 1608, 1G40, 1641, 1642, 
1643, 1644, *1668, 1685, *1740, 1675, 
*1748, *1784, 1787. 

*Indicates illustrations of plant for at- 
mospheric nitrogen production. For par- 
ticulars about the Scientific American 
Supplement kindly refer to the Advertis- 
ing Pages. 

MILK 

Much depends upon the health of the 
herd, the cleanliness of cows and their 
surroundings, the construction and care 
of utensils, and the health, cleanliness 
and milking methods of employes. For a 
full description of proper methods, in- 
cluding a description of bacteria and con- 
ditions affecting bacterial growth see Far- 



( Artificial Milk) 



mers' Bulletin No. 63, issued by the 
United States Department of Agriculture. 

Artificial Milk. 

Humanized Milk. — 1. — White of egg, 
150 parts ; fresh oil sw. almonds, 350 
parts ; milk sugar, 400 parts ; sodium car- 
bonate, 4 parts ; neutral calc. phosph., 25 
parts ; water, enough to make 1,000 parts. 
Mix and make an emulsion. 

2. — New milk, 12 pt. ; cream, 16 oz. ; 
milk sugai-, 13 oz. ; water, 8 pt. Dissolve 
the sugar of milk in the water and mix 
with the other ingredients. Fill bottles 
to the shoulder, place in a kettle sur- 
rounded with water and place on the 
fire. Allow the water to boil for thirty 
minutes, then cork and allow the boiling 
to continue for another half hour, when 
sterilization will be complete. 

3. — Harold Stacey says : To reduce the 
content of casein in cow's milk to the 
same percentage as that of human milk it 
is necessary to add three parts of water 
to every five parts of milk. The fat and 
milk sugar are naturally diminished, and 
the requisite percentage must be made up 
by addition of more milk sugar and fat. 
The latter is added either in the form of 
cream or butter, preferably the latter, 
owing to its more constant composition. 
It is readily emulsified by the milk. The 
following forms a good working formula : 
New milk, 2 pt. ; fresh butter, 3 drams ; 
milk sugar, 500 gr. ; water, 19 oz. Dis- 
solve the milk sugar in the water and add 
to the milk and butter previously emulsi- 
fied. 

4. — If cream be used the following for- 
mula, given by Prof. Clague, will be 
found to work well : New milk, 3 oz. ; 
cream, 194 oz. ; milk sugar, 1% oz. ; 
water, 18 oz. Mix. 

Buttermilk, Artificial. 

The cooling and grateful effects of but- 
termilk are so highly appreciated in the 
hospitals of Paris, that, in the absence of 
the fresh article, the physicians have de- 
vised the following formula for the prepa- 
ration of an artificial substitute for the 
genuine article: Buttermilk powder (see 
below), 10 parts; vinegar, 1 part; syrup 
of buckhorn, 1 part. Dissolve the powder 
in the water and add the vinegar and 
syrup. 

The powder is prepared as follows : So- 
dium chloride, 50 parts ; milk sugar, 100 
parts ; potassium nitrate, 5 parts ; alum, 
5 parts. Mix. 

Condensed Milk. 

The process of "condensing" milk con- 
sists in evaporating the greater portion of 

8] 



Agriculture 



(Condensed Milk) 



the water present, and, if to be kept defi- 
nitely, sugar is added as a preservative. 
The quantity of sugar used varies in the 
different brands. Hager gives the results 
of the analyses of five different samples 
of good Belgian condensed milk, none of 
which vary much from the following : 
Milk sugar, 15.58 per cent. ; cane sugar, 
33 per cent. ; fat, 8.25 per cent. ; albumin, 
17.96 per cent. ; salts, 1.95 per cent. ; 
water, 23.20 per cent. The following de- 
scription of the operation of condensing 
milk in the way indicated is taken from 
an early issue of the Circular: 

"The milk, as it is received, is run into 
square vats some four or five feet above 
the level of the bath and heating room. 
The bath tubs are circular, have a coil of 
steam pipe at the bottom and are nearly 
filled with water. In this bath are set 
cans, each holding about forty quarts. 
The milk is run into these cans from the 
receiving tanks and is heated to from 150 
to 175° F. It is then drawn thence into 
the heating wells, which have jacketed 
steam bottoms, and is there heated to 
boiling. It is next run into the vacuum 
pan, into which a stream is kept flowing 
about as fast as the evaporation goes on. 
If the milk is to be preserved plain, with- 
out the addition of sugar, it is evaporated 
to about one-fourth its volume, and as 
soon as the vacuum is broken the tem- 
perature is raised to about 200° F. The 
vacuum pan is kept at about 140° F. If 
the sugar is to be added, the hot milk 
from the vacuum pan is run into pans 
containing the requisite quantity of sugar 
which is dissolved." 

Cream. 

The following information relative to 
cream is taken from Farmers' Bulletin 
42, United States Department of Agri- 
culture : 

When it is desired to raise cream the 
nailk should be put in a cold place, where 
it will not be disturbed, as soon as pos- 
sible after it is received. A good quality 
of cream for table use can usually be 
obtained in this way. It will aid the 
cream in rising if the temperature of the 
milk is raised to about 100° F. and then 
lowered by placing the dish in cold water. 
This cannot be done unless the milk is in 
good condition, as the high temperature 
may cause it to sour before it will cool 
sufficiently to prevent souring. Milk jars 
or bottles are now extensively used, and 
if they are filled when the milk is fresh, 
and carefully handled, the cream will 
show plainly within a few hours, and 
much less time is required for it to reach 

[ 



(Cream) 



the top after it has been delivered than 
when it has been mixed just previous to 
delivery. Thus by the use of the jars 
considerable time is saved and fresher 
cream can be obtained. The jars may be 
purchased from any dairy supply com- 
pany at a small cost, and provide a neat, 
clean way of handling milk. 

Separator cream can be made much 
richer than "gravity" cream, and for this 
reason is preferred for whipping and some 
other purposes. It may be kept longer, 
as it can be taken from perfectly fresh 
milk, while that raised by gravity is usu- 
ally 12 to 24 hours old when skimmed. 
Cream gradually becomes thicker the 
longer it is kept, and it is often held for 
this purpose. Sometimes it is 1 or 2 
weeks old when used ; very little is used 
in as fresh condition as milk. For this 
reason special care is needed to keep it 
sweet. Satisfactory results are not ob- 
tained by placing it in a refrigerator at a 
temperature of 50° F._ It ought to be 
kept as near the freezing point as pos- 
sible ; it should be placed directly in con- 
tact with the ice or, better yet, be entirely 
surrounded with ice. Good efforts will 
be wasted if the ice comes up only half 
way and the top part is exposed to a 
warm temperature — it must be cold 
throughout. Skimmed milk and butter- 
milk should have the same care as whole 
milk. 

Dried Milk. 

Dried milk is one of the most recent 
results of food industry. It is a yellow- 
ish powder, presenting the appearance of 
coarse rye flour. According to the manu- 
facturers, it gives a. product resembling 
fresh milk when mixed with water in 
proper proportions. Chemical analysis 
shows that the water is reduced from 
about 88 to about 3 per cent, in this pow- 
der. Its composition is as follows : 

Total solid matter, 95 per cent. ; albu- 
men, 25 per cent. ; fat, 24 to 25 per cent. ; 
ash, 5.7 per cent. ; milk sugar, 40 per 
cent. 

It represents ten times its weight of 
fresh milk and may be used advantage- 
ously in coffee, cocoa, etc. 

Milk Powder Manufacture is treated of 
in our Scientific Supplement No. 1553. 
For particulars about the Scientific Amer- 
ican Supplement kindly refer to the Ad- 
vertising Pages. 

Pasteurization of Milk. 

The following information relative to 
the pasteurization of milk is taken from 
39] 



Agriculture 



(Pasteurization of Milk) 



Farmers' Bulletin 43, issued by the 
United States Department of Agricul- 
ture: 

The practice of pasteurizing milk is 
being followed by some dealers who find 
that it greatly reduces the number of 
complaints they receive on account of 
sour milk. The treatment consists of 
heating the milk to a temperature, usually 
between 140 and 160° F., at which large 
numbers of bacteria in the milk are killed, 
and then cooling it to check the growth 
of others. If sufficient heat were used to 
kill all the germs the product would be 
called sterilized milk, and it might be 
kept in good condition indefinitely. Un- 
fortunately the higher heat renders milk 
objectionable to most consumers, by chan- 
ging its taste and appearance, and per- 
haps slightly reducing its nutritive value. 

Special kinds of apparatus are used 
for pasteurizing milk on a large scale, 
and those generally preferred by the deal- 
ers are called continuous pasteurizers be- 
cause they do their work continuously. 
They are arranged so that the milk to be 
pasteurized flows through the apparatus 
in an uninterrupted stream, being heated 
by passing in a thin layer over a metal 
surface on the opposite side of which is 
steam or other heating agent, and being 
cooled in a similar manner in the same 
apparatus or another close at hand. Care 
is taken not to allow the temperature to 
go so high that a disagreeable cooked 
flavor is produced. 

The pasteurization of milk is desirable 
when the milk contains large numbers of 
harmful bacteria, and especially when it 
is thought to contain some pathogenic or 
disease-producing bacteria. 

The importance of doing the work thor- 
oughly cannot be overstated. The tem- 
perature must be high enough and must 
be retained long enough to kill disease- 
producing organisms such as those of 
typhoid fever. Care must be taken to 
avoid scorching milk, and it must be thor- 
oughly cooled and protected from con- 
tamination after being heated. 

Some persons go so far as to advocate 
the pasteurization of all market milk in 
plants controlled by the municipalities. 
But there are objections to the process as 
well as advantages, and it is doubtful if 
it should be adopted except where special 
need exists. An important objection is 
that some of the worst types of bacteria 
are not killed by pasteurizing tempera- 
tures, and these grow in the pasteurized 
milk whenever the temperature permits. 
Furthermore, they grow more rapidly in 
pasteurized than in raw milk, because the 

[ 



(Pasteurization of Milk) 



"sour-milk" organisms, which would be 
antagonistic to them and hold them in 
check, have been largely destroyed by the 
heat. Thus it is possible for objection- 
able and even dangerous changes to take 
place in pasteurized milk without being 
apparent, and a consumer may use highly 
contaminated milk without knowing it 
until bad effects are caused. He is 
warned against common souring which 
takes place in raw milk by the appear- 
ance, taste and smell of the milk. Some 
of the strongest champions of pasteuriza- 
tion recognize this objection and advise 
that it be done not more than twenty-four 
hours before the milk is consumed, so as 
to avoid the possibility of extensive bac- 
terial changes without accompanying 
warning signs as described. 

The pasteurization of milk in the home 
is an easy operation, and mothers should 
know how to do it, as the necessity may 
arise at any time. Of course it is best to 
have clean, wholesome milk that does not 
need to be pasteurized, but sometimes this 
is impossible and the only milk available 
for the little ones is from unknown 
sources and is teeming with bacteria. 
Undoubtedly such milk has cost many 
young lives. It is estimated that one- 
third of all children die before they are 
3 years old, and one of the leading causes 
of infant mortality is unwholesome milk. 
Bad milk cannot be made perfect by pas- 
teurization, but the danger from its con- 
sumption can be lessened. The Depart- 
ment of Agriculture has issued circulars 
giving full directions for pasteurizing 
milk in small quantities. The process is 
simple and the necessary apparatus is 
inexpensive. 

Briefly the directions are as follows : 
One or more bottles nearly full of milk 
are plugged with dry absorbent or other 
clean cotton and placed in an upright po- 
sition in a vessel having a false bottom 
and containing enough water to rise 
above the milk in the bottles. The vessel 
is closed, placed on the stove and heated 
until the water is 155° F., or even to 
boiling if special precautions are deemed 
necessary. It is then removed and kept 
tightly covered for half an hour. A 
heavy cloth over the vessel will help to 
retain the heat. The milk bottles are 
then taken out, cooled as quickly as pos- 
sible by cold water or ice, and kept in a 
cold place. Milk thus prepared may be 
expected to keep twenty-four hours, and 
should preferably be used within that 
time. The cotton plugs should be kept 
as dry as possible and should not be re- 
moved until the milk is to be used. A 
40] 



Agriculture 



(Preservation of Milk) 



covered tin pail answers well for the 
larger vessel. An inverted pie pan with 
perforated bottom can serve as the false 
bottom. A hole may be punched in the 
cover of the pail, a cork inserted, and a 
chemical thermometer put through the 
cork so that the bulb dips in the water, 
thus enabling one to watch the tempera- 
ture closely without removing the cover, 
or an ordinary dairy thermometer may be 
used from time to time by removing the 
lid. 

Preservation of Milk. 

1. — A mixture of 2 drams boracic acid 
with 3 drams common salt, of which an 
addition of 2-3 dram to 1 gal. of milk is 
said to increase its keeping qualities for 
twenty-four hours. 

2. — When milk contained in wire- 
corked bottles is heated to the boiling 
point in a water bath, the oxygen of the 
included small portion of air under the 
cork seems to be carbonated, and the 
milk will, it is said, keep fresh for a year 
or two. 

3. — A small quantity of boracic acid 
added to milk will keep it from souring 
and delay the separation of cream. It 
can be kept several days by this means. 

4. — Fresh milk in bottles has been 
treated with oxygen and carbonic acid 
under pressure of some atmospheres. By 
this method it is said to be possible to 
preserve milk 50 to 60 days in a fresh 
state. The construction of the bottles is 
siphon-like. A bacteriological examina- 
tion of the preserved milk is still out. 

5. — Engineer Budde, of Copenhagen, 
has discovered a preserving agent for milk 
which consists in adding to the milk, 
which should be as fresh as possible, 
enough hydrogen peroxide to cause it to 
be completely decomposed by the enzymes 
of the milk. For this purpose 1.3 per 
cent, by volume, of a 3 per cent, hydro- 
gen peroxide solution is required. The 
milk is well shaken and kept for five 
hours at 50 to 52° C. in well-closed ves- 
sels. Upon cooling, it is said to keep 
fi-esh for about a month and also retain 
its natural fresh taste. With this process, 
if pure milk is used, the ordinary disease 
germs, it is claimed, are killed off soon 
after milking and the milk sterilized. For 
still longer conservation Budde adds an- 
other harmless preserving agent which he 
keeps secret, as it has not yet been pat- 
ented. 

6. — Glacialine. — According to Dr. Be- 
sana, this substance, which has met with 
so much favor in England and elsewhere 

[ 



(Testing Milk) 



as an antiseptic, especially for the preser- 
vation of milk, has the following com- 
position : Boracic acid, 18 parts ; borax, 
9 parts ; sugar, 9 parts ; glycerine, 6 
parts. 

7. — Morfifs Process. — In 1 gal. milk at 
130 to 140° F. (55 to 60° C.) is dissolved 
1 lb. gelatine ; the mixture is left to cool 
to a jelly, when it is cut into slices and 
dried. The compound is used to gelati- 
nize more milk, and this is repeated till 
the gelatine is in the proportion of 1 lb. 
to 10 gal. of milk. 

Testing Milk. 

The following directions for detecting 
impure milk, including the use of the 
creamometer, lactometer and the Babcock 
test, is taken from Farmers' Bulletin 42, 
issued by the United States Department 
of Agriculture : 

By pure milk is meant the properly 
handled product of healthy, well-fed cows. 
To be legally regarded as pure, in most 
places, milk must contain at least a cer- 
tain amount of fat and other solids. It is 
a diflBcult thing to determine by the ap- 
pearance of milk whether it is pure or 
not, and even experienced dairymen are 
frequently unable to do this. It has a 
slightly yellowish white color, a very 
slight odor, if any, and should have a dis- 
tinctly sweet and pure taste. When al- 
lowed to stand quietly for several hours, 
cream should rise naturally, and if the 
separation is thoroughly effected the 
cream should form one-eighth to one-fifth 
of the total volume or bulk. No sedi- 
ment should appear in the bottom of the 
jar or vessel. When good milk is poured 
from a tumbler it should cling to the 
glass a little and not run off clean like 
water. Skimmed or watered milk is thin- 
ner than whole milk and of a lighter 
shade, being of a bluish-white color. The 
yellow shade of milk is chiefly due to its 
fat, but as this constituent is more yel- 
low in the milk of some cows than others 
the yellowest milk is not necessarily the 
richest, and it is unsafe to judge by the 
color alone ; poor milk from some cows 
may be more highly colored than rich 
milk from others. Besides this, artificial 
colors are sometimes added by dishonest 
persons. 

When a quantity of milk is to be tested, 
the first and most important thing to be 
done is to obtain a fair sample — one that 
will represent the whole and show its 
average composition. If the sample is 
taken from near the top or bottom of a 
vessel of milk which has been standing 
41] 



Agriculture 



(Testing Milk) 



quietly for even a short time, it will be 
too rich or too poor in fat. The milk 
must be well and thoroughly mixed before 
the sample is taken. A good way of doing 
this is to pour it several times from one 
vessel to another. This should be con- 
tinued until no lumps or collections of 
cream appear on the surface. If small 
particles of butter are floating about, a 
fair sample cannot be taken. There are 
several methods of testing milk. A com- 
plete analysis by a chemist will give the 
exact amount of each component part. 
This requires considerable time and ex- 
pense, and is not necessary for practical 
purposes. 

Buhcock Test. — 1. — Several methods of 
rapidly determining the fat content of 
milk with the aid of chemical reagents 
have been devised. One of the most ac- 
curate is the Babcock milk test.* The 
little machine constructed to apply this 
test, and of which several patterns are 
made, is in use in almost all well-con- 
ducted milk-receiving stations. It re- 
quires about a tablespoonful of milk for 
a sample, and the exact percentage of fat 
in it can be determined by this test in 
ten to fifteen minutes. The result is ob- 
tained by the action of centrifugal force 
aided by some chemical agents. The 
original cost of the machine is from $4 
to $15, according to size and pattern, and 
less than 1 cent's worth of materials are 
used for each sample. Its manipulation 
is easily learned, and it can be success- 
fully operated by any careful person. A 
definite amount (18 gramsf) of the milk 
or cream to be tested is measured in a 
pipette and placed in a bottle which has 
a long, slender, graduated neck (Fig. 1). 
Sulphuric acid is then added, and the 
bottle shaken until the mixture becomes 
dark-colored, which requires but a few 
moments. The acid does not affect the 
fat, but it dissolves the other milk solids 
which keep the fat globules apart. 

The bottle is then placed in the ma- 
chine, by which it is rapidly revolved in a 
horizontal position with the neck toward 
the center. The fat is thus forced toward 
the neck by the other contents of the 
bottle, which are heavier and therefore 
thrown away from the center to the bot- 

*Invented by Dr. S. M. Babcock, of the 
Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, 
and fully described in 'bulletins of that and 
several other experiment stations. 

tl7.6 CO. of milk weighs practically 18 
grams. Cream is lighter than milk; hence 
a larger volume must be taken. For exact 
results, cream samples should be weighed. 

[ 



(Testing Milk) 



tom of the bottle. Sufficient warm water 
is added to bring the fat up into the 
neck, where its exact percentage can be 
read on the scale. In the illustration a 
pipette for measuring the milk, the acid 
measure and a test bottle are shown. 
From two to twenty-four bottles, contain- 
ing as many different samples, can be 
tested at a time, according to the size of 
the machine. Special bottles of a modi- 
fied form are furnished for testing 
skimmed milk and cream. Apparatus for 
this test is sold by dairy supply firms. A 



f=i 



/ 



\/ 



\ 



Fig. 1. — Glassware for the Babcock Milk 
Test. 

small machine, complete with the neces- 
sary glassware and acid, can be obtained 
for $5 or $6. Full directions are sent 
with the apparatus. These can be easily 
followed and quite accurate results ob- 
tained after a little practice. 

A number of other tests which can be 
quickly and easily made have been de- 
scribed by different investigators. Like 
the Babcock test, they are for the deter- 
mination of the fat only, but are less sat- 
isfactory. Some testing appliances have 
been placed on the market with the nec- 
essary chemical agents in bottles desig- 
nated by a letter or number, without in- 
42] 



A^rriculture 



(Testing Milk) 



formation as to the character of the 
liquids. These have to be used without 
sufficient knowledge of their nature, and 
they are apt to be unduly expensive. 
Ether is sent out in this way. This is not 
safe, as considerably damage might result 
from an inexperienced person handling 
such a highly inflammable or explosive 
substance. 

2. — Creaniometer. — A very simple test, 
and one which, although not altogether 
reliable, is better than none, is the judg- 
ment of milk by the amount of cream it 
will show. This is not an accurate test, 
because it may fail to show cream when 
it should or it may show more than it 
ought. However, it will not show cream 
if there is none in the milk. With two 
samples of milk having the same amount 
of fat different results may appear with 
this test, as the ,pi"opoi'tion of the fat 
globules which rise depends on certain 
conditions, including the size of the fat 
globules, the age of the milk, and the 
way it was handled before delivery. If 
fat globules have much difficulty in rising, 
only a small part of them will get to the 
top and they may carry up with them so 
much of the other constituents that there 
will be a large bulk of poor cream. When 
the test is carefully conducted and condi- 
tions are favorable to the rise of cream, 
fair results can usually be obtained. This 
test requires a long, graduated glass tube 
(Fig. 2), which is filled with milk to the 
zero mark and allowed to stand in a cool 
place for twenty to twenty-four hours. 
The cream may be aided in rising by 
warming the milk to 100° F. and then 
setting it, in the tube, in cold water, or 
the tube may be filled half full of milk 
and the remainder with warm water, 
which raises the temperature and reduces 
the viscosity ; in such case only half as 
much cream will appear as the milk is to 
be given credit for ; for example, if the 
contents of a glass are half water and 
show 10 per cent, cream upon the scale, 
this means, of course, 20 per cent, of the 
milk. If the milk is the same each day 
and is tested in the same way, there 
should be little difference in the cream 
shown. Tubes graduated specially for 
this test are sold by dairy supply firms. 
The cream test furnishes a good oppor- 
tunity to look for sediment ; if the milk 
is not clean, dirt can be seen in the bot- 
tom of the cylinder. Care should be 
taken to carry the tube quietly, so that 
neither the cream nor the sediment will 
be disturbed. 

3. — Lactometers. — Milk is a little 
heavier than water. Its specific gravity 

[ 



(Testing Milk) 



varies from 1.029 to 1.033, which means 
that the M^eight of pure milk varies from 
1.029 to 1.033 times the weight of water. 
Departures from the standard weight, 
such as those due to the quality of the 
natural milk or to skimming or watering, 
can be measured by an instrument called 
the lactometer. This is a weighted glass 
bulb with a slender stem bearing a gradu- 
ated scale, and it is so adjusted that when 




/ 



Fig. 2. — Creamometer. 
Fig. 3. — Lactometer. 

placed in pure milk it will sink until some 
point on the scale is even with the sur- 
face of the liquid. This point is called 
the reading. Different kinds of lactome- 
ters are graduated in different ways. A 
style frequently used and known as the 
board of health lactometer registers 100 
when the specific gravity is 1.029, and 
less than 100 when the specific gravity is 
less than 1.029. A specific gravity of 
1.033 would be indicated by 114 on this 
lactometer. 
43] 



Agriculture 



(Testing Milk) 



(Testing Milk) 



The Quevenne lactometer is graduated 
from 15 to 40 and indicates directly the 
specific gravity. Thus at 60° F. it would 
read 32 in milk having a specific gravity 
of 1.032 and it would read 30.5 in milk 
having a specific gravity of 1.0305. The 
best forms of lactometers have a ther- 
mometer in the stem above the lactometer 
scale so that the temperature of the milk 
can be taken at the moment the reading is 
recorded. If the temperature is above or 
below 60° F. the lactometer reading must 
be corrected, and with the Quevenne lac- 
tometer the correction is made by adding 
0.1 to the reading for each degree of tem- 
perature above 60° or subtracting 0.1 for 
each degree of temperature below 60°. 
Thus, if the Quevenne lactometer reading 
is 31 in milk having a temperature of 56°, 
the corrected reading would be 30.6 and 
the specific gravity at 60°, 1.0306. 

Accurate as these instruments are, they 
cannot do more than show specific grav- 
ity. If cream, which is lighter than milk, 
is removed, the specific gravity is in- 
creased ; and if water is added, the spe- 
cific gravity is decreased. Therefore if a 
sample of milk has a high specific gravity, 
skimming is suspected ; while if it has a 
low specific gravity, watering is sus- 
pected. But if some cream is removed 
and water is added in proper proportion, 
the specific gravity may remain un- 
changed ; and this is one of the common- 
est ways of all for adulterating milk. If 
such fraud is extensively practiced it can 
be detected by the creamometer test or, 
more surely, by the Babcock fat test. 

A fair opinion of the value of milk, 
so far as its composition is concerned, can 
be formed from the percentage of fat, as 
the total solids of normal milk increase 
and decrease as the amount of fat is 
greater or less. If milk has been tam- 
pered with by watering, the percentage 
of fat is reduced in the same proportion 
as the other constituents, but in a greater 
proportion if the milk is skimmed. As 
fat is the part that the dishonest person 
tries to abstract, the purchaser is on the 
safe side if he judges of the quality of the 
milk by the fat which it contains. Many 
tests for the fat of milk have been pro- 
posed. The lactoscope and other optical 
methods are sometimes used to determine 
the fat or "oil," but they are inaccurate, 
and especially so in the hands of one 
without large experience. Some of them 
depend on the color of the milk or on 
the fact that the more fat there is, the 
less light will pass through a thin layer. 
But as the color of milk is not an indi- 
cation of its richness, and the same 

[44 



amount of fat will retard more light 
when in small than when in large glob- 
ules, these methods may give incorrect re- 
sults and are therefore unreliable. 

4. — Formaldehyde, Test for. — Denig^s 
(Jour. Phar. Chim.) recommends the 
following method : To 10 c.cm. of milk 
add 1 c.cm. of fuchsine sulphurous acid, 
allow to stand five minutes ; then add 2 
c.cm. of pure hydii-ochloric acid and shake. 
If formaldehyde is not present, the mix- 
ture remains yellowish-white ; while if 
present, a blue-violet color is produced. 
This test will detect 0.02 gram of an- 
hydrous formaldehyde in one liter of milk. 

5. — Heated Milk, Test for. — Wilkinson 
and Peters publish the following method 
of determining whether milk has or has 
not been heated : To 10 parts of the milk 
add 2 parts of a 4 per cent, alcoholic so- 
lution of benzidin, 2 parts of a 3 per 
cent, solution of hydrogen dioxide and a 
drop or two of acetic acid. A blue color- 
ation is instantly produced in raw milk, 
but not in milk that has been heated 
above 137° F. In mixtures of raw and 
cooked milk, 15 per cent, of raw milk 
gives a distinct, and even 10 per cent, a 
faint blue coloration ; but the addition of 
5 per cent, of raw milk cannot be de- 
tected. If the hydrogen peroxide is omit- 
ted, the process may be used to detect the 
presence of that substance in the milk. 

6. — Litmus Test. — H. D. Richmond 
(Chem. News) reports that litmus paper 
is entirely useless for testing the acidity 
of milk, this material often giving a re- 
action with perfectly fresh milk. Litmus 
paper may be either red, containing only 
the acid ; or blue, containing besides the 
acid a varying amount of alkali, so that 
the paper may contain either all red par- 
ticles of litmus, all blue, or an inter- 
mediate mixture of the two. If these 
varieties of paper are applied to partially 
neutralized acids of various strength con- 
tradictory results may be obtained. Milk 
contains phosphoric acid in several states 
of neutralization. If milk is tested with 
a blue litmus, the paper having its acid 
entirely neutralized is more alkaline than 
the milk, and a portion of the alkali will 
pass into the liquid until equilibrium is 
restored ; in consequence the litmus be- 
comes less alkaline and turns slightly red. 
If red litmus paper, which is more acid 
than the milk, is employed, alkali will 
pass from the liquid to the paper and" 
turn it slightly blue. Litmus paper of 
some intermediate stage would not be 
affected. 

7. — Water, Test for. — A German chem- 
ist furnishes a very simple procedure for 

] 



Agriculture 



(Poultry) 



testing the amount of water in milk. All 
that is required is a small quantity of 
plaster of Paris, say 1 oz. This is mixed 
with the milk to a stiff paste and then 
allowed to stand. With milk of 1,030 
specific gravity and a temperature of 
60° F., it will harden in ten hours; if 25 
per cent, of water is present, in two 
hours ; if 50 per cent., in one hour and a 
half ; and with 75 per cent., in thirty 
minutes. Skimmed milk which has been 
standing for twenty-four hours, and is 
of 1,033 specific gravity, sets in four 
hours ; with 50 per cent, of water in one 
hour, and with 75 per cent, in 30 minutes. 
Heat should not be applied, as then the 
use of the thermometer would be required. 
This test is certainly very simple and not 
costly. 

POULTRY 
Chicken Feed. 

For Young Chickens. — Eggs which are 
not fertile are boiled for % hour and are 
then ground in a meat chopper without 
removing the shells. They are then mixed 
with six times their bulk of rolled oats. 
This mixture is used for 2 or 3 days, 
until the chicks have learned how to eat. 
It is fed in connection with chicken grit, 
short-cut clover or chaff. After the third 
day the chicks are fed a mixture of hard, 
fine broken grains. The following method 
(1) is recommended by the United States 
Department of Agriculture : Cracked 
wheat, 15 parts by weight ; pinhead oats 
(granulated oatmeal), 10 parts; fine 
screened cracked corn, 15 parts; fine 
cracked peas, 3 parts ; broken rice, 2 
parts ; chick grit, 5 parts ; fine charcoal 
(chick size), 2 parts. 

Several of the prepared dry commercial 
chicken feeds may be substituted for the 
broken grains if desired. They are not, 
however, to be considered more desirable 
than the home-mixed broken grains men- 
tioned above. Where there is only a 
small quantity of chickens, it is perhaps 
as well to buy the feed ready prepared. 
The chicks should always have clean 
water, sharp grit and fine charcoal. 

At 9 o'clock in the morning the rolled 
oats and egg mixture should be used, 
and they should not be allowed to feed 
more than five minutes. At 12.30 P. M. 
the hard grain mixture is fed and at 4.30 
P. M. or 5 o'clock they are fed all they 
wish to eat of the rolled oats and egg 
mixture. 

When they are about 3 weeks old the 
rolled oats and egg mixture is gradually 
displaced by a mixture having the follow- 
ing composition: Wheat bran (clean), 2 

[ 



(Chicken Feed) 



parts by weight ; cornmeal, 4 parts ; mid- 
dlings, or "red dog" flour, 2 parts ; lin- 
seed meal, 1 part ; screened beef scrap, 2 
parts. 

This mixture is moistened with water 
just enough so that it is not sticky, but 
will crumble when a handful is squeezed 
and then released. The birds are de- 
veloped far enough by this time so that 
the tin plates are discarded for light 
troughs with low sides. Young chicks like 
the moist mash better than that not 
moistened, and will eat more of it in a 
short time. There is no danger from the 
free use of the properly made mash twice 
a day, and since it is already ground the 
young birds can eat and digest more of it 
than when the feed is all coarse. This 
is a very important fact and should be 
taken advantage of at the time when the 
young chicks are most susceptible to rapid 
growth, but the development must be 
moderate during the first few weeks. 
The digestive organs must be kept in nor- 
mal condition by the partial use of hard 
feed, and the gizzard must not be de- 
prived of its legitimate work and allowed 
to become weak by disuse. 

By the time the chicks are 5 or 6 weeks 
old the small broken grains are discon- 
tinued and the two litter feeds are wholly 
of , screened cracked corn and whole 
wheat. Only good clean wheat that is 
not sour or musty should be used. 

When young chicks are fed as de- 
scribed, the results have always been sat- 
isfactory if the chicks have not been 
given too much of the scratch feed and if 
the dishes of ground material have been 
removed immediately after the meal was 
completed. The objections to this system 
of feeding are the extra labor involved in 
preparing the eggs, mixing the feed with 
water and removing the troughs at the 
proper time. 

Method 2 is similar to method 1, except 
that fine beef scrap is used instead of 
boiled eggs, and the mash is not mois- 
tened. 

Early in the morning the chicks are 
given the hard feed on the floor litter as 
described in Method 1. At 9 o'clock they 
are fed a mixture having the following 
composition : Rolled oats, 2 parts by 
weight ; wheat bran, 2 parts ; cornmeal, 2 
parts ; linseed meal, ^ part ; screened 
beef scrap, 1 part. 

This is given in the plates or troughs, 
and the dishes are removed after ten min- 
utes' use. 

At 12.30 the hard grains are fed again, 
and at 4.30 or 5 the dry-meal mixture is 
given to them for half an hour or left 
45] 



Agriculture 



(Feeding Hens) 



until their bedtime. The meal being dry, 
the chicks cannot eat it as readily as they 
can the egg and rolled oats or the mois- 
tened mash. For that reason it is left for 
them to feed upon longer than when 
moistened with the egg and water, but is 
never left before them more than ten min- 
utes at the 9 o'clock feeding time. The 
aim is to give them enough at each of 
the four meals so that their desire for 
food may be satisfied at the time, but to 
make sure that they have nothing left to 
lunch upon. It is desired to have their 
crops empty of feed before feeding them 
again. When treated in this way they 
will have sharp appetites when the feeder 
appears, and come racing out from the 
hfooder to meet him. If they have been 
overfed at the previous meal, and have 
lunched when they saw fit, they do not 
care for the feeder's coming. If overfed 
a few times the creatures become debili- 
tated and worthless. 

What has been said so far is with ref- 
erence to chicks that are hatched out in 
early spring, at a season of the year when 
it is impossible under the climatic condi- 
tions in Maine for them to get out of 
doors for work. 

Feeding Hens. 

The following method of feeding hens 
is that recommended in Farmers' Bulle- 
tin 357 of the Department of Agriculture, 
entitled "Methods of Poultry Manage- 
ment at the Maine Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station" : 

The method of feed now employed is in 
detail as follows : Early in the morning 
for each 100 hens 4 quarts of whole corn 
is scattered on the litter, which is 6 to 8 
inches deep on the floor. This is not 
mixed into the litter, for the straw is dry 
and light, and enough of the grain is hid- 
den so the birds commence scratching for 
it almost immediately. At 10 o'clock they 
are fed in the same way, 2 quarts of 
wheat and 2 quarts of oats. This is all 
of the regular feeding that is done. 

The use of corn and corn-meal as ma- 
jor parts of the feed of hens kept for egg 
production has been very generally con- 
demned by poultrymen and farmers, 
until it is now used only as a very minor 
part of the ration for the fear that its 
use will cause overfatness and interfere 
with egg making. When used more 
freely and made a prominent factor in 
the ration it has been thought best to 
have the kernels broken, so that in hunt- 
ing and scratching for the small pieces 
the birds might get the exercise needed to 
keep themselves in health and vigor. It 

[ 



(Feeding Hens) 



was reasoned that even a small quantity 
of whole corn could be readily seen and 
picked up from the straw litter with little 
exertion and that the vices of luxury and 
idleness would follow. In order to test 
this view an experiment was carried out 
at the station in the winter of 1906-7 
in which whole corn was substituted for 
cracked corn in the ration of 500 laying 
pullets. A control lot of 500 received 
cracked corn. All other conditions affect- 
ing the two lots were kept as nearly iden- 
tical as possible. The result of the ex- 
periment was that there was no appre- 
ciable difference in regard to either egg 
production, health or general well-being 
between the two flocks of birds. 

Besides the dry whole grain a dry 
mash is kept always before the birds. 
Along one side of the room is the feed 
trough with its slatted front, and in it is 
kept a supply of dry meals mixed to- 
gether. This dry-meal mixture or mash 
has the following composition : Wheat 
bran, 2 parts by weight ; corn-meal, 1 
part ; middlings, 1 part ; gluten meal or 
brewers' grains, 1 part ; linseed meal, 1 
part ; beef scrap, 1 part. 

These materials are spread on the floor 
in layers one above another and shoveled 
together until thoroughly mixed, then 
kept in stock for supplying the trough. 
The trough is never allowed to remain 
empty. The dry-meal mixture is con- 
stantly within reach of all of the birds, 
and they help themselves at will. 

Oyster shells, dry cracked bone, grit 
and charcoal are kept in slatted troughs 
and are accessible at all times. A mod- 
erate supply of mangolds and plenty of 
clean water is furnished. About 5 pounds 
of clover hay cut into i^-inch lengths is 
fed dry daily to each 100 birds in winter. 
When the wheat, oats and cracked corn 
are given, the birds are always ready and 
anxious for them, and they scratch in the 
litter for the very last kernel before 
going to the trough where an abundance 
of feed is in store. 

It is very evident that the hens like the 
broken and M^hole grains better than the 
mixture of the fine, dry materials ; yet 
they by no means dislike the latter, for 
they help themselves to it, a mouthful or 
two at a time, whenever they seem to 
need it, and never go to bed with empty 
crops, so far as noted. They apparently 
do not like it well enough to gorge them- 
selves with it, and sit down, loaf, get 
overfat and lay soft-shelied eggs, as is so 
commonly the case with Plymouth Rocks 
when they are given warm morning 
masheo in troughs. 

4n 



Agriculture 



(Feeding Hens) 



Some of the advantages of this method 
of feeding are that the mash is put in the 
troughs at any convenient time, only 
guarding against an exhaustion of the 
supply, and the entire avoidance of the 
mobbing that always occurs at trough 
feeding when that is made a meal of the 
day, whether it be at morning or eve- 
ning. Tlaere are no tailings to be gath- 
ered up or wasted, as is common when a 
full meal of mash is given at night. The 
labor is very much less, enabling a per- 
son to care for more birds than when the 
regular evening meal is given. 

For green feed during winter and 
spring mangolds are used. They are 
liked by the birds, and when properly 
harvested and cared for remain crisp and 
sound until late spring. They are fed 
whole, by sticking them onto projecting 
nails about a foot and a* half above the 
floor. Care must be exercised in feeding 
them, as they are a laxative when used 
too freely. On the average about a peck 
per day to 100 hens can be safely used. 
They would eat a much greater quantity 
if they could get it. 

The average amounts of the materials 
eaten by each hen during one year 
are about as follows : Grain and the meal 
mixture, 90 lb. ; oyster shell, 4 lb. ; dry 
cracked bone, 2.4 lb. ; grit, 2 lb, ; charcoal, 
2.4 lb. ; clover, 10 lb. 

Pigeons' Food. 

Asafetida, 1 dram ; potassium nitrate, 
4 drams ; magnesium sulphate, 1 oz. ; pre- 
pared chalk, 1 oz. ; licorice, 2 oz. ; fine 
sand, 2 oz. ; corn-meal, 12 oz. 

Poultry Food. 

Fecundity of the hen is dependent 
upon other things than the medicine 
which she takes. Birds in a wild state 
are independent of the apothecary ; it 
is only when they have been deprived 
of their natural food and surroundings 
that chemicals have to be resorted to, 
and then with but doubtful effect. 

Poultry to be profitable should be 
healthy, and to be healthy they should be 
kept clean, free from parasites, have 
plenty of room in which to rove by day, 
an airy roost by night, a variety of food, 
including green stuff and meat and gravel 
to aid in its digestion, and an abundance 
of fresh water. 

Secluded retreats in which to make 
their nest should also be provided for 
the fowls. 

But many fowls are deprived of some 
or all of these good things. 

[47 



(Poultry Food) 



There is a great similarity between 
the various poultry powders and foods. 
The powders are popularly supposed to 
increase the egg-laying power of hens. 
We quote a few typical formulas : 

1. — Powdered eggshell or phosphate of 
lime, 4 oz. ; iron sulphate, 4 oz. ; pow- 
dered capsicum, 4 oz. ; powdered fenu- 
greek, 2 oz. ; powdered black pepper, 1 
oz. ; silver sand, 2 oz. ; powdered lentils, 
6 oz. 

A tablespoonful to be mixed with suf- 
ficient food for twenty hens. 

2. — Oyster shells, ground, 5 oz. ; mag- 
nesia, 1 oz. ; calcium carbonate, 3 oz. ; 
bone, ground, 1% oz. ; mustard bran, 1^^ 
oz. ; capsicum, 1 oz. ; sodium chloride, 1 
oz. ; iron sulphate, % oz. ; sodium car- 
bonate, 1/4 oz. ; sulphur, ^^ oz. ; beef, 
lean, dried and powdered, 10 oz. ; fine 
sand, 10 oz. ; corn-meal, 20 oz. ; linseed- 
meal, 20 oz. 

Reduce all to moderately coarse pow- 
der and mix well. 

The above are formulas that are recom- 
mended by poultrymen, and pharmacists 
should not condemn them, even if they do 
seem polypharmic. Poultrymen have ideas 
of their own about the value of compli- 
cated formulae. 

3. — Mustard, 4 oz. ; fenugreek, 3 oz. ; 
oyster shells, ground, 2i/4 oz. ; bone, 1^^ 
oz. ; sodium sulphate, 1 oz. ; capsicum, 
2 oz. ; black antimony, 2 oz. ; Venetian 
red, 2 oz. ; corn-flour, 4 oz. ; asafetida, 
90 gr. Reduce all to powder and mix 
well. 

A tablespoonful is to be mixed with 
sufficient meal or porridge to feed twenty 
hens. 

4. — Iron sulphate, 1 oz. ; red pepper 
pods, 1 oz. ; black pepper, 2 oz. ; calcium 
phosphate, 8 oz. ; bread crust or crackers, 
8 oz. ; fenugreek, 4 oz. Powder the in- 
gredients, and add four parts of clean 
white sand. If preferred, well boiled 
white beans may be used instead of the 
bread crust. The beans should be pressed 
through a colander to remove the hull, 
and then worked up with the powders. 
Label as follows : "For every dozen 
hens, add one level tablespoonful of the 
powder to the ordinary food, mixing it 
thoroughly, so that it may be as evenly 
distributed as possible. 

5. — Bone, ground, or slacked lime, 12 
oz. ; gentian, powdered, 1 oz. ; capsicum, 
powdered, 1 oz. ; ginger, powdered, 2 oz. ; 
sulphur, 1 oz. Put a teaspoonful in a 
quart of food. 

6. — Ground bone or phosphate of lime, 
12 oz. ; capsicum, 1 oz. ; ginger, 2 oz. ; 

] 



ilture 



(Poultry Remedies) 



(Weight of Eggs) 



cantharides, 1 dram ; potassium nitrate, 
1 oz. Put a teaspoonful in a quart of 
food. 

7. — -jOyster shells in coarse powder, 
2,400 parts ; calcium carbonate, 380 
parts ; calcium phosphate, 380 parts ; 
powdered black pepper, 500 parts ; pow- 
dei-ed red pepper, 40 parts ; iron oxide, 
60 parts ; chlorides, phosphates and sul- 
phates, soluble in water, 80 parts. 

8. — Powdered red pepper, 2 oz. ; pow- 
dered allspice, 4 oz. ; powdered ginger, 
6 oz. Mix by sifting. One tablespoon- 
ful to be mixed with every pound of food 
and fed two or three times a week. 

9. — Mix the following substances thor- 
oughly after they are reduced to a coarse 
powder : 1 part of sodium chloride, % 
part of iron sulphate, the same quantity 
of sodium carbonate and the same quan- 
tity of sulphur. Add 10 parts of lean 
beef, dried and pulverized, 10 parts of 
fine sand, 20 parts of Indian corn, and as 
much linseed cake. 

Remedies for Croup, Gape, Lice, Etc. 

1. — ■ Croup. — Potassium chlorate, 2 
av.oz. ; cubebs, 2 av.oz. ; anise, 1 av.oz. ; 
licorice root, 3 av.oz. Reduce all to 
powder and mix well. Mix a teaspoon- 
ful of this with food for sixty hens. 

2. — Gape Cure. — Take a wooden 
box, a little bigger than a biscuit-tin, and 
divide it in two by means of a piece of 
wire netting. Place half of an ordinary 
brick, made very hot by means of fire, 
on one side of wire netting and the chicks 
on the other. Cover the whole box with 
a cloth, and then insert under the cloth 
a tablespoon with teaspoonful of car- 
bolic acid. Pour the liquid on to the 
hot brick and withdraw spoon. The 
fumes will cure the chicks in two min- 
utes. 

Take out the chicks just before they 
are apparently suffocated. 

Be careful to keep the hands and face 
away from the liquid when it is poured 
on to the brick, as it will blister the 
skin. 

If chicks are not cured keep them in 
the fumes longer. 

b. — Powdered camphor, 4 drams ; per- 
oxide of iron, 8 drams ; powdered fenu- 
greek, 8 drams ; powdered licorice, 3% 
oz. Mix. Two teaspoonfuls to be mixed 
with the food of a dozen fowls. 

3. — Lice Exterminator. — a. — Make the 
roosts perfectly clean with hot soap and 
water, and afterward apply spirits of 
turpentine or kerosene oil. Also strew 
some sprigs and branches over the floor 

[48 



of the coop. The building should be kept 
clean. 

b. — Gas tar, 12 oz. ; sodium hydroxide, 
2 oz. ; sulphur, 4 oz. ; rosin, 2 oz. ; water, 
1 gal. Boil the tar with the soda and 
some of the water ; add the rosin ; after 
dissolving, add the sulphur and the bal- 
ance of the water. 

4. — Roup. — a. — Licorice, 2 oz. ; anise, 
1 oz. ; cubebs, 1 oz. ; capsicum, 10 gr. ; 
potass, chlorate, 1 oz. The ingredients, 
all in fine powder, should be intimately 
mixed. 

b. — Calomel, 1 dram ; antimonial pow- 
der, 1 dram ; powdered licorice, 1 dram ; 
copaiba, enough. Make sixty pills, and 
give one night and morning. 

5. — Tonic Pills for Pigeons and Poul- 
try. — The following two formulas are 
from the Pharmaceutical Journal: a. — 
Red cinchona bark, 1 gr. ; extract of 
calumba, 60 gr. ; extract of chamomile, 
60 gr. ; extract of gentian, 60 gr. Mix. 
Dose, 4 to 12 grains. 

b. — Ferrous sulphate, 60 gr. ; extract 
of jaborandi, 1 gr. Mix. Dose 2 to 6 
grains. 

c. — Gentian, 1 dram ; capsicum, 1 
dram; fenugreek, 1 dram; black anti- 
mony, 2 drams ; licorice, 6 oz. Reduce 
all the ingredients to powder and mix 
thoroughly. Put a tablespoonful in the 
food for two or three dozen times, every 
day or two. 

Weight of Hen Eggs. 

A German agricultural journal gives 
the following table showing the variation 
in weight between eggs of the same 
family of chickens, and of the compara- 
tive value of the product of different 
kinds of fowls : 







Weight of 








Whole 










Eggs. 


Shell. 








Grains. 


Grains. 


Net. 


Common hen, 


small 


635.60 


84.86 


550.54 


Common hen, 


mean 


738.35 


92.58 


645.77 


Common hen, 


large 


802.36 


93.25 


709.11 


Italian hen... 




840.00 


92.50 


747.50 


Houdan 




956.60 


93.50 


853.10 


La Plesche... 




926.50 


94.25 


835.25 


Brahma 




1,025.50 


114.86 


910.64 



From this it will be seen that the 
Houdans and Brahmas are the most 
profitable producers, as far as food value 
is concerned — provided, of course, they 
are equally prolific with the ordinary 
fowl. 

Another calculation made by our au- 
thority is the number of eggs to the 
pound, of the various weights. This is 
as follows : Small ordinary eggs (635 
] 



Agriculture 



( Veterinary ) 



gr.), 12.20; large ordinary eggs (802 gr.), 
9.25 ; Houdan eggs, 8 ; Brahma, mean, 
7.4; Brahma, large, 7.1. 



VETERINARY FORMULAS 

Miscellaneous. 

Anesthetics. — The following are taken 
from the Revue pharm. des Flandres: 

1. — Billroth's Mixture. — Chloroform, 3 
parts ; sulphuric ether, 1 part ; alcohol, 1 
part. 

2. — English Mixture. — Sulphuric ether, 
3 parts ; chloroform, 2 parts ; alcohol, 1 
part. Mix. 

3. — Wachsmith's Mixture. — Chloro- 
form, 5 parts ; oil of turpentine, rectified, 
1 part. 

Condition Powder for Stock. — 1, — 
Cream of tartar, 5 lb. ; sulphur, 5 lb. ; 
white rosin, 5 lb. ; gum guaiacum, 3 lb. ; 
potassium nitrate, 2 lb. ; gentian, 5 lb. ; 
sulphuret of antimony, 6 oz. Reduce the 
ingredients to fine powder and mix inti- 
mately. 

2. — Sulphur, 2 lb. ; fenugreek, 4 lb. ; 
cream tartar, 1 lb. ; licorice, 1 lb. ; black 
antimony, i/^ lb. ; gentian, ^ lb. ; aniseed, 
14 lb. ; common salt, 1 lb. Dose, 1 oz. 
daily for 2 or 3 weeks. 

3. — Powdered fenugreek, 3 oz. ; pow- 
dered black antimony, 2 oz. ; sulphur, 4 
oz. ; powdered rosin, 2 oz. ; powdered ni- 
trate of potassium, 3 oz. ; Epsom salt, 
6 oz. 

4. — Saltpeter, 1 oz. ; ginger, 2 oz. ; 
fenugreek, 3 oz. ; black antimony, 1 oz. ; 
licorice, 1 oz. ; linseed meal, 8 oz. 

Embrocations. — 1. — White of 3 eggs ; 
pyroligneous acid, 5 oz. ; water, 5 oz. ; 
oil of turpentine, % oz. ; alcohol, 6 oz. 

2. — Spirit of camphor, 1 pt. ; tincture 
of capsicum and myrrh, 12 oz. ; oil of 
turpentine, 12 oz. ; linseed oil, 4 oz. ; oil 
of stone (crude petroleum), 1% pt. ; oil 
of amber, 2 oz. ; oil of origanum, 3 oz. ; 
Barbadoes tar, 1^/^ oz. 

3. — Barbed Wire Liniment. — a. — Crude 
carbolic acid, 4 oz. ; pine tar, 4 oz. ; oil 
of spike, 4 oz. ; cheap lubricating oil, to 
make 4 pt. The lubricating oil here 
mentioned may be any that happens to be 
on hand, but the best is the heavy, stiff, 
cheap "black oil" which may be pur- 
chased at about 10 cents a gallon. This 
oil is a good healing agent of itself, and 
is also a good disinfectant and insecticide. 
It is largely used for this latter purpose, 
and with very satisfactory results. 

b. — Carbolic acid, % oz. ; spirits tur- 
pentine, 1% oz. ; pine tar, 2% oz. ; fish 
oil, q. s. 16 oz. M. : — Apply to cuts after 

[ 



(Veterinary) 



first washing with warm water and cas- 
tile soap. 

c. — Carbolic acid, 4 fl.dr. ; pine tar, 2 
oz. ; oil turpentine, 1 fl.oz. ; fish oil, to 
make 1 pt. 

d. — Raw linseed oil, 10 oz. ; pot. ni- 
trate, 1 oz. ; lead acetate, 1 oz, ; sulphuric 
acid, 1 oz. ; carbolic acid, % oz. Mix 
carefully. 

4. — Magoffin's Queen Balm. — Camphor, 

2 oz. ; myrrh, 2 oz. ; guaiac, 1 oz. ; capsi- 
cum, 2 oz. ; oil of sassafras, 1 oz. ; oil of 
hemlock, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 1 gal. Macerate, 
with occasional agitation, for seven days ; 
then filter. 

For bruises, sprains, frostbites, burns, 
rheumatism, ulcers, etc., use by applying 
freely to all parts affected, "warming it 
in" well with warm flannel. 

Magoffin's Horse and Cattle Powder. — 
Powdered copperas, 5 lb. ; powdered rosin, 
5 lb. ; powdered sulphur, 5 lb. ; powdered 
isaltpeter, 3 lb. ; ground oil cake, 10 lb. ; 
powdered asafetida, 3 lb. ; powdered alum, 

3 lb. Mix carefully by means of sieve. 
Directions : Give a horse a heaping spoon- 
ful every morning, in wet oats or proven- 
der, for six or eight mornings ; afterward 
the same every other day for a few days. 
The same dose for a hog or cow and 
double the quantity for an ox. 



Cattle. 

l.—Galf Meal— Pea. meal, 31/2 lb. ; len- 
til meal, 3% lb. ; fenugreek, % lb. ; bar- 
ley meal, 14 lb. ; crushed linseed, 7 lb. 
Mix. — Chem. and Drug. 

2. — Nutritive Powder for Cattle. — a. — 
Fenum grecum, 4 ; linseed, 4 ; juniper 
berries, 4 ; rosin, 4 ; mustard, 4 ; Glau- 
ber's salt, 3 ; common salt, 3 ; flowers of 
sulphur, 3 ; green vitriol, 3 ; black anti- 
mony, 1 ; Chili saltpeter, 1 ; coriander, 1. 

b. — Sulphide of antimony, 4 ; flowers 
of sulphur, 4 ; bean or malt flour, 225. 
Dose, 1 tablespoonful in the feed. 

c. — Flowers of sulphur, 2 ; fenugreek 
seed, 4 ; tartar, 1 ; licorice, 1 ; Chili salt- 
peter, 1 ; sulphide of antimony, 0.5 ; gen- 
tian, 0.25 ; aniseed, 0.25 ; common salt, 
1. Dose, 1 oz. daily for two or three 
weeks. 

d. — Gentian, 4; licorice, 4; fenugreek, 
16 ; saltpeter, 4 ; common salt, 4. 

e. — Aromatic powder, 2; asafetida, 
0.25 ; tartar, 0.75 ; sulphide of antimony, 
0.5. 

f. — Sulphide of antimony, 10; flowers 
of sulphur, 9 ; elm bark, 4 ; rosin, 2 ; 
Chili saltpeter, 2; aniseed, 1. Dose, 
heaped tablespoonful once or twice a day. 

g. — Anhydrous green vitriol, 5 ; can- 
tharides, 1; ginger, 3; sulphide of anti- 
49] 



Agriculture 



( Veterinary — Dogs ) 



mony, 6 ; Chili saltpeter, 5 ; flowers of 
sulphur, 10 ; linseed, 10 ; gentian, 7 ; tar- 
tar, 3 ; rosin, 5 ; aniseed, 5. Dose, one 
tablespoonful once or twice a day in 
the feed, or mixed with molasses, honey, 
or glycerine in one mass, which is given 
in a capsule of gum. 

h. — Tartar, 5 ; flowers of sulphur, 5 ; 
rosin, 5 ; guaiacum, 3 ; Chili saltpeter, 
2 ; gentian, 5 ; golden sulphur, 6. 

i. — ^Gentian, 100 ; fenugreek, 50 ; fen- 
nel, 50; cattle salt, 300; bicarbonate of 
soda, 100; Glauber's salt, 400; saltpeter, 
50 ; juniper berries, 400. 

3. — Milk Poivder for Cows. — a. — For 
increasing the flow of milk in cows, 
Hager's Manual recommends the follow- 
ing mixture : Potassium nitrate, 1 part ; 
alum, 1 part ; sublimed sulphur, 1 part ; 
prepared chalk, 1 part ; white bole, 2 
parts ; red clover, 5 parts ; anise, 10 
parts ; fennel, 10 parts ; salt, 10 parts. 
All should be in tolerably fine powder 
and should be well mixed. The directions 
are to give one or two handfuls with the 
morning feed. 

b. — Dieterich's Manual recommends 
this : Caraway, 12 parts ; calamus, 12 
parts ; salt, 5 parts ; sulphur, 3 parts. 
Give twice daily two heaping tablespoon- 
fuls of this powder in a liter of warm 
beer. 

4. — Spiced Cattle Food. — Locust bean 
meal, 6 cwt. ; Indian meal, 10 cwt. ; lin- 
seed cake meal, 3 cwt. ; sulphur, 1 qr. 
12 lb. ; saltpeter, 1 qr. 12 lb. ; common 
salt, 1 qr. 2 lb. ; fenugreek, 20 lb. ; gen- 
tian, 10 lb. ; sulphate of iron, 5 lb. ; ani- 
seed, 4 lb. ; ground ginger, 3 lb. ; total, 
20 cwt. 1 qr. 12 lb. 

Dogs. 

Appetite Pills for Dogs. — Calamus, 
6 grams ; dried sodium sulphate, 6 grams ; 
sodium bicarbonate, 2 grams ; powdered 
rhubarb, 2 grams. Mix and form into 
six pills, with syrup. Give one pill twice 
daily. 

Asthma. — 1. — Asthma claims its vic- 
tims among dogs, especially old or pet 
dogs overfed with sweets and meat. The 
most striking symptom is difficulty in 
breathing. The respiratory movement is 
done by two apparent efforts, but the in- 
spiration is performed with ease. Respi- 
ration is more difficult after feeding, 
being accomplished by a peculiar cough 
resembling a grunt. The animal does not 
thrive, and becomes pot-bellied. A good 
sharp purgative should be given, and the 
bowels kept open for some time. All 
luxuries must be withdrawn, only good 



( Veterinary — Dogs ) 



food, such as porridge, being given. If 
the patient cannot relish such simple 
food let it do without. A teaspoonful of 
the following mixture should be given 
twice daily or when breathing becomes 
painful and heavy : Liq. arsenicalis, 1 
dram ; spt. ether nit., 2 drams ; spt. am- 
mon. arom., 2 drams ; syr. scillse ad., 1 
oz. 

2. — For Chronic Asthmatic Cough : Ex- 
tract of hemlock, 30 gr. ; extract of hen- 
bane, 10 gr. ; powdered digitalis, 20 gr. 
Form a mass v^ith conserve of rose or 
otner suitable excipient, and make into 
ten pills. Give one night and morning. 

Catarrh. — Catarrh _ (coryza or cold) 
affecting the head is a common and 
troublesome complaint to which the dog 
is subject. There is no doubt that it is 
a form of influenza, and it often accom- 
panies distemper. The complaint is not 
usually dangerous, nor does it prove fatal 
in the majority of cases, but may de- 
velop seriously if neglected. The affected 
animal is more or less feverish, with or 
without a discharge from the eyes and 
nostrils. There is also a certain amount 
of sneezing, and occasionally a sore throat 
is contracted. In treating such cases, 
give a mild dose of castor oil or glycerine. 
Keep the dog in a warm and even tem- 
perature and hold its head over a basin 
of hot water containing a teaspoonful of 
eucalyptus oil to each pint of water. 
The following mixture should be given 
in doses of one teaspoonful night and 
morning : Tr. opii, 1 dram ; tr. lavand. 
CO., 1 dram ; tr. camph. co., 4 drams ; liq. 
ammon. acet., 2 drams ; syr. scillse ad., 2 
oz. If the throat seems to be much in- 
flamed or painful a poultice of hot sand 
or salt tied around the neck close up to 
the head will gradually give relief. 

Colic. — Colic is an ailment to which 
dogs are subject, although the fact is not 
generally known, as the animal has all 
the appearance of being mad — the ignorant 
immediately pronouncing it as such. 
Treatment should begin with a good dose 
of a purgative, followed by whisky, laud- 
anum, chlorodyne or other anodyne at 
hand. Rub the stomach well and apply 
hot cloths at intervals, or preferably give 
a good warm bath, rubbing well while 
in the bath and dry thoroughly afterward. 
Keep the dog warm and dry until pur- 
gation ensues. In after-feeding give 
small pieces of fish, beef tea, soups, etc., 
to assist the stomach to recover normal 
action. 

Constipation. — Magnesium sulphate, 1 
oz. ; syrup of buckthorn, 4 drams ; com- 
pound tincture of chloroform, 30 minims ; 
50] 



Agriculture 



( Veterinary — Dogs ) 



water, enough to make 6 oz. Dose, from 
2 drams to 2 oz. in the morning. Let 
the animal have all the dog grass (triti- 
<3um) he will eat. In a field he will find 
it for himself, or if it is gathered and 
taken to him fresh, he will eat it. 

Cough Mixture. — Tincture of bella- 
donna, 4 drams ; syrup of squill, 4 drams ; 
paregoric, 1 oz5. ; water, enough to make 
6 oz. Dose, a teaspoonful three times a 
day. 

Diarrhea. — Rub the abdomen with a 
mixture of equal parts of the spirits of 
camphor and juniper, and give ea^h 
morning and evening a pill containing : 
Opium, 3 gr. ; althea, 3 gr. ; licorice root, 
15 gr. Keep the animal warm and feed 
him on simple, easily digested foods. 

Distemper. — 1. — Distemper is one of 
the most common diseases among young- 
dogs, and has been likened to measles. 
For its cure, a pill, two or three times 
a week, composed of the following, has 
been recommended : Antimonial powder, 
21/^ gr. ; mercury with chalk, 2 gr. ; 
Dover's powder, 3 gr. ; quinine sulphate, 
1% gr- ; extract of nux vomica, % gr. It 
is well to see that the animal's bowels 
are kept open. 

2, — Fluid extract of buckthorn, 1 oz. ; 
tincture of ginger, % oz. ; syrup of pop- 
pies, 2 oz. ; syrup, 1 oz. ; cod-liver oil, 
enough to make 8 oz. Give a dessert- 
spoonful three times a day. 

Dog Biscuit. — The Pharmaeeutische 
Zeitung of Berlin gives the following de- 
scription of the manufacture of dog bis- 
cuit : 

The waste portions of meat and tallow, 
including the skin and fiber, have for 
years been imported from tallow factories 
in the Argentine Republic, in the form 
of great blocks, and most of the dog 
bread made by modern manufacturers 
consists principally of these remnants, 
chopped and mixed with flour. They con- 
tain a good deal of firm fibrous tissue 
and a large percentage of fat, but are 
lacking in nutritive salts, which must be 
added to make good dog bread, just as 
in the case of the meat-flour made from 
the waste of meat-extract factories. The 
flesh of dead animals is not used by any 
reputable manufacturers, for the reason 
that it gives a dark color to the dough, 
has an unpleasant odor, and, if not prop- 
erly sterilized, would be injurious to dogs 
as a steady diet. 

Wheat flour, containing as little bran 
as possible, is generally used, oats, rye 
or Indian corn being only mixed in to 
make special varieties, or, as in the case 
of Indian meal, for cheapness. Rye flour 

[ 



(Veterinary — Dogs) 



would give a good flavor, but it dries 
slowly, and the biscuits would have to go 
through a special process of drying, after 
baking, else they would mold and spoil. 
To make it keep well dog bread must 
be made from good wheat flour, of a me- 
dium sort, mixed with 15 or 16 per cent, 
of sweet, dry chopped meat, well baked 
and dried like pilot bread or crackers. 
This is the rule for all the standard 
dog bread on the market. There are ad- 
mixtures which affect more or less its 
nutritive value, such as salt, vegetables, 
chopped bones or bone-meal, phosphate 
of lime and other nutritive salts. In 
preparing the dough and in baking, care 
must be taken to keep it light and porous. 

Ear Canker. — 1. — Do not use a strong 
styptic, as is frequently done, but an 
emollient — say, at first, a little warm oil 
of sweet almond. This the dog will not 
resent, and afterward he is willing to 
be treated further, while if the first ap- 
plication hurts him there will be trouble 
about giving a second. The following 
is a good lotion : Zinc oxide, 1 dram ; 
zinc sulphate, 10 gr. ; boric acid, 30 gr. ; 
glycerine, 4 drams ; water, enough to 
make 3 oz. 

2. — A dry dressing of iodoform, boric 
acid, zinc oxide, or starch will some- 
times effect a cure. 

3. — For old ulcerations use : Carbolic 
acid, 10 m. ; oil of sweet almond, 1 oz. 
Administer mild laxatives and do not al- 
low the ear to get wet. 

Emetic Poiuders. — Calomel, 45 gr. ; tar- 
tar emetic, 45 gr. ; vermilion, 1 gr. To 
produce emesis give from 1 to 3 gr., 
dropped on the tongue or with milk. A 
like quantity of tartar emetic alone ; or 
of turpeth mineral, have the same effect ; 
or a teaspoonful of common salt may 
be given. 

Fits, or Epilepsy. — Zinc oxide, 20 gr. ; 
sulphur, 75 gr. ; jalap, 75 gr. ; extract of 
green hellebore, 20 gr. ; extract of gen- 
tian, enough to form a mass. Make 60 
pills and give one three times a day. 

Gastritis. — Over-feeding or the pres- 
ence of a fish bone in the membrane of 
the stomach are two things, among oth- 
ers, which may cause gastritis in a dog. 
Frequent vomiting of water, inability to 
retain food; great thirst, and rapid loss 
of condition mark this trouble. Some- 
times the patient will stretch his abdo- 
men out over a cool stone, as if to allay 
internal burning. Give him bismuth sub- 
carbonate, 6 gr. ; diluted hydrochloric 
acid, 2 m. ; compound tragacanth powder, 
2 gr. ; water, enough to make 90 m. Give 
also plenty of ice-cold water and a few 
51] 



Agriculture 



( Veterinary — Dogs ) 



drops of brandy now and then. Keep the 
patient on milk diet, milk puddings, etc. 

Laxative Draft. — Magnesium sulphate, 
2% drams ; potassium nitrate, 30 gr. ; 
tincture of jalap, 25 m. ; water, enough 
to make 1 oz. 

Mange. — This is a parasitic disease, 
there being two kinds, one caused by 
the sarcoptes canis and the other, and 
more slow and persistent kind, by the 
demodex folliculorum. 

1. — For the first kind a wash made of 
equal parts of the oils of tar, olives and 
turpentine is good, or an ointment con- 
sisting of : Sulphur, 1 oz. ; potassium 
carbonate, 30 gr. ; petrolatum, 4 oz. 

2. — The other kind of mange, which 
causes the dog to rub his back under 
chair rounds, etc., is treated by closely 
clipping the hair over the affected por- 
tions — along the spine — and rubbing 
every day with : Creosote, 4 drams ; 
olive oil, 7 oz. ; solution of potassa, 1 oz. 

3. — Yellow mercurous iodide, 10 gr. ; 
salicylic acid, % oz. ; sublimed sulphur, 
3 oz. ; pine tar, 3 oz. ; coal tar, washed, 
3 oz. ; sturgeon oil, enough, to make 2 pt. 
Shake well and apply at night ; wash off 
in the morning, 

4. — Soft soap, 4 parts; B-naphthol, 1 
part ; storax, 2 parts ; tobacco extract, 3 
parts. To be applied to one-third of the 
skin at the most for three consecutive 
days. After three applications, wash the 
whole body with water in which ordinary 
carbolic acid soap has been dissolved. 

5. — The following from Dieterich's 
Manual may answer your purpose : Po- 
tassium sulphide, 50 parts ; tar, 50 parts ; 
glycerine, 50 parts ; soft soap, 350 parts. 
Heat gently and mix well. Two table- 
spoonfuls of this is mixed with a pint of 
warm water and the animal washed with 
the solution, which is allowed to dry on 
tbe skin. Two days after a washing 
with soap and water is given and the 
solutiou applied as before ; the treatment 
being continued in this way as long as 
necessary. 

Rheumatism. — Wine of colchicum, 3 
m. ; sodium salicylate, 5 gr. ; water, 
enough to make 1 dram. Two such doses 
to be given daily. The affected parts 
should also be rubbed with a good lini- 
ment every day, and the dog kept on a 
milk diet. 

Sicin, To Make Fine. — Give a teaspoon- 
ful of tar, says Mayer, made up with 
oatmeal. 

Tonic Pills. — 1. — Gentian, 15 gr. ; gin- 
ger, 5 gr. ; cascarilla, 15 gr. Make a pill, 
and give one such every day. 

2. — Pil. blaud, 5 gr. ; acid, arscaios, 

[ 



(Hog Cholera) 



1-16 gr. Ft. pill. Dose, one every morning 
after food for small dogs. For larger dogs, 
one night and morning. These pills can 
be given in all skin diseases of dogs, with 
marked benefit ; they are also very use- 
ful as a tonic for dogs whose age begins 
to tell on them. 

3. — Blue mass, 1 dram ; aloes, 2 drams ; 
myrrh, li^ drams ; benzoin, 1^ drams ; 
balsam of peru, l^^ drams. Make 15 
pills and give one night and morning. 

Vomiting, To Prevent. — Bismuth sub- 
nitrate, 8 oz. ; opium, 1^^ gr. ; gum 
arable, 8 gr. ; sugar, 15 gr. Make a 
powder and give at once. It is not al- 
ways best to try to prevent vomiting, 
as nature frequently comes to the relief. 

Worms. — 1. — Areca nuts given to a 
dog are a sovereign remedy for tape- 
worms. The nuts should be freshly 
ground and the dose is 2 grains to each 
pound of dog, given at night and fol- 
lowed next morning by a brisk purga- 
tive, as castor oil. 

2. — As there are different kinds of 
worms a mixture which contains a dose 
of each kind is not bad, the following 
formula being for something of this class : 
Santonin, 2 gr. ; powdered glass, 5 gr. ; 
powdered areca nuts, 10 gr. Oil of male 
fern sufficient to make a pill. 

3. — Powdered areca nuts, 5 gr. ; san- 
tonin, 1 gr. ; molasses, q. s. to mass. Fiat 
pil. Dose, one or two pills, according to 
the size of the dog. 

Wounds and Sore Feet, Astringent 
Lotion for. — Bruised oak bark, 2 oz. ; 
catechu, 1 oz. ; water, 3 pt. Boil to 1 
point, and strain. 

Hog Cholera. 

No form of treatment has yet been 
found, so far as we are able to learn, 
which is in every way satisfactory. The 
disease is a contagious one and prevent- 
ive measures and the enforcement of 
proper sanitary regulations count quite 
as much, if not more, than medicine. The 
veterinarian of the Indiana Experiment 
Station, in discussing the subject, makes 
the following observations : 

"The hogs should not have access to 
ponds or wallows, as this affords favor- 
able conditions for the germs. The drink- 
ing water should be from deep wells. 
The food should be clean and often 
changed. If a hog has been separated 
from the herd and recovers it should not 
be returned to the herd for several weeks, 
as it is capable of giving the disease to 
others, although it may appear to be per- 
fectly well. Hogs should not be kept 
in pens where the disease has been for 
52] 



Agriculture 



( Veterinary — Horses ) 



three months. All dead animals should 
be burned or buried deeply in places 
where hogs will not graze for a year. 
Diseased hogs should not be driven 
through lanes or other public highways. 
The healthy hogs should be cared for 
first and then the diseased, otherwise 
disease-bearing material may be conveyed 
to the healthy. Clean the pens, use plenty 
of air-slacked lime on the floors before 
using again." 

The following formula given by the 
Bureau of Animal Industry is as effica- 
cious as anything known as a preventive 
and remedy : 

1. — Wood charcoal, 1 lb. ; sulphur, 1 
lb. ; sodium chloride, 2 lb. ; sodium hypo- 
sulphite, 2 lb. ; sodium bicarbonate, 2 lb. ; 
sodium sulphate, 1 lb. ; antimony sulphide, 
1 lb. Give a tablespoonful once a day to 
a 150-pound hog. Give in sloppy feeds, 
as bran, middlings, crushed oats, etc. 

Several other formulas are as follows : 

2. — Iron carbonate, 5 parts ; sodium 
chloride, 5 parts ; potassium carbonate, 5 
parts ; sulphur, 5 parts ; calcium oxide, 5 
parts ; magnesium carbonate, 10 parts ; 
soap, 10 parts ; chalk, 60 parts ; carbolic 
acid, 5 parts. Dose : Give ^ of an 
ounce of the mixture at each feed, well 
mixed with food. 

The two following formulas are as- 
cribed to Dr. Haubner, Dean of the 
Dresden Veterinary College : 

3. — Calcium phosphate, precipitated, 16 
parts ; chalk, 12 parts ; magnesium car- 
bonate, 4 parts ; capsicum, 1 part. 

4. — Sodium bicarbonate, 2 parts ; gen- 
tian root, 2 parts ; ginger, 3 parts ; sodi- 
um nitrate, 1 part; chalk, 8 parts. As 
a prophylactic, give 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls 
twice a day ; as a cure, give 1 tablespoon- 
ful three or four times a day. 

5. — Potassium nitrate, 4 oz. ; black an- 
timony, 4 oz. ; gentian, in powder, 4 oz. ; 
rosin, 8 oz. ; turmeric, 8 oz. ; madder, 8 
oz. ; sublimed sulphur, 8 oz. 

Horses. 

Blind Staggers (White). — Epsom salt, 
8 oz. ; water, 24 oz. Dissolve. Give as a 
drench. 

Bots (Houck). — Rosin, 2 oz. ; saltpe- 
ter, 1 oz. ; gentian, 2 oz. ; copperas, 2 oz. ; 
fenugreek, 4 oz. Mix. Tablespoonful at 
night. 

Colic. — Horses are liable to rapid in- 
flammation of the bowels, which is very 
often mistaken by the horse-keeper for 
colic and treated for such, when the ser- 
vices of a veterinary doctor are vitally 
important. Colic primarily comes from 

[ 



( Veterinary — Horses ) 



indigestion or constipation or both. The 
first thing to do is to relieve the pain, the 
next to cause an evacuation of the bow- 
els. For the pain, give the following as a 
drink in a quart of hot water : 

1. — Tincture of opium, 1 oz. ; tincture 
of ginger, 1 oz. ; sweet spirit of niter, 1 
oz. ; chloroform, 1 oz. This is a full dose 
for a large horse. For a small horse or a 
slight attack less may be given. 

The best purgative to use in colic is a 
pint of castor oil or a quart of linseed 
oil. A dram of oil of turpentine should 
be given also. 

2. — Another. — Tincture of opium, 1 
oz. ; ol. terebinth, % oz. ; spirit ether nit., 
2 oz. ; ol. lini., 8 oz. Mix. Shake well 
before giving, and if relief is not pro- 
cured in 30 minutes and the horse is 
shivering and has cold sweats, call a 
veterinary at once. 

In case of simple colic this drink will 
give quick relief ; it should be followed 
by a warm bran mash one hour after. 

Condition Powder. — Gentian root, ani- 
seed, caraway seeds, linseed, coriander 
seeds, rosin, saltpeter, licorice root, fenu- 
greek, of each 1 lb. To the above ingre- 
dients, all in fine powder, add oil of 
cloves 2 drams and mix well in a large 
mortar ; it is not necessary to sieve, if the 
rosin and saltpeter are finely powdered 
before mixing. 

One or two tablespoonfuls mixed well 
with the food every night and morning 
for a week or two, then once a day. 

For carriage horses, a warm bran, bar- 
ley or oatmeal mash occasionally, works 
wonders in conjunction with the condition 
powders. 

Distemper (Millican). — Arsenic, 1 
dram ; sodium bicarbonate, 1 oz. ; iron 
iodide, 4 drams ; fenugreek, 2 oz. ; ginger, 
2 oz. ; elecampane, 1 oz. Make into 12 
powders. One at night. 

Epizooty — Pinkeye ( Bell ) . — Sublimed 
sulphur, 4 drams ; Epsom salt, 1 oz. ; 
charcoal, 4 drams ; licorice extract, 1 oz. ; 
elecampane, 1 oz. ; fenugreek, 1% oz. ; 
gentian, 4 drams ; aniseed, 2 drams ; gin- 
ger, 2 drams ; saltpeter, 4 drams ; rosin, 
2 drams ; copperas, 2 drams ; black sul- 
phide antimony, 6 drams. Mix. Table- 
spoonful three times daily. 

Farcy (Dodd). — Saltpeter, 2 oz. ; ele- 
campane, 1 oz. ; sodium sulphite, 4 drams ; 
black sulphite antimony, 1 oz. Mix. 
Tablespoonful twice a day. 

Feed, Comparative Value of. — The 
comparative value of horse feed is found 
by experiment to be as follows : 100 lb. 
of good hay is equal in value to 59 lb. of 
oats, 57 lb. of corn, 275 lb. of carrots, 54 
53] 



Agriculture 



( Veterinary — Horses ) 



lb. of rye or barley and 105 lb. of wheat 
bran. 

Founder,—!.— ( White ) .—Capsicum, 30 
gr. ; tincture aconite root, 15 drops ; cider 
vinegar, 6 oz. ; water, 1 pt. Mix. Give 
as a drench and blanket the animal. 
After two hours give one pint of raw 
linseed oil. 

.2. — (Biddle). — Tincture aconite root, 
10 drops ; tartar emetic, 15 gr. ; saltpeter, 
1 dram ; ginger, 2 drams ; linseed meal, 
1 oz. Make into bolus. Give at once and 
repeat every six hours if required. 

3- — (Biddle). — Soap liniment, 3 oz. ; 
aqua ammonia, 1 oz. ; spirits camphor, 
1 oz. ; oil turpentine, 4 drams ; oil pepper- 
mint, 2 drams ; tincture capsicum, 2 
drams ; tincture opium, 4 drams ; petro- 
leum, 2 oz. Mix. Rub the legs well three 
times during the day and at night. 

Gall Cures. — Galls on horses produced 
by badly fitting saddles or harness are 
hard to cure. The sores should be 
washed two or three times a day with 
water and a healing ointment or wash 
applied by means of a soft cloth or a 
dustmg powder. Some formulas follow: 
1. — Zinc oxide, 1 oz. ; water, 1 oz. ; 
mutton tallow, 2i^ oz. ; lard, 5 oz. 

2. — Tannic acid, 1 oz. ; powdered cam- 
phor, 2 oz. ; zinc oxide, 3 oz. Mix and 
sift through a fine sieve and dust on the 
raw places. 

3. — Compound tincture of benzoin is a 
good remedy for sores or cuts on animals. 
4. — (Karie). — Red lead, 2 oz. ; lead 
acetate, 1 oz. ; beef suet, 12 drams ; lin- 
seed oil, 8 oz. Heat and stir constantly 
until it assumes a brown color. Apply 
once daily. 

5. — (Martin). — Carbolic acid, 10 m. ; 
tincture aloes, 1 oz. ; tincture myrrh, 4 
drams ; tincture opium, 4 drams ; witch 
hazel water, 4 drams. Mix. Bathe the 
part often. 

G. — Zinc oxide, 1 oz. ; burnt alum, 1 
oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. ; phenol, Y2 oz. ; calo- 
mel, % oz. ; bismuth subgallate, % oz. ; 
benzoniated lard, 4 oz. ; petrolatum, 12 
oz. Mix the powders well together and 
reduce them to a smooth paste with the 
camphor, previously dissolved in the phe- 
nol. If desirable to make the paste per- 
fectly smooth, a little castor oil may be 
used. Now add the lard and petrolatum 
and mix well. In warm weather 2 ounces 
of the petrolatum should be replaced by 
wax. 

Grease in Horses. — Citrine ointment, 2 
oz. ; lard, 1 oz. ; oil of turpentine, % oz. ; 
saturated solution of copper nitrate, 2 
drams. The word "grease" here is the 
name of the disease, not of the remedy. 

[54 



( Veterinary — Horses ) 



Hide-Bound. — a. — (Bell) . — Fenugreek, 
4 oz. ; sublimed sulphur, 2 oz. ; cream tar- 
tar, 1 oz. ; licorice, 1 oz. ; saltpeter, 1 oz. ; 
sodium chloride, 1 oz. ; black antimony 
sulphide, 4 drams; gentian, 2 drams; 
aniseed, 2 drams. Mix. Tablespoonful 
night and morning. 

b. — Hide-Bound ( Pinkard ) . — Elecam- 
pane, 2 oz. ; licorice root, 2 oz. ; fenu- 
greek, 2 oz. ; rosin, 2 oz. ; copperas, 4 
drams ; ginger, 2 drams ; gentian, 1 dram ; 
saltpeter, 1 dram ; valerian, 1 dram ; lin- 
seed meal, 3 oz. ; sublimed sulphur, 1 oz. ; 
black antimony sulphide, 4 drams. Mix. 
Tablespoonful in feed, twice a day. 

Hoofs. — Grease for: Horse grease, 
5,000 parts ; tallow, ordinary quality, 
2,000 parts; train oil, 3,000 to 5,000 
parts; oleic acid, 1,000 to 1,200 parts; 
lampblack, suflicient for coloring; nitro- 
benzol, 100 parts. 

Cement. — a. — Gum ammoniac, puri- 
fied, 0.3 kilogram ; thick turpentine, 0.1 
kilogram. Melt in the water bath and 
gradually add with constant stirring 0.6 
kilogram of gutta percha. If black hoof 
cement is desired, rub up 20 grams of 
lampblack with a little turpentine before 
the melting. For use, soak the mass in 
hot water and press it into the clefts of 
the hoof, which have previously been 
carefully cleaned. 

b. — Two parts of gutta percha are soft- 
ened with pure water and divided into 
pieces as large as a nut, then melted over 
a slow fire in a tinned iron pan, con- 
stantly stirring, with 1 part of crushed 
gum ammoniac, until the mass has ac- 
quired the color and appearance of choco- 
late. Before using, the mass must be 
melted again and is then applied with a 
warm knife blade to the cracks and splits 
in a horse's hoof, just as a glazier works 
with his putty, the hoof having previously 
been carefully cleansed. The mass hard- 
ens so that it will allow of nails being 
driven into it. 

Influenza (Caulk). — Ammonia muri- 
ate, 12 drams ; gum camphor, 4 drams ; 
potash chlorate, 1 oz. ; powdered extract 
licorice, 2 oz. ; molasses, suflicient. Make 
into a mass. Dose : A tablespoonful, in 
form of bolus, night and morning. 

Knee Ointment. — Mercurial ointment, 
2 oz. ; honey, 1 oz. ; camphor, 2 drams; 
burned cork, powdered, 2 drams. 

Lameness. — The following will not 
cure, nor is it suitable if the lameness is 
severe and of long standing: Oil ori- 
ganum, % oz. ; soap liniment, 1 oz. ; tinc- 
ture of opium, 1 oz. ; spirits turpentine, 



Agriculture 



( Veterinary — Horses ) 



11/^ oz. ; spirits hartshorn, 2 oz. ; spirits 
camphor, 2i/^ oz. Mix. 

Liniments, — 1. — Camphor, % oz. ; tinc- 
ture of iodine, ^^ oz. ; tincture of capsi- 
cum, 1 oz. ; aromatic spirits of ammonia, 

1 oz. ; tincture of opium, 1 oz. ; oil of 
turpentine, 4 oz. ; alcohol, enough to 
make 2 pints. Mix, putting in the oil of 
turpentine last of all. 

Rub well into the affected parts, once 
or twice a day. This liniment is excellent 
for sprains, stiffness, sore muscles from 
hard work and sweeny, big shoulder, fis- 
tula, etc., and, in fact, anywhere that a 
strong, penetrating liniment is useful. It 
is not suited for wire cuts and other 
wounds, however. 

2. — Oil of turpentine, 1 fl.dr. ; oil of 
thyme, 1 fl.dr. ; crude oil of amber, 1 
fl.dr. ; black oil, 2 fl.dr. ; kerosene oil, 6 
fl.dr. ; water, 6i/^ fl.oz. ; soap, 70 gr. ; 
caustic potash, 6 gr. Place the soap and 
the potash in a flask and dissolve in two 
ounces of hot water ; mix the oils and 
add to the solution gradually, with vigor- 
ous shaking, and lastly add the water, 
continuing the agitation to make an emul- 
sion. 

3. — Rape seed oil, ^ fl.oz. ; soft soap, 

3 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 10 fl.oz. ; stronger 
water of ammonia, 2i/^ fl.oz. ; acetic acid, 

2 fl.oz. ; camphor, 3 oz. ; alcohol, 4 fl.oz. ; 
rectified oil of amber, 2 fl.oz. ; water suflB- 
cient to make 40 fl.oz. 

Rub the soap gradually with 5 ounces 
of water to form a smooth jelly ; add the 
alcohol with the camphor dissolved in it ; 
mix the turpentine and oil of amber, and 
add gradually to the mixture with con- 
stant stirring, aiding the emulsification 
by the occasional addition of a little 
water. Then add the ammonia and trans- 
fer to an emulsion machine or large 
bottle, subsequently adding gradually the 
acetic acid diluted with 8 ounces or more 
of water, continuing the shaking. Add 
the eggs one by one and finally make up 
to 40 ounces with the water. 

4. — A good stimulating liniment is 
made of castor oil, 2 fl.oz. ; rape seed oil, 
2 fl.oz. ; oil of turpentine, 2 fl.oz. ; 
stronger water of ammonia, 3 fl.oz. ; 
water, 3 fl.oz. Mix the oils and add the 
water and ammonia. 

Nasal Gleet (Merritt). — Aloes, 6 
drams ; nux vomica, 20 gr. ; linseed meal, 

4 drams. Make into bolus. One every 
night. — Am. Drug. 

Physic Balls. — Barbadoes aloes, 2 oz. ; 
powdered ginger, 1 oz. ; ol. cloves, 1 
dram ; soft soap, q, s. to mass. Divide 
into sizes as required, and bear in mind 

[ 



(Weeds) 



a pony does not need as much as a heavy 
cart horse ; if pressed for time, the above 
will mass well with a little soap liniment 
instead of using soft soap. The balls 
should be rolled in licorice powder and 
wrapped, first in waxed paper, paste the 
edges, then in white paper, the latter to 
be removed before giving the ball. A 
bran mash is usually given about two 
hours after or the next morning. 

Pleurisy (Vansant). — Tincture aconite 
root, 12 drops ; tartar emetic, 30 gr. ; 
powdered ginger, 30 gr. ; linseed meal, 4 
drams. Make into bolus. Give at a dose. 

Ringhone (Bell). — 1. — Olive oil, 1 oz. ; 
aqua ammonia, 4 drams ; oil origanum, 1 
oz. ; oil turpentine, 1 oz. ; oil wormwood, 
2 drams ; alcohol, 4 oz. Mix. Apnly 
night and morning. 

2. — (Pinkard). — Alum, 2 drams; ver- 
digris, 1 oz. ; North Carolina wax, 2 oz. ; 
yellow wax, 2 oz. ; lard, 4 oz. Mix by aid 
of heat. Apply twice a day. 

Sores, Chafes, etc. — Powdered borax, 1 
dram ; powdered animal charcoal, V2 
dram ; oil of tar, 10 m. ; oil of camphor, 

1 dram ; lard enough to make 1 oz. 

_ Spavin. — 1. — Corrosive mercuric chlo- 
ride, 10 gr. ; tincture of arnica, 2 oz. ; 
oil of peppermint, 2 ' oz. ; tincture of 
iodine, 1 pt. 

2. — (Baron). — Cantharides, 2 drams; 
euphorbium, 2 drams ; mercury bichloride, 
15 gr. ; red mercuric oxide, 30 gr. ; mer- 
curial ointment, 5 drams ; tincture iodine, 

2 drams ; lard, 3% oz. Mix by aid of 
heat. Apply with brush. 

3. — (Millican). — Croton oil, 2 oz. ; cot- 
tonseed oil, 8 oz. Apply heat and gradu- 
ally add sulphuric acid, 80 m. 

4. — (Wickes). — Yellow wax, 1 dram; 
rosin, 3 drams ; cantharides, 90 gr. ; char- 
coal, 2 drams ; red mercuric iodide, 2 
drams ; linseed oil, 4 oz. ; lard oil, 4 oz. 
Mix by aid of heat. Apply with brush. 

Worms (Biddle). — Calomel, 1 dram; 
tartar emetic, 20 gr. ; aloes, 4 drams ; 
fenugreek, 4 drams. Make into bolus. 
Give at night. 



WEEDS 

Most of the following directions for 
exterminating weeds are taken from 
Farmers' Bulletin 28, entitled "Weeds 
and How to Kill Them," by Lyster H. 
Dewey :' 

For the complete eradication of a nox- 
ious plant the production of seeds must 
be prevented, and if the plant is a bien- 
nial or a perennial the root, bulb or root 
stock must be killed. 

In the case of weeds that have already 
55] 



Agriculture 



(Weeds) 



become abundant and widely distributed, 
their extermination is regarded as almost 
impossible, but they may be brought un- 
der subjection to an extent that will 
render them comparatively harmless. A 
new species, if taken in time, may be 
completely eradicated. 

Annuals. — An annual reproduces itself 
from the seeds only, dying root and 
branch each year. The seeds of many an- 
nuals retain their vitality for several 
years, and are likely to germinate at ir- 
regular intervals, even though no fresh 
seed is introduced. 

Preventing the production of seed will 
reduce the quantity of weeds and prevent 
spreading. In cultivated fields burn over 
the land to destroy as many as possible of 
the seeds on the surface. Plow shallow 
so as not to bury the remaining seeds 
too deeply. The succeeding cultivation, 
not deeper than the plowing, will induce 
the germination of seeds in this layer of 
soil and kill the seedlings as they appear. 
The land may then be plowed deeper and 
the cultivation repeated until the weed 
seeds are pretty thoroughly cleared out to 
as great a depth as the plow ever reaches. 

Barren summer fallowing is often prac- 
ticed to clear out weedy land by the 
method just described ; but usually corn, 
potatoes, cotton, cabbages or beets may 
better be grown, giving a profitable re- 
turn for the extra cultivation. The best 
results can be obtained, of course, with 
crops that allow cultivation during the 
greater part of the season, and that do 
not shade the soil too much, as the direct 
rays of the sun heating the surface of the 
soil aid materially in the germination of 
many seeds. Good results have been ob- 
tained by spraying with 2 to 4 per cent, 
solutions of copper sulphate to destroy 
charlock or wild mustard in growing 
grain, but the application of chemicals 
cannot be recommended for killing annual 
plants where cultivation is possible. 

As annual weeds usually thrive best in 
soil that has been broken but is not oc- 
cupied, it is evident that broken land 
should not be permitted to remain idle. 

A little grass seed raked in on bare 
hillsides will often keep down annual 
weeds and will at the same time prevent 
washing. Mowing the roadside two or 
three times during the summer will sub- 
due the dog fennel and ragweed. Mow- 
ing the stubble about two weeks after 
harvest in grain fields that have been 
seeded to grass or clover will check the 
annual weeds and at the same time pro- 
duce a mulch that is very beneficial to 
the seeding during the August drought. 

[56 



(Weeds) 



Biennials. — The best methods for kill- 
ing the roots or root-stocks vary consider- 
ably according to the soil, climate, char- 
acter of the different weeds and the size 
of the patch or the quantity to be killed. 
In general, however, the following prin- 
ciples apply : 

1. — The roots, root-stocks, bulbs, etc., 
may be dug up and removed, a remedy 
that can be practically applied only in 
small areas. 

2. — Salt, coal oil or strong acid applied 
so as to come in contact with the freshly 
cut roots or root-stocks destroys them for 
some distance from the point of contact. 
Crude sulphuric acid is probably the most 
effective of comparatively inexpensive ma- 
terials that can be used for this purpose, 
but its strong corrosive properties render 
it dangerous to handle. Carbolic acid is 
less corrosive and nearly as effective. Ar- 
senite of soda, a dangerous poison, is 
sometimes effective, applied as a spray on 
the growing weeds. 

3. — Roots may be starved to death by 
preventing any development of green 
leaves or other parts above ground. This 
may be effected by building straw stacks 
over small patches, by persistent, thor- 
ough cultivation in fields, by the use of 
the hoe or spud in waste places and by 
salting the plants and turning on sheep 
in permanent pastures. 

4. — The plants may usually be smoth- 
ered by dense sod-forming grasses or by a 
crop like hemp, buckwheat, clover, cow- 
peas or millet that will exclude the light. 

5. — Most roots are readily destroyed by 
exposing them to the direct action of the 
sun during the summer drought, or to 
the direct action of the frost in winter. 
In this way plowing, for example, be- 
comes effective. 

6. — Any cultivation which merely 
breaks up the root-stocks and leaves them 
in the ground, especially during wet 
weather, aids in their distribution and 
multiplication, and is worse than useless, 
unless the cultivation is continued so as 
to prevent any growth above ground. 
Plowing and fitting corn ground in April 
and May, and cultivating at intervals 
until the last of June, then leaving the 
land uncultivated during the remainder 
of the season, is one of the best methods 
that could be pursued to encourage the 
growth of couch grass, Johnson grass and 
many other perennial weeds. 

Special Weeds Attracting Attention. 

Bracted Plantain. — This weed is so low 
and inconspicuous and its leaves are so 
much like those of grass that it is not 

] 



Agriculture 



(Weeds) 



pasily discernible until the flower spikes 
appear. Hand pulling and burning is 
perhaps one of the best remedies where 
the plants are not too abundant. If the 
land has become thoroughly seeded a 
series of hoed crops will probably be nec- 
essary to clear it out. In permanent pas- 
ture, mowing the plants as the seed stalks 
first appear will keep them in subjection. 
The mowing will have to be repeated sev- 
eral times, however, as the bracted plan- 
tain sends up seed stalks from May until 
November. 

The reports concerning this plant indi- 
cate that, if unchecked, it is likely to 
prove as troublesome as the rib grass 
which has become so widely distributed, 
chiefly in clover seed. The seeds of the 
bracted plantain are of nearly the same 
size and shape as those of the rib grass, 
and as they ripen throughout the same 
season — June to November — they are just 
as likely to be harvested and thrashed 
with the clover seed. 

Buffalo Bur. — An annual, easily sub- 
dued by preventing the production of 
seeds. This may be done by mowing as 
often as the yellow blossoms appear. The 
seeds are less abundant than those of 
most of the bad annual weeds, and they 
are not often ripe, at least in the northern 
part of its range, until after the hurrying 
work of harvest is over. The buffalo bur 
is seldom troublesome in fields where 
thorough cultivation is practiced. The 
seeds may be expected as impurities in 
alfalfa and clover seed grown in the 
West. So far as known, however, in the 
East this weed has appeared first in waste 
places in cities and towns and has spread 
thence to the surrounding farms. 

Chondrilla. — As the plant is usually 
most abundant in neglected pasture land 
where the soil is somewhat impoverished, 
it seems probable that cultivation and a 
supply of fertilizer would soon subdue it. 
Left unchecked it not only occupies all 
the space where the grass has become 
thin, but encroaches aggressively on 
strong grass sod. 

Charlock. — At a meeting of the French 
Society of Agriculture, M. Aime Girard, 
the celebrated agricultural chemist, an- 
nounced that cereal fields could be readily 
freed from the weed, without the least 
damage being done to the grain, by treat- 
ing them with a 5 per cent, solution of 
sulphate of copper. The explanation ap- 
pears to be that the salt is absorbed by 
the tissues of the charlock, whereas it 
does not affect the difiicultly permeable 
cuticle of wheat or oats. A drop of 
water deposited with suitable pi-ecautions 

[ 



(Weeds) 



on an oat leaf retains its spherical form, 
and with a little care may even be re- 
moved without the leaf being moistened. 

On the other hand, a drop placed on a 
charlock leaf forthwith extends and en- 
ters the tissues. The same thing happens 
when a solution of sulphate of copper is 
employed. Hence the charlock is poi- 
soned and perishes at once, while the 
grain escapes. This seems a very simple 
and cheap method of weeding a field of 
wheat or oats. If, however, M. Bernard, 
who took part in the discussion of M. 
Girard's paper, is not astray in his con- 
clusions, an even simpler and cheaper 
plan may be pursued by using sulphate of 
iron instead of the copper salt. He used 
a mixture of sulphate of iron and water, 
consisting of 20 or 30 kilograms of sul- 
phate to the hectoliter of water and found 
that from fields sprinkled with this liquid 
charlock disappeared entirely, the cereals 
being uninjured. — Revue Scientifique. 

False Flax. — Where abundant it may 
be necessary to omit winter wheat and 
rye from the rotation for a few years 
and raise crops that will permit cultiva- 
tion in autumn. Spring grain crops may 
be grown, or hoed crops may occupy the 
ground during the summer. Hoed crops 
may • be employed to best advantage, as 
the cultivation given to these crops will 
induce the false-flax seed to germinate 
and thus clear the land sooner. In pas- 
tures and meadows the weeds may be 
pulled if they have not become too abun- 
dant ; but if this work has been long 
neglected it will probably be necessary to 
plow and cultivate the land. 

Horse Nettle. — The production of seed 
may be prevented by keeping the plants 
mown. The roots must be killed,, how- 
ever, and this task is about as difficult 
as killing the root of the Canada thistle ; 
in fact, the methods which are most suc- 
cessful in destroying the Canada thistle 
may be used with advantage in destroy- 
ing the horse nettle. Clean cultivation and 
grubbing or spudding sufl[icient to pre- 
vent any development above ground will 
starve out the roots. Oats, barley, or 
millet sown thickly on well-tilled land 
will weaken the roots, preventing much 
growth above ground. Immediately after 
these crops are harvested the land may 
be plowed and then harrowed frequently 
until time for sowing crimson clover or 
winter rye. This will induce the ger- 
mination of weed seeds, and at the same 
time expose some of the roots to be 
killed by the sun. Crimson clover, hairy 
vetch, rye, or winter oats may be sown 
to choke down the growth of horse net- 
57] 



figricidture 



(Weeds) 



tie and other weeds during the fall and 
early spring, to furnish winter pastur- 
age, and then to be plowed under as a 
green fertilizer. A hoed crop following, 
if kept well cultivated, will clear out 
most of the remaining weeds. The plow- 
share used in these operations should be 
cut sharp, so as to cut a clean furrow, 
otherwise the roots are likely to be 
dragged and scattered about the field. 

Spiny Amaranth. — Like other annuals 
it may be subdued by preventing the 
production of seed. It would readily 
succumb to thorough cultivation, as it 
grows rather slowly at first and does 
not produce seed until midsummer or 
later. Mowing or grubbing up the plant 
before the flower spikes develop is proba- 
bly the best method of eradication in 
permanent pastures. Potato land and- 
corn stubble may be plowed or thorough- 
ly disked after the crop is harvested and 
a winter crop sown which will keep 
down the weeds. 

Spiny Cockle'bur. — The growth at first 
is slow and, as it needs light and room 
to develop into a robust plant, it may 
be choked down by any quick-growing 
crop that will crowd and shade it. In 
permanent pastures and waste places, 
where it flourishes best, it could doubtless 
be eradicated in time by mowing the 
plants about twice each year, in August 
and September, or by cutting them up 
with a hoe or spud in May and June. 
As the seeds often lie dormant in the 
thick-walled bur several years before ger- 
minating, it might require a like period 
to exterminate a patch by this method ; 
but the plants would continually be grow- 
ing less in number, and the labor corre- 
spondingly lighter. 

PricJch/ Lettuce. — Sheep and sometimes 
cattle will eat the young prickly lettuce, 
and their services have been found very 
effective, especially in recently cleared 
land where thorough cultivation is im- 
possible. Repeatedly mowing the plants 
as they first begin to blossom will pre- 
vent seeding and eventually subdue them. 
Thorough cultivation with a hoed crop, 
bv means of which the seed in the soil 
may be induced to germinate, will be 
found most effective. The first plowing 
should be shallow, so as not to bury the 
seeds too deep. Under no circumstances 
should the mature seed-bearing plants be 
plowed under, as that would only fill the 
soil with seeds buried at different depths 
to be brought under conditions favorable 
for germination at intervals for several 
years. Mature plants should bf» mowed 
and burned before plowing. The seed 



(Weeds) 



appears as an impurity in clover, millet, 
and the heavier gross seeds, and the 
plant is doubtless most frequently intro- 
duced by this means. As the seed may 
be carried a long distance by the wind 
the plants must be cleared out of fence 
rows, waste land, and roadsides. 

Wild Carrot. — In permanent pasture 
the persistent mowing of the plants as 
often as the flower appears will even- 
tually destroy them. They will continue 
to branch out from the base after each 
cutting until finally exhausted, so that 
the first mowing will often appear to 
increase rather than diminish their num- 
bers. The root may be cut off with a spud 
some distance below the surface of the 
ground, a process that usually kills them 
at once. Pulling the plant by hand when 
the ground is wet, although somewhat la- 
borious, is one of the surest methods of 
eradication. Sheep eating the young 
plants will aid considerably in keeping 
them down. The wild carrot is seldom 
troublesome in cultivated fields, which in- 
dicates that even moderate cultivation 
will partly subdue it, and that thorough 
cultivation, accompanied by the destruc- 
tion of the weeds in waste places, would 
reduce it to comparative harmlessness. 

Wild Oat. — The grain retains its vi- 
tality much longer than does the com- 
mon oat, and may remain buried in the 
soil several years without germinating. 
It germinates best when there is an 
abundance of moisture and the soil is 
warm. To clear the seed out of the 
soil, therefore, the land should be stirred 
when it is warm and as moist as will 
permit good cultivation. It is under- 
stood, of course, that cultivating the land 
when wet, especially in clay soils, is bad 
policy, and it is advocated in this case 
only for a special purpose. The clearing 
of the soil can be accomplished in con- 
junction with the cultivation of corn or 
root crops. Where winter wheat and 
rye may be grown profitably the land 
should be plowed as soon as possible after 
the spring crop is harvested, and har- 
rowed about once a week until time for 
sowing the wheat or rye. Oats should 
be left out of the rotation so far as may 
be until the wild oats are subdued, as 
the latter growing among the cultivated 
oats are diflicult to detect for removal, 
and after harvesting and thrashing it is 
practically impossible to separate com- 
pletely the two kinds of grain. In other 
grain crops the wild oat may be pulled 
or cut and removed by hand before ma- 
turity in the same manner as wild mus- 
tard or rye. Where it is very abundant, 
'58] 



Agriculture 



(Weeds) 



however, this plan would be too laborious 
to pursue with profit, and the crop would 
better be mown for hay or plowed under. 
No oats should be sown coming from 
farms where the wild oat is known to 
grow. 

Weeds in Walks, Lawns, Etc. 

Grass hetiveen Bricks in a Wall. — • 
After cleaning out the seams to a depth 
of a quarter of an inch, scatter a little 
powdered commercial bluestone and then 
lightly sweep it over, so as to leave a 
little powder in the cracks. When this 
is washed in by the rain, it will prevent 
vegetable growth and not appreciably 
stain the brick. A pound of bluestone, 
costing not over ten cents, will suflSce 
for fifty or more yards of paving, and 
last for years. 

Laivns. — The plants should be cut off 
close to the ground and a few drops of 
coal oil poured on to the crowns. They 
immediately commence to decay and are 
utterly destroyed. Troublesome weeds on 
the lawn can thus be speedily disposed 
of, but others will likely take their place. 

Walks. — 1. — The best way, says a cor- 
respondent, to apply salt to paths to de- 
stroy weeds, is as follows : Boil the salt 
in water, one pound to one gallon, and 
apply the mixture boiling hot with a 
watering pot that has a spreading rose; 



(Weeds) 



this will keep weeds and worms away 
for two or three years. Put one pound 
to the square yard the first year ; after- 
ward a weaker solution may be applied 
when required. 

2. — Arsenic trioxide, 6 lb. ; copper sul- 
phate, 2 lb. ; sodium hydroxide, 2 lb. ; po- 
tassium nitrate, 1 lb. ; sulphur, 1 lb. ; am- 
monium chloride, 1 lb. Use 5 to 10 
pounds to 30 gallons of water. 

3. — Gas Liquor. — Pour out a few times 
in succession and do not touch the tree 
roots and borders of the paths. This 
medium is cheap. 

4. — Rock Salt. — Throw out repeatedly. 

5. — Hydrochloric Acid. — The use of hy- 
drochloric and sulphuric acids is some- 
what expensive. Mix 60 liters of water 
with 10 kilos of unslaked lime and 1 kilo 
of sulphuric acid in a kettle, and sprinkle 
the hot or cold mixture on the walks by 
means of a watering-pot. 

6. — Lime Milk. — 1 kilo of unslaked 
lime in 10 liters of water. If used alone 
it must be fresh. 

7. — 'Among the varieties of gravel, lead 
gravel is best adapted for garden walks, 
since it hinders the growth of weeds 
greatly. 

8. — To kill blue grass growing between 
bricks around the lawn, wash the bricks 
with salt water or strong solution of 
soda. 



L59] 



/ 



CHAPTER III 



ALLOYS AjNB AMALGAMS 

This subject is elaborately indexed, and the reader should consult the Index- 
in all cases. Solders form the subject of a special chapter. 

BRIEF SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 



GENERAL INFORMATION ON AL- 
LOYS 
ALTTMINUM ALLOYS 
BISMUTH AND CADMIUM ALLOYS 

FUSIBLE ALLOYS 
COPPER ALLOYS 

GERMAN SILVER 

BELL METAL 

BRONZE 

GUN METAL 

SPECULUM METALS 

BEARING METALS 

BRASS 
GOLD ALLOYS 

IMITATION GOLD 
IRON ALLOYS 



LEAD ALLOYS 

MANGANESE ALLOYS 

PLATINUM ALLOYS 

SILVER ALLOYS 

SILVER SUBSTITUTES 

TIN ALLOYS 

BEARING METALS 
BABBITT METAL 
WHITE METAL 
BRITANNIA METAL 
TIN SUBSTITUTES 
TYPE METAL 

TUNGSTEN ALLOYS 

ZINC ALLOYS 

MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS 

AMALGAMS 



GENERAL INFORMATION ON ALLOYS 



An alloy is a combination of two or 
more metals. It is now largely believed 
that the metals form combinations rather 
than mixtures, though one of the best 
metallurgists in England called his book 
on alloys "Mixed Metals." Hiorn's defi- 
nition of an alloy, from "Mixed Metals," 
is given below : 

"JSlatttre of Alloys. — When two or more 
metals are caused permanently to unite, 
the resulting mixture is termed an alloy. 
When mercury is an essential constitu- 
ent, the mixture is termed an amalgam. 
The general method of effecting combina- 
tion is by the agency of heat, but with 
certain soft metals true alloys may be 
formed by subjecting the constituents to 
considerable pressure, even at the ordi- 
nary temperature. Alloys such as those 
briefly referred to were doubtless first dis- 
covered by the metallurgical treatment of 
mixed ores, from the simultaneous reduc- 
tion of which alloys would be formed ; 



or, in some cases, as in ores of gold and 
silver, naturally formed alloys would be 
obtained by a simple melting process. 
The direct preparation of alloys by the 
simple melting together of the constituent 
metals has been enormously developed in 
modern times, and the attention which 
mixed metals are now receiving by chem- 
ists is far greater than in any period of 
history. Comparatively few of the metals 
possess properties such as render them 
suitable to be employed alone by the man- 
ufacturer; but most of them have im- 
portant applications in the form of alloys. 
Even among the metals which can be used 
independently, it is often found expedi- 
ent to add portions of other metals to im- 
prove or otherwise modify their physical 
properties. Thus gold is hardened, and 
made to resist wear and tear, as well as 
to lower its cost, by the addition of cop- 
per ; silver is likewise hardened by alloy- 
ing it with copper ; and the bronze coin- 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 



Alloys and Amalgams 



i" Properties of Alloys) 



age is formed of an alloy of copper, zinc 
and tin for similar reasons." 

Alloys generally possess characteristics 
unshared by their component metals. 
Thus, copper and zinc form brass, which 
has a different density, hardness and color 
from either of its constituents. Whether 
the metals tend to unite in atomic pro- 
portions, or in any definite ratio, is still 
undetermined. The evidence afforded by 
the natural alloys of gold and silver, and 
by the phenomena accompanying the cool- 
ing of several alloys from the state of 
fusion, goes far to prove that such is 
the case. (Rudberg.) The subject is, 
however, one of considerable difficulty, 
as metals and metallic compounds are gen- 
erally soluble in each other, and unite by 
simple fusion and contact. That they 
do not combine indifferently with each 
other, but exercise a species of elective 
aflanity not dissimilar to other bodies, is 
clearly shown by the homogeneity and su- 
perior quality of many alloys in which the 
constituent metals are in atomic propor- 
tion. The variation of the specific grav- 
ity and melting points of alloys from the 
mean of those of their component metals, 
also affords strong evidence of a chemical 
change having taken place. Thus, alloys 
genei-ally melt at lower temperatures than 
those required for their separate metals. 
They also usually possess more tenacity 
and hardness than the mean of their con- 
stituents. 

Matthiessen found that when weights 
are suspended to spirals of hard-drawn 
wire made of copper, silver, gold, or plati- 
num, they become nearly straightened 
when stretched by a moderate weight ; 
but wires of equal dimensions, composed 
of copper-tin (12% of tin), silver-plati- 
num (36% of platinum), and gold-copper 
(84% of copper), scarcely undergo any 
permanent change in form when subjected 
to tension by the same weight. 

The same chemist gives the following 
approximative results upon the tenacity of 
certain metals and wires hard drawn 
through the same gauge (No. 23) : Cop- 
per, breaking strain for double wire, 25 
to 30 lb. ; tin, breaking strain for double 
wire, under 7 lb. ; lead, breaking strain 
for double wire, under 7 lb. ; tin-lead 
(20% lead), breaking strain for double 
wire, about 7 lb.; tin-copper (12% cop- 
per), breaking strain for double wire, 
about 7 lb.; copper-tin (12% tin), break- 
ing strain for double wire, about 80 to 90 
lb. ; gold, breaking strain for double wire, 
20 to 25 lb.; gold-copper (8.4% copper), 
breaking strain for double wire, 70 to 75 
lb. ; silver, breaking strain for double 

[ 



(Properties of Alloys) 



wire, 45 to 50 lb. ; platinum, breaking 
strain for double wire, 45 to 50 lb. ; sil- 
ver-platinum (30% platinum), breaking 
strain for double wire, 75 to 80 lb. On 
the other hand, their maiieability, ductil- 
ity, and power of resisting oxygen is gen- 
erally diminished. The alloy formed of 
two brittle metals is always brittle ; that 
of a brittle and a ductile metal, gener- 
ally so ; and even two ductile metals some- 
times unite to form a brittle compound. 
The alloys formed of metals having dif- 
ferent fusing points are usually malleable 
while cold, and brittle while hot. The 
action of the air on alloys is generally 
less than on their simple metals, unless 
the former are heated. A mixture of 1 
part of tin and 3 parts of lead is scarcely 
acted on at common temperatures ; ^^ut 
at a red heat it readily takes fire, and 
continues to burn for some time like a 
piece of bad turf. In like manner, a mix- 
ture of tin and zinc, when strongly heat- 
ed, decomposes both moist air and steam 
with almost fearful rapidity. 

The specific gravity of alloys is never 
the arithmetical mean of that of their 
constituents, as commonly taught ; and in 
many cases considerable condensation or 
expansion occurs. When there is a strong 
affinity between two metals, the density 
of their alloy is generally greater than 
the calculated mean, and vice versa, as 
may be seen in the following list : 

Alloys the Density of whieh is Greater 
than the Mean of their Constituents. — 
Gold and zinc ; gold and tin ; gold and 
bismuth ; gold and antimony ; gold and 
cobalt ; silver and zinc ; silver and tin ; 
silver and bismuth ; silver and antimony ; 
copper and zinc ; copper and tin ; copper 
and palladium ; copper and bismuth ; lead 
and antimony ; platinum and molybde- 
num ; palladium and bismuth. 

Alloys the Density of ivhich is Less 
than the Mean of their Constituents. — 
Gold and silver ; gold and iron ; gold and 
lead ; gold and copper ; gold and iridium ; 
gold and nickel ; silver and copper ; iron 
and bismuth ; iron and antimony ; iron 
and lead. 

Preparation and Properties of Alloys. — • 
The mode of procedure in the produc- 
tion of any alloy will be largely influ- 
enced by the nature of the metals to be 
operated upon. Some metals are volatile, 
and readily pass off as vapor when heated 
a few degrees above their melting points. 
Others have little tendency to vaporize, 
and may be raised to high temperatures 
without sensible volatilization. When a 
volatile metal has to be alloyed with a 
non-volatile metal, and the fusing points 
62] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Properties of Alloys) 



of both are approximately the same, com- 
bination can be most readily effected by 
mixing the constituents and melting them 
together in the same crucible or furnace. 
This is, however, seldom the case, and, as 
a general rule, the components of an al- 
loy, one or all of which are volatile, have 
widely divergent melting points, and then 
it is requisite for the most refractory con- 
stituent to be melted first, and for the 
others to be added in the solid state. 
Again, an. alloy may contain one or more 
fixed metals and a volatile one, in which 
case the more volatile metal is added to 
the crucible after the fixed metal or met- 
als have been fused, and raised to a tem- 
perature necessary to melt the volatile 
constituent immediately it is introduced, 
so that combination may be effected be- 
fore any serious loss, due to vaporiza- 
tion, has occurred. Union between the 
components of an alloy is more perfectly 
secured by agitation of the contents with 
a stirring-rod, the most effective in many 
cases being a wooden or carbon rod, which 
promotes admixture without the introduc- 
tion of any substance likely to contam- 
inate the mixture and modify its prop- 
erties. 

A thing to be guarded against in the 
melting of all base metals, or alloys con- 
taining base metals as essential constitu- 
ents, is oxidation. Various plans are 
adopted to avoid loss of metal and injury 
to the alloy from this cause. The most 
common one is to cover the metals with 
carbon, which not only excludes the air 
admitted to the furnace, but tends to 
absorb any oxygen liberated from the met- 
als during fusion. The gas thus formed 
by union of carbon with oxygen is termed 
carbonic oxide (CO), and this gas being 
a reducing agent, is capable of taking up 
another atom of oxygen, forming car- 
bonic acid (CO2). Thus, as long as the 
mixture is covered with carbon, the car- 
bonic oxide formed effectually shields it 
from oxidation. In the method already 
referred to of stirring metals with a car- 
bon rod to promote mixture, the same gas, 
carbonic oxide, is formed, and thus the 
rod not only promotes union by mechani- 
cal agitation, but generates a gas which 
protects the metals in a great measure 
from oxidation. In some cases this is not 
admissible, as commercial metals are im- 
pure, and it may be advisable to admit 
sufficient oxygen, either from the air or 
by means of a special oxidizing agent, 
added along with the flux, to convert the 
impurities into oxides, which do not al- 
loy with the metals, but either enter into 
combination with the flux to form a slaii', 

[ 



(Properties of Alloys) 



or rise to the surface as dross or scum. 
In most cases it is advisable that the cov- 
ering body should not exert any influence 
on the metals beneath. 

Some manufacturers are in the habit 
of throwing fat and rosin on the heated 
metals before fusion. These are decom- 
posed by heat, liberating gases, and when 
well stirred with the molten metal pro- 
mote combination by the mechanical agi- 
tation imparted by their escape. They 
also act chemically in removing oxygen, 
by the union of that element with the 
carbon and hydrogen set free. When the 
evolution of. gas has ceased a quantity 
of carbon remains in a finely divided 
state, which covers the metals and pro- 
tects them from oxidation. 

Borax is sometimes used to exclude the 
air, but it is much more costly than car- 
bon, and when it is not required as a 
flux its employment is accompanied with 
some evils. Now, borax is composed of 
the base soda in combination with boric 
acid, which is only partly saturated with 
the soda, and the excess of acid unites 
with any metallic oxide present, forming 
double borates of a glassy nature. Com- 
mercial borax is often very impure, and 
is adulterated with common salt and 
alum ; these impurities are injurious to 
many metals. Sodium chloride, or com- 
mon salt, is also employed for preserv- 
ing molten metals from oxidation, and also 
to moderate the action of bodies which 
cause violent ebullition. Glass is fre- 
quently used for^ a similar purpose, and, 
next to carbon, is the least injurious to 
metals. It is a mixture of silicates, which 
easily fuses at high temperatures, form- 
ing compounds with lime and other bases, 
so that it acts almost as beneficially as 
borax when such a flux is required. Win- 
dow glass or green bottle glass is the most 
useful, but flint glass, which contains 
much oxide of lead, would be detrimental 
in many cases. 

The nature of metallic alloys has al- 
ready been discussed, from which we may 
assume that certain proportions of the 
constituents enter into chemical combina- 
tion, and other portions are simply in a 
state of mixture or solution, and, there- 
fore, on gradually cooling, tend to sepa- 
rate in distinct layers, according to their 
respective densities. This is especially 
the case when the constituents have wide- 
ly divergent densities, so that the higher 
the temperature of the alloy when re- 
moved from the furnace the longer will 
the period of cooling last, and the greater 
will be the facilities offered for separa- 
tion. To obviate this defect, the metal 



'63] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Properties of Alloys) 



(Properties of Alloys) 



should be constantly agitated by stirring, 
or otherwise, and poured into the molds 
at the lowest temperature consistent with 
the requisite fluidity, and cooled as rap- 
idly as the nature of the alloy and the 
purpose for which it is designed will ad- 
mit. With regard to the melting point 
of an alloy, it should be borne in mind 
that it fuses at a lower temperature than 
that at which the most refractory con- 
stituent melts, and sometimes below that 
of either, which knowledge should guide 
the operator in so regulating the tempera- 
ture as not to make the charge unneces- 
sarily hot. 

It is a well-known fact that the char- 
acter of many alloys is altered by repeat- 
ed remelting, and that the scrap obtained 
in working cannot be used again without 
the addition of a certain quantity of new 
metal, A given mixture may be employed 
for the formation of an alloy, which is 
highly malleable, ductile, and tenacious, 
and the scrap from the same alloy, when 
remelted, may be brittle and unworkable ; 
but when a suitable quantity of new 
metal is added, the combination may form 
au alloy even superior to the original one 
with regard to its good working proper- 
ties. It is to the advantage of the man- 
ufacturer, as regards economy, to use as 
much scrap as possible in alloying, and 
the quantity thus employed varies from 
one-third to two-thirds of the weight of 
the charge. Of course, in using old metal, 
many more impurities are liable to be in- 
troduced than with new metal, and al- 
though the same impurities may exist in 
the new metal, the quantities may be in- 
sufficient to produce a deteriorating ef- 
fect, but when augmented from old metal 
may then rise to such proportions as to 
entirely alter the physical properties of 
the alloy. The presence of notable quan- 
tities of foreign matter is generally ex- 
hibited by increased hardness and a mod- 
ification of the structure, as seen on a 
freshly fractured surface. 

Tlie difficulty of maintaining uniformity 
in an alloy after repeated remelting is 
least when only two metals are mixed 
together, and increases when the combi- 
nation requires the presence of three or 
more metals. Thus German silver re- 
quires much greater care in this respect 
than brass ; and soft solder, containing 
only lead and tin, requires less care than 
fusible alloy, containing bismuth or cad- 
mium in addition to lead and tin. Those 
alloys which contain as an essential con- 
stituent a volatile metal, such as zinc or 
antimony, are generally altered most by 
remelting, and it is requisite to know, at 

[64 



any rate approximately, what the furnace 
loss is, so that the defection may be coun- 
terbalanced by the addition of the quan- 
tity of fresh metal requisite to maintain 
the right composition. Many errors arise 
from this cause, as well as from overdo- 
ing what is required. Where possible, a 
chemical analysis is the best means of 
solving the problem, but as this is out 
of the question in most cases, a few sim- 
ple trials with weighed quantities, and 
careful observation of the results obtained, 
by testing its malleability, color and frac- 
ture, will generally afford sufficient evi- 
dence of the required amount to be added. 

In making experimental tests, a small 
melting furnace, such as that used in a 
metallurgical laboratory, a strong pair of 
hand rolls, and an anvil, would be very 
useful adjuncts to every casting shop. The 
quantity of metal operated upon need not 
exceed one pound in weight, and as this 
could be cast in a long strip, its suit- 
ability for stamping or rolling could be 
readily tested. Such test pieces, if care- 
fully labeled and preserved, would be most 
valuable for future reference, and there 
can be no doubt that both employers and 
employed would thus gain a vast amount 
of information which would prove of great 
benefit both as a standard of workman- 
ship and of economy of production. It 
is a great annoyance to find, after a quan- 
tity of metal has been mixed, and the 
castings made, that the alloy is unsuit- 
able for the work required of it, either 
from unsuitable constituents, improper 
mixing, or impure materials ; which an- 
noyance could be avoided by a few pre- 
liminary trials on a small scale. The 
casting of such trial tests could be made 
in an iron or sand mold, and the time 
of cooling made to approximate to that of 
a large mass by judicious treatment. An- 
other advantage of such an experimental 
plant would be that new combinations 
could be readily tried, and the effect of 
certain impurities on well-known alloys 
ascertained, by purposely adding these 
bodies in definite amounts to a weighed 
quantity of the alloy. 

It has been observed that cold work- 
ing of metals often produces an augmen- 
tation of strength. Le Chatelier finds 
that there is a limit to the increase of 
strength obtained by the cold working of 
pure metals or of those containing less 
than 1 to 2% of impurities. For all met- 
als examined, excepting silver, the maxi- 
mum strength after cold working is double 
that of the perfectly annealed specimens. 
In the case of alloys, some follow the 
same law as pure metals ; others, such 

] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Properties of Alloj's) 



as bronze, copper-silver alloys, and alum- 
inum bronze, become moi^e and more brit- 
tle after each successive draw witliout an- 
nealing, and the strength increases regu- 
larly, but at last the metal becomes too 
brittle to be further worked, and gives 
way. 

In regard to annealing, five laws are 
formulated as the result of experiments : 
(1) Annealing is never instantaneous; 
its effects, rapid at first, become more 
and more slow, and the softening tends 
toward a limit for each temperature; (2) 
this limit is lower, and is attained more 
rapidly as the annealing temperature is 
raised; (3) above a certain temperature 
annealing is complete, and a further in- 
crease of temperature does not diminish 
the strength, but a crystallization due to 
annealing occurs, and increases with the 
time of annealing, ultimately reducing the 
tensile strength and elongation to those 
of the cast metal; (4) the presence of 
impurities retards the action of anneal- 
ing, and demands a higher temperature 
for its completion; (5) the crystalliza- 
tion from annealing is due to the presence 
of impurities which have lower fusing 
points than the metal itself, or which 
form compounds which have those prop- 
erties. 

Cold-worked metals tend to recover 
their malleability even at ordinary tem- 
peratures by a process which Le Chatelier 
terms spontaneous annealing. The maxi- 
mum limit of strength attainable by cold 
working is reached at the moment when 
the increase produced by continued work- 
ing is just balanced by the diminution 
due to spontaneous anneaiing. Similarly, 
in wire-drawing, if the thickness of the 
metal be reduced too rapidly by succes- 
sive passes without annealing, it will 
break, owing to the failure of the spon- 
taneous annealing to keep pace with the 
distorting force ; but the metal may be 
fractured even in course of a very grad- 
ual reduction, unless it be allowed to re- 
main at rest for 5 or 10 minutes between 
the passes ; with this precaution, how- 
ever, it may be drawn down indefinitely, 
even without heating. Spontaneous an- 
nealing affects the mechanical properties 
of metals under test, causing the breaking 
load at any given temperature to be great- 
er in proportion to the rapidity with 
which the stress is applied, while the de- 
formation produced is not instantaneous, 
but increases more and more slowly up 
to a certain limit. 

The purposes for which alloys are re- 
quired are endless. Some are required 
to possess great malleability, for others 

[ 



(Properties of Alloys) 



hardness is the chief requisite; others, 
again, must possess a high degree of elas- 
ticity, while some are useful on account 
of their low melting point, etc. These 
different demands can only be satisfied 
by uniting suitable metals in different 
proportions. 

The metals most often used for alloy- 
ing at the present time are those which 
have been known the longest, such as cop- 
per, zinc, lead, tin, gold and silver ; and 
although combinations of these metals 
have been known and employed for many 
centuries, it is only during the latter half 
of the nineteenth century tliat their inti- 
mate properties have been closely studied. 
Indeed, at the present day our informa- 
tion concerning the nature and properties 
of alloys is perhaps less than in any other 
branch of chemical science, and although 
chemical investigation may do much to 
enlighten our knowledge, such informa- 
tion will be destitute of great commercial 
value unless accompanied with practical 
knowledge of the working, from observa- 
tion of the physical properties, when al- 
loys are worked in large quantities by the 
manufacturers themselves. The number 
of simple metals is very limited, but they 
may be united in various proportions, 
forming an endless variety of modifica- 
tions ; and since every alloy may be looked 
upon as a new metal, from the fact of its 
properties differing from those of its con- 
stituents, we have at command the neces- 
sary material for producing metals suit- 
able for every requirement for which me- 
tallic matter is desirable. The action of 
metals upon each other is widely diver- 
gent ; sometimes one metal may be added 
to another in quantity without seriously 
altering its working properties ; in other 
cases a minute quantity of the second 
metal will altogether change the character 
of the first metal ; so that in alloying, it 
by no means follows, because one metal 
may be freely added, that another, even 
of a similar nature, may be as liberally 
introduced. The man who aspires to the 
formation of new alloys, or who wishes 
to produce metals suitable for different 
requirements, as circumstances arise, must 
be well acquainted with the nature and 
properties of the simple metals in order 
to successfully accomplish his object ; and 
although a knowledge of the components 
is not sufficient of itself, it is of immense 
advantage in assisting the operator who 
combines practical experience in mixing 
metals with this theoretical knowledge. 
It is for these reasons that a brief ac- 
count of the elementary metals is included 
in this work. 
65] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Properties of Alloys) 



In chemical combinations it is a well- 
known fact that elements always com- 
bine with other elements in definite pro- 
portions by weight, termed atomic weight, 
producing compounds of fixed and decided 
properties, so that the same compounds 
can be always relied upon to contain the 
same elements, united in the same pro- 
portions. The same law applies to the 
union of two metals, when such metals 
are chemically combined, and the same al- 
loy will always have properties identically 
the same, however it may be tested. Sev- 
eral experimenters have directed their at- 
tention to the mixing of metals according 
to their atomic weights, so as to obtain 
alloys of determined characteristic prop- 
erties, but up to the present time the 
number of such combinations of a useful 
character is very limited. They are by 
no means the ones most suited to the 
wants and requirements of industry. 
There is always one indispensable item, 
from the manufacturer's point of view, 
which the chemist is not concerned with — - 
that is, the cost of production — and how- 
ever nicely atomic proportions would suit 
the requirements of a given alloy, such 
an alloy would, in most cases, be useless 
unless the cost was consistent with the 
market value. The question, then, of cost 
must have consideration, and the propor- 
tions must, if possible, be made to fit in 
with commercial necessities. With regard 
to copper alloys, such as brass and bronze, 
the combinations which best exhibit the 
characters of chemical compounds are 
hard and brittle, and as copper alloys are 
much more widely used than any other, 
there is little inducement to encourage 
metallurgists to endeavor to alloy copper 
and zinc, or copper and tin, in atomic 
proportions, since malleability and tenac- 
ity are the properties most desired in 
these alloys. Again, color is the chief 
desideratum in many alloys, and this can- 
not be always obtained by mixing in 
atomic proportions, especially as it often 
happens that a very small addition of 
one of the constituents will alter the shade 
of color so as to produce what is required. 

When it is desirable to add a non- 
metallic element to a metal or alloy, for 
the purpose of bringing about a certain 
result, very much greater care is gener- 
ally required in apportioning the quantity 
to be added than with a metal, as non- 
metals combine much more actively with 
metals than the metals do with each other, 
and a very small quantity of a non-metal 
will suffice to alter the properties of a 
metal or alloy. It is very surprising to 
note how, in some instances, a mere trace 



(Properties of Alloys) 



c 



of another element will alter the proper- 
ties of a metal. For example, 1-2000 of 
carbon added to iron will convert it into 
mild steel ; 1-1000 of phosphorus makes 
copper hot-short ; 1-2000 part of tellu- 
rium in bismuth makes it minutely crys- 
talline ; 1-1000 part of bismuth in copper 
renders it exceedingly bad in quality for 
certain purposes. 

Lothar Meyer has shown that a remark- 
able relation exists between the "atomic 
volumes of the elements." The rela- 
tive atomic volumes of the elements are 
found by dividing their atomic weights 
by their specific gravities. The atomic 
weight of lead is 207, and its specific 
gravity 11.45; 207 -i- 11.45 = 18, the 
atomic volume of lead. It would appear 
that the power of an element to produce 
weakness in a metal, when added in small 
quantity, is dependent on the atomic vol- 
ume of the impurity. Roberts-Austen 
tried the effect of various elements on 
pure gold, and found that when the body 
added had an atomic value equal to or 
less than that of gold the strength was 
little affected, and in some cases, as cop- 
per, for example, was increased ; but when 
the element added had an atomic volume 
much greater than that of gold the 
strength, with two exceptions, was greatly 
diminished. 

Fusibility. — Some metals are almost in- 
fusible, and when heated to the highest 
heat in a crucible they refuse to melt and 
become fluid ; but any metal can be melted 
by combination with more fusible metals. 
Thus platinum, which is infusible with 
any ordinary heat, can be fused readily 
when combined with zinc, tin or arsenic. 
This metal, by combination with arsenic, 
is rendered so fluid that it may be cast 
into any desired shape, and the arsenic 
may then be evaporated by a mild heat, 
leaving the platinum. Nickel, which 
barely fuses alone, will enter into com- 
bination with copper, forming German sil- 
ver, an alloy that is more fusible than 
nickel and less fusible than copper. The 
less fusible metals, when fused in contact 
with the more fusible metals, seem to dis- 
solve in the fusible metals ; rather than 
melt, the surface of the metal is gradu- 
ally washed down, until the entire mass 
is dissolved or liquefied, and reduced to 
the state of alloy. 

Following are the melting points of the 
elements employed in alloys : 

Degrees 
Cent. 

Aluminum 654.5 

Antimony 629.5 

Arsenic 450 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Fusibility of Alloys) 



Degrees 
Cent. 

Bismuth 268.3 

Cadmium 320 

Copper 1080.5 

Gold 1061.7 

Iron 1550-1600 

Lead 330- 335 

Magnesium 632.7 

Manganese 1800-1900 

Mercury 39.4 



(Table of Alloys) 



Degrees 
Cent. 

Nickel 1400-1450 

Phosphorus 44 

Platinum 1775 

Silicon 1100-1300 

Silver 960.5 

Sulphur 114.5 

Tellurium 282 

Tin 231.68 

Zinc 419 



Table of Alloys 

The following is a table of the proportions of the various metals in the alloys most com- 
monly employed in the arts and manufactures. The term "parts" means parts by weight. The 
abbreviations are: Cu, copper; Zn, zinc; Sn, tin; Pb, lead; Sb, antimony; P, phosphorus; As, 
arsenic; Ni, nickel. 



Cu. 



Description. 
Metal for frictional parts of locomotives 

(extremely hard) 87 

Bearings of carriages 97 

Bearings of driving wheels, also for steam 

engine whistles, giving a clear sound. . 80 

Steam engine whistles giving a deep sound 81 

Cross heads of connecting rods 82 

Cylinders of pumps, valve boxes, and taps 88 

Eccentric collars 84 

Bearings of axles and trunnions; eccen- J 85 
trie collars I 84 



Zn. Sn. 



Pb. 



Sb. 



P. As. Ni. 



9. Pistons of locomotives. 



84 



Axle boxes 88 

Mathematical instruments, arms of balances 90 

Machinery, bearings, etc 67 

Steam engine whistles 30 

Metal to withstand friction (Stephenson).. 79 

Rivets 64 

Metal for coffins 15 

Metal to withstand friction 2 

Cylinders of pumps 7 

Metal for bearings of locomotives 2 

White brittle metal (for buttons, etc.) 10 

Imitation silver 64 

Pinchbeck 5 

Tombac 16 

Red tombac 10 

Specially adapted for bearings 83 

For bearings and valves 83.25 

Electrotype "backing metal" 

Stereotype metal for paper process 

" " " plaster process 

Bullet metal .. 

Malleable brass plate 67 

Pin wire 67 

Jemmapes brass 64.6 

Similor for gilding 92.7 

Maillechort for rolling 60 

first quality 8 

White similor 7 

For stopcock seats 

" plugs 

For keys of flutes, etc. 

Hard tin 

White tombac 75 

Vogel's alloy for polishing steel 8 

Rompel's anti-friction metal 62 

Arguzoid, a tough alloy superior to brass. . 56 

[67] 



2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

7 

4 

9 

8.4 

2 



15.5 

7 
4 



0.5 
0.2 

2.7 



4.7 
19 

"s 

9 

45 



91 



92 
0.5 
0.5 
1.5 



1.5 

'5 
12 
18 



14 
20 
40 
0.5 



1 

18 
3.5 



0.5 



13.5 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Aluminum Alloys) 



ALUMINUM 

General Remarks. — Aluminum unites 
readily with all the common metals ex- 
cept lead. The useful alloys of aluminum 
so far found may be divided into two 
classes : the one, of aluminum with not 
more than 35% of other metals ; and the 
other, of metals containing not over 15% 
aluminum. In the one case the metals 
impart hardness and other useful quali- 
ties to the aluminum ; and in the other 
the aluminum adds useful qualities to the 
metals with which it is alloyed. 

Alkali Metals. 

Because of the ease with which these 
alloys are decomposed, especially when 
subjected to water or moist air, none of 
them can be considered in any way ad- 
vantageous ; in fact, alloys of metallic so- 
dium and potassium with aluminum are 
the hete noir of the metalhirgy of 
aluminum, just as sulphur and phosphorus 
are feared in the metallurgy of steel. 

Antimony. 

These metals unite with difficulty, and 
only in bearing metals of the class of 
Babbitt metals have any useful alloys as 
yet been discovered. 

Arsenic. 

No specially advantageous compounds 
of these metals have yet been discovered, 
nor from the nature of the case are they 
likely to be, although the metals can 
readily be alloyed. 

Bearing Metal. 

Additions of % to 2% of aluminum to 
bearing metals tend to free from oxide, 
producing an improved quality of bearing 
metal. 

Bismuth. 

These two metals combine easily, the 
alloys being very fusible, as might be 
expected of alloys with bismuth. They 
remain unchanged in the air at ordinary 
temperatures, but oxidize rapidly when 
melted. Bismuth makes aluminum very 
brittle. No valuable alloys of these two 
metals have as yet been discovered. 

Cadmium. 

These metals have been alloyed to pro- 
duce a solder for aluminum which seems 
to give good results. Cadmium does not 
appear to act as a hardener for aluminum, 
as almost all other metals do. 

[68 



(Aluminum Alloys) 



Cobalt. 

Cobalt also acts with about an equal 
amount of copper, as a specially good 
alloy for hardening aluminum. The fol- 
lowing are two cobalt and aluminum al- 
loys used for special purposes : Cobalt, 
60 parts ; aluminum, 10 parts ; copper, 40 
parts. Cobalt, 35 parts; aluminum, 25 
parts ; iron, 10 parts ; copper, 30 parts. 

Chromium. 

Chromium, though rather expensive, is 
an especially good hardener of aluminum. 
Aluminum hardened with chromium seems 
to retain its hardness after annealing or 
after being subjected to heat, better than 
any other of the alloys. 

Copper. 

Copper Aluminum. — 1. — Aluminum is a 
metal whose properties are very mate- 
rially influenced by a proportionately 
small addition of copper. Alloys of 99% 
of aluminum and 1% of copper are hard, 
brittle, and bluish in color ; 95% of alumi- 
num and 5% of copper gives an alloy 
which can be hammered, but with 10% 
of copper the metal can no longer be 
worked. With 80% and upward of cop- 
per are obtained alloys of a beautiful 
yellow color. The 10%, alloys are of a 
pure golden yellow color; with 5% of 
aluminum they are reddish yellow, like 
gold heavily alloyed with copper ; and a 
2% mixture is of an almost pure copper 
red. As the proportion of copper in- 
creases the brittleness is diminished, and 
alloys containing 10% and less of alumi- 
num can be used for industrial purposes, 
the best consisting of 90% of copper and 
10% of aluminum. The useful copper 
alloys with aluminum can be divided into 
two classes — the one containing less than 
11% of aluminum and the other contain- 
ing less than 15% of copper. The first 
class is best known as "aluminum bronze." 

a. — Aluminum Bronze. — None but the 
purest copper should be used, and the 
aluminum should be at least 99% pure. 
The copper should be put in a plumbago 
crucible and melted over a gas or oil fire, 
these being the best fuels to use. Next 
to gas or oil comes coke or charcoal as 
a fuel for melting. It is impossible to 
make satisfactory aluminum bronze over 
an ordinary coal fire, for the reason that 
the copper will absorb the gases from 
the coal. The copper should be covered 
with charcoal to prevent oxidation and 
the absorption of gases as much as pos- 
sible. After the copper has been melted 
the percentage of aluminum which it is 
] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Aluminum Bronze) 



desired to add should be dropped into 
the pot through the charcoal. In large 
pots of bronze, the pot may be removed 
from the fire before adding the aluminum. 
As soon as the aluminum goes into the 
pot the first action will be a cooling one, 
caused by the temperature of the alumi- 
num added. As soon as the aluminum is 
heated to its melting temperature it com- 
bines with the copper. Consequently, a 
great deal of latent heat is set free, or 
made sensible, by the chemical union of 
these two metals ; and as a result the tem- 
perature of the mass is raised. If the 
mixture is watched, one can tell as soon 
as union takes place, because the cop- 
per will become more liquid, and also will 
turn a little brighter. This lasts only an 
instant after the aluminum is introduced ; 
then the crucible, if it has remained in 
the furnace, should be removed instantly 
from the fire, the charcoal should be 
skimmed from the surface, and the con- 
tents, which are now aluminum bronze, 
should be poured into molds of convenient 
size. The liquid should be stirred as 
much as possible till poured. The alumi- 
num bronze, thus made, is ready to remelt 
for the production of finished castings. 

After aluminum bronze is made it im- 
proves with each successive remelting and 
casting until it has been recast three or 
four times. The remelting seems to give 
the aluminum a better chance to become 
more freely disseminated, to form a more 
uniform alloy with the copper. After 
putting the aluminum into the crucible, 
and before pouring, the molten mass 
should be stirred, in order to insure that 
the aluminum is as well disseminated 
through the alloy as possible. 

The percentage of aluminum in alumi- 
num bronze varies from a few per cent, 
up to 10 or 11%, depending upon the 
purpose for which the alloy is intended. 
The strangest mixture contains between 
10 and 11% of aluminum. Aluminum 
bronze can be readily soldered. It does 
not present the difficulty in soldering 
which pure aluminum does. The best 
method of soldering aluminum bronze is 
to use pure block tin with a flux of zinc 
filings and muriatic acid. It is well to 
"tin" the two surfaces before putting 
them together. 

A very small amount of aluminum in 
copper reduces its conductivity for elec-' 
tricity considerably. Deville states that 
2 to 3% alloys are used by M. Christophle 
for large castings of works of art. They 
are harder than aluminum, and work well 
under the "burin" and chisel. 

The alloy is composed of 90 parts of I 

[69 



(Aluminum Bronze) 



copper and 10 parts of aluminum. It is 
a definite chemical compound, and was 
discovered by Dr. Percy. 

The 10% alloy is very hard, can be 
beaten when cold, but with remarkable 
perfection when hot, and may be well 
compared to iron, which it resembles in 
all these physical properties ; it is also 
very ductile. It behaves as a true alloy, 
and consequently will not liquate into dif- 
ferent combinations. This is proved l3y 
the fact that, when in making the alloy, 
the pure copper is in the crucible, and a 
bar of aluminum is added, the combina- 
tion takes place with such disengagement 
of heat that if the crucible is not of good 
quality it will be fused, for the whole 
attains a white heat. The hardness of 
this alloy approaches that of the genu- 
ine bronzes, whence its name. It can 
be stretched out into thin sheets between 
rollers, worked under the hammer, and 
shaped as desired by beating, or pressure 
in powerful stamping presses. On ac- 
count of its hardness it takes a fine pol- 
ish, and its peculiar greenish-gold color 
resembles that of gold alloyed with cop- 
per and silver together. Alloys with a 
still greater proportion of copper approach 
this metal more and more nearly in their 
character ; the color of an alloy, for in- 
stance, composed of 95% of copper and 
5% of aluminum, can be distinguished 
from pure gold only by direct comparison, 
and the metal is very hard and also very 
malleable. 

Aluminum bronze is not affected by ex- 
posure to the air, and its beautiful color 
makes it very suitable for manufacturing 
various ornamental articles, including 
clock cases, doorknobs, etc. 

Aluminum-bronze wire is as strong as 
good steel wire, and castings made from 
it are as hard as steely iron. Its resist- 
ance to bending or sagging is three times 
as great as that of ordnance metal, and 
44 times as great as that of good brass. 
These properties, combined with its beau- 
tiful color and its unchangeableness, 
would seem to promise a very extended 
use for it in the manufacture of ma- 
chinery, and especially for mechanical in- 
struments where great precision is re- 
quired. 

According to a French authority, an 
alloy of the following composition givos 
the best results : Copper, 89 to 98% ; 
nickel, 1 to 2%, and aluminum. Alumi- 
num and nickel change in the opposite 
way ; that is to say, in increasing the 
percentage of nickel the amount of alumi- 
num is decreased by the equal quantity. 
It should be borne in mind that the best 
] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



i Aluminum-Boron-Bronze ) 



ratio is : aluminum, 9.5% ; nickel, 1 to 
1.5%, at most. In preparing the alloy, 
a deoxidizing agent is added, viz. : phos- 
phorus to 0.5%, magnesium to 1.5%. The 
phosphorus should always be added in the 
form of phosphorus-copper or phosphor- 
aluminum of exactly determined percent- 
age. It is first added to the copper, then 
the aluminum and the nickel, and finally 
the magnesium, the last named at the 
moment of liquidity, are admixed. 

b. — Boron Bronze. — This alloy, or, 
more correctly speaking, aluminum-boron 
bronze, is brought about by the intro- 
duction of aluminum containing boron, 
not as aluminum boride, but existing as 
graphite does in cast iron. Commercially, 
this part of the process is accomplished 
by heating in a specially constructed oxy- 
hydrogen furnace an admixture of fluor- 
spar and vitrified boric anhydride, until 
the dense fumes of boron fluoride com- 
mence to appear. At this stage, ingots of 
aluminum are introduced into the liquid 
mass ; reduction at once takes place, with 
the formation of free boron, which dis- 
solves in the aluminum, rendering it crys- 
talline and somewhat brittle. When this 
so prepared aluminum is alloyed with 
copper, to the extent of from 5 to 10%, 
a bronze is obtained denser and more 
durable than ordinary aluminum bronze, 
and free from brittleness ; but the most 
peculiar property is the perfectness with 
which it casts and melts ; whereas, in 
the manufacture of aluminum bronze, one 
of the greatest difliculties is to insure a 
uniform mixture. Often a very difiicultly 
fusible alloy of copper and aluminum is 
formed upon the surface of the already 
melted portion, and accompanied by su- 
perficial oxidation, thus obstinately refus- 
ing to alloy with the remainder. But in 
the case of the boron compound no such 
difficulties are met with, the alloy melt- 
ing perfectly, and at a lower temperature 
than when employing pure aluminum. 
Boron, in fact, seems to have been little 
studied, but it is evidently not so serious 
an enemy to cope with as its halogen 
silicon, which, when present in minute 
percentages only, determines the total 
ruin of the bronze with which it alloys ; 
in other words, it stands almost entirely 
opposite to other elements, entering into 
the formation and forming compounds 
with the more refractory metals with the 
greatest ease ; for instance, borides of 
iron, manganese, nickel, cobalt, etc., may 
be readily formed by the reduction of 
their accompanying borates in the pres- 
ence of carbon, while those of silver, cop- 
per, gold, etc., can only be formed by 

[70 



( Aluminum-Brass ) 



the introduction of elementary boron into 
the fused mass ; borides of the alkali met- 
als, and even calcium, barium, etc., have 
also been obtained, but boride of mercury 
still holds out. 

Aluminum-Copper. — 2. — a. — The second 
class of copper-aluminum alloys embraces 
the aluminum casting alloys most appli- 
cable for general purposes. When alumi- 
num is alloyed with from 7 to 10% of 
copper a tough alloy is secured, the ten- 
sile strength of which will vary from 
15,000 to 20,000 lb. per square inch. This 
alloy has proved itself especially adapt- 
able to automobile work and to those 
castings submitted to severe shocks and 
stresses. Because of the nature of its 
constituents, an alloy of the above, or of 
similar composition, is not so liable to 
be "burnt" in the foundry as an alloy 
made up of more volatile constituents. 
The remainder of the range of copper- 
aluminum alloys, from 20% of copper up 
to over 85%, give crystalline and brittle 
grayish-white alloys of no use in the arts. 
After 80% of copper is reached the dis- 
tinctly red color of the copper begins to 
show itself. 

b. — Aluminum-Brass. — Aluminum-brass 
has an elastic limit of about 30,000 lb. 
per square inch ; an ultimate strength of 
from 40,000 to 50,000 lb. per square inch ; 
and an elongation of 3 to 10% in 8 in. 
Aluminum is used in brass in all pro- 
portions, from 1-10 of 1% to 10%. The 
best results are derived by introducing 
the aluminum, when possible, in the form 
of aluminized zinc (q. v.) This aluminized 
zinc is added in the same manner that 
the zinc is originally introduced into the 
copper, and in such proportions as will 
give the requisite amount of aluminum in 
the brass mixture. A 5% aluminized zinc 
is generally used when percentages of less 
than 1% of aluminum are required ; and 
aluminized zinc of 10% is used when a 
greater percentage than 1% is required. 
The effect o faluminum in brass, added in 
this manner, in small quantities of less 
than 1%, is mainly to make the brass 
flow freely, and present a smooth surface, 
free from blowholes. When used in 
these quantities, from one-half to one- 
third more small patterns can be used on 
a gate than can be used without the pres- 
ence of aluminum, for this amount of 
aluminum gives to the brass such addi- 
tional fluidity as enables it to run more 
freely in the molds and for a greater dis- 
tance ; consequently more patterns can be 
used on a gate. In quantities of more 
than 1% the effect of the aluminum com- 
mences to be very perceptible, because it 

] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Aluminum and Iron) 



imparts to tlie brass additional strength ; 
and this strength is increased directly as 
the percentage of aluminum is increased, 
up to about 10% ; 1% of aluminum in 
brass is very extensively used for elec- 
trical purposes, inasmuch as it makes a 
brass casting free from pinholes, and of 
greater strength than otherv^^ise can be 
secured from the same grade of brass. 
It therefore follows that by the use of 
a small percentage of aluminum in brass 
a cheaper grade of brass can be used to 
do the same work, which otherwise would 
demand a better grade of brass. It should 
be noted that the presence of aluminum 
in these alloys lowers the point at which 
they become fluid, and that they are fluid 
at lower temperatures than either gun 
metal or ordinary brass mixtures ; there- 
fore, the average brass founder is very 
liable to overheat them. Great care must 
be taken to prevent this. 

Gold. 

Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen has dis- 
covered a beautiful alloy, composed of 
78 parts of gold and 22 parts of alumi- 
num, which has a rich purple color. 

Indium. 

No valuable alloys of these metals have 
as yet been discovered. 

Iron. 

Aluminum combines with iron in all 
proportions. Few of the alloys, however, 
have yet proved of value, except those of 
small percentages of aluminum with steel, 
cast iron and wrought iron. 

Cast Iron. — In cast iron, from 1 to 2 
lb. of aluminum per ton is put into the 
metal as it is being poured from the 
cupola or melting furnace. To soft gray 
No. 1 foundry iron it is doubtful if the 
metal does much good, except, perhaps, 
in the way of keeping the metal melted 
for a longer time ; but where diflScult 
castings are to be made, where much loss 
is occasioned by defective castings, or 
where the iron will not flow well, or give 
sound and strong castings, the aluminum 
certainly in many cases allows better 
work to be done, and stronger and sound- 
er castings to be made, having a closer 
grain, and hence much easier tooled. The 
tendency of the aluminum is to change 
combined carbon to graphitic, and it les- 
sens the tendency of the metal to chill. 
Aluminum in proportions of 2% and 
over materially decreases the shrinkage of 
cast iron. 

F err 0- Aluminum. — This is the trade 
name given to alloys of from 5 to 10, or 



(Aluminum and Steel) 



even 20% of aluminum, added to iron. 
These alloys vary in quality, occasioned 
by the grade of steel or iron used in 
making them. 

Steel. — The amount of aluminum used 
is small, and, to give the best results, 
varies ^ with the grade of steel, amount 
of occluded gases, temperature of molten 
metal, etc. Aluminum is usually added 
in proportions of from % to % lb. to 
1 ton of steel. The aluminum is added 
either to the metal in the ladle, or, in 
the case of steel castings, with more econ- 
omy of aluminum, to the metal as it is 
being poured into the ingot molds. 

Until the proper percentage of alumi- 
num to add to any particular grade of 
steel has been determined, it is advisable 
to start with small amounts ; for instance, 
with 2 or 3 oz. to the ton, working up 
to the proportion that seems to give the 
best results. 

The special advantages to be gained 
by the use of aluminum in steel manu- 
facture are enumerated as follows: (1) 
The increase of soundness of tops of in- 
gots, and consequent decrease of scrap 
and other loss. (2) The quieting of the 
ebullition in molten steel, thereby allow- 
ing the successful pouring of "wild" heats 
from furnaces, ladles, etc. (3) The pre- 
vention of oxidation, thus increasing the 
homogeneity of the steel. (4) The in- 
crease of tensile strength of steel with- 
out decrease of the ductility. (5) The 
removal of any oxygen or oxides that 
there may be in the steel, the aluminum 
acting as a deodorizer in the same way 
as manganese does. Good steel has been 
made for electrical purposes, using alumi- 
num entirely in the place of manganese, 
to remove the oxidation from the molten 
steel and render it malleable. (6) The 
rendering of steel less liable to oxidation, 
because there is prevented the continued 
exposure of fresh surfaces of the molten 
steel in its ebullition in the molds after 
pouring. (7) The production of smoother 
surfaced castings and ingots of steel than 
it is possible to obtain without the use 
of aluminum. 

There are no such metals as "alumi- 
num steels," in the same way that there 
are "nickel steels" and "chromium steels." 
Aluminum is not a hardener of steel, and 
none of its alloys with steel has so far 
proved advantageous. It has been proved 
that the addition of aluminum to steel 
just before "teeming" causes the metal 
to lie quiet, and give oflE no appreciable 
quantity of gases, producing ingots with 
much sounder tops. There are two theo- 
ries to account for this : one, that the 
71] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Aluminum and Steel) 



aluminum decomposes these gases, and ab- 
sorbs the oxygen contained in them ; the 
other, is that aluminum greatly increases 
the solubility in the steel of the gases 
which are usually given off at the mo- 
ment of setting, thus forming blowholes 
and bubbles. 

Aluminum is the principal deoxidizer 
known to metallurgists, the next being 
silicon. Their relative values are shown 
as follows: 100 parts, by weight, of oxy- 
gen will combine with 114 parts of alum- 
inum, or with 140 parts of silicon, or 
with 350 parts of manganese. This, how- 
ever, does not correctly express the value 
of aluminum as a deoxidizer of iron and 
steel, inasmuch as it has such a great 
affinity for oxygen that it will entirely 
disappear if there is any oxygen present, 
and will be found in the steel and iron 
only after all the oxygen has been ab- 
sorbed. This is not the case with either 
silicon or mauganese. 

There is danger of adding too large a 
quantity of aluminum, in which case the 
metal will set very solid, and will be 
liable to form deep "pipes" in the ingots. 
But successful results have been secured 
with varying kinds of steel by adding 
from % to % lb. of aluminum to 1 ton 
of steel. No difficulty has been experi- 
enced with the thorough mixing of the 
aluminum added to steel, as it seems to 
rapidly and uniformly permeate the steel 
without any special care being taken in 
stirring. This property adds to the homo- 
geneous alloying of nickel with steel as 
well, and the nickel-steel manufacturers 
use aluminum in addition to nickel for 
this purpose. If the metal be "wild" in 
the ladle, full of occluded gases, too hot, 
or oxidized, a larger proportion of alumi- 
num can be advantageously added. In 
casting steel ingots which are to be ham- 
mered or rolled, it has been found ad- 
visable to add from 2 to 4 oz. of alumi- 
num to 1 ton of steel. In the manufac- 
ture of steel castings, where the first de- 
sideratum is soundness of the castings and 
freedom from blowholes, and where the 
excessive piping and contraction in cool- 
ing is provided for by large runners and 
a high and capacious fountain or "sinking 
head," larger amounts of aluminum, up 
to 16, or even 32 oz. of aluminum to 1 
ton of steel, are advantageously added. 

An alloy of aluminum and ferro-man- 
ganese has been patented. The addition 
of a small percentage of aluminum to the 
ferro-manganese renders the combined 
carbon in the manganese alloy graphitic, 
and throws it out of the molten mass. 
This permits the production of a ferro- 

[ 



(Aluminum and Magnesium) 



manganese very low in combined carbon, 
and particularly useful in the manufac- 
ture of low-carbon steel. 

Aside from the reduction of blowholes, 
and consequent greater soundness, the ad- 
dition of about 1 lb. of aluminum per ton 
of steel is of advantage where the steel 
is to be cast in heavy ingots which will 
receive only scant work. Here it seems 
to increase the ductility, as measured by 
the elongation and reduction of area of 
tensile test specimens, without materially 
altering the ultimate strength. The addi- 
tions of aluminum are, in many instances, 
made by throwing the metal into the ladle 
in pieces weighing a few ounces each, 
as the steel is poured into it. But some 
manufacturers prefer to add the alumi- 
num in the form of ferro-aluminum ; in 
this case the alloy is first placed in the 
ladle, and, as the molten steel runs in, 
the alloy melts, and is diffused through 
the entire contents of the ladle. 

Wrought Iron.- — The effect of aluminum 
in wrought iron is not very marked in 
the ordinary puddling process. It seems 
to add somewhat to the strength of the 
iron, but the amount is not of sufficient 
value to induce the general use of alumi- 
num for this purpose. The peculiar prop- 
erty of aluminum in reducing the long 
range of temperature between that at 
which wrought iron first softens and that 
at which it becomes fluid, is taken advan- 
tage of in the well-known Mitis process 
for making "wrought-iron castings." It 
is for this that aluminum is most used 
in wrought iron at present. One per cent, 
of aluminum makes wrought iron more 
fluid at 2200° F. (which is about the 
melting point of cast iron) than it would 
be without it at 3500° F. In puddling 
iron an addition of 0.25% to the bath 
causes the charge to stiffen more quickly, 
and in the shingling process and in roll- 
ing the balls, to work much stiffer than 
usual. In one instance, where the ordi- 
nary iron averaged 22 tons tensile 
strength, with 12% elongation, the iron 
treated with aluminum showed over 30 
tons tensile strength, with 22% elonga- 
tion. 

Lead. 

These metals unite only with great dif- 
ficulty, and no useful alloys have yet 
been discovered. 

Magnesium. 

The alloys of these light metals are 

interesting, because they are lighter than 

aluminum, and are equally as strong as 

the copper alloys of aluminum. On ac- 

72] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Aluminum and Silver) 



count of the cost of magnesium, they 
have not been widely adopted for com- 
mercial purposes. 

Manganese. 

Manganese is one of the best harden- 
ers of aluminum. 

Mercury. 

These metals unite with difficulty, but 
at the same time amalgams and alloys 
can be produced by uniting the two met- 
als. No useful results, however, have 
yet been shown from any of such alloys 
or combinations. 

Metalloids. 

Although all the metalloids and gase- 
ous elements, such as oxygen, nitrogen, 
sulphur, selenium, chlorine, iodine, bro- 
mine, fluorine, boron, silicon and carbon 
unite with aluminum with more or less 
ease under certain conditions, yet no use- 
ful result has been recorded as due to the 
combination of any of these elements with 
metallic aluminum. The union of the 
above metalloids in combination with 
aluminum results in alloys which, from 
a commercial standpoint, are undesirable 
in every way. The prevention of the oc- 
clusion of gaseous metalloids in molten 
aluminum, and the prevention of the 
union of carbon with the metal, are 
among the chief precautions to be ob- 
served in the metallurgy of aluminum. 

Molybdenum. 

x\luminum can be readily alloyed with 
molybdenum in the process, by placing 
the molybdenum oxide in the electrolytic 
bath with the oxide of aluminum. Molyb- 
denum acts as a hardener for aluminum, 
and forms alloys which will have special 
advantages for some work, as in the pro- 
duction of aluminum coins and medals. 

Nickel. 

1. — This alloy, with from 2 to 5% of 
the combined alloying metals, is very sat- 
isfactory for rolling or hammering. By 
larger proportions, of 7 to 9%, a good 
casting alloy is produced. 

2. — Two new alloys for jewelry consist 
of: (1) Nickel, 20 parts; with alumi- 
num 8 parts. (2) Nickel, 40 parts; sil- 
ver, 10 parts ; aluminum, 30 parts ; tin, 
20 parts. 

Silver. 

1. — The addition of a few per cent, of 
silver to aluminum, to harden, whiten 
and strengthen the metal, gives a mate- 
rial especially adaptable for many fine 

[ 



(Aluminum and Uranium) 



instruments and tools, and for electrical 
apparatus, where the work upon the tool, 
and its convenience, are of more conse- 
quence than the increased price due to the 
addition of the silver. Silver lowers the 
melting point of aluminum and gives a 
metal susceptible of taking a good polish 
and making fine castings. 

2. — Aluminum, 3 parts ; silver, 1 part. 
This alloy is very easy to work. 

Tellurium. 

When tellurium is heated with alumi- 
num, the two combine with explosive vio- 
lence, forming a chocolate-colored, diffi- 
cultly fusible compound, which has the 
composition of AL Te^. It is hard and 
brittle, and can readily be ground to pow- 
der ; when exposed to moist air it is de- 
composed, and hydrogen telluride, with 
its fetid odor, is slowly evolved ; when 
thrown into water it is rapidly decom- 
posed. 
Tin. 

1. — Tin has been alloyed with alumi- 
num in proportions of from 1 to 15% of 
tin, giving added strength and rigidity to 
heavy castings, as well as sharpness of 
outline, with a decrease in the shrinkage 
of the metal. The alloys of aluminum 
and tin are rather brittle, however, and 
although small proportions of tin, in cer- 
tain casting alloys, have been advantage- 
ously used to decrease the shrinkage, on 
account of the comparative cost and brit- 
tleness of the tin alloys, they are not gen- 
erally used. 

2. — Aluminum, 100 parts ; tin, 10 parts. 

3.— Aluminum, 90% ; tin, 10%. 

4. — Bourhonne^s Aluminum Alloy — 
Aluminum and tin, equal parts. This al- 
loy solders easily. 

Titanium. 

Titanium alloys of aluminum, although 
hard to manufacture uniformly homo- 
geneous, have greater spring and resili- 
ence than most other aluminum alloys. 
Alloys of titanium, chromium and copper, 
together with aluminum, give some of the 
hardest and toughest light alloys yet pro- 
duced. 
Tungsten. 

The alloys of aluminum and tungsten 
have been used to some extent for the 
past few years in Europe for rolled sheets 
and plates, under the trade name of 
"Wolframium." 
Uranium. 

This alloy is an expensive one ; and 
while uranium appears to be a good hard- 
73] 



AUoys and Amalgams 



(Aluminum and Zinc) 



(Aluminum and Zinc) 



ener for aluminum, on account of its ex- 
pense and rarity it has not had, as yet, 
a general application. 

Vanadium. 

Vanadium is a good hardener of alumi- 
num, and can readily be alloyed with it, 
due to its presence in some of the baux- 
ites, the native aluminum ores. 

Zimalium. 

The name of a new alloy of aluminum, 
magnesium and zinc. The specific weight 
is 2.65 to 2.75 ; in casting, 2.68 as against 
2.64 for aluminum. It is harder, and 
more suitable to be worked. A softer 
variety serves for rolling, stamping, etc. ; 
a harder one for casting. The tensile 
strength is double that of aluminum, 25 
to 35 kg. per millimeter ; the wires bear 
30 to 37 kg. ; the ductility rises up to 
10%. Wires and sheet metal behave like 
brass. The castings can be filed, forged, 
cut, planed, etc., possess a tensile strength 
of 14 to 20 kg., and, upon rapid cooling, 
20 to 25 kg. Zimalium is less resistive to 
chemical actions than aluminum. Tlie 
electric conductivity amounts to two- 
thirds of that of the latter. The alloy 
is 10 to 12% dearer than aluminum. 

Zinc. 

Like copper alloys, the zinc alloys can 
be divided into two classes: (1) Those 
containing a relatively small amount of 
aluminum. (2) Those containing less 
than 35% of zinc. The first class will 
be treated under Aluminized Zinc; the 
second class comprises the useful zinc 
casting alloys. Zinc produces the strong- 
est alloys with aluminum, the strength 
being still further increased by the addi- 
tion of small amounts of other suitable 
metals. The tensile strength of the strong- 
est of the zinc alloys frequently runs as 
high as 30,000 to 35,000 lb. per square 
inch. These high zinc alloys are brittle, 
however, and are more liable to "draw" 
in heavy parts or lugs than are the cop- 
per alloys. This can, in most cases, be 
overcome by suitable gating, placing of 
chills and risers. Zinc alloys also pos- 
sess the danger of having the zinc burned 
out in melting, thus producing a weaker 
casting. With careful work, however, 
this class of alloys gives as good satisfac- 
tion as copper alloys in respect to hard- 
ness, ease of machining, and use in small 
parts not subject to severe shock. For 
forging, few metals excel an aluminum- 
zinc alloy containing from 10 to 15% 
of zinc. This alloy is tough, flows well 
under the forging dies, and produces a 

[74 



finished product that is solid, easily ma- 
chined, and remarkably strong per unit 
of area. 

Zinc is used as a cheap and very effi- 
cient hardener in aluminum castings, for 
such purposes as sewing-machine frames, 
etc. Proportions up to 30% of zinc with 
aluminum are successfully used. An al- 
loy of about 15% of zinc, 2% of tin, 2% 
of copper, Vz% each of manganese and 
iron, and 80% aluminum, has special ad- 
vantages. The following alloys are strong, 
and meet all usual requirements : 

Al. Zn. Cu. Sn. 

For wire or sheet 28 5 

For tubes 13 6 8 2 

With good close grain . 20 10 . . 

With good open grain .18 6 . . 

Aluminized Zinc. — Aluminized zinc is 
used for two purposes, namely : in the 
bath, for galvanizing, and in aluminum 
brass. It is manufactured as follows : 
Place 5 or 10 lb. of aluminum in a plum- 
bago crucible. The amount used will de- 
pend upon whether a 5 or a 10% alumi- 
num alloy is desired. After the alumi- 
num is melted add the zinc, continually 
stirring the mass, until either 95 or 90 lb. 
of zinc have been added, making the total 
weight of the metal in the crucible, in 
either case, 100 lb. After all the zinc 
has been added the crucible should be 
removed from the fire, and the alloy cast 
into ingots of convenient form and size 
for breaking up. The 5% aluminized 
zinc will be found best for use in the 
galvanizing bath, and also in the lower 
grades of aluminum brass ; but in the 
higher grades of brass, containing up- 
ward of 1% of aluminum, it would be 
best to use a 10%; aluminized zinc. The 
aluminized zinc, both in brass and in the 
galvanizing baths, is treated, in all re- 
spects, the same as pure zinc, as far as 
the question of introducing it into molten 
metal is concerned. 

Galvanizing Baths. — The use of alumi- 
num in a galvanizing bath has become so 
universal that at the present time it is 
considered a necessity in order to do the 
best and most economical work. It is 
added in the form of aluminized zinc, 
which is made as described above, and is 
used in such proportions that the total 
amount of aluminum in the bath will be 
about 1 lb. of aluminum per ton of bath ; 
or, in using a 5% aluminized zinc, 20 
lb. of aluminized zinc per ton of bath 
should be used. These proportions, how- 
ever, are varied according to the grade 
of zinc which is being used, and also ac- 
cording to the class of material to be 

] 



Alloys and Amalgarru 



(Bismuth and Cadmium) 



galvanized. When aluminized zinc is 
used, it has been found unnecessary to 
use sal ammoniac for clearing the bath 
of oxide, inasmuch as the aluminum ac- 
complishes the same purpose ; and if the 
two are used together they seem to coun- 
teract the effects of each other. Alumi- 
nized zinc should be added to the galva- 
nizing baths gradually as the bath is con- 
sumed, in quantities of about 1 lb. at a 
time for a 5-ton bath. This statement 
applies when a 5% aluminized zinc is 
used. The first action of aluminum in 
galvanizing baths is to make the bath 
more liquid, which is one of the objects 
in adding the aluminum. A great amount 
of aluminum seems to combine with the 
impurities in the zinc, and comes to the 
surface in the form of a scum, which 
makes galvanizing difficult. If, therefore, 
too much aluminum goes into the bath, 
stir the bath well, and allow it to stand 
for a while until the aluminum com- 
bines with these impurities and comes to 
the surface as a scum. Remove this 
scum, add some sal ammoniac to counter- 
act the effects of the aluminum, and re- 
duce the proportion of the aluminized zinc 
added. In starting with a new bath, it 
is especially important that these sug- 
gestions should be followed. 

BISMUTH AND CADMIUM ALLOYS 
Bismuth Bronze. 

1. — A metallic alloy, which the in- 
ventor calls bismuth bronze, was intro- 
duced by Webster, as specially suitable 
for use in sea water, for telegraph and 
music wires, and for domestic articles. 
The composition varies slightly with the 
purpose for which the bronze is to be 
used, but in all cases the proportion of 
bismuth is very small. For a hard alloy 
he takes 1 part of bismuth and 16 parts 
of tin, and, having melted them, mixes 
them thoroughly as a separate or pre- 
liminary alloy. For a hard bismuth 
bronze he then takes 69 parts of copper, 
21 parts of spelter, 9 parts of nickel, and 
1 part of the bismuth-tin alloy. The met- 
als are melted in a furnace or crucible, 
thoroughly mixed, and run into molds 
for future use. This bronze is hard, 
tough, and sonorous ; it may be used in 
the manufacture of screw-propeller blades, 
shafts, tubes, and other appliances em- 
ployed partially or constantly in sea 
water, being especially suited to withstand 
the destructive action of salt water. In 
consequence of its toughness it is well 
suited for telegraph wires and other pur- 
poses where much strain has to be borne. 

[ 



(Fusible Metals) 



From its sonorous quality it is well adap- 
ted for piano and other music wires. For 
domestic utensils, and other articles gen- 
erally exposed to atmospheric influence, 
the composition is 1 part of bismuth, 1 
part of aluminum, and 15 parts of tin, 
melted together to form the separate or 
preliminary alloy, which is added in the 
proportion of 1% to the above described 
alloy of copper, spelter and nickel. The 
resulting bronze forms a durable, bright 
and hard alloy, suited for the manufac- 
ture of spoons, forks, knives, dish covers, 
kettles, teapots, jugs, and numerous other 
utensils. These alloys are said to resist 
oxidation, to polish well and easily, and 
to keep their color well. 

I. II. III. IV. 

Copper 25 45 69 47 

Nickel 24 32.5 10 30.9 

Antimony 50 

Bismuth 1 1 1 0.1 

Tin 16 15 1 

Zinc 21.5 20 21 

Aluminum . . 1 

I is hard and very lustrous, suitable 
for lamp reflectors and axle bearings. II 
is hard, resonant, and not affected by sea 
water, for parts of ships, pipes, telegraph 
wires and piano strings ; III and IV are 
for cups, spoons, etc. 

3. — Tin, 16 parts ; bismuth, 1 to 3 
parts. 

Fusible Alloys. 

Under the name, fusible metal, or fus- 
ible alloy, is understood a mixture of 
metals which becomes liquid at tempera- 
tures at or below the boiling point of 
water. 

1. — D'Arcefs. — Bismuth, 8 parts ; lead, 
5 parts ; tin, 3 parts. This melts below 
212° F. 

2. — Walker's. — Bismuth, 8 parts : tin, 4 
parts ; lead, 5 parts ; antimony, 1 part. 
The metals should be repeatedly melted 
and poured into drops until they can be 
well mixed, previous to fusing them to- 
gether. 

3. — Onion's. — Lead, 3 parts ; tin, 2 
parts ; bismuth, 5 parts. Melts at 197° F. 

4. — If to the latter, after removing it 
from the fire, 1 part of warm quicksilver 
be added, it will remain liquid at 170° 
F., and become a firm solid only at 140° 
F. 

5. — Bismuth, 2 parts ; lead, 5 parts ; 
tin, 3 parts. Melts in boiling water. 

Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 5 are used to make 
toy spoons to surprise children by their 
melting in hot liquors. A little mercury 
(as in 4) may be added to lower their 
melting points. Nos. 1 and 2 are specially 
75] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Fusible Metals) 



adapted for making electrotype molds. 
French cliche molds are made with the 
alloy No. 2. These alloys are also used 
to form pencils for writing, also as metal 
haths in the laboratory, or for soft-sol- 
dering joints. No. 4 is aso used for ana- 
tomical injections. 

Higher temperatures, for metal haths 
in laboratories, may be obtained by the 
following mixtures : 1 part tin and 2 
parts lead melt at 441.5° F. : 1 part tin 
and 1 part lead melt at 371.7° F. ; 2 
parts tin and 1 part lead melt at 340° 
F. ; 63 parts tin and 37 parts lead melt 
at 344.7° F. 

Table of Fusible Alloys 



(Fusible Metals) 



8 8 

8 8 

8 10 

8 12 

8 16 

8 16 

8 16 



be 



Q 

202 
208 
226 
236 
6 243 
8 254 I 
8 266 
8 270 
8 300 
16 304 
12 290 



16 

18 24 



24 316 



312 
8 20 24 310 



8 22 
8 24 



24 308 
24 310 



8 26 24 320 



16 14 

16 16 

16 18 

16 20 



8 16 



290 
292 
298 
304 
22 312 



8 28 24 330 
8 30 
8 32 



8 32 



24 342 
24 352 



32 28 332 

32 30 328 

32 32 320 
30 



8 



32 36 

32 

32 



328 

320 

38 322 

40 324 



Fusible Metals for Use in Boilers, etc. 
— The following alloys, with their corre- 
sponding melting points, together with the 
temperature of steam at various press- 
ures, may be used : 



a 



5 

4 

3 

2 

IV2 

4 

3 

2 

1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

5 

4 



Leadl 
1 



1 
1 
1 
1 
4 BiFTiuth 



881° P. 
378° F. 
365° F. 
356° P. 105 lb. 



120 lb. 



340° P. 
334° P. 
320° P. 
310° P. 
292° P. 
254° P. 



90 1b. 
75 lb. 
60 1b. 
45 lb. 
30 1b. 
15 1b. 



s 

350° 
341° 
331° 
320° 
307° 
282° 
274° 
250° 
292° 
310° 
320° 
381° 
378° 
365° 
356° 
340° 



P. 
P. 
P. 
P. 
P. 
P. 
P. 
P. 
P. 
P. 
P. 
P. 
F. 
P. 
P. 
P. 

[76 



a 

334° F. 
370° F. 
441° P. 
482° F. 
511° P. 
541° P. 
558° P. 



Tin IVsLead 1 

"1 "1 

"1 "2 

"1 "3 

"1 "5 

" 1 " 10 

" 1 " 25 

So much depends, however, on the way 
in which an alloy is made, the purity of 
its original metals, and the changing con- 
ditions to which a fusible plug is sub- 
jected, that it is very doubtful whether 
they should ever be depended upon in crit- 
ical places. 

Fusible Alloys and their Melting Points. 
— The following alloys will melt in boil- 
ing water or at a lower temperature : 
Bis- Cad- 
Tin. Liead. muth. mium. C. 



Newton's 3 
Rose's.. . 3 
Erman's. 1 
Wood's. . 2 
Mellott's. 5 
Harper's. 4 



100° 
95° 
93° 
70° 
93° 
80° 



F. 

212° 
203° 
199° 
158° 
200° 
180° 



Erman's alloy can be made of equal 
parts of plumber's half-and-half solder 
(equal parts tin and lead) and bismuth. 
Harper's alloy can be made of 8 parts of 
plumber's half-and-half solder, 7 parts of 
bismuth and 1 part of cadmium, and can 
be poured into a modeling composition 
impression. It is hard enough to with- 
stand the hammering required, and makes 
a smooth, sharp die. 

Fusible Alloys Containing Cadmium. — 
Cadmium, like bismuth, has the valuable 
property of lowering the melting point of 
many alloys, some of which are readily 
fusible in boiling water. Cadmium does 
not render the alloys so crystalline and 
brittle as bismuth, many of its combina- 
tions being capable of being hammered 
and rolled. The chief use of cadmium is 
in fusible alloys, which are used as sol- 
ders, for castings requiring a low tem- 
perature, and in dentistry for alloys for 
stopping hollow teeth. Alloys of cad- 
mium generally contain tin, lead, bismuth, 
and cadmium. Mercury is sometimes add- 
ed to still further lower the melting point. 
The following table shows the composi- 
tion and melting points of the more im- 
portant cadmium alloys : 

Cad- Bis- Melfg 

Alloys, mium. Lead. Tin. muth. point. 

Lipowitz's. 3 8 4 15 158° F. 

Fusible.... 2 11 3 16 170° F. 

" .... 10 8 3 8 167°F. 

] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Fusible Metals) 



(Fusible Metals) 



Cad- Bis- Melt'g 

Alloys, mium. Lead. Tin. muth. point. 

" .... 1 .. 2 3 203°F. 

" .... 1 .. 3 5 203°F. 

" .... 1 .. 1 2 203°F. 

" .... 1 2 1 4 150°F. 

Wood's.... 2 4 2 5 160° F. 

Fusible.... 2 2 4.. 187°F. 

Type metal 221/2 50 36 

Cadmium alloy (melting point 170° 
F. ) : Cadmium, 2 parts ; tin, 3 parts ; 
lead, 11 parts ; bismuth, 16 parts. 

Cadmium alloy (melting point 167° 
F.) : Cadmium, 10 parts; tin, 3 parts; 
lead, 8 parts ; bismuth, 8 parts. 

Cadmium alloys (melting point 203° 
F.): 

I. II. III. 

Cadmium 1 1 1 

Tin 2 3 1 

Bismuth 3 5 2 

A very fusible alloy, melting at 150° 
F., is composed of tin, 1 or 2 parts ; lead, 
2 or 3 parts ; bismuth, 4 or 15 parts ; cad- 
mium, 1 or 2 parts. 

Cadmium alloy (melting point 179.5° 
F.) : Cadmium, 1 part; lead, 6 parts; 
bismuth, 7 parts. This can be used for 
soldering in hot water. 

Cadmium alloy (melting point 300° 
F.) : Cadmium, 2 parts; tin, 4 parts; 
lead, 2 parts. This is an excellent soft 
solder, with a melting point about 86° 
below that of lead and tin alone. 

Bibra's Alloy. — Bismuth, 18 parts ; tin, 
9 parts ; lead, 38 to 40 parts. 

Casting. — 1. — Bismuth Alloys for Deli- 
cate Castings. — For delicate castings, and 
for taking impressions from dies, medals, 
etc., various bismuth alloys are in use, 
whose composition corresponds to the fol- 
lowing figures : 

I. II. III. IV. 

Bismuth 6 5 2 8 

Tin 3 2 1 3 

Lead 13 3 1 5 

These alloys have the property, very 
favorable in making sharply outlined cast- 
ings, that they expand strongly on cool- 
ing, and so fill out the finest elevations 
and depressions of the mold. 

2. — Alloy for casting natural objects, 
such as fruits, leaves, beetles, snakes, liz- 
ards, etc. — Lipowitz metal : Tin, 4 parts : 
lead, 8 parts ; bismuth, 15 parts ; cad- 
mium, 3 parts. This, the easiest melting 
metal mixture, softens at 55° C. (131° 
F.), and is completely fluid at 60° C. 
(140° F.) . Wood's metal : Tin, 2 parts ; 
lead, 4 parts ; bismuth, 5 to 8 parts ; cad- 

[77 



mium, 1 to 2 parts. This silver-white 
looking, very fine grained alloy melts at 
66° C. and 72° C. It can also be used, 
with excellent results, for soldering. 

3. — To make a cast with Lipowitz 
metal. — Plaster of paris is poured over 
the animal to be cast, and after sharp 
drying the animal is removed and the 
mold filled up with Lipowitz metal. The 
mold is placed in a vessel of water, and 
by heating to the boiling point the metal 
is melted and deposited in the finest im- 
pressions of the mold. This alloy is most 
excellent for soldering tin, lead, Britan- 
nia metal and nickel, being especially 
adapted to the two latter metals on ac- 
count of its silver-white color ; but its 
costliness prevents its general use, and 
cheaper alloys possessing the same prop- 
erties have been sought. 

4. — For Small Articles. — This alloy 
melts at a low degree of temperature, and 
is very hard without being brittle. It con- 
sists of 6 parts of bismuth, 3 parts of 
zinc and 13 parts of lead. The three 
metals, after having been well melted 
and stirred together, should be poured 
into another melting-pot and melted 
again. 'This alloy cools with remarkably 
clear-cut edges, and if the articles made 
of it are dipped in dilute nitric acid, then 
rinsed in clear water, and polished with 
a woolen rag, the raised parts of the 
surface will have a fine polish, while the 
sunken parts will have a dark gray, an- 
tique appearance, which forms a pretty 
contrast. The proportions of the diifer- 
ent metals, dividing the alloy into 100 
parts, are : Bismuth, 27.27% ; lead, 
59.09%; zinc, 13.64%. 

5. — For Small Castings. — Bismuth, 6 
parts ; tin, 3 parts ; lead, 13 parts. This 
alloy should be melted, run into bars, 
and laid aside till wanted, when it should 
be remelted. An alloy of 3 parts of bis- 
muth, 1 part of tin and 1 part of lead is 
harder, and yet it is not brittle. It can 
be finished with a contrasting surface of 
bright polish and dark gray, if it is 
washed in nitric acid, well diluted, rinsed, 
and polished with a woolen rag, as de- 
scribed in the alloy for small articles 
given above. 

Cementing Glass, Bismuth Alloy for. — 
Most of the cements in ordinary use are 
dissolved, or at least softened, by petro- 
leum. An alloy of lead, 3 parts ; tin, 2 
parts ; bismuth, 2.5 parts, melting at 212° 
F., is not affected by petroleum, and is 
therefore useful for cementing lamps 
made of metal and glass combined. 

Cliche Metal. — This alloy is composed 
of tin, 48 parts ; lead, 32.5 parts ; bis- 

] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Fusible Metals) 



miith, 9 parts ; antimony, 10.5 parts. It 
is especially well adapted to dabbing roll- 
ers for printing cotton goods, and as it 
possesses a considerable degree of hard- 
ness, it wears well. For filling out de- 
fective places in metallic castings, an al- 
loy of 1 part of bismuth, 3 parts of anti- 
mony and 8 parts, of lead can be advan- 
tageously used. An alloy consisting of 50 
parts of lead, 36 parts of tin and 22.5 
parts of cadmium is remarkably well 
adapted to the manufacture of cliches, or 
cuts, since with as low a melting point 
as the cliche metals generally used (made 
of bismuth alloys) it combines the valu- 
able property of greater hardness. With 
a cliche or plate of this metal a large 
number of sharp impressions can be ob- 
tained. 

Homherg's Alloy. — Bismuth, lead and 
tin, equal parts. 

Kraiffs Alloy. — Bismuth, 50 parts ; 
lead, 20 parts ; tin, 10 parts. 

Newton's Metal consists of bismuth, 8 
parts ; lead, 5 parts ; tin, 3 parts. It 
melts at 202° F. 

Rose's Alloys consist of : 

I. II. 

Bismuth 2 8 

Tin 1 3 

Lead 1 8 



The first of these alloys melts at 200.75° 
F., and the other at 174.2° F. They 
were formerly used in the manufacture 
of the so-called safety plates inserted in 
the tops of steam boilers. These plates 
were intentionally made of a readily fus- 
ible alloy, so that at a certain tempera- 
ture, corresponding to a certain pressure 
in the interior of the boiler, they would 
become fluid, and allow the steam to es- 
cape through the opening thus made. They 
were to act as a sort of safety valve, to 
prevent the explosion of the boiler with 
too high a pressure of steam. But how- 
ever correct the principle may appear, it 
was found in practice that the boilers 
would frequently explode without the 
plates having melted ; and they are at 
the present time hardly used at all. Chem- 
ical and physical tests have shown that 
by long-continued heating of the plates 
new alloys are formed, whose melting 
points are much higher than those of the 
original compositions. The following ta- 
ble gives the compositions of some alloys 
which are said to melt if the pressure of 
the steam exceeds that indicated : 

[ 



(Copper Alloys) 



Corre- 
sponding 
pressure 
Melting of steam 
point, in atmos- 
Bismuth. Lead. Tin. deg. F. pheres. 
8 5 3 212.0 1 

8 8 4 235.9 li^ 

8 8 8 253.9 2 

8 10 8 266.0 21/2 

8 12 8 270.3 3 

8 16 14 289.5 31/2 

8 16 12 300.6 4 

8 22 24 308.8 5 

8 32 36 320.3 6 

8 32 28 331.7 7 

8 30 24 341.6 8 

COPPER 
Copper-Arsenic. 

Arsenic imparts to copper a very fine 
white color, and makes it very hard and 
brittle. Before German silver was known 
these alloys were sometimes used for the 
manufacture of such cast articles as were 
not to come in contact with iron. When 
exposed to the air they soon lose their 
whiteness, and take on a brownish shade. 
On account of this, as well as the poison- 
ous character of the arsenic, they are very 
little used at the present time. Alloys 
of copper and arsenic are best prepared 
by pressing firmly into a crucible a mix- 
ture of 70 parts of copper and 30 parts 
of arsenic (the copper to be used in the 
form of fine shavings) and fusing this 
mixture in a furnace with a good draft, 
under a cover of glass. 

Blanched Copper. — Fuse 8 oz. of cop- 
per and y2 oz. of neutral arsenical salt 
with a flux made of calcined borax, chai?- 
coal dust and powdered glass. 

Cobalt-Copper. 

Metalline. — The mixture known by the 
name of metalline has 25% of aluminum, 
30% of copper, 10% of iron and 35% of 
cobalt. This alloy melts at a point ap- 
proaching the melting point of copper, is 
tenacious, ductile, and very hard. 

Copper-Iron. 

The alloys of copper and iron are little 
used in the industries git the present day, 
but it would seem that in earlier times 
they were frequently prepared for the pur- 
pose of giving a considerable degree of 
hardness to copper ; for in antique casts, 
consisting principally of copper, we regu- 
larly find quite large quantities of iron, 
which leads to the supposition that they 
were added intentionally. These alloys, 
when of a certain composition, have con- 
78] 



Alloys and A7nalgams 



(Copper Alloys) 



piderable stro^ngth and hardness. With an 
increase in the quantity of the iron the 
hardness increases, but the solidity is less- 
ened. A copper and iron alloy of con- 
siderable strength, and at the same time 
very hard, is made of 66 parts of copper 
and 34 parts of iron.. These alloys ac- 
quire, on exposure to air, an ugly color 
inclining toward black, and are, therefore, 
not adapted for articles of art. 

Copper-Cobalt. 

Sun-hronze. — The alloy called sun-bronze 
contains 10% of aluminum, 30 or 40% of 
copper, and 40% of cobalt. It melts at 
a point approaching the melting point of 
copper, is tenacious, ductile, and very 
hard. 

Copper-Lead. 

Cock Me^aZ.— Copper, 20 lb.; lead, 8 
lb. ; litharge, 1 oz. ; antimony, 3 oz. 

Mira Metal, Acid-proof. — This alloy is 
characterized by its power of resisting 
the action of acids, and is, therefore, es- 
pecially adapted to making cocks, pipes, 
etc., which are to come in contact with 
acid fluids. It is composed of copper, 
zinc, lead, tin, iron, nickel, cobalt and 
antimony, in the following proportions : 
Copper, 74.755 ; zinc, 0.615 ; lead, 16.350 ; 
tin, 0.910 ; iron, 0.430 ; nickel and cobalt, 
each 0.240; antimony, 6.785. 

Pot Metal. — This is an alloy of copper 
and lead, in the proportion of 8 parts of 
copper to 3 parts of lead. The lead is 
an impurity in the zinc used for making 
the brass. Pot metal is very brittle when 
warmed ; it is chiefly used for making 
large vessels. 

Lead. Copper. Description. 

2 oz. 1 lb. Red ductile alloy. 
4 oz. 1 lb. Red ductile alloy. 

6 oz. 1 lb. Dry pot metal or cock alloy. 

7 oz. 1 lb. Same, but shorter. 

8 oz. 1 lb. Wet pot metal. 

Copper-Nickel. 

Aphtite. — Iron, 66 ; nickel, 23 ; wol- 
fram, 4 ; copper, 5. 

Argasoid. — 1. — Copper, 55.78 ; zinc, 
23.198; nickel, 13.406; tin, 4.035; lead, 
3.544. Silver white, almost ductile ; suit- 
ed for artistic purposes. 

2. — A new alloy, called "argasoid," re- 
cently described by Mr. V. Jeuptner, of 
Vienna, has been used as a substitute for 
silver. Its cost is said to be about 50% 
more than brass. Its chemical composi- 
tion is as follows : Tin, 4.035 ; lead, 
3.544; copper, 55.780; nickel, 13.406; 
zinc, 23.198 ; iron, trace. 

[ 



(German Silver) 



Argentan, White. — Zinc, 70 parts ; 
copper, 15 parts ; nickel, 6 parts. 

Argiroide. — Variety of German silver. 
Usually plated. 

Baudoin's Alloy. — Copper, 72% ; nickel, 
16.6%; cobalt, 1.8%; tin, 2.5%; zinc, 
7.1%. About %% of aluminum may also 
be added. 

Birmingham Platinum. — Birmingham 
platinum, also called platinum-lead, is 
composed of copper and zinc, in propor- 
tions here given : 

I. II. III. 

Copper 46.5 43 20 

Zinc 53.5 57 80 

It is of a pure, nearly silver-white color, 
which remains unchanged by the air for 
some time. Unfortunately, it is so brit- 
tle that it can hardly be shaped in any 
way except by casting. Blittons are made 
of it by casting in metal molds which 
give sharp impressions, and the design is 
afterward brought out more clearly by 
careful pressing. 

Buttons, Metals for. — Guettier's : 

I. II. III. 
Brass (copper 297, zinc 93) 372 372 372 

Zinc 62 47 140 

Tin 31 47 . . . 

Silver-colored metals of three qualities 
— best, medium and poor. Other alloys 
are : Birmingham platinum, copper 43, 
zinc 57 ; Forbes's metal, copper 46.5, zinc 
53.5 ; Ludenscheid button metal, copper 
20, zinc 80 ; bath metal, copper 18, zinc 
21 ; Parsons's white metal, copper 55, 
zinc 45. 

Chinese White Copper. — Copper, 40 
parts ; nickel, 32 parts ; zinc, 25 parts ; 
iron, 3 parts. 

Clark's Patent Alloy. — Copper, 75% : 
nickel, 14.5% ; zinc, 7.5% ; tin, 1.5% ; co- 
balt, 1.5%. 

Electrum. — Nickel, 8 parts ; copper, 16 
parts ; zinc, 7 parts. 

Ferro-Argentan. — Copper, 70% ; nickel, 
20%; zinc, 5.5% ; cadmium, 4.5%. Re- 
sembles silver ; worked like German silver. 

German Silver. — Albata, argentan, elec- 
trum, nickel silver, tutenag, Virginian 
plate, white copper. A well-known alloy, 
the finer varieties of which nearly equal 
silver in whiteness and susceptibility of 
receiving a high polish, while they sur- 
pass it in hardness and durability. The 
following formulae are from the highest 
authorities : 

1. — Copper, 50 parts ; nickel, 20 parts ; 
zinc, 30 parts. Very malleable, and takes 
a high polish. 
79] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(German Silver) 



2. — Copper, 50 parts ; nickel. 26 parts ; 
zinc, 24 parts. Closely resembles silver ; 
an excellent sample. 

3. — Copper and zinc, of each 41 parts ; 
nickel, 18 parts. Rather brittle. 

4. — (M. Gersdorff.) Copper, 50 parts ; 
nickel and zinc, of each 25 parts. Very 
white and malleable, and takes a high pol- 
ish. Recommended as a general substi- 
tute for silver. 

5. — (Gersdorff.) Copper, 60 parts; 
nickel and zinc, of each 20 parts. For 
castings, as bells, candlesticks, etc. 

6. — (Gersdorff.) Copper, 60 parts; 
nickel, 25 parts ; zinc, 20 parts. For roll- 
ing and wire. Very tough and malleable. 

7. — (Sample made from the ore of Hill- 
burghausen.) Copper, 401^ parts; nickel, 
31% parts; iron, 2^/^ parts; zinc, 25i/^ 
parts. Equal to the best Chinese sample. 

8. — (Pelouze.) Copper and nickel, 
equal parts. Recommended by M. Pelouze 
as superior to any of the alloys containing 
zinc. 
■ 9. — (Pelouze.) Copper, 2 parts ; nickel, 

1 part. Not so white as the last, but 
more malleable. 

10. — (White copper from China.) (1) 
Copper, 30 parts ; nickel, 30 parts ; zinc, 
34 parts. (2) Said to be prepared from 
native ore : Copper, 41 parts ; nickel, 32 
parts ; iron, 2% parts ; zinc, 241/4 parts. 
Silvery white, takes a high polish, very 
sonorous, malleable both cold and at a 
dull-red heat, and may be rolled into 
leaves or formed into wire. 

11. — (White metal spoon, sold as Ger- 
man plate.) Copper, 55 parts ; nickel, 24 
parts ; zinc, 16 parts ; tin, 3 parts ; iron, 

2 parts. 

The union of the metals in the above 
formulae is effected by heat, with the usual 
precautions. When iron is ordered it is 
generally added under the form of "tin- 
plate." 

12. — For fine German silver. Copper, 

49 parts ; zinc, 24 parts ; nickel, 24 parts ; 
aluminum, 2^4 parts. All by weight. 
There are alloys of many other propor- 
tions that are recognized as standard. 

13. — First quality for casting. Copper, 

50 lb. ; zinc, 25 lb. ; nickel, 25 lb. 
14. — Second quality for casting. Cop- 
per, 50 lb. ; zinc, 20 lb. ; nickel, best pul- 
verized, 10 lb. 

15. — For rolling. Copper, 60 lb. ; zinc, 
20 lb. ; nickel, 25 lb. Used for spoons, 
forks and tableware. 

16. — Frick's German Silver. Copper, 
53.39 parts ; nickel, 17.4 parts ; zinc, 13 
parts. 

17. — The composition of this alloy va- 
ries considerably, but from the adjoined fig- 

[ 



(German Silver) 



ures an average may be fouud which will 
represent, approximately, the normal com- 
position : Copper, 50 to 66 parts; zinc, 
19 to 31 parts ; nickel. 13 to 18 parts. 
The properties of the different kinds, such 
as their color, ductility, fusibility, etc., 
vary with the proportions of the single 
metals. For making spoons, forks, cups, 
candlesticks, etc., the most suitable pro- 
portions are 50 parts of copper, 25 parts 
of zinc and 25 parts of nickel. This 
metal has a beautiful blue-white color, 
and does not tarnish easily. German sil- 
ver is sometimes so brittle that a spoon, 
if allowed to fall upon the floor, will 
break. This, of course, indicates faulty 
composition. As was said above, the com- 
position varies so much, according to the 
mechanical manipulation to which the ar- 
ticles made from it are to be subjected, 
that it is impossible to give definite pro- 
portions. But the following table will 
show how the character of the alloy 
changes with the varying percentage of 
the metals composing it : 



Argentan. 
English . . 
English . . 



Cop- 
per. Zinc. Nickel 



3.5 
3.5 



English . . 8 6.5 



German. . 
German. . 
German. . 



52 
59 



26.0 
30.0 
31.0 



22 

11 
6 



Quality. 

Finest quality. 

Very beautiful, 
but very re- 
fractory. 

Ordinary, read- 
ily fusible. 

First quality. 

Second quality. 

Third quality. 



18. — The following analyses give further 
particulars in regard to different kinds of 
argentan : 

Iron. 





For sheet 


Copper. 


Zinc. 


Nickel. 


Lead 




French . . . 


50 


31.3 


18.7 






French . . . 


50 


30 


20 






French . . . 


58.3 


25 


16.7 






Vienna . . . 


50 


25 


25 






Vienna. . . 


55.6 


22 


22 






Vienna. . . 


60 


20 


20 






Berlin 


54 


28 


18 






Berlin 


55.5 


29.1 


17.5 






English.. . 


63.34 


17.01 


19.13 






English.. . 


62.40 


22.15 


15.05 






English.. . 


62.63 


26.05 


10.85 






English. . . 


57.40 


25 


13 






Chinese. . . 


26.3 


36.8 


36.8 






Chinese.. . 


43.8 


40.6 


15.6 






Chinese.. . 


45.7 


36.9 


17.9 






Chinese.. . 


40.4 


25.4 


31.6 






Castings.. 


48.5 


24.3 


24.3 


'2.9 




Castings.. 


54.5 


21.8 


21.8 


1.9 




Castings.. 


58.3 


19.4 


19.4 


2.9 




Castings . . 


57.8 


27.1 


14.3 


0.8 


Castings.. 


57 


20 


20 


3 


8 


0] 











2.60 



Alloys arid Amalgams 



(Copper Alloys) 



In some kinds of argentan are found 
varying quantities of iron, manganese, tin, 
and, very frequently, lead, added for the 
purpose of changing the properties of the 
alloy or cheapening the cost of produc- 
tion ; but all these metals have a detri- 
mental rather than a beneficial effect upon 
the general character of the alloy, and 
especially lessen its power of resistance 
to the action of dilute acids, one of its 
most valuable properties. Lead makes it 
more fusible ; tin acts somewhat as in 
bronze, making it denser and more reso- 
nant, and enabling it to take a higher pol- 
ish. With iron or manganese the alloy 
is whiter, but it becomes at the same time 
more refractory, and its tendency toward 
brittleness is increased. 

German Silver Suhstitute. — A substi- 
tute for German silver can be made by 
the use of manganese, the different metals 
and their proportions being as follows : 
Copper, 67.25% ; zinc, 13% ; manganese, 
18.50% ; luminum, 1.25%. The color of 
this metal is said to be very good, re- 
sembling German silver closely. It is 
fully as strong as the best German silver, 
and has superior casting qualities, which 
will be appreciated by foundrymen who 
have experienced some of the diflBculties 
in casting German silver. 

Lechcsne. — Copper, 1,200 parts ; nickel, 
800 parts ; aluminum, 1 part. Melt the 
nickel first. 

Lemarquand's Alloy. — This remarkable 
alloy is said to be non-oxidizable if all of 
the metals used are strictly pure. It is 
composed of 150 parts of copper, 28 parts 
of nickel, 4 parts of tin in sticks, 4 parts 
of black oxide of cobalt, and 14 to 15 
parts of zinc. 

Lutecine, or Paris Metal. — MM. Le 
Mat, Picard and Bloch give the following 
proportions for this alloy : Copper, 800 
parts ; nickel, 160 parts ; tin, 20 parts ; 
cobalt, 10 parts ; iron, 5 parts ; zinc, 5 
parts ; total, 1,000 parts. 

Manganese Argentan. — Copper, 52 to 
50 parts ; nickel, 17 to 15 parts ; zinc, 
5 to 10 parts ; manganese, 1 to 5 parts ; 
phosphorus ; copper with 15% phosphorus, 
3 to 5 parts. Readily cast for objects of 
art. 

MaillecJiort. — Copper, 60% ; zinc, 20% ; 
nickel, 20% ; Jemmapes brass — copper, 
64.5%. 

Minargent. — This alloy, which is of a 
beautiful white color, contains no silver, 
but is made of copper, tungsten, alumi- 
num and nickel, in the proportions of 
1,000 parts of copper, 700 parts of nickel, 
50 parts of tungsten, and 10 parts of alu- 
minum. 

[ 



(Copper Alloys) 



Minofor. — Minofor is composed of cop- 
per, tin, antimony, zinc and iron, in the 
following proportions : 

I. II. 

Copper 3.26 4 

Tin 67.53 66 

Antimony 17.00 20 

Zinc 8.94 9 

Iron 1 

Both these alloys are sometimes used 
in England for purposes where the ordi- 
nary Britannia metal, 2 parts tin and 1 
part antimony, might equally well be em- 
ployed. The latter surpasses both of 
them in beauty of color, but they are, on 
the other hand, harder. 

Mosaic Silver, Production and Applica- 
tion of. — Same consists of tin, 3 parts 
by weight, bismuth 3 parts, and mercury 
iy2 parts. The alloy of these metals is 
powdered finely, thus forming a silvery 
mass, used for imitation silvering of met- 
als, paper, wood, etc. In order to im- 
part to metals, especially articles of cop- 
per and brass, an appearance similar to 
silver, they are made perfectly bright ; the 
powder of the mosaic silver is mixed with 
6 times the volume of bone ashes, adding 
enough water to cause a paste, and rub- 
bing the same on the metallic surface by 
means of a cork of suitable shape. In 
order to silver paper by means of this 
preparation, it is ground with white of 
egg, diluted mucilage or varnish, and 
treated like a paint. 

Nickel Bronze. — This is prepared by 
fusing together very highly purified nickel 
(99.5%) with copper, tin and zinc. A 
bronze is produced containing 20% of 
nickel, light-colored, and very hard. 

Non-Magnetic Alloy for Watch Springs. 
— Composed of tin, copper, iron, lead, 
zinc, nickel and manganese. The propor- 
tions vary, but 60% of copper, 20% of 
nickel, and 18% of zinc, with the other 
ingredients, 1% or less. 

Pachfong. — 1. — Copper, 40 parts ; zinc, 
25 parts ; nickel, 31 parts. 

2. — Copper, 43 parts ; zinc, 40 parts ; 
nickel, 16 parts. 

3. — Copper, 45 parts ; zinc, 21 parts ; 
nickel, 33 parts. 

Parisian Alloy. — Copper, 69% ; nickel, 
19.5% ; zinc, 6.5% ; cadmium, 5%. 

Platine. — Platine is a brass, made of 80 
parts of brass and 20 parts of copper ; 
is white, and used especially for buttons. 

Platinoid. — An alloy of 60 parts of cop- 
per, 14 parts of nickel and 24 parts of 
zinc, to which 1 to 2% of tungsten is 
added, is largely used in electrical work, 
on account of its high resistance. 
81] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Bell Metal) 

Tonca's Metal. — Copper, 5 parts ; nickel, 
4 parts ; tin, 1 part ; lead, 1 part ; iron, 
1 part ; zinc, 1 part ; antimony, 1 part. 
It is hard, difficult to fuse, not very duc- 
tile, and cannot be recommended, 

Copper-Phosphor. 

Phosphor copper may be prepared in a 
variety of ways: (1) By dropping phos- 
phorus upon molten copper in a crucible, 
an alloy rich in phosphorus is obtained, 
forming an extremely hard steel-gray fus- 
ible compound. (2) By reducing phos- 
phate of copper with charcoal, or char- 
coal and carbonate of soda. (3) By heat- 
ing a mixture of 4 parts of bone ash, 1 
part of charcoal and 2 parts of granu- 
lated copper at a moderate temperature. 
The melted phosphide of copper separates 
on the bottom of the crucible, and is 
stated to contain 14% of phosphorus. (4) 
By adding phosphorus to copper-sulphate 
solution and boiling. The precipitate is 
dried, melted, and cast into ingots. When 
of good quality, and in proper condition, 
it is quite black. (5) Copper phosphide 
is easily prepared by adding to a crucible 
14 parts of sand, 18 parts of bone ash, 
4 parts of powdered coal, 4 parts of so- 
dium carbonate, and 4 parts of powdered 
glass ; the whole being intimately mixed 
with 9 parts of granulated copper. A lid 
is then luted on and the crucible exposed 
to a strong heat. The sand acts on the 
bone ash, forming silicate of lime. The 
liberated phosphoric acid is reduced by 
the coal, and the phosphorus thus set free 
unites with the copper. (6) Montefiori- 
Levi and Kiinzel prepare phosphor copper 
by putting sticks of phosphorus into cru- 
cibles containing molten copper. To avoid 
a too ready combustion the sticks of phos- 
phorus are previously coated with a firm 
layer of copper, by placing them in a so- 
lution of copper sulphate. (7) By strong- 
ly heating in a crucible an intimate mix- 
ture of bone ash, copper oxide and char- 
coal, phosphor copper is produced. 

Copper- Tin. 

Bell Metal. — 1. — The various alloys 
used in the manufacture of bells consist 
essentially of copper and tin, but in some 
cases other metals are added in small 
quantities, either for cheapness or to pro- 
duce a desired quality of sound. The ad- 
ditional metals chiefly used are zinc, lead, 
iron, and sometimes bismuth, silver, anti- 
mony and manganese. The following are 
some of the proportions employed : Musi- 
cal bells, 84% copper, 16% tin. Sleigh 
bells, 84.5% copper, 15.4% tin, 0.1% an- 
timony. Gongs, 82% copper, 18% tin. 

[ 



(Bell Metal) 



House bells, 80% copper, 20% tin. House 
bells, 78% copper, 22% tin. Large bells, 
76% copper, 24% tin. Swiss clock bells, 
74.5% copper, 25% tin, 0.5% lead. Old bell 
at Rouen, 71% copper, 26% tin, 1.8% 
zinc, 1.2% lead. Clock bells, 72% copper, 
26.56% tin, 1.44% silver. Alarm bell at 
Rouen, 75.1% copper, 22.3% tin, 1% zinc, 
1.6% silver. Tam-tam, 79% copper, 20.3% 
tin, 0.52% lead, 0.18% silver. Japanese 
kara kane, 64% copper, 24% tin, 9% zinc, 
3% iron. Japanese kara kane, 70% cop- 
per, 19% tin, 3% zinc, 8% lead. Japa- 
nese kara kane, 61% copper, 18% tin, 6% 
zinc, 12% lead, 3% iron. White table 
bells, 17% copper, 80% tin, 3% bismuth. 
White table bells, 87.5% tin, 12.5% anti- 
mony. Small bells, 40% copper, 60% tin, 
2. — The composition of bell metal can 
be varied considerably, and the tone of 
the bell varies accordingly, as may be 
seen from the following : Normal com- 
position, 80% copper, 20% tin. Normal 
composition, 78% copper, 22% tin, Rouen 
alarm bell, 76.1% copper, 22.3% tin, 1.6% 
zinc, .1.6% silver. Ziegenhain alarm bell, 
71.48% copper, 33.59% tin, 4.04% lead, 
0.12% iron. Darmstadt alarm bell, 
73.94% copper, 21.67% tin, 1.19% lead, 
0.17% silver. Reichenhall alarm bell 
(13th century), 80% copper, 20% tin. 
Tam-tam, 78.51% copper, 10.27% tin, 
0.52% lead, 0.18% silver. Japanese bells, 
1.10% copper, 4% tin, 1.5% zinc, 0.5% 
silver. Japanese bells, 2.10% copper, 
2.5% tin, 0.5% zinc, 1.33% lead. Japa- 
nese bells, 3.10% copper, 3% tin, 1% 
zinc, 2% lead, 0.5% silver. Japanese 
bells, 4.10% copper. Small clock bells, 
table bells, sleigh bells, etc., require an 
alloy which will give a clear and pure 
tone. It has been learned by experience 
that bell metal containing about 22% of 
tin gives the highest tone, and is, there- 
fore, suited to small bells. It is an ob- 
ject, however, in this case, to produce the 
alloy as cheaply as possible by reducing 
the proportion of the copper, its most ex- 
pensive component. The following will 
show the composition of the alloys used 
for small bells: (1) House bells, 80% 
copper, 20% tin. (2) House bells, small- 
er, 75% copper, 25% tin. (3) German 
clock bells, 73% copper, 24.3% tin, 2.7% 
zinc. (4) Swiss clock bells, 74.5% cop- 
per, 25% tin, 0.5% lead. (5) Paris clock 
bells, 72% copper, 26.56% tin, 1.44% sil- 
ver. (6) Sleigh bells, 84.5% copper, 
15.42% tin, 0.1% silver. The alloy num- 
bered (6) contains, in addition, 0,1% of 
antimony, 

3, — Melt together, under powdered char- 
coal, 100 parts of pure copper with 20 
82] 



Alloys and Amalgami 



(Bronze) 



parts of tin, and unite the two metals 
by frequently stirring the mass. Product 
very fine. 

4. — Copper, 3 parts; tin, 1 part, as 
above. Some of the finest church bells in 
the v^orld have this composition. 

5. — Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26^^ parts; 
iron, 1% parts. The bells of small clocks 
or pendules are made of this alloy in 
Paris. 

6. — Bell Metal, Fine. — Copper, 71 
parts ; tin, 26 parts ; zinc, 2 parts ; iron, 
1 part. 

7. — Bell Metal, for Large Bells. — Cop- 
per, 100 lb. ; tin, from 20 to 25 lb. 

8.— Bell Metal, for Small Bells.— Cop- 
per, 3 lb. ; tin, 1 lb. 

9. — Alloys for Cymbals and Gongs. — ■ 
Copper, 100 parts, with about 25 parts 
of tin. To give this compound the sono- 
rous property in the highest degree, the 
piece should be ignited after it is cast, 
and then plunged immediately into cold 
water. 

10. — Alloy for Tam-tams or Gongs.— 
Copper, 80 parts ; tin, 20 parts ; ham- 
mered out, with frequent annealing. An 
alloy of 78% of copper and 22% of tin 
answers better and can be rolled out, 

11.— Kara Kane Bell Metal.— The Jap- 
anese, who are great bronze workers, add 
lead, zinc and iron to their bell metal, 
with wonderful effect. Their name for 
these compounds is kara kane. The fol- 
lowing are the proportions they use : First 
quality, 60 parts copper, 24 parts tin, 9 
parts zinc, 3 parts iron ; second quality, 
60 parts copper, 15 parts tin, 3 parts zinc, 
8 parts lead ; third quality, 60 parts cop- 
per, 18 parts tin, 6 parts zinc, 12 parts 
lead, 3 parts iron. For small bells they 
employ the first quality, and for large 
bells the third quality. 

12.— Silver Bell Metal.— This alloy, 
used for small bells, has a very beautiful 
silvery tone, and is nearly white in color. 
It is made in three varieties: (1) Cop- 
per, 40% ; tin, 60%. (2) Copper, 41.5% ; 
tin, 58,5%. (3) Copper, 41,7%; tin, 
58,4%. Large bells are cast in loam 
molds, the design or ornamentation of the 
bell being given by the shape of the mold, 
and perfected by chasing after it has 
cooled. Small bells are usually cast in 
sand molds, though at the present time 
iron molds are frequently employed. 

13, — Algiers metal is also used for small 
hand bells. (See Tin Alloys.) 

Bronze. — 1, — The term "bronze" is usu- 
ally applied to all alloys consisting chiefly 
of copper and tin. These metals have 
been known from very remote times, and 
the importance of the mixture of copper 

[ 



(Bronze) 



and tin appears to have been among the 
first discoveries of the metallurgists. It 
is remarkable for the exactness of the 
impressions which it takes by molding, 
as well as its durability ; hence, exten- 
sively employed in the casting of busts, 
medals and statues. Bell, cannon, and 
speculum metal are varieties of bronze. 
In ancient times, when the manufacture 
of steel was ill understood, cutting in- 
struments Avere frequently made of this 
alloy. For statuary work the great de- 
sideratum is to obtain an alloy capable 
of flowing freely into the most minute 
outlines of the mold, hard, and yet tough, 
and capable of resisting the corroding ac- 
tion of the weather. It must also acquire 
that peculiar antique green appearance 
that is so much admired in bronzes. 
When only a small quantity of the alloy 
is required it is prepared in crucibles, but 
for statues or larger works, on reverbera- 
tory hearths. The fusion of the mixed 
metals must be conducted under pounded 
charcoal, and as rapidly as possible. When 
melted it must be frequently stirred to- 
gether, to produce a perfect mixture, be- 
fore casting. Coal is the fuel principally 
employed for the furnaces. The great fea- 
ture of modern bronzes is the substitution 
of triple and quadruple alloys for the old 
dual alloys. French bronzes nearly always 
contain the four metals, copper, tin, lead 
and zinc, and in some cases small quanti- 
ties of nickel, arsenic, antimony and sul- 
phur. Each of these elements exerts an 
influence on bronze in proportion to the 
amount present, and if such influence is 
prejudicial for certain uses care must be 
taken in the selection of the metals em- 
ployed for admixture. Impure copper is 
by no means a rarity in commerce, and 
may contain ingredients fatal to the prop- 
erties of certain varieties of bronze. The 
difficulty of preparing alloys of definite 
composition is increased when scrap is 
remelted with new metal, unless great 
care is taken to keep scrap of a given 
quality separate from other varieties : 
such old metal is also liable to contain 
iron and other foreign metals mechani- 
cally mixed with it. Zinc, in small quan- 
tity, added to copper and tin, often has 
a beneficial influence, as in casting, for 
instance, the metal runs thinner, fills 
upon the molds, and is freer from pin- 
holes. Lead alloys very imperfectly with 
bronze, showing a great tendency to 
liquate out on cooling, the greater portion 
being found in the lower part of the cast- 
ing. A small quantity of lead is said to 
make the alloy more malleable and denser. 
The peculiar patina of a velvety black 
83] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Bronze) 



color found on old Chinese bronzes is 
probably due to the presence of lead. 
Iron, in certain amounts, affects the prop- 
erties of bronze very beneficially. It 
hardens the alloy and increases its re- 
sistance to wear in cases where the bronze 
is subjected to considerable friction, as 
in machinery bearings. Such alloys are 
paler in color and more difficult to melt 
than with copper and tin alone. In small 
quantities, iron increases the tenacity of 
bronze. In 1858 Parker noticed that the 
addition of phosphorus during the melting 
together of copper and tin improved the 
physical properties of bronze, and this 
addition was eventually introduced into 
bronze manufacture with very successful 
results. (See Phosphor Bronze.) 

2. — Simple Bronzes. — Proportions and 
results. In the following table the first 
column of figures denotes copper, the sec- 
ond tin. 



lb. oz. Color. 

1 0.5 Reddish yellow. 

1 1.0 Reddish yellow. 

1 1.3 Reddish yellow. 

1 1.5 Reddish yellow. 

1 2.0 Yellow red. 

1 2.3 Yellow red. 

1 2.5 Yellow red. 

1 3.0 Bluish red. 

1 3.5 Bluish red. 

1 4.0 Ash gray. 

1 4.5 Ash gray. 

1 5.0 Dark gray. 

1 7.0 Whitish. 

1 8.0 Whiter. 

1 32.0 Whiter still. 



Description. 

Ancient nails. 

Soft gun bronze. 

B'or mathematical in- 
struments. 

For toothed wheels. 

Ordnance. 

Hard weapon and tool 
bronze. 

Hard machinery bear- 
ing bronze. 

Soft, for musical bells. 

Soft, for gongs. 

Soft, for house bells. 

Soft, for larger bells. 

Soft, for the largest 
bells. 

Ancient mirrors. 

Speculum bronze. 

Pewterers' temper. 



(Bronze) 



3. — Acid-resisting Bronze. — A new alloy 
has been prepared by Herr Reith, of Bock- 
enheim, Germany, and is said to practi- 
cally resist the attack of moist acid and 
alkaline solutions. It consists of copper, 
74.5 parts ; tin, 11.6 parts ; lead, 9 parts ; 
antimony, 4.9 parts. This alloy is there- 
fore a bronze with the addition of lead 
and antimony. The inventor claims that 
it can be very advantageously used in 
the laboratory to replace vessels or fit- 
tings of ebonite, vulcanite, or porcelain. 

4. — Castings. — For the manufacture of 
certain articles, which are to be produced 
in large quantities, it is desirable to have 
a bronze which becomes very thinly fluid 
in heat, and fills out the molds well. It 
is customary to use cast-iron molds, and 
articles cast from this quality of bronze 
need only a slight surface chiseling to 
make them ready for commerce. A bronze 
which possesses the requisite properties 

[84 



in a high degree is composed of 94.12 
parts of copper and 5.88 parts of tin. 
5. — Fontainemoreau's Bronzes. 



Zinc. 


Copper. 


Cast Iron. 


Lead 


90 


8 


1 


1 


91 


8 





1 


92 


8 








92 


7 


1 





97 


21/2 


V2 





97 


3 








99i/> 





V2 





99 


1 









tin, 4.61% ; 


lead. 


tin, 4.38% ; 


lead. 


tin, 2.42% ; 


lead. 



Gold Bronze. (See Gold Alloys, Gold 
Substitutes and Imitation Gold Al- 
loys. ) 

6. — For Cutting Instruments. — Copper, 
100 parts ; tin, 14 parts. 

7. — Japan Bronze. — The formulae that 
we give below contain a large percentage 
of lead, which greatly improves the pa- 
tina. The ingredients and the ratio of 
their parts for three sorts of modern Jap- 
anese bronze, follow : 

a.— Copper, 81.62% 
10.21%. 

b.— Copper, 76.60%: 
11.88% ; zinc, 6.53%. 

c— Copper, 88.55% : 
4.72% ; zinc, 3.20%. 

Sometimes a little antimony is added 
just before casting, and such a composi- 
tion would be represented more nearly by 
this formula : 

d.— Copper, 68.25% ; tin, 5.47% ; zinc, 
8.88% ; lead, 17.06% ; antimony, 0.34%. 

8.— For Medals.— (1) Copper, 89 parts : 
tin, 8 parts; zinc, 3 parts. (2) Copper, 
95 parts ; tin, 5 parts. 

9. — Bronze Metal. — (1) Copper, 7 lb.; 
zinc, 3 lb. ; tin, 2 lb. (2) Copper, 1 lb. ; 
zinc, 12 lb. ; tin, 8 lb. 

10. — Bi'onze for Mortars. — Copper, 93 
parts ; lead, 5 parts ; tin, 2 parts. The 
edges and lips of mortars must be tem- 
pered by heating them to a cherry red, 
and then plunging them into cold water ; 
as unless so treated they are very apt to 
be broken. 

11. — Rivet Metal.— (1) Copper. 32 oz. ; 
tin, 2 oz. ; zinc, 1 oz. (2) Copper, 64 lb. ; 
tin, 1 lb. 

12. — Bronze for Sheathing Ships. — On 
account of the superiority of bronze to 
pure copper in point of durability under 
the action of sea water, many attempts 
have been made in the past to substitute 
it for the latter in the sheathing of ships, 
but it was long before any satisfactory 
results were reached, since no method of 
rolling out bronze was known. It was 
finally discovered that an alloy of tha 

] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Bronze) 



nature of bronze, composed of 100 parts 
of copper and from 4.5 to 7 parts of tin, 
can easily be rolled into sheets at red 
heat, and at the present day such bronze 
sheets are frequently used instead of cop- 
per for the sheathing of wooden ships. 

13. — Statuary Bronze. — a. — Many of 
the antique statues were made of genuine 
bronze, which has advantages for this 
purpose, but has been superseded in mod- 
ern times by mixtures of metals contain- 
ing besides copper and tin — the constitu- 
ents of real bronze — a quantity of zinc, 
the alloy thus formed being really an in- 
termediate product between bronze and 
brass. The reason for the use of such 
mixtures lies partly in the comparative 
cheapness of their production as compared 
with genuine bronze, and partly in the 
purpose for which the metal is to be 
used. A thoroughly good statuary bronze 
must become thinly fluid in fusing, fill 
the molds out sharply, allow of being 
easily worked with the file, and must take 
on the beautiful green coating called pa- 
tina, after being exposed to the air for 
a short time. Genuine bronze, however 
strongly heated, does not become thin 
enough to fill out the molds well, and it 
is also difficult to obtain homogeneous 
castings from it. Brass alone is also too 
thickly fluid, and not hard enough for 
the required fine chiseling or chasing of 
the finished object. Alloys containing 
zinc and tin, in addition to copper, can 
be prepared in such a manner that they 
will become very thinly fluid, and will 
give fine castings which can easily be 
worked with the file and chisel. The best 
proportions seem to be from 10 to 18% 
of zinc and from 2 to 4% of tin. In 
point of hardness, statuary bronze holds 
an intermediate position between genuine 
bronze and brass, being harder and tough- 
er than the latter, but not so much so as 
the former. Since statuary bronze is 
principally used for artistic purposes, 
much depends upon the color. This can 
be varied from pale yellow to orange yel- 
low by slightly varying the content of tin 
or zinc, which must, of course, still be 
kept between the limits given above. Too 
much tin makes the alloy brittle and diffi- 
cult to chisel ; with too much zinc, on the 
other hand, the warm tone of color is 
lost, and the bronze does not acquire a 
fine patina. The best proportions for 
statuary bronze are very definitely known 
at the present day ; yet it sometimes hap- 
pens that large castings have not the right 
character. They are either defective in 
color, or they do not take on a fine patina, 
or they are difficult to chisel. These phe- 

[ 



(Bronze) 



nomena may be due to the use of impure 
metals — containing oxides, iron, lead, etc. 
— or to improper treatment of the alloy in 
melting. With the most careful work pos- 
sible there is considerable loss in melting, 
3% at the very least, and sometimes as 
much as 10%. This is due to the large 
proportion of zinc, and it is evident that 
in consequence of it the nature of the 
alloy will be different from what might 
be expected from the quantities of the 
metals used in its manufacture. It has 
been remarked that slight variations in 
composition quickly change the color of 
the alloy. The following table gives a se- 
ries of alloys of different colors, suitable 
for statuary bronze : 



Copper. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


Color. 


84.42 


11.28 


4.30 


Reddish yellow 


84.00 


11.00 


5.00 


Orange red 


83.05 


13.03 


3.92 


Orange red 


83.00 


12.00 


5.00 


Orange red 


81.05 


15.32 


3.63 


Orange yellow 


81.00 


15.00 


4.00 


Orange yellow 


78.09 


18.47 


3.44 


Orange yellow 


73.58 


23.27 


3.15 


Orange yellow 


73.00 


23.00 


4.00 


Pale orange 


70.36 


26.88 


2.76 


Pale yellow 


70.00 


27.00 


3.00 


Pale yellow 


65.95 


31.56 


2.49 


Pale yellow 



b. — Copper, 88 parts ; tin, 9 parts ; zinc, 
2 parts ; lead, 1 part. 

c. — Copper, 88% parts ; tin, 5 parts ; 
zinc, IOYq parts ; lead, 2 parts. 

d. — Copper, 90 parts ; tin, 9 parts ; lead, 
1 part. 

e. — Copper, 91 parts ; tin, 9 parts. 

File Alloys. — Owing to the great hard- 
ness which is peculiar to many copper-tin 
alloys, the latter are also employed for 
the making of files, which, in distinction 
from the steel files, are designated compo- 
sition files. According to the Metallar- 
heiter, such alloys have the following com- 
position : 



Geneva Composition Files 
I. 

Copper 64.4 

Tin 18.0 

Zinc 10.0 

Lead 7.6 



YogeVs Coinpositioii Files 



Copper 
Tin .. . 
Zinc .. 
Lead . 
85] 



I. 

57.0 

28.5 

78.0 

7.0 



II. 

61.5 

31.0 

'8.5 



II. 
62 

20 
10 

8 



III. 
73.0 
19.0 

8.0 
8.0 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Gun Metal) 



Gun Metal. — 1. 
Cop- 
No. per. Tin. Zinc. Color. 

I 92 2 6 Pale red. 

II 90 8 2 Reddish yellow. 

Ill 84 5 11 Yellow 

IV 83 5 12 Yellow. 

V 80 5 5 Pale yellowish pink. 

VI 80 5 15 Yellow. 

VII 75 5 20 Greenish yellow. 

No. I is tough, malleable and tenacious. 
No. II is hard, somewhat unyielding, and 
easily broken. Nos. Ill and IV work 
well under the file and chisel. No. V is- 
hard, but somewhat malleable. No, VI 
is hard and resisting, tough, and works 
fairly well with the file and chisel. No. 
VII is hard, and easily broken, but may 
be filed. The alloys are hard and brittle 
when the copper is less than G6% of the 
mixture ; and when the copper is reduced 
to 50% the alloys are extremely hard and 
brittle. The addition of a little lead im- 
proves the above alloys for turning and 
filing. 

2. — A sample of so-called "gun metal," 
stated by the user to be very strong and 
durable, and used for crown-wheel escape- 
ments, gave on analysis : Copper, 87.85% ; 
zinc, 5.07%; tin, 4.96%; lead, 1.84%; 
iron, .28%o ; total, 100%. 

3. — An alloy prepared by Mr. Stirling, 
and tried in the Arsenal of Woolwich, has 
a resistance to flexion much greater than 
that of ordinary bronze ; it contains : Cop- 
per, 87% ; tin, 8.7% ; zinc, 4.3% ; total, 
100%. 

4.— 



o 



N 



English ordnance 91.74 8.26 

English ordnance 91.80 8.20 

Eight-pounder guns 91.66 8.33 

Prussian ordnance 90.91 9.09 

French ordnance 90.73 9.27 

French ordnance 90.09 9.90 

Amer. compressed ord- 
nance 90.00 10.00 

Amer. compressed ord- 
nance 90.27 9.73 

Russian ordnance (1819) 88.61 10.70 0.69 

Swiss ordnance 88.93 10.38 0.110.42 0.06 

Chinese ordnance 77.18 3.42 1.16 5.02 13.22 

Chinese ordnance 93.19 5.43 1.38 

Models, Alloy for Making. — A good al- 
loy for making working models is 4 parts 
of copper, 1 part of tin and %, part of 
zinc. This is easily wrought. Doubling 
the proportion of zinc increases the hard- 



( Phosphor Bronze) 



Phosphor Bronze. — The variety of 

[ 



bronze known by this name is not to be 
considered as an alloy containing a cer- 
tain amount of copper, but rather as a 
bronze subjected to a peculiar treatment 
with the use of compounds of phosphorus. 
Many good phosphor bronzes contain but 
a very small quantity of phosphorus, 
which exerts no essential influence upon 
the character of the alloy. In these cases 
the phosphorus acted during the prepara- 
tion of the alloy. Bronze not infrequently 
contains a considerable quantity of cu- 
prous oxide in solution, which is formed 
by direct oxidation of the copper during 
fusion, and this admixture is highly detri- 
mental to the strength of the alloy. If 
novv^ the melted bronze be treated with 
a substance capable of exerting a power- 
ful reducing action, as, for instance, phos- 
phorus, a complete reduction of the cu- 
prous oxide will take place, and the bronze 
will acquire a surprisingly high degree of 
strength and power of resistance. If pre- 
cisely the quantity of phosphorus neces- 
sary for the complete reduction of the 
oxide has been used, no phosphorus will 
be found in the alloy, which nevertheless 
must be classed as phosphor bronze. It 
follows from what has been said that 
phosphor bronze is not a special kind of 
alloy, but that any bronze can be made 
into phosphor bronze ; it is, in fact, sim- 
ply a deoxidized bronze. Besides its ac- 
tion in reducing the oxides dissolved in 
the alloy, the phosphorus exerts another 
very material influence upon the proper- 
ties of the bronze. The ordinary bronzes 
consist of mixtures in which the copper 
is really the only crystallized constituent, 
since the tin crystallizes with great diffi- 
culty. As a consequence of this dissimi- 
larity in the nature of the two metals, 
the alloy is not as solid as it would be if 
both were crystallized. The phosphorus 
causes the tin to crystallize, and the re- 
sult is a more homogeneous mixture of 
the two metals. If enough phosphorus is 
added so that its presence can be detected 
in the finished bronze, the latter may be 
considered an alloy of crystallized phos- 
phor tin with copper. If the content of 
phosphorus is still more increased, a part 
of the copper combines with the phos- 
phorus, and the bronze then contains, be- 
sides copper and tin, compounds of crys- 
tallized copper phosphide with phosphide 
of tin. The strength and tenacity of the 
bronze are not lessened by a larger 
amount of phosphorus, and its hardness 
is considerably increased. Many phos- 
phor bronzes are equal in this respect to 
I the best steel, and some even surpass it 
I in general properties. The phosphorus is 
86] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Phosphor Bronze) 



(Phosphor Bronze) 



added to the bronze in the form of cop- 
per phosphide or phosphide of tin, the 
two being sometimes used together. They 
must be specially prepared for this pur- 
pose, and the best methods will be here 
given. 

Copper phosphide is prepared by heat- 
ing a mixture of 4 parts of superphos- 
phate of lime, 2 parts of granulated cop- 
per and 1 part of finely pulverized coal in 
a crucible, at a temperature not too high. 
The melted copper phosphide, containing 
14% of phosphorus, separates on. the bot- 
tom of the crucible. 

Tin phosphide is prepared as follows : 
Place a bar of zinc in an aqueous solu- 
tion of tin chloride. The tin will be sep- 
arated in the form of a spongelike mass. 
Collect it, and put it into a crucible upon 
the bottom of which sticks of phosphorus 
have been placed. Press the tin tightly 
into the crucible, and expose to a gentle 
heat. Continue the heating until flames 
of burning phosphorus are no longer ob- 
served on the crucible. The pure tin 
phosphide, in the form of a coarsely crys- 
talline mass, tin-white in color, will be 
found on the bottom of the crucible. 

To prepare the phosphor bronze the al- 
loy to be treated is melted in the usual 
way, and small pieces of the copper phos- 
phide and tin phosphide are added. Phos- 
phor bronze, properly prepared, has nearly 
the same melting point as that of ordi- 
nary bronze. In cooling, however, it has 
the peculiarity of passing directly from 
the liquid into the solid state, without 
first becoming thickly fluid. In a melted 
state it retains a perfectly bright surface, 
while ordinary bronze in this condition 
is always covered with a thin film of 
oxide. If phosphor bronze is kept for a 
long time at the melting point there is not 
any loss of tin, but the amount of phos- 
phorus is slightly diminished. The most 
valuable properties of phosphor bronze are 
its extraordinary tenacity and strength. 
It can be rolled, hammered, and stretched 
cold, and its strength is nearly double 
that of the best ordinary bronze. It is 
principally used in cases where great 
strength and power of resistance to out- 
ward influences are required, as, for in- 
stance, in objects which are to be exposed 
to the action of sea water. Phosphor 
bronze containing about 4% ot tin is ex- 
cellently well adapted for sheet bronze. 
With not more than 5% of tin it can be 
used, forged, for firearms ; 7 to 10% of 
tin gives the greatest hardness, and such 
bronze is especially suited to the manufac- 
ture of axle bearings, cylinders for steam 
fire engines, cogwheels, and, in general, 

[87 



for parts of machines where great strength 
and hardness are required. Phosphor 
bronze, if exposed to the air, soon be- 
comes covered with a beautiful, closely 
adhering patina, and is, therefore, well 
adapted to purposes of art. The amount 
of phosphorus added varies from 0.25 to 
2.5%, according to the purpose of the 
bronze. The composition of a number of 
kinds of phosphor bronze is given below : 

(1) Copper, 90.34% ; tin, 8.90% ; phos- 
phorus, 0.76%. (2) Copper, 90.86% ; tin, 
8.56%; phosphorus, 0.196%. (3) Cop- 
per, 94.71% ; tin, 4.39% ; phosphorus, 
0.053%. 

(I) Copper, 85.55%o ; tin, 9.85%, ; zinc, 
3.77% ; lead, 0.62% ; iron, traces ; phos- 
phorus. 0.05%. (II) Tin, 4 to 15%; 
lead, 4 to 15% ; phosphorus, 0.5 to 3%. 

(III) Tin, 4 to 15%; zinc, 8 to 20%; 
lead, 4 to 15% ; phosphorus, 0.25 to 2%. 

(IV) Copper, 77,85%; tin, 11%; zinc, 
7.65%. (V) Copper, 72.50%; tin, 8%; 
zinc, 17%. (VI) Copper, 73.50%; tin, 
Q% ; zinc, 19%. (VII) Copper, 74.50% ; 
tin, 11%; zinc, 11%. (VIII) Copper, 
83.50% ; tin, 8% ; zinc, 3%. 

(I) for axle bearings, (II) and (III) 
for harder and softer axle bearings, (IV) 
to (VIII) for railroad purposes, (IV) 
especially for valves of locomotives, (V) 
and (VI) for axle bearings for wagons, 
(VII) for connecting rods, (VIII) for 
piston rods in hydraulic presses. 

Among other properties, phosphor 
bronze emits sparks under friction much 
less readily than gun metal or copper, 
and oxidizes in sea water at about one- 
third the rate of copper. 

1. — One of the principal uses of phos- 
phor bronze is in the form of springs. A 
good mixture for phosphor bronze springs 
is as follows : Copper, by weight, 95 
parts ; tin, 4% parts ; 5% phosphor tin, 
1/2 part. 

2. — For phosphor bronze of the highest 
possible strength the following mixture is 
recommended : Copper, 90 parts ; tin, 9 
parts ; 5% phosphor tin, 1 part. The 
mixture made according to this formula is 
poured into ingots, and then remelted and 
poured into sand castings. The remelting 
increases the strength. 

3. — For ordinary work, when a me- 
dium strength is required, and when scrap 
must he used over and over again, the 
following mixture is recommended : Cop- 
per, 90 parts ; tin, 8 parts ; 5% phosphor 
tin, 2 parts. The scrap from this mix- 
ture may be used over and over again, 
with good results. 

4. — Phosphor bronze, for use as bear- 
ings, which is one of the principal uses 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Phosphor Bronze) 



of phosphor bronze in machine-tool con- 
struction, must always contain lead. It 
is the lead which gives the bearing its 
"anti-frictional" qualities. The phos- 
phorus prevents the separation of the 
lead. Lead may be present in the mix- 
ture up to 15%, but the majority of 
makers use less. Tin must be used in the 
mixture as well. 

5. — A good general mixture of phos- 
phor-bronze bearings is as follows : 
Copper, 80 parts ; tin, 8 parts ; lead, 10 
parts ; 5% phosphor tin, 2 parts. Zinc 
should never be present in phosphor 
bronze. It causes liquidation and forma- 
tion of tin spots in a marked degree. Tin 
spots are small, hard, white masses in 
the interior of the casting. Frequently 
they are so hard that a file will not touch 
them. The excess of phosphorus in phos- 
phor-bronze mixtures is also a cause of 
tin spots. The secret of success in pro- 
ducing phosphor bronze, in fact, is simply 
to keep the phosphor content down as low 
as possible in consistency with the serving 
of its purpose, and not to add any zinc. 

6. — For the preparation of phosphorus 
compounds of metals, for example, phos- 
phor copper. Dr. Schwarz gives the fol- 
lowing directions : A mixture of bone 
ash, silica and carbon is placed in a cru- 
cible, and upon it a layer of granulated 
copper, which in turn is covered with the 
above mixture. The lid of the crucible 
is luted on. To make it melt more easily 
some carbonate of soda and glass may 
be added, or a mixture of pulverized milk 
glass with charcoal and powdered coke is 
used for lining and covering it. Take, 
for example, 14 parts of silica, 88 parts 
of bone ash, and 4 parts of powdered car- 
bon. This is mixed with 4 parts of soda 
and 4 parts of powdered glass, stirred up 
with a little gum water, and used to line 
the crucible. When this is dry the copper 
is put in and covered with the same mass, 
and the whole is melted at a bright red 
heat. The copper obtained flows well, 
and has a reddish-gray color. It con- 
tains 0.50 to 0.51% of phosphorus. The 
simplest method for introducing phos- 
phorus into bronze is to stick a bar of 
the phosphorus into a tube of pinchbeck, 
one end of which is hammered together, 
and closed tightly. After the phosphorus 
is put in, the other end is closed, too. 
When the metal, which contains 32 parts 
of copper to 5 parts of zinc and 1 part of 
tin, is melted, the tube charged with phos- 
phorus is pushed down in it to the bottom 
of the crucible by means of bent tongs. 
The stick of phosphorus must always be 
kept under water until it is about to go 

[ 



(Silicon Bronze) 



into the pinchbeck tube, when it must be 
carefully dried, as the presence of any 
moisture would be sure to cause the metal 
to spurt or fly about. Another way of 
introducing the phosphorus is as follows : 
Get about 2 ft. of iron barrel from a gas 
fitter ; the bore a little larger than the 
sticks of phosphorus ; make an iron plug 
to closely fit the bore, and then drive it 
down one end of the pipe until the space 
remaining will hold the quantity of phos- 
phorus you wish to mix in the bath, mind- 
ing not to split the barrel in driving in 
the plug. Make a plug of tin about % 
in. thick to fit in the bore ; now intro- 
duce your phosphorus into the space 
formed by the iron plug, and just tap the 
tin plug into the end of the barrel with 
a hammer. Stir the tin-plugged end about 
in the molten metal ; the tin plug soon 
melts, letting out the phosphorus in the 
bronze bath. 

Rivet Metal. — 1. — Copper, 32 oz. ; tin, 
2 oz. ; zinc, 1 oz. 

2. — For Hose. — Copper, 64 lb.; tin, 1 
lb. 

Silicon Bronze. — Silicon bronze is valu- 
able on account of its great strength and 
tenacity, higher conductivity and resist- 
ance to corrosion by atmospheric influ- 
ences, and is, therefore, one of the very 
best mediums for the transmission of elec- 
trical force. It can be made nearly as 
strong as steel, and yet possesses treble 
its conductivity. The manufacture of this 
alloy has been greatly improved since its 
introduction, the latest kinds possessing 
less conductivity for electricity, but a 
higher tensile strength, which allows the 
wire to be more tightly stretched and the 
supports wider apart. Wires of silicon 
bronze are largely used on the Continent 
for telephone purposes, and will stand the 
force of violent storms remarkably well, 
which is, in some measure, due to the 
small diameter of the conductor. 

1. — Silicon copper and silicon bronze 
are made, according to Weiller, the in- 
ventor of these combinations, in the fol- 
lowing manner. He recommends the fol- 
lowing proportions : Potassium silico- 
fluoride, 450 parts, by weight ; powdered 
glass, 600 parts ; common salt, 250 parts ; 
carbonate of soda, 75 parts; carbonate 
of lime, 60 parts ; dried chloride of cal- 
cium, 500 parts. The mixture is heated 
in a covered plumbago crucible to a tem- 
perature a little below the point when 
they begin to act on each other, when the 
mixture is added to the molten copper 
or bronze, as the case may be ; the re- 
duced silicon combining with the metal 
or alloy. 

] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Speculum Metal) 



2. — Silicon Bronze. — Silicon, similarly 
to phosphorus, acts as a deoxidizing agent, 
and the bronzes produced under its influ- 
ence are very ductile and elastic, do not 
rust, and are very strong. On account 
of these qualities, silicon bronze is much 
used for telegraph and telephone wires. 
The process of manufacture is similar to 
that of phosphor bronze; the silicon is 
used in the form of copper silicide. Some 
good silicon bronzes are as follows: (1) 
Copper, 97.12% ; tin, 1.14% ; zinc, 1.10% ; 
silicon, 0.05%. (2) Copper, 97.37% ; tin, 
1.32% ; zinc, 1.27% ; silicon, 0.07%. 

3.— In 1881, M. Weiller, of Angouleme, 
performed a series of experiments with 
phosphor-bronze wire, to test its suit- 
ability for telegraphic and telephonic con- 
ductors, and his results went to show that 
it possessed a conductivity one-third that 
of copper, but 2% times that of iron and 
steel. The conductivity not being suffi- 
cient for telegraphic purposes, he invented 
silicon bronze, which is an alloy of cop- 
per and tin containing silicon. He thus 
obtained a wire presenting the same re- 
sistance to rupture as phosphor-bronze 
wire, but with a much higher degree of 
conductivity, rendering it applicable for 
telegraph purposes. Mr. W. H. Preece 
states that phosphorus has a most inju- 
rious influence on the electrical conduc- 
tivity of bronze, and that silicon bronze 
is far superior, and has entirely replaced 
phosphor bronze for telegraphic purposes. 
It is also important to note that, although 
wires made from this alloy are very much 
lighter than ordinary wires, they are of 
equal strength. The following table shows 
the comparative properties of different 
wires : 

Tensile Resist- Rela- 
strength ance tive 
in tons per mile, con- 
per in due- 

Description of wire. sq. in. ohms, tivity. 

Pure copper 17.78 33.1 100 

Silicon bronze, telegraph 28.57 34.5 96 
Silicon bronze, telephone 48.25 103 34 

Phosphor bronze, 'phone 45.71 124 26 

Swedish iron, galvanized 22.86 216 16 

Bessemer steel, galv'zed 25.40 249 13 

Siemens-Martin steel.... 26.67 266 12 

Speculum Metal. — 1. — Chinese Mirrors. 
Copper, 62 parts ; tin, 32 parts ; lead, 6 
parts. 

2. — Cooper's Mirror Metal. — Copper, 
57.85% ; platinum, 9.49% ; zinc, 3.51% ; 
tin, 27.49% ; arsenic, 1.66%. Tlie in- 
ventor claims for this alloy that it is in- 
different to the weather, and takes a beau- 
tiful polish. 

3. — Reflector Metal, Duppler's. — a. — 
Silver, 80 parts ; zinc, 20 parts. 



(Speculum Metal) 



b.— Copper, 66.22 parts; tin, 33.11 
parts ; arsenic, 0.67 part. 

4.— English alloy, 66.6% copper, 33.4% 
tin; Ross's alloy, 68.21% copper, 31.79% 
tin ; ancient mirror, 62% copper, 32% tin, 
6% lead ; Richardson's alloy, 65.3% cop- 
per, 30% tin, 0.7% zinc, 2% arsenic, 2% 
silver; Sallit's alloy, 64.6% copper, 31.3% 
tin, 4.1% nickel; Chinese alloy, 80.83% 
copper, 11.67% tin, 8.5% antimony. 

5. — Alloys consisting of 2 parts of cop- 
per and 1 part of tin can be very bril- 
liantly polished, and will serve for mir- 
rors. The mirrors of the most ancient 
people were pieces of the mineral called 
iron pyrites, smoothly polished. Metallic 
mirrors were first used by the civilized 
nations of the East, and were made partly 
of copper alone and partly of special al- 
loys ; only the wealthy had mirrors made 
from the precious metals. The alloy best 
suited for this purpose is the above men- 
tioned compound of copper and tin ; but 
at the present time it is only used in the 
construction of mirrors for optical in- 
struments, especially large telescopes, and 
even here is being gradually displaced by 
glass. Good speculum metal should have 
a very fine-grained fracture, should be 
white, and very hard, the highest degree 
of polish depending upon these qualities. 
A composition to meet these requirements 
must contain at least 35 to 36% of cop- 
per. Attempts have frequently been made 
to increase the hardness of speculum metal 
by additions of nickel, antimony and ar- 
senic. With the exception of nickel, these 
substances have the effect of causing the 
metal to easily lose its high luster, any 
considerable quantity of arsenic in partic- 
ular having this effect. The real specu- 
lum metal seems to be a combination of 
the formula Cu4Sn, composed of 68.21% 
of copper and 31.7% of tin. An alloy of 
this nature is sometimes separated from 
ordnance bronze by incorrect treatment, 
causing the so-called tin spots ; but this 
has not the pure white color which dis- 
tinguishes the speculum metal containing 
31.5% of tin. By increasing the percent- 
age of copper the color gradually shades 
into yellow ; with a larger amount of tin, 
into blue. It is dangerous to increase 
the tin too much, as this changes the 
other properties of the alloy, and it be- 
comes too brittle to be worked. We give 
below different compositions of speculum 
metal. The standard alloy, already men- 
tioned, is undoubtedly the best. Stand- 
ard alloy, 68.21% copper, 31.7% tin; 
Otto's alloy, 68.5% copper, 31.5% tin; 
Richardson's alloy, 65.3% copper, 30% 
tin, 0.7% zinc, 2% arsenic, 2% silver; 
89] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Speculum Metal) 



Little's alloy, 65% copper, BO.8% tin, 
2.2% zinc, 1.9% arsenic ; Chinese specu- 
lum metal, 80.83% copper, 8.5% anti- 
mony ; old Roman, 63.39% copper. 
6. — Table of Speculum Alloys. 



Silver. Brass. 



Copper. Tin. Arsenic. 

32 14 2 

32 131/2 11/2 

6 2 1 

32 2 1 

3 1% . . 

64 29 

32 15 



In using arsenic, it must be introduced 
into the crucible when the mixture is in 
a melting state. Being in a coarsely 
pounded state, it is tied up in a paper 
bag and let into the crucible by a pair 
of tongs. The whole mixture requires to 
be stirred with a birch rod till vapors 
cease to rise. Avoid breathing or inhaling 
while the vapors appear ; as soon as they 
are over the alloy is ready for pouring. 
Arsenic renders alloys white and hard. 
The alloys containing arsenic should be 
taken out of the flask as soon as prop- 
erly set, and placed in hot ashes, and in a 
proper place for protracted annealing. 

7. — Equal parts of tin and copper form 
a white metal as hard as steel. Less tin 
and a small quantity of arsenic added to 
the alloy forms a white, hard metal of 
high luster. Copper, 2 lb. ; tin, 1 lb. ; 
arsenic, 1 oz., form a good speculum 
metal. An alloy of 32 parts copper, 16.5 
parts tin, 4 parts brass and 1.25 parts 
arsenic is hard, white, and of brilliant 
luster. 

8. — Specular Alloys. — These are em- 
ployed for making metallic reflectors, re- 
quiring a true white color, good luster, 
and a hard, clean surface, not easily tar- 
nished or scratched. Fesquet gives a 
number of combinations as follows: (1) 
Copper, 62 parts ; tin, 32 parts ; lead, 
6 parts. (2) Copper, 80 parts; lead, 10 
parts; antimony, 10 parts. (3) Copper, 
66 to 63 parts ; tin, 33 to 27 parts. (4) 
Copper, 10 parts ; tin, 10 parts ; anti- 
mony, 10 parts; lead, 50 parts. (5) Cop- 
per, 32 parts ; tin, 50 parts ; silver, 1 
part; arsenic, 1 part. (6) Steel, 90 
parts; nickel, 10 parts. (7) Palladium, 
50 parts ; silver, 50 parts. (8) Platinum, 
60 parts; copper, 40 parts. (9) Plati- 
num, 50 parts; steel, 50 parts. (10) 
Platinum, 50 parts; iron, 50 parts. (11) 
Platinum, 10 parts; steel, 90 parts. (12) 
Platinum, 20 parts ; copper, 80 parts ; ar- 
senic, 0.5 to 1 part. (13) Platinum, 60 
parts ; iron, 30 parts ; gold, 10 parts. 

[90 



(Copper Zinc Alloy) 



(14) Gold, 50 parts ; zinc, 50 parts. (15) 
Steel, 50 parts; rhodium, 50 parts. (16) 
Platinum, 10 parts ; iridium, 90 parts. 
(17) Tin, 29 parts ; lead, 19 parts. (18) 
Copper, 52 parts ; nickel, 30 parts ; zinc, 
12 parts ; lead, 5 parts ; bismuth, 1 part. 
Good speculum metal should be pure 
white, of a fine-grained structure, per- 
fectly sound and homogeneous when cast, 
and sufiiciently tenacious to stand grind- 
ing and polishing without rupture. It 
should contain 65 to 68% of copper to 
comply with these requisites. 

WJiite AZZoi/.—l.— Copper, 64.5% ; tin, 
32% ; arsenic, 3.5%. 

2.— Copper, 59% ; tin, 31% ; brass, 8% ; 
arsenic, 2%. 

Copper-Zinc. (See also Imitation Gold.) 
Specific Weight and Strength of Alloys 
of Copper and Zinc. — The specific grav- 
ity always decreases as the content of 
zinc increases ; in alloys with 70 or 80% 
of zinc there is a marked compression. 
The specific weight of alloys which con- 
tain larger quantities of zinc is raised 
by mechanical working and in cooling, 
but can be lowered again to a large de- 
gree by annealing. Some weights of cop- 
per and zinc alloys are given below : 

Specific 
Copper. Zinc. Weight. 

100.00 8.890 

90.65 9.35 8.834 
85.34 14.63 8.584 

79.51 20.49 8.367 
69.98 34.02 8.390 
59.28 40.74 8.329 
49.23 50.76 8.304 
39.27 60.73 8.171 

32.66 67.14 8.048 

19.52 80.48 7.863 
10.82 89.18 7.315 
100.00 7.206 

The greatest strength is shown in the 
alloys containing from 20 to 30% of zinc ; 
if the percentage is above 60% the 
strength is considerably diminished, even 
to the extent of making the alloy unsuit- 
able for most technical purposes. The 
hardness of the copper is increased by 
the addition of zinc, and alloys containing 
49.5 to 50% of zinc are harder than with 
a larger percentage of copper. If the per- 
centage of zinc is higher than this, the 
alloy becomes so brittle that the degree 
of hardness cannot be determined. The 
determination becomes possible again with 
a percentage of 89.2% of zinc, and the 
hardness of this alloy is not much less 
than that of alloys with 49.5% of copper. 

Aich's Metal. — Aich's metal, named 

] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Bearing Metals) 



after its inventor, is a variety of brass 
with an admixture of iron, which gives 
it a considerable degree of tenacity. It 
is especially adapted to purposes which 
require a hard and at the same time te- 
nacious metal. Analyses of the various 
kinds of this metal show considerable va- 
riation in the proportions of the metals 
used in preparing it. Even the amount 
of iron, to which the hardening effect 
must be attributed, may vary within wide 
limits without materially modifying the 
tenacity, which is the essential character- 
istic of this alloy. The best variety of 
Aich's metal consists of copper, 60 parts ; 
zinc, 38.2 parts ; iron, 1.8 part. The pre- 
dominating quality of this alloy is its 
hardness, which is claimed to be not in- 
ferior to that of certain kinds of steel. 
It has a beautiful golden-yellow color, 
and is said not to oxidize easily, a valu- 
able property for articles exposed to the 
action of air and water. Another Aich's 
metal of excellent quality is composed of 
copper, 60.2 parts ; zinc, 38.2 parts ; iron, 
1.6 part. The permissible variations in 
the content of iron are from 0.4 cc 3%. 

Alhata Metal. — Copper, 40 lb. ; z'nc, 32 
lb. ; nickel, 8 lb. 

A Zfentrfe.— Copper, 60% ; zinc, 30% ; 
nickel, 10% ; iron, a trace. 

Bearing Metals. 

Alloys, Bearing. — 1. 

Copper. Tin. Zinc. 

Ordinary bearings 84.5 13.3 2.2 

Ordinary bearings 83.6 12.6 3.8 

Heavy bearings 84 12 4 

Heavy bearings 77 9 14 

Main bearings 75 4 21 

Locomotive axles 86 . . 14 

Locomotive axles 82 10 8 

Moderately hard axles. 70 22 8 

Hard axles...... 82 16 2 

Very hard axles 89 . . 11 

Copper Alloy Bearing Metals. — 2. — The 
bearings of heavy axles, especially such 
as revolve rapidly, as, for example, the 
bearings of railroad wheels, are made, as 
a rule, from alloys which contain much 
copper (from 80 to 90%), and which 
may, therefore, be classed among bronzes. 
Those containing the most copper have 
the valuable property of being malleable 
in heat, a property lacking in those which 
are poor in copper. A table is annexed 
giving the composition of some of the 
more important varieties of the metals 
of this class, and the purposes for which 
they are especially used. It will be 
found, however, that nearly every large 
machine foundry uses a different alloy 
for the same purpose. This can only be 

[ 



(Bearing Metals) 



explained by the difference in the quality 
of the metal worked. It is evident from 
what has previously been said with re- 
gard to the influence of small quantities 
of foreign metals upon the character of 
an alloy, that a foundry which can ob- 
tain, for instance, only copper with a con- 
tent of iron, will use a different alloy 
from_ one which works pure copper. This 
applies equally to all impurities present 
in metals ; and it would mark a great ad- 
vance in the technics of alloys if we were 
able to procure the metals for alloys, in 
a chemically pure state, at a low price. 
The result would be that the number of 
alloys for each certain purpose would be 
lessened, and the same composition would 
be used in all foundries. 



Metals for Bearings. 

Copper. Zinc, 

Locomotive axles.... 86.0 14.0 

Locomotive axles.... 82.0 8.0 

Car axles 82.0 18.0 

Car axles 84.0 16.0 

Car axles 75.0 2.0 

Various axles 73.7 2.1 

Various axles, medium 

hard 69.55 5.88 21.77 

Various axles, hard. . 82.0 2.0 16.0 
Various axles, very 

hard 88.8 



Tin. 

io.o 



20.0 
14.2 



Machine Metals for Various 
Copper. Zinc. 
91.3 8.7 
83.3 16.7 
80.0 2.0 
81.0 2.0 
88.0 2.0 



Cogwheels 

Punches 

Steam whistles.. 
Steam whistles.. 

Cocks 

Wheel boxes, for 

wagons 

Stufiing boxes. . . 
Mec'l instrum'ts 

Files 

Files 

Weights 

Castings, to be 

gilded 

Castings, to be 

gilded 

Piston rings. . . . 
Malleable shovels 
Malleable shovels 
Buttons, white. . 
Sheet for pressed 

articles 

Small castings. . 
Small castings. . 



11.2 . . 

Purposes 
Tin. Lead. 



87.7 
86.2 
81.2 
64.4 
61.5 
90.0 



2.6 

3.6 

5.1 

10.0 

7.7 
2.0 



17.0 
16.0 
10.0 

9.7 
10.2 
12.8 
17.6 

30.8 
8.0 



7.8 13.1 



77.2 
84.0 



7.0 
8 3 

50.0 16.4 
3.0 2.0 

57.9 36.8 

63.88 30.55 
94.12 . . 
90.0 10.0 



15.8 
2.9 

33.6 
1.0 
5.3 

5.55 

5.88 



8.6 



4.3 



3. — Dysiot. — A bearing metal. It is 
composed of 60 or 62 parts of copper, 18 
91] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



( Brass ) 



parts of lead, and 10 parts each of tin 
and zinc. 

Brass. 

The term brass signifies all alloys of 
which copper and zinc are the essential 
and chief constituents ; but it is gener- 
ally limited in the industrial arts to those 
alloys which are decidedly yellow, or have 
the yellowish tint characteristic of ordi- 
nary brass. Alloys of zinc and copper 
are known in commerce by a variety of 
names, and, indeed, great confusion has 
been introduced by the multiplication of 
empirical names to represent one and the 
same substance. This is doubtless owing 
to the ignorance that formerly prevailed, 
when every mixture was jealously guarded 
as a great secret, and fanciful names 
given to hide the real composition. More- 
over, some alloys have been handed down 
to us from very early times, and their 
names corrupted so as to have different 
appellations in different localities. Cop- 
per and zinc may be united in all pro- 
portions, forming homogeneous alloys ; 
and the combination is usually attended 
with evolution of heat. Certain varie- 
ties of brass are exceedingly malleable 
and ductile, and these properties, com- 
bined with the variety of shades of color 
obtained by suitable mixing, and the mod- 
erate cost, render copper-zinc alloys most 
valuable for ornamental purposes. Brass 
possesses all the necessary advantages as 
a constructive material for works of art, 
and with the aid of transparent varnishes, 
termed lacquers, which have been brought 
to great perfection, it resists the action 
of the atmosphere remarkably well. The 
malleability of brass varies with the com- 
position, with the temperature, and with 



(Brass) 



the presence of foreign metals, which are 
sometimes in minute quantities. Some 
varieties are only malleable when rolled 
hot, others can be rolled at any tempera- 
ture. Alloys containing up to 35% zinc 
can be drawn into wire, but those contain- 
ing 15 to 30% of zinc are the most duc- 
tile. The alloy known as Dutch metal, 
which is an alloy of copper and zinc, con- 
taining more copper than ordinary brass, 
is an example of the great malleability of 
certain kinds of brass. The thickness of 
the leaves of Dutch metal is said not to 
exceed 1-52900 of an inch. Brass is 
harder than copper, and therefore better 
adapted to resist wear and tear. It acts 
well under the influence of a percussive 
force, as in the process of stamping, pro- 
vided it is suitably annealed at proper 
intervals, in order to counteract the ef- 
fects of local hardening, due to the com- 
pression of the particles into what may 
be termed unnatural positions. During 
the ordinary process of annealing the 
metal becomes coated with a scale of ox- 
ide, by union with the oxygen of the air, 
which oxide requires to be removed at 
each stage. This is done by dipping the 
metal in aquafortis, or dilute sulphuric 
acid, then scouring with sand if neces- 
sary, and finally well rinsing in water. 
A piece of brass submitted to permanent 
deformation by mechanical treatment, 
such as rolling, is more or less hardened, 
and its limit of elasticity is raised. Be- 
tween soft and hard brass there are many 
shades of difference. With the same 
rolled brass the author has obtained ten- 
sile strengths varying from 15 to 25 tons 
per square inch before and after anneal- 
ing. The temperature employed for an- 
nealing is of the greatest importance. 



Some Varieties of Modern Bra'ss 



Name. Color. 

1. Jewelers' gilding alloy Red 

2. Jewelers' gilding alloy Red 

3. Pinchbeck Reddish yellow 

4. Oreide (French gold) Reddish yellow 

5. Talmi gold* Gold 

6. Tissier's metal, with 1% arsenic. .Red 

7. Tournay's alloy Yellow 

8. Rich sheet brass Yellow 

9. Bath metal, similor, etc Yellow 

10. Dutch alloy Yellow 

11. Bristol sheet brass Bright yellow . . 

12. Brass wire Bright yellow. . 

13. Prince's metal Yellow 

14. Sheet and wire brass Pull yellow. . . . 

15. Mosaic gold, ordinary brass Pull yellow. . . . 

10. Bobierre's metal Pull yellow. . . . 

17. Mnntz's metal Full yellow. . . . 

18. Muntz's metal .Full yellow. . . . 

[92] 



Copper. 


Zinc. Tin. 


Lead. Iron 


94 


6 




90.5 


7.9 .. 


1.0 .. 


88.8 


11.2 . . 




90 


10 




90.70 


8.33 . . 




97 


2 




82.54 


17.46 . . 




84 


16 




80 


20 




76 


24 




72.8 


27 


0.2 . . 


70 


30 




75 


25 




67 


33 




66.6 


33.3 . . 




66 


34 




62 


38 




60 


40 





Alloys and Amalgams 



(Brass) 



(Brass) 



Name. Color. Copper. Zinc. 

19. Gedge's metal Full yellow 60 38.5 

20. Common brass Full yellow 64 36 

21. Aich's metal Full yellow 60 38.2 

22. French brass (Potin jaune) Gray yellow. . . 71.9 24.9 

23. Hamilton's metal, chrysorin Full yellow. . . . 64.5 32.5 

24. French brass for fine castings. . . .Full yellow. ... 71- 24 

25. Sterro metal 55.5 42 

26. Hard solder for copper or iron 57 43 

27. Hard solder for brass 50 50 

28. Dipping brass 53 47 

29. White brass 34 66 

30. Lap alloy 12.5 87.5 

*Also contains 0.97% gold. 



Tin. Lead. 



Iron. 
1.5 





1 


1.2 


2.0 .. 


0.3 


2.7 .. 


2 


3 




. 2.5 



Brass.— Table 
Name. Authority. 

1. Brass, English Lavater 

2. Brass, Heegermuhl Lavater 

3. Brass, Augsburg Lavater 

4. Brass, Neustadt Kadernatsch . . 

5. Brass, Romilly Chaudet 

6. Brass, unknown Karsten 

7. Brass, unknown Regnault 

8. Brass, unknown Chaudet 

9. Brass, Stolberg Chaudet 

10. Watch wheels Faisst 

11. Watch wheels Faisst 

12. Ship nails, bad Percy 

13. Ship nails, good Percy 

14. Tombac, English Faisst 

15. Tombac, German Karsten 

16. Coin of Titus Claudius Giraldin 

17. Coin of Titus, 79 a.d Phillips 

18. Coin of Hadrian, 120 a.d Phillips 

19. Coin of Faustina, Jr., 105 A.D.Phillips 

20. Antique bracelet, Naumberg, . .Goebel 

21. Statue of Louis XIV D'Arcet 

22. Statue of Napoleon D'Arcet 

23. Brass for gilding D'Arcet 

24. Brass D'Arcet 

25. Brass D'Arcet 

26. Brass D'Arcet 

27. Brass, color pale yellow Konig 

28. Brass, color deep yellow Konig 

29. Brass, color red yellow Konig 

30. Brass, color orange Konig 

31. Brass, color copper-red Konig 

32. Brass, color violet Konig 

33. Brass, color green Konig 



of Var 


ious Co 


pper-Zinc 


Alloys. 


Copper. 


Zinc. 


Tin. Lead. 


Iron. 


70.29 


29.26 


0.17 


).28 




70.16 


27.45 


0.79 


0.2 




70.89 


27.63 


0.85 . 




, . 


71.36 


28.15 








70.1 


29.9 








71.5 


28.5 








71.0 


27.6 


trace 


1.3 




61.59 


35.33 


0.25 


2.86 


. . 


65.8 


31.8 


0.25 


2.15 




60.66 


36.88 


1.35 . 




0.74 


66.06 


31.46 


1.43 . 




0.88 


52.73 


41.18 


, . 


4.72 


. . 


62.62 


24.64 


2.64 


8.69 




86.38 


13.61 






trace 


84.0 


15.5 


. . 






81.4 


18.6 




. 




83.04 


15.84 






0.5 


85.67 


10.83 


1.14 


1.73 


0.7 1 


79.15 


6.67 


4.97 


9.18 


0.23 


83.08 


15.38 


1.54 . 


. 




91.40 


5.53 


1.7 


1.37 




75 


20 


3 


2 




82 


15.5 


2.5 . 


. 




64.5 


32.5 


2.5 . 


. 




82 


15 


3 






78 


20 


2 


. 




82.33 


16.69 


. . 


. 




84.5 


15.3 


. . 


. 




90 


9.6 








98.93 


0.73 


. . 


. 




99.9 


, . 


. . 


, 


0.08 


98.22 


0.5 


trace 


. 


trace 


84.32 


15.02 


trace 


. 


0.3 



Machine Brasses 



Copper. Tin, Zinc. Lead. 

Eccentric rings... 90 7.7 2.3 

Eccentric rings ... 66 15.5 18.5 

Pumps 84 7 9 

Pumps 34 50 16 

Kingston valve. . . . 84.2 10.5 5.3 

Cocks and glands. 81 3 13 3 



Copper. Tin. Zinc. Lead 

Paddle-wheel pins. 76.8 17.4 5.8 

Sluice cockway. ... 81 
Propeller blades and 

boxes 57 

Hydraulic pumps. 81 

Propeller shaft liner 80 



19 

29 
19 
5.4 14.6 



14 



[93] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Brass) 



Copper. Tin. Zinc. Lead. 
White metal bush 

for propeller. ... 5 

Cogwheels 91 

Steam whistles. ... 80 

Stuffing boxes 86 

Mech'l instruments 82 

Piston rings 81 

Stevenson's socket 

alloy 19 

Sterro metal for 

pumps* 55 

Valve ballst 87 



26 


69 
9 




17 


3 




11 


3 




13 


5 




2.9 


8.3 


4 


31 


19 31 


6 


22.5 . 




12 







*Also contains 16.5% iron. 
tAlso contains 1% antimony. 

The follovs^ing mixtures are employed 
by a large engineering firm, using scrap 
and new metal : 



Copper 38 

Spelter 

Lead 

Tin 

Old metal. . 



'u ^ 


£ ft 


a 


Cocks 
gland 

Sluice 
cockw 


38 


88 


38 


38 38 


1 


1 


4 


6 9 


7 


4 


3 


1% • • 


54 


57 


55 


53 53 



a 



Copper 56 

Tin 81/2 

Spelter 21/2 

Old metal. . . 45 






28 112 
61/2 14 

71/2 .. 
70 7 



56 

121/2 
31/2 
40 



ft 

16 
4 

8 
84 



ui xn w o) c 

^ bx) ^ be be :^.5 

>>a >»H a ^'-^ 

^"S ^'S -S'S o'S 
W.S W^ %% £-5 

Ingot copper 16 16 16 56 

Block tin 214 3 2-3 6 

Zinc % 

Old brass 13 32 50 

Hydraulic Pumps. — Ingot copper, 14 
lb. ; zinc, li^ lb. ; yellow brass, 3% lb. ; 
or spelter, 1% lb. 

White Metal Bush for Propeller Shaft. 
— Ingot copper, 6 lb. ; tin, 84 lb. ; spelter, 
32 lb. 

Brass, Button. — 1. — (Best.) Cppoer, 8 
parts ; zinc, 5 parts. 

[ 



(Brass) 



2. — (Common.) Copper, 50 parts ; zinc, 
40 parts ; tin, 4 parts ; lead, 6 parts. 

3. — Copper, 129 parts ; zinc, 201 parts. 

Best Red Brass for Fine Castings. — 
Copper, 24 lb. ; zinc, 5 lb. ; bismuth, 1 oz. 
Put in the bismuth last, before pouring 

ofe. 

Hard Brass, for Casting. — Copper, 25 
parts ; zinc, 2 parts ; tin, 4.5 parts. 

Bath Metal. — A species of brass hav- 
ing the following composition : (1) Zinc, 
3 parts ; copper, 16 parts ; melted togeth- 
er under charcoal. (2) Fine brass, 32 
parts ; spelter, 9 parts. 

Boiierre's Metal. — This is ordinary 
brass, consisting of 66 parts copper and 
34 parts zinc. Bobierre introduced this 
alloy as especially suitable for ships' 
sheathing. 

Bristol Brass. — Copper, 61% ; zinc, 
39%. 

Casting Objects in Brass. — 1. — If it is 
desired to cast brass objects in sand, it 
is recommended not to make use of al- 
loys containing more than 30% of zinc. 
This is an alloy which furnishes a good 
color, casts neatly, and flows well. One 
may add to it either tin or lead without 
seriously modifying its properties. A 
good formula is one giving 3.20 kgm. of 
copper, 1.36 kgm. of zinc, 120 grams of 
tin and 90 grams of lead. The product 
thus obtained is capable of great resist- 
ance, and it may be rendered still harder 
by slightly increasing the amount of tin. 

French Cast Brass for Fine Castings. 
— 2. — We are familiar with various ar- 
ticles of bronze, so called, statuettes, 
clock cases, etc., made in France, where 
this industry has attained great perfec- 
tion and extensive proportions. The ma- 
terial, however, is not, in most cases, 
genuine bronze, but fine cast brass. In 
the following table is given the composi- 
tion of a few mixtures of metals most 
frequently used by French manufactur- 
ers : 

Copper. Zinc. Tin. Lead. 

1 63.70 33.55 2.50 0.25 

II 64.45 32.44 0.25 2.86 

III 70.90 24.05 2.00 3.05 

IV 72.43 22.75 1.87 2.95 

Their special advantage is that they 
can be readily cast, worked with file and 
chisel, and easily gilded. 

Chrysocale. — Copper, 9 parts ; zinc, 8 
parts ; lead, 2 parts. 

Delatofs Alloy. — Copper, 80 parts ; 
manganese, 2 parts ; zinc, 18 parts ; cal- 
cium phosphate, 1 part. It is rather dif- 
ficult to prepare. Remove the scoria and 
add the zinc just before casting. 
94] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Brass) 



Delta Metal. — An alloy widely used for 
making parts of machinery, and also for 
artistic purposes, is the so-called Delta 
metal. This is a variety of brass hard- 
ened with iron ; some manufacturers add 
small quantities of tin and lead, also, in 
some cases, nickel. The following analy- 
ses of Delta metal (from the factory at 
Diisseldorf) will show its usual composi- 
tion : 

I. II. III. IV. V. 
Copper. . 55.94 55.80 55.82 54.22 58.G5 
Zinc. . . . 41.61 40.07 41.41 42.25 38.95 
Lead.... 0.72 1.82 0.76 l.]0 0.67 
Iron.... 0.87 1.28 0.86 0.1*9 1.62 
M'ganese 0.81 0.96 1.38 1.U9 .... 
Nickel... * * 0.06 0.16 0.11 

Phosph's. 0.013 0.011 * 0.02 .... 



*Slight traces. 

I is cast, II is hammered. III rolled, 
and IV hot-stamped metal. Delta metal 
is produced by heating zinc very strongly 
in crucibles (to above 900° C.) and add- 
ing ferro-manganese or "spiegeleisen," 
producing an alloy of 95% of zinc and 5% 
of iron. Copper or brass, and a very 
small amount of copper phosphate, are 
also added. 

Fine Brass. — 1. — Copper, 2 parts ; zinc, 
1 part. This is nearly 1 equivalent each 
of copper and zinc, if the equivalent of 
the former metal be taken at 63.2 ; or 2 
equivalents of copper to 1 equivalent of 
zinc, if it be taken, with Liebig and Ber- 
zelius, at 31.6. 

2. — Copper, 4 parts ; zinc, 1 part. An 
excellent and very useful brass. 

3. — This alloy, which possesses prop- 
erties similar to varieties of French 
brass, is prepared in the following pro- 
portions : (I) Copper, 75.7%; zinc, 
24.3%. (II) Copper, 67.2%; zinc, 32.8%. 
(Ill) Copper, 60.8%; zinc, 39.2%. 
Particular care is. required to prevent the 
zinc from evaporating during the fusing, 
and to this purpose it is customary to 
put only half of it into the first melting, 
and to add the remainder when the first 
mass is liquid. 

Gilding Metals. — Copper, 4 parts ; 
brass (containing 3 parts of copper and 1 
part of zinc), 1 part; and 70 parts of 
tin for each 80 parts of copper. 

Gold-colored Brass. — 8yn. Red brass, 
Dutch gold, tombac, similor. Prince's 
metal, pinchbeck, etc. (See Gold AxnoYS ; 
Gold Substitutes.) 

_ Machfs Yellow Metal. — This alloy con- 
sists of 33 parts of copper and 25 parts 
of zinc. It has a dark golden yellow 
color, great tenacity, and can be forged 

[ 



(Brass) 



at a red heat, properties which make it 
especially suitable for fine castings. 

Malleable Brasses. — Aich's, Bobierre's, 
Macht's, and Miintz metals, Bristol brass, 
etc. (For composition see under those 
headings. ) 

Experiments with malleable brass show 
that all alloys containing up to 58.33% 
of copper and up to 41.67% of zinc are 
malleable. There is in addition a second 
group of such alloys, with 61.54% of 
copper and 38.46% of zinc, which are 
also malleable in heat. The preparation 
of these alloys requires considerable ex- 
perience, and is best accomplished by 
melting the metals together in the usual 
manner and heating the fused mass as 
strongly as possible. It must be covered 
with a layer of charcoal dust to prevent 
oxidation of the zinc. The mass becomes 
thinly fluid, and an intimate mixture of 
the constituents is effected. Small pieces 
of the same alloy are thrown into the 
liquid mass until it no longer shows a re- 
flecting surface, when it is cast into in- 
gots in iron molds. The ingots are 
plunged into water while still red hot, 
and acquire by this treatment a very 
high degree of ductility. The alloy, prop- 
erly prepared, has a fibrous fracture and 
a reddish yellow color. 

Medals, Metal for. — Copper, 50 parts ; 
zinc, 4 parts. 

Miintz Metal. — 1. — Copper, 6 parts : 
zinc, 4 parts. Can be rolled and worked 
at a red heat. 

2. — Composition Tacks for Muntz Metal 
on Ships. — Zinc, 2 parts ; tin, 4^ parts ; 
copper, 43% parts. 

3. — This metal is less affected by sea 
water than pure copper, and was for- 
merly much used for ship sheathing, and 
for making nails and rivets which were 
to come in contact with sea water. At 
the present day it has lost much of its 
importance, since all the larger ships are 
made of iron. It is usually composed of 
60 to 62 parts of copper and 40 to 38 parts 
of zinc. Yellow metal, or Muntz metal 
(so called, after its inventor), is prepared 
with certain precautions, directed toward 
obtaining as fine a grain as possible, ex- 
perience having shown that only a fine- 
grained alloy of uniform density can re- 
sist the action of sea water evenly. A 
metal of uneven density will wear in 
holes. To obtain as uniform a grain as 
possible, small samples taken from the 
fused mass are cooled quickly, and ex- 
amined as to fracture. If they do not 
show the desired uniform grain some zinc 
is added to the mass. After it has per- 
meated the whole mass a fresh sample 
95] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Brass) 



is taken and tested, this being continued 
until the desired result is reached. It is 
scarcely necessary to remark that con- 
siderable experience is required to tell 
the correct composition of the alloy from 
the fracture. The mass is finally poured 
into molds and rolled cold. (See also 
Imitation Gold.) 

Neogen. — Copper, 58 parts ; zinc, 27 
parts ; tin, 2 parts ; nickel, 12 parts ; bis- 
muth, Yq part ; aluminum, i/^ part. 

Ornaments. — 1. — Copper, 82 parts ; tin, 
3 parts ; zinc, 18 parts ; lead, 2 parts. 

2. — Copper, 83 parts ; zinc, 17 parts ; 
tin, 1 part ; lead, % part. 

Poiin.— Copper, 71.9%; zinc, 24.9%; 
tin, 1.2% ; lead, 2%. 

Rolled Brass. — Copper, 32 parts ; zinc, 
10 parts ; tin, 1 to 5 parts. 

Rollers and Scrapers for Calico Print- 
ing. — For this purpose a metal is re- 
quired that is rufficiently soft to be 
worked by tools, and hard enough to re- 
sist the wear to which it is subjected in 
practice. Another important desideratum 
is that the metals should be capable of 
resisting the corrosive action of the liquids 
with which they come in contact. Hau- 
vel considers a bronze having the follow- 
ing composition the best material for the 
rollers : Copper, 84 ; tin, 14 ; zinc, 2. 
Another alloy which is used consists of 
zinc, 78.5 ; tin, 15.8 ; copper, 5.6. 

Copper. Zinc. Tin. 

French scrapers 78.75 12.50 8.75 

English scrapers.... 80.50 11.50 8.00 

German scrapers... 85.30 9.80 4.90 

Sheet Brass (for Sheet and Wire). — 
In the preparation of brass for the manu- 
facture of wire, an especially pure qual- 
ity of copper must be used ; without this, 
all efforts to produce a suitable quality 
of brass will be in vain. That pure cop- 
per is indispensable to the manufacture 
of good, ductile brass, may be seen from 
the great difference in the composition 
of the various kinds, all of which answer 
their purpose, but contain widely vary- 
ing quantities of copper and zinc. The 
following table shows the composition of 
some excellent qualities of brass suitable 
for making sheet and wire : 

Copper. Zinc. Lead. Tin. 

Brass sheet. % % % % 

Jemmapes 64.6 33.7 1.4 0.2 

Stolberg 64.8 32.8 2.0 0.4 

Romillv 70.1 29.26 0.38 0.17 

Rosthom, Vienna. 68.1 31.9 

Rosthorn, Vienna . 71.5 28.5 

Rosthorn, Vienna. 71.1 27.6 1.3 .... 

Iserlohn & Romilly 70.1 29.9 

[ 



(Brass) 





Copper, Zinc. Lead. Tin. 


Liidenscheid 


. . 72.73 27.27 


(Brittle) 


.. 63.66 33.02 2.52 .... 


riegermiihl 


. . 70.16 27.45 0.79 0.20 


Oker 


.. 68.98 29.54 0.97 ... . 


Brass wire. 




England 


. . 70.29 29.26 0.28 0.17 


Augsburg 


.. 71.89 27.63 0.85 .... 


Neustadt 


. . 70.16 27.45 0.2 0.79 


Neustadt 


.. 71.36 28.15 .... .... 


Neustadt 


.. 71.5 28.5 


Neustadt 


.. 71.0 27.6 .... 


(Good quality) , 


.. 65.4 34.6 


(Brittle) .... 


filS T{ ^9.d. 9 1 


For wire and sheet 67 32 0.5 0.5 



As the above figures show, the percent- 
age of zinc in the different kinds of brass 
lies between 27 and 34. Recently, alloys 
containing a somewhat larger quantity 
of zinc have been used, it having been 
found that the toughness and ductility of 
the brass are increased thereby without 
injury to its tenacity. Alloys containing 
up to 37% of zinc possess a high degree 
of ductility in the cold, and are well 
adapted for wire and sheet. 

Statuary Metal. — Copper, 91.4 parts ; 
zinc, 5.53 parts ; tin, 1.7 parts ; lead, 1.37 
parts. Or, copper, 80 parts ; tin, 20 
parts. 

Sterro Metal. — The alloy called sterro 
metal may properly be considered in con- 
nection with Aich's metal, since its con- 
stituents are the same, and its properties 
very similar. The principal difference be- 
tween the two metals is that sterro metal 
contains a much larger amount of iron. 
The composition of this alloy, which is 
sure to have an important part in the 
future development of the metal industry, 
varies considerably with different manu- 
facturers. Two varieties of excellent 
quality are the product of the Rosthorn 
factory, in Lower Austria — copper, 55.33 
parts ; zinc, 41.80 parts ; iron, 4.66 parts ; 
and the English sterro metal (Gedge's 
alloy for ship sheathing), copper, 60 
parts ; zinc, 38.125 parts ; iron, 1.5 parts. 
The great value of this alloy lies in its 
strength, which is equaled only by that 
of the best steel. As an illust:ration of 
this, a wrought-iron pipe broke with a 
pressure of 267 atmospheres, while a sim- 
ilar pipe of sterro metal withstood the 
enormous pressure of 763 atmospheres 
without cracking. Besides its remarkable 
strength, it possesses a high degree of 
elasticity, and is, therefore, particularly 
suitable for purposes which require the 
combination of these two qualities, such 
as the construction of hydraulic cylin- 
ders. It is well known that these cylin- 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Brass) 



ders, at a certain pressure, begin to 
sweat ; that is, the interior pressure is 
so great that the water permeates through 
the pores of the steel. With a sterro- 
metal cylinder, the pressure can be con- 
siderably increased without any moisture 
being perceptible on the outside of the 
cylinder. Sterro metal can be raade even 
more hard and dense, if required for spe- 
cial pui-poses, but this is effected rather 
by mechanical manipulation than by any 
change in the chemical composition. If 
rolled or hammered in heat, its strength 
is increased, and it acquires, in addi- 
tion, an exceedingly high degree of te- 
nacity. Special care must be taken, how- 
ever, in hammering not to overheat the 
metal, as in this case it would become 
brittle, and might crack under the ham- 
mer. Sterro metal is especially suitable 
for all the purposes for which the so- 
called red metal has been in the past 
almost exclusively used. Axle bearings, 
for example, made of sterro metal, have 
such excellent qualities that many ma- 
chine factories are now using this mate- 
rial entirely for the purpose. 

Tisfiier's Metal. — This alloy differs from 
the ones previously described in contain- 
ing arsenic. It is of a beautiful tombac 
red color, and very hard. Its composi- 
tion varies a great deal, but the peculiar 
alloy which gives the name is composed 
of 97 parts of copper, 2 parts of zinc, 
and 1 or 2 parts of arsenic. It may be 
considered a brass with a very high per- 
centage of copper, and hardened by the 
addition of arsenic. It is sometimes used 
for axle bearings, but other alloys are 
equally suitable for this purpose, and are 
to be preferred on account of the ab- 
sence of arsenic, which is always danger- 
ous. 

Tohin Bronze. — This alloy is very sim- 
ilar in composition and properties to 
Delta metal. Some analyses are given : 

I. 11. III. IV. 

Copper.... 61.203 59.00 61.20 82.67 

Zinc 27.440 38.40 37.14 3.23 

Tin 0.906 2.16 0.90 12.40 

Iron 0.180 0.11 0.18 0.10 

Lead 0.359 0.31 0.35 2.14 

Silver 0.07 

Phosphorus 0.005 

The alloy marked IV is called in com- 
merce deoxidized bronze. 

Compositions of Sheet Brass. 
Copper Zinc. Tin. Lead. 

92.7 4.6 2.7 

91.6 8.4 

90 10 

85.5 14.5 

[ 



(Gold) 



Zinc. 


Tin. 


Leac 


17 






20 




0.5 


24 






25 






26.2 


0.3 




30 






32 






32 


0.5 


0.5 


34 






35 




... 



Copper 
83 
79.5 
76 
75 
73.5 
70 
68 
67 
66 
65 

1. — Solder for Brass. — Syn. Hard Sol- 
der. Brass, 12 parts ; zinc, 6 parts ; tin, 
1 part ; melted together. 

2. — Brass, 2 parts ; zinc, 1 part. 

3. — Very strong. Brass, 3 parts ; zinc, 
1 part. 

1. — Turner's Brass.- — Brass, 98 parts ; 
lead, 2 parts. The addition of lead im- 
proves the brass for the use of the turner, 
but lessens its malleability. 

2.— Copper, 32 lb.; zinc, 10 lb.; lead, 
1 lb. 

3. — Red Brass. — a. — Copper, 24 lbs. ; 
zinc, 5 lbs. ; lead, 8 oz. Put in the lead 
last, before pouring off. 

b. — Free, for Turning. — Copper, 160 
lb. ; zinc, 50 lb. ; lead, 10 lb. ; antimony, 
44 oz. 

4. — Yellow Brass (common article). — 
Copper, 20 lb. ; zinc, 10 lb. ; lead, 1 to 5 
oz. Put in the lead last, before pouring 
off. 

White Brasses. — Below are given pro- 
portions for white brasses, as they are 
called. They can all be melted on a good 
hot fire ; but a coke stove, in which a 
slight blast could be obtained, would be 
better still : 

123 4 5 678 

Lead.... 70 .. 42.5 37.5 84 

Zinc 82 42.5 

Tin 37.5 66.7 90 85 .. 

Antimony 20 11 15 25 11.1 7 10 10 
Copper... 10 7 22.2 3 5.. 

Ordinary brass can be melted over an 
ordinary open fire. 

Wire, Brass for. — For wire, an alloy of 
72 parts of copper and 28 parts of zinc 
is commonly used ; this alloy must be aft- 
erward hardened by tempering. 

Yellow Brass. — Zinc, 30 parts ; copper, 
70 parts ; in small pieces. 

GOLD 

Aluminum and Gold Alloy. — This al- 
loy, called Nuremberg gold, is used for 
making cheap gold ware, and is excellent 
for this purpose, as its color is exactly 
that of pure gold, and does not change 
in the air. Articles made of Nuremberg 
gold need no gilding, and retain their 
color under the hardest usage ; even the 
97] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Gold) 



fracture of this alloy shows the pure 
gold color. The composition is usually 
90 parts of copper, 2.5 parts of gold, and 
7.5 parts of aluminum. 

Chains, Alloy for. — 1. — Fine gold, 11 
dwts. 6 gr. ; fine silver, 2 dwts. 5 gr. ; 
fine copper, 6 dwts. 13 gr. 

2.-^Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 9 dwts. ; 
fine copper, 8 dwts. 

Colored Gold. — The alloys of gold with 
copper have a reddish tinge, those of gold 
with silver are whiter, and an alloy of 
gold, silver and copper together is dis- 
tinguished by a greenish tone. Manu- 
facturers of gold ware make use of these 
different colors, one piece being frequently 
composed of several pieces of varying 
color. Below are given some of these 
alloys, with their colors : 



1.— 


Cop- 




Cad- 


Gold. Silver 


per. 


Steel, mium. Color. 


2 to 6 1.0 






... Green 


75.0 16.6 






8.4 Green 


74.6 11.4 


9.7 




4.3 Green 


75.0 12.5 


12.5 




.2.5 Green 


1.0 2.0 




... 


... Pale yellow 


4.0 3.0 


i.6 




... Deep yellow 


14.7 7.0 


6.0 




... Deep yellow 


14.7 9.0 


4.0 




... Deep yellow 


3.0 1.0 


1.0 




... Light red 


10.0 1.0 


4.0 




... Light red 


1.0 ... 


1.0 




. . . Bright red 


1.0 ... 


2.0 




... Bright red 


30.0 3.0 




2.0 


... Gray 


4.0 ... 




1.0 


... Gray 


29.0 11.0 


... 




... Gray 


lto3 ... 




1.0 


... Blue 



2.— 



Color. O 

White 

White 

Gray 85.7 

Gray 83.3 

Gray 72.5 

Green 75 

Green 75 

Green 74.6 

Green 75 

Pale yellow 91.67 
Pale yellow 91.67 
Very pale.. 50 

Yellow 100 

Deep yellow 90 
Deep yellow 53 

Red 75 

Dark red... 50 
Dark red... 25 

Blue 75 

Blue 66.7 

Jap'ese blue 
gold ItolO 



m 


8 


o 


E 


o 








100 .. 


8.6 




5.7 
16.7 






27.5 










25 










16.6 








8.4 


11.4 


9.7 






4.3 


12.5 








12.5 


8.33 




'8.33 






50 


io 








25 


22 
25 
50 
75 


25 
33.3 







99 to 90 



(Gold) 



3.— Blue Gold.— Gold, 750 parts; iron, 
250 parts. Prepared by dipping iron wire 
into molten gold, then casting, hammer- 
ing, and passing through a draw plate. 

4.— Gray Gold Alloy.— Gold, 94 parts; 
iron, 6 parts ; or 95.5 parts of gold united 
with 4.5 parts of iron. 

5 — Green. — To make green gold, melt 
together 19 gr. of pure gold and 5 gr. of 
pure silver. The metal thus prepared has 
a beautiful green shade. 

Copper-Gold Alloy. — Copper, 800 parts ; 
platinum, 28 parts ; tungstic acid, 20 
parts ; melted in a crucible, under a flux, 
and the melted mass poured out into alka- 
line water," so as to granulate it. It is 
then melted together with 170 parts of 
gold. 

Enameling Gold. — 1. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; 
fine silver, 1 dwt. 12 gr. ; fine copper, 2 
dwts. 12 gr. 

2. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 9 
dwts. 12 gr. ; fine copper, 7 dwts. 12 gr. 

Feuille Morte (dead leaf).— Gold, 700 
parts ; silver, 300 parts. 

Fine Gold.— Gold, 750 parts ; silver, 250 
parts. 

Grain, Gold, Cupelled. — Gold, 1 part ; 
silver, 3 parts ; melted together, and 
poured in a small stream into water, the 
silver being afterward dissolved out by di- 
gestion in .boiling nitric acid, and the 
grains, after being well washed in water, 
heated to redness in a crucible or cupel. 
Used to make preparations of gold. 

Horology, Alloy for. — 1. — The follow- 
ing alloy, suited for the sockets of pivots 
of watches, was invented by Mr. Bennett. 
It consists of gold, 31 parts ; silver, 19 
parts ; copper, 39 parts ; palladium, 11 
parts. He states that this alloy melts at 
a lower temperature than gold, and is 
harder than hammered iron. It has a red- 
dish brown color, is as fine-grained as 
steel, and works as easily as brass, but 
its friction is much slighter than on ordi- 
nary pivots. Its most valuable property 
is that the oil it absorbs is not decom- 
posed, but remains pure in a fluid state. 
It has still greater advantages over sock- 
ets of fine stone, as it is not apt to break, 
is susceptible of a high polish, and is less 
costly than hard stone. 

2. — .Jewelers' Gold. — This term is ap- 
plied to alloys of gold used for trinkets 
and inferior articles of jewelry, ranging 
from 3 or 4 carats fine upward. The low- 
est alloy of this class is formed of copper, 
16 parts ; silver, 1 to 1% parts ; gold, 2 
to 3 parts ; melted together. 

3.— Jewelry Gold.— Gold, 38.85 ; silver, 
5.7; copper, 10.20. 

Non-Magnetic Alloy. — This is used in 
98] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Gold) 



some of the Swiss watches to take the 
place of steel in the hair springs. It is 
composed of equal parts of gold and pal- 
ladium, copper about 15% of the whole, 
and a trace of rhodium and manganese 
are added ; this may vary from 1-lOth 
of 1% to 5% of each. The copper and 
manganese are first added. 

Nurnherg Gold. — (See Aluminum and 
Gold.) 

Palladium. — 1, — An alloy of palla- 
dium 20 parts, gold 80, is white, hard 
as steel, unchangeable in the air, and 
can, like the other alloys of palladium, 
be used for dental purposes. 

2. — Alloys of gold, copper, silver, and 
palladium have a brownish red color and 
are as hard as iron. They are some- 
times (although rarely) used for the 
bearings for the pivots of the wheels of 
fine watches, as they cause less friction 
than the jewels commonly used for the 
purpose, and do not rust in the air. The 
composition used in the Swiss and Eng- 
lish watch factories consists usually of 
gold 18 parts, copper 13, silver 11, and 
palladium 6. 

Red Gold. — Gold, 750 parts ; copper, 
250 parts. 

Ring Gold. — Coin gold, 49.6 parts ; sil- 
ver, 12.3 parts ; refined copper, 23.6 parts. 

Shakdo. — This is a famous Japanese 
alloy. It is composed of copper and gold, 
the proportions of the latter being va- 
riable, being from 2 to 8%. 

Talmi Gold. — The name of talmi gold 
was first applied to articles of jewelry, 
chains, earrings, bracelets, etc., brought 
from Paris, and distinguished by beauti- 
ful workmanship, a low price, and great 
durability. Later, when this alloy had 
acquired a considerable reputation, arti- 
cles were introduced under the same 
name, but really made of other metals, 
and which retained their beautiful gold 
color only as long as they were not used. 
The fine varieties of talmi gold are man- 
ufactured from brass, copper, or tombac, 
covered with a thin plate of gold, com- 
bined with the base by rolling, under 
strong pressure. The plates are then 
rolled out by passing through rollers and 
the coating not only acquires considerable 
density, but adheres so closely to the base 
that the metal will keep its beautiful ap- 
pearance for years. Of late, many arti- 
cles of talmi gold are brought into the 
market whose gold coating is produced by 
electroplating and is in many cases so 
thin that hard rubbing will bring through 
the color of the base. Such articles, of 
course, are not durable. In genuine talmi 
gold, the coating, even though it may be 

[ 



(Gold Imitations) 



thin, adheres very closely to the base, 
for the reason that the two metals are 
actually joined by the rolling, and also 
because alloyed gold is always used, which 
is much harder than pure gold. The pure 
gold of electroplating is very soft. The 
composition of some varieties of talmi 
gold are here given. It will be seen that 
the content of gold varies greatly, and 
the durability of the alloy will, of course, 
correspond to this. The alloys I, II and 
III are genuine Paris talmi gold ; IV, V 
and yi are electroplated imitations ; and 
VII is an alloy of a wrong composition, 
to which the gold does not adhere firmly : 
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. 
Copper..... 89.88 90.79 90.00 90.69 87.48 93.46 86.4 

Copper 88.16 83.13 84.55 .... 

Zinc 9.32 8.33 8.9 88.97 12.44 6.60 12.2 

Zinc 11,42 16.97 15.79 .... 

Tin 1.1 

Iron 0.3 

Gold 1.03 0.97 0.91 0.5 0.3 0.05 .... 

White Gold, Electrum. — Gold whitened 
by addition of silver. 

Yellow Gold, Antique. — Pure gold. 

Imitation Gold Alloys. 

1. — Gold Dutch, Mannheim gold, mosaic 
gold, ormolu, pinchbeck, Prince's metal, 
red brass similor, tombac. These names 
are applied to several varieties of fine 
gold-colored brass, differing slightly in 
tint, and in the proportions of copper and 
zinc. At the celebrated works of Heger- 
mlihl, near Potsdam, the proportions, cop- 
per 11 parts to zinc 2 parts, are employed 
to produce a metal which is afterward 
rolled into sheets for the purpose of mak- 
ing Dutch leaf gold. This alloy has a 
very rich, deep gold color. Its malleabil- 
ity is so remarkable that it may be beaten 
out into leaves not exceeding 1-52900 
inch in thickness. 

2. — The imitation gold alloys of differ- 
ent shades of yellow, dark, pale, or green- 
ish, are extensively used for cheap gold- 
colored coatings. The principal places 
where this special industry is carried on 
are Vienna, Nuremberg, and Fiirth, and 
it is usually pursued in connection with 
the manufacture of bronze powder. The 
composition of these alloys varies from 77 
to 85 parts of copper and 23 to 15 parts 
of zinc. 

The metals are melted in graphite cru- 
cibles, and kept fluid for some time, in 
order that the alloy may become perfectly 
uniform. It is then cast into semi-circu- 
lar ingots about 23 1/^ inches long and % 
of an inch in diameter. These ingots 
are rolled cold into strip'^ about the thick- 
ness of ordinary writing paper. Each 
strip is folded together so as to form a 
99] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Gold Imitations) 



package about 23% inches long. This is 
beaten under a hammer set in motion 
by a motor, into a ribbon about 3% 
inches wide. The very thin strips ob- 
tained in this way are cut up into pieces, 
which are again hammered until they 
begin to tear at the edges, about one 
thousand of them being placed together 
for this operation. They are then cut 
into square leaves, which are placed be- 
tween parchment leaves and beaten under 
a rapidly moving hammer until they are 
about 5% inches square. Each of the 
leaves is now cut into four squares of 
equal size, which are again beaten be- 
tween parchment leaves, in the same man- 
ner as genuine gold leaf, except that the 
process is not usually carried so far, in- 
asmuch as this would entail too much 
labor and expense for a cheap material. 
The beaten metal is placed in books of 
tissue paper, which has previously been 
lightly rubbed with colcothar, to prevent 
the leaf metal from adhering. The beau- 
tiful color of leaf metal may be pre- 
served for some time by a coating of thin 
varnish, colorless or pale yellow. By add- 
ing a small quantity of a pure color — 
aniline colors being especially good — the 
color of the leaf metal may be changed 
to red, green, violet, etc. 

3. — An alloy used as a substitute for 
gold and said to be non-oxidizable was 
found by the inventor to contain : copper 
94.8, zinc 2.8, lead 0.67 and iron 1.34 
per cent. The inventor recommends to 
dip the articles in dilute nitric acid, then 
to swill and dry, then to polish ; and 
claims that they will keep their color for 
a long time. 

4. — The following recipes for metals re- 
sembling gold are said to produce a metal 
which will so nearly approximate the gen- 
uine as to almost defy detection without 
a resort to thorough tests : Fuse, to- 
gether with saltpeter, sal ammoniac and 
powdered charcoal, 4 parts platinum, 2i/^ 
parts pure copper, 1 part pure zinc, 2 
parts block tin, and 1% parts pure lead. 
Another good receipt calls for 2 parts 
platinum, 1 part silver, and 3 parts cop- 
per. 

5. — The Western Jeiveler gives the fol- 
lowing formula : 

Take 100 parts (by weight) of pure 
copper, 14 parts zinc or tin, 6 parts mag- 
nesia, 56 parts sal ammoniac, 18 parts 
quicklime, 9 parts cream of tartar. Melt 
the copper, and add gradually the mag- 
nesia, sal ammoniac, quicklime, and cream 
of tartar, each by itself, in the form of 
powder. Stir the whole for half an hour, 
and the zinc or tin in small pieces, and 

[ 



(Gold Imitations) 



stir again till the whole is melted. Cover 
the crucible, and keep the mixture in a 
molten condition for 35 minutes. Re- 
move the dross, and pour the metal into 
molds. It has a fine grain, is malleable, 
and does not easily tarnish. 

6. — Pure copper, 100 parts ; zinc, or, 
preferably, tin, 17 parts ; magnesia, 6 
parts ; sal ammoniac, 3.6 parts ; quick- 
lime, 1.8 parts ; cream of tartar, 9 parts. 
The copper is first melted, then the mag- 
nesia, sal ammoniac, lime and tartar are 
added, separately and by degrees, in 
the form of powder ; the whole is now 
briskly stirred for about half an hour, so 
as to mix thoroughly ; and then the zinc 
is added in small grains by throwing it 
on the surface and stirring till it is en- 
tirely fused ; the crucible is then covered^, 
and the fusion maintained for about 35 
minutes. The surface is then skimmed 
and the alloy is ready for casting. It 
has a fine grain, is malleable, and takes 
a splendid polish. Does not corrode read- 
ily, and for many purposes is an excel- 
lent substitute for gold. When tarnished, 
its brilliancy can be restored by a little 
acidulated water. 

Gold Bronze. — In the case of articles 
where a beautiful color is desired at lit- 
tle expense, it would scarcely be practi- 
cable to use genuine gold for a coating ; 
and an effort must be made tO' give the 
alloy itself a color resembling as closely 
as possible that of gold. A mixture which 
meets this requirement remarkably well 
is composed of copper, 90.5 parts ; tin, 
6.5 parts ; zinc, 3 parts. Its beautiful 
gold color is not affected by air alone, but 
is quickly destroyed by exposure to air 
and water together. To retain the color, 
therefore, articles made from it may be 
kept standing in a room, but not exposed 
to the weather. Under the influence of 
air and moisture combined they become 
covered, in the course of time, like all 
genuine bronzes, with the characteristic 
green coating known as genuine patina, 
highly esteemed in bronze articles for its 
effect in bringing out the beauty of the 
contours. 

Chrpsochalk or Gold Copper. — 1. — > 
Chrysochalk is similar in composition to 
Mannheim gold. 

I. II. 

Conper 90.5 58.68 

Zi£c 7.0 40.22 

Lead 1.6 1.90 

In color it resembles gold, but quickly 

loses its beauty if exposed to the air, on 

account of the oxidation of the copper. 

It can, however, be kept bright for a long 

100] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Gold Imitations) 



time by a coating of colorless varnish, 
which excludes the air and prevents oxi- 
dation. Chrysochalk is used for most of 
the ordinary imitations of gold. Cheap 
watch chains and jewelry are manufac- 
tured from it, and it is widely used by 
the manufacturers of imitation-bronze or- 
naments. 

2. — Another mixture called chrysochalk, 
also distinguished by a beautiful gold 
color, is composed of copper, 95 parts ; 
tin, 5 parts. 

Copper and Antimony, Process for Pro- 
ducing Goldlike Alloy from. — This inven- 
tion, patented in Germany, covers a me- 
tallic alloy, to take the place of gold, 
which, even if exposed for some time to 
the action of ammoniacal and acid va- 
pors, does not oxidize or lose its gold 
color. It can be rolled and worked like 
gold, and has the appearance of genuine 
gold without containing the slightest ad- 
mixture of that metal, besides being much 
cheaper than other precious and semi- 
precious metals as well as the compounds 
and alloys used as substitutes for precious 
metals. The alloy consists of copper and 
antimony in the approximate ratio of 100 
to 6, and is produced by adding to molten 
copper, as soon as it has reached a cer- 
tain degree of heat, the said percentage 
of antimony. When the antimony has 
likewise melted and entered into intimate 
union with the copper, some charcoal 
ashes, magnesium and lime spar are added 
to the mass when the latter is still in 
the crucible. Although the action of this 
material admixture of. flux is not entirely 
explained, the alloy loses thereby a cer- 
tain porosity otherwise present, and an 
exceedingly great density of the east metal 
is obtained. Same can now be rolled, 
wrought, hammered, and soldered like 
gold, and when polished has the appear- 
ance of genuine gold, while being consid- 
erably firmer than the latter. 

Factitious Gold. — 1. — Copper, 16 parts; 
platinum, 7 parts ; zinc, 1 part ; fused to- 
gether. This alloy resembles in color gold 
of 16 carats fine, or two-thirds, and will 
resist the action of nitric acid, unless very 
concentrated and boiling. 

2. — The alloy has about the color of 9- 
carat gold : Silver, 2.48% ; platinum, 
32.02%; copper (by difference), 65.50%. 
Strong, boiling nitric acid has apparently 
no action on it, even when left in the acid 
for some time. 

Jewelry, Common. — 1. — Refined copper, 
3 parts ; old Bristol bronze, 1 part ; tin, 
25 parts for every 100 parts of copper, 
the tin being replaced by a compound of 



(Gold Imitations) 



lead and antimony when a fine polish is 
needed. 

2. — The following forms a fusible, mal- 
leable metal, easily worked by a silver- 
smith, resisting oxidation, and capable of 
being soldered : Copper, 720 parts ; nickel, 
125 parts ; bismuth, 10 parts ; zinc, 90 
parts ; soft iron, 20 parts ; tin, 20 parts. 

3. — Sauvage has introduced the follow- 
ing alloy : Copper, 58 parts ; zinc, 27 
parts ; nickel, 12 parts ; tin, 2 parts ; 
alumina, 0.5 part ; bismuth, 0.5 part. The 
ingredients are fused separately, mixed, 
and the whole is run down into a homo- 
geneous mass, which is silvery, sonorous, 
malleable, ductile, tenacious, polishes well, 
and does not tarnish. 

4. — As a silvery-looking alloy, Parker 
recommends : Copper, 70 parts : manga- 
nese, 30 parts ; zinc, 20 to 35 parts. Or, 
if not needing to be subjected to high tem- 
perature : Copper, 49 parts ; manganese, 
21 parts ; iron, 5 to 10 parts ; zinc, 5 to 
10 parts. The solder used for it contains : 
Copper, 7 parts ; manganese, 3 parts ; sil- 
ver, 1 to 2 parts. 

5. — Cheap 4-carat gold. Copper, 9 
parts ; gold, 2 parts ; silver, 1 part. 

Leaf Brass. — 1. — This alloy is also 
called Dutch gold, or imitation gold leaf. 
It is made of copper, 77.75 to 84.5 parts ; 
zinc, 15.5 to 22.25 parts. Its color is 
pale or bright yellow or greenish, accord- 
ing to the proportions of the metals. It 
has an unusual degree of ductility. 

2. — Deep gold. Pure gold. Pale gold. 



Copper. . . 84.5 

Zinc 15.5 

Deep gold. 
Copper. . . 91 
Zinc 9 



78 
22 
Deep gold. 
86 
14 



76 
14 
Gold. 
83 
17 



(Reddish) (Dark (Bright 
yellow) yellow) 
Mannheim Gold or Similor. — Mannheim 
gold is composed of copper, zinc and tin, 
in proportions about as follows : 



Copper 83.7 

Zinc 9.3 

Tin 7.0 



II. III. IV. 

89.8 88.9 75 

9.9 10.3 25 

0.6 0.8 . . 



It has a fine yellow color, and was for- 
merly much used in making buttons and 
pressed articles resembling gold. Later 
alloys, however, surpass it in color, and 
it has fallen somewhat into disuse. One 
variety of Mannheim gold, so called, con- 
tains 1.40 parts of brass (composition, 
3 Cuj 1 Zn) to 10 parts of copper and 
0.1 part of zinc. 

Mock Gold. — 1. — Copper, 16 parts; 
platinum, 7 parts ; zinc, 1 part. 



[101] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Gold Imitations) 



2. — Copper, 100 parts ; tin, 17 parts ; 
magnesia, 6 parts ; sal ammoniac, 3.6 
parts ; quicklime, 1.8 parts ; bitartrate of 
potash, 9 parts. The copper is melted 
first, and the magnesia, ammonia, lime 
and potash are successively added, in 
small quantities ; finally the tin is intro- 
duced in fragments, and the whole fused 
for 35 minutes. 

Mosaic Gold, Chrysorln, Hamilton's 
Metal. — The above names are applied to 
an alloy composed, with slight deviations, 
of 100 parts of copper and 50 to 55 parts 
of zinc. It has a very beautiful color, 
closely resembling that of gold, and is 
distinguished by a very fine grain, which 
makes it especially suitable for the manu- 
facture of castings which are afterward 
to be gilded. The best method of obtain- 
ing a thoroughly homogeneous mixture of 
the two metals is to first put into the cru- 
cible one-half of the zinc to be used, place 
the copper upon it, and fuse the mixture 
under a cover of borax at as low a tem- 
perature as possible. Have ready the oth- 
er half of the zinc, cut into small pieces, 
and heated almost to melting, and when 
the contents of the crucible are liquid 
throw it in, a small portion at a time, 
stirring constantly to effect as intimate 
a mixture of the metals as possible. 

Oreide or Oroide, French Gold. — The 
so-called French gold, when polished, so 
closely resembles genuine gold in color 
that it can scarcely be distinguished from 
it. Besides its beautiful color it has the 
valuable properties of being very ductile 
and tenacious, so that it can easily be 
stamped into any desired shape ; it also 
takes a high polish. It is frequently used 
for the manufacture of spoons, forks, etc., 
but is unsuitable for this purpose on ac- 
count of the large amount of copper con- 
tained in it, rendering it injurious to 
health. The directions for preparing this 
alloy vary greatly. The products of some 
Paris factories show the following com- 
position : 

I. II. III. 

Copper 90 80.5 86.21 

Zinc 10 14.5 31.52 

Tin 0.48 

Iron 0.24 

A special receipt for oreide is the fol- 
lowing : Melt 100 parts of copper, and 
add, with constant stirring, 6 parts of 
magnesia, 3.6 parts of sal ammoniac, 1.8 
parts of lime and 9 parts of crude tartar. 
Stir again thoroughly, and add 17 parts 
of granulated zinc, and after mixing it 
with the copper by vigorous stirring, keep 
the alloy liquid for one hour. Then care- 



(Gold Imitations) 



fully remove the cover of froth and pour 
off the alloy. 

Ormolu, Or Moulu. — The French name 
for this alloy is obviously incorrect, inas- 
much as it is not cast gold, but really a 
gold-colored bronze, related in its com- 
position to that variety known as statu- 
ary bronze. It serves manifold purposes 
in industrial art, being used for statu- 
ettes and articles of ornament, as well as 
for candlesticks, inkstands, etc. An in- 
teresting application of it is in the manu- 
facture of articles to be enameled. The 
enamel is placed in shallow cavities chis- 
eled in the surface of the bronze, and 
melted by heating the latter. The edges 
of the cavities separate the different col- 
ors of the melted glass, and the articles, 
after heating, appear coated with the 
closely adhering enamel. This work is 
known by the French name of '"email 
cloissonne.'^ Cloisonne articles were first 
introduced into European countries from 
China, but at the present day the Euro- 
pean work as far surpasses the Chinese as 
in the case of porcelain. 

Real ormolu is in itself of a pure golden 
yellow color, and therefore requires but 
little gold for gilding. It is composed of 
copper, 58.3 parts ; tin, 16.7 parts ; zinc, 
25.3 parts ; and is used for the finest 
bronze articles of luxury. 

PincJiheck. — 1. — Pinchbeck was first 
manufactured in England. Its dark gold 
color is the best imitation of gold alloyed 
with copper. Being very ductile, it can 
easily be rolled out into thin plates, which 
can be given any desired shape by stamp- 
ing. It does not readily oxidize, and thus 
fulfils all the requirements for making 
cheap jewelry, which is its principal use. 
It is composed of copper and zinc, or 
copper, zinc and brass, in the proportions 
given : 

I. II. 

Copper 88.8 93.6 

Zinc 11.2 6.4 

or 

Copper 2.0 1.28 

Zinc 0.7 

1.0 0.7 



2. — Copper, 5 lb. ; zinc, 1 lb. 

Platinor. — This is a name given to cer- 
tain alloys containing platinum of a 
golden yellow color, and consisting of 
platinum, copper, silver, zinc and nickel. 
An alloy of the color of gold, and said 
to be quite constant in air, is prepared 
as follows : Melt 10 parts of silver with 
45 parts of copper, then add 18 parts of 
brass and 9 parts of nickel. The tem- 
perature must then be raised to the high- 



[102] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Gold Imitations) 



est pitch and 18 parts of platinum black 
added. 

Platinum and Coirper. — 1. — Golden-Yel- 
low Alloys of. — Alloys whose composition 
is such that they resemble pure gold in 
color are well suited to the manufacture 
of jewelry and other ornamental articles. 
They can be prepared for about twice 
the cost of silver, and are not only much 
cheaper than gold, and equally beautiful 
in color, but considerably more durable. 
The composition of these alloys of plati- 
num and copper, employed in making jew- 
elry, varies exceedingly. A few of the 
compositions are here given : 

I. II. III. IV. 

Platinum 2 20 7 3 

Copper 5 . . 16 13 

Zinc 1 

Silver 1 20 

Brass 2 240 

Nickel 1 120 

The alloy numbered IV, called Cooper's 
gold, is most excellent for manufacturing 
jewelry, since its color cannot be distin- 
guished from that of 18-carat gold, even 
by close comparison. It can be drawn 
out without difficulty to the finest wire, 
and rolled into very thin sheets. 

2. — Other alloys of the same nature are 
composed as follows : 

I. II. III. IV. 

Platinum 15 16 7 6 

Copper 10 7 16 23 

Zinc 1 1 1 

The successful preparation of these al- 
loys depends upon one condition, namely, 
that the metals shall be entirely free 
from iron. If this is not the case, the 
alloys will indeed show the requisite color, 
but will be too hard, and so brittle that 
they cannot be drawn out into thin sheet 
or fine wire. It has been found by ac- 
curate experiment that a very small per- 
centage of iron is sufficient to lessen the 
ductility considerably ; an 8-1000 part of 
the weight of the alloy will make it no- 
ticeably brittle. The metals used in* pre- 
paring the alloy must, therefore, be test- 
ed beforehand for the presence of iron, 
and any which contain the slightest trace 
of it excluded. 

Princess Metal. — A name given to vari- 
ous yellow alloys varying from 60 to 75% 
of copper and 40 to 25% of zinc. 

Tomhac. — 1. — An alloy consisting of 
copper, 16 lb. ; tin, 1 lb. ; zinc, 1 lb. Red 
tombac is composed of copper, 10 lb. ; 
zinc, 1 lb. 

2.— Copper, 16 lb. ; tin, 1 lb. ; zinc, 1 
lb. 



(Lead Alloys) 



Tournaifs Metal. — This alloy is char- 
acterized b.y great ductility, and is much 
used on this account by the Paris manu- 
facturers of bronze articles, and for the 
manufacture of imitation jewelry from 
thin sheets, for pressed buttons, etc. It 
is composed of copper, 82.54 parts ; zinc, 
17.46 parts. 

Unalterable Alloy (Jacohi). — Copper, 
70 to 73% ; tin, 2 to 11% ; lead, 15 to 
20% ; zinc, 0.5 to 1%. This alloy pos- 
sesses a yellowish red tint, and may be 
used for objects of art, imitation jewelry, 
etc. When treated with sulphides, chlo- 
ride of antimony, chloride of arsenic, etc., 
this alloy becomes coated with a black 
patina, capable of being polished. 

IRON 

Ferro-manganese is a variety of metal 
specially manufactured in a blast furnace 
from ores rich in oxide of manganese, and 
is very extensively used in the manufac- 
ture of mild steel. When the pig iron 
contains less than about 20% manganese 
its fracture shows large crystalline cleav- 
age planes, and it is then termed spie- 
geleisen. The variety known as ferro- 
manganese is a hard, crystalline body, but 
the fractured surface does not present the 
large cleavage planes so characteristic of 
spiegeleisen. It contains from 20 to 85% 
of manganese. 

Glass Molds, Alloy for Casting. — ^Iron, 
100 parts ; nickel, 15 parts. 

Sideraphite. — Iron, 63 parts ; nickel, 23 
parts ; tungsten, 4 parts ; aluminum, 5 
parts ; copper, 5 parts. 

LEAD 

Bullet Metal. — Lead, 98 parts ; arsenic, 
2 parts. For round shot, the fused metal 
is dropped from a high elevation in a 
shot tower into a basin of water ; or 
thrown down a stack of limited height, 
in which a strong draught of air is pro- 
duced by a blower. 

Calin. — The lining of tea chests is called 
calin. It is composed of lead, 50 to 60 
parts ; tin, 8 parts ; copper, ^^ part ; and 
a small percentage of zinc. 

Leading, Hot Alloys for. — Tin, 3 parts ; 
lead, 17 parts. 

Magnolia Metal. — Lead, 840 parts ; an- 
timony, ly^ parts ; tin, 2% parts ; bis- 
muth, ys part ; aluminum, % part ; graph- 
ite, Vs part. 

Patent Sheathing for Ships. — (Baron 
Wetterstedt.) — This consists of lead with 
from 2 to 8% of antimony. Usually about 
3% is used. 



[103] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Manganese Alloys) 



l.—Shot Metal— Ijead, 1,000 parts ; ar- 
senic, 3 parts. 

2. — Lead, 97 parts ; arsenic, 3 parts. 

MANGANESE 

Manganese Bronze. — This is a new com- 
bination introduced by Mr. P. M. Par- 
sons. Copper and iron unite at high tem- 
peratures in various proportions, forming 
alloys of great hardness, and when the 
iron is present in certain proportions the 
tenacity and elasticity of the copper are 
increased. The same remarks apply to 
brass and bronze. It should be stated, 
however, that the above properties are ac- 
quired at the expense of ductility and 
toughness. 

The use of ferro-manganese in making 
manganese bronze is objectionable, owing 
to the iron introduced, but this objection 
can be avoided by the adoption of a rich 
alloy of copper and manganese, now ob- 
tainable commercially, by the use of which 
a very pure series of manganese bronze 
can readily be produced. One of the best 
of these, suitable for gun wheels, pro- 
pellers and mining machinery, had the 
following composition : Copper, 53% ; 
zinc, 42% ; manganese, 3.75% ; aluminum, 
1.25%. The absence of iron permits the 
use of the large proportion of zinc with- 
out risk of rendering the metal brittle. 
The addition of the aluminum is neces- 
sary with the above alloy, as otherwise 
it is difficult to obtain sound castings. 

Gupro-Manganese. — Copper and manga- 
nese unite in various proportions, form- 
ing alloys which may be red, like copper, 
or silvery-white in color, depending upon 
the amount of manganese present. They 
possess considerable hardness and tenac- 
ity, some are very ductile, and more fus- 
ible than ordinary bronze. They are dis- 
tinguished by the property of soundness 
when cast into molds, the castings being 
free from blowholes. The great difficulty 
in producing alloys containing much man- 
ganese is owing to the great affinity that 
this metal has for oxygen, and the high 
temperature required for the reduction 
of the manganese from its oxides, which 
are used as a source of the metal. This 
renders the production of homogeneous 
alloys with a required amount of man- 
ganese very diflScult. 

Pure oxide of manganese is not found 
in nature, at any rate only in rare cases. 
The most frequently occurring ore is 
pyrolusite, generally containing oxides of 
other metals, which are reduced along 
with the manganese, and enter into the 
composition of the alloy. Pyrolusite is 
used for the manufacture of chlorine gas, 



(Manganese Alloys) 



and the by-product can be used to obtain 
oxide of manganese in a comparatively 
pure form, and this is employed for the 
production of cupro-manganese, by reduc- 
ing it in contact with copper. The cop- 
per is finely granulated, mixed with char- 
coal and dry oxide of manganese, in al- 
ternate layers, in a plumbago crucible, 
and the whole covered with a thick layer 
of charcoal powder. A lid is then placed 
on to prevent admission of air, the cru- 
cible put into a wind furnace, and ex- 
posed to the highest temperature of the 
same for some hours. The oxide is gradu- 
ally reduced to* the metallic state, and al- 
loys with the copper, forming cupro-man- 
ganese, which settles to the bottom of the 
crucible. When the operation is com- 
pleted the pot is removed from the fur- 
nace and the contents vigorously stirred 
with an iron rod to thoroughly incorpo- 
rate the ingredients and produce a homo- 
geneous alloy. The metal thus obtained 
is silver-white in color, resembling Ger- 
man silver. 

Cupro-manganese is considerably altered 
in composition by repeated remelting, the 
manganese being so readily oxidized ; and 
as metallic manganese is not a commer- 
cial article, the metal cannot be added 
to make up the loss in the same way as 
zinc is added to brass. Moreover, the 
crucible is strongly attacked by oxide of 
manganese, which has a strong affinity 
for silica, forming a liquid slag. Alloys 
containing from 15 to 30% of manganese 
have a white color, are hard, very tough, 
and can be forged and rolled. 

In making alloys of brass, bronze, or 
German silver, containing manganese, the 
cupro-manganese must be rapidly melted 
under charcoal and added to the alloy, 
then the whole well mixed, and poured as 
soon as possible. Varieties of cupro-man- 
ganese which are especially valuable for 
technical purposes are given below : 



Copper . . . 
Manganese 

Zinc 

Tin 

Nickel .. . . 



I. II. HI. IV. 

. . 75 r.O 65 GO 

.. 25 25 20 20 

15 5 .. 

10 

10 10 

Manganese Alloys. — Cupro-manganese, 
6 parts ; lead, 9 parts ; tin, 48 parts ; zinc, 
9 parts. Tin, 32 parts ; zinc, 7 parts ; 
lead, 7 parts ; cupro-manganese, 2 parts. 

Gupro-ferro-Manganese. — Mr. Parsons 
prepares this alloy by mixing a certain 
proportion of ferro-manganese (an alloy 
of iron and manganese) with copper, and 
the product is afterward made into alloys 
similar to bronze, brass and other copper 



[104] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Manganese Alloys) 



alloys. The ferro-manganese and the cop- 
per are melted in separate crucibles, and 
the ferro alloy added to the copper. The 
effect of this combination is similar to 
that produced by the addition of ferro- 
manganese to the decarburized iron in the 
Bessemer converter. The manganese and 
iron in the metallic state, having a great 
affinity for oxygen, cleanse the copper of 
any oxides it may contain, by combining 
vi^ith the oxygen, and rising to the sur- 
face, in the form of slag, and thus render 
the metal dense and homogeneous. A por- 
tion of the iron and manganese is util- 
ized in this manner, and the remainder 
becomes permanently combined with the 
copper, and plays an important part in 
improving and modifying the quality of 
the bronze and brass alloys, afterward 
prepared from the copper thus treated. 
The effect is greatly to increase their 
strength, hardness and toughness, the de- 
grees of all of which can be modified at 
will, according to the quantity of ferro- 
manganese used and the proportions of 
iron and manganese it contains. An alloy 
of 40 parts of copper and 60 parts of 
ferro-manganese, with a suitable quantity 
of some appropriate flux, produces a metal 
of such tenacity that it surpasses the best 
steel armor plates. The melted mixture 
is cast in blocks, and is perfectly malle- 
able. To obtain a white metal that can 
be rolled out in sheets, the above alloy 
is melted again, and 20 or 25% of zinc 
or white metal added, which imparts to 
it the desired quality. A plate of the 
first named alloy, 2 in, thick, was found, 
by experiment, to offer more resistance 
to a cannon ball than a steel armor plate 
of the same thickness. This new kind of 
"white bronze" is not to be confounded 
with the alloy used under the same name 
for gravestones and monuments, and 
which consists principally of zinc. 

Experiments have been made in Paris 
with a new alloy having a white color, 
yet containing no nickel. It is said to be 
very strong and malleable. It is made 
of copper and ferro-manganese, the pro- 
portions being varied according to the 
purpose for which the alloy is to be em- 
ployed. 

Manganese German Silver. — 1. — "Man- 
ganese German silver" was made from 
copper, 70 parts ; manganese, 15 parts ; 
zinc, 15 parts. But as this alloy proved 
rather brittle in the rollers, the propor- 
tions were altered to copper, 80 parts ; 
manganese, 15 parts ; zinc, 5 parts ; when 
a beautiful white and ductile metal was 
obtained, which would take a high polish. 

2. — An excellent substitute for German 



(Platinum Alloys) 



silver can be obtained, having the follow- 
ing composition : Copper, 67.25% ; man- 
ganese, 18.50% ; zinc, 13% ; aluminum, 
1.25%. The metal thus produced is said 
to be as strong as German silver, and 
makes better castings, while it is less 
liable to corrosion. Its electrical resist- 
ance is four times as great as that of the 
older alloy. 

Manganese Steel. — Copper, 80% ; man- 
ganese, 15% ; zinc, 5%. 

Manganese and Tin. — Manganese and 
tin combine as readily as manganese and 
copper. Tin, however, shows, as in or- 
dinary bronzes, a tendency to separate 
itself in the middle of thick castings from 
the other alloys, because it remains long- 
est in a fluid condition, and under the 
process of solidification it seems to get 
squeezed out of those parts of a casting 
which retain the heat longest. 

Manganese-Tin Bronze. — An important 
series of experiments made at Isabelle- 
Hiitte have shown that the strongest 
"manganese-tin bronze" is obtained by al- 
loying 85% of copper with 6% of tin, 5% 
of zinc and 5% of manganese copper, so 
that the cooled product retains something 
above 1% of manganese. The best mode 
of procedure is first to melt the copper 
in a crucible, then to add, successively, 
tin and zinc, but manganese copper only 
at the last moment, when the metals are 
well stirred up with a rod made from 
gas-retort graphite ; a reaction upon the 
oxides of the metallic bath is clearly no- 
ticed, as it begins to boil and emit sparks 
after the addition of manganese, of which 
a portion is carried into the slag, 

^'Manganese Tin and Zinc Bronzes'^ are 
obtained by adding to an alloy of copper, 
tin and zinc, a certain quantity of "man- 
ganese copper," viz. : the combination of 
70 parts of copper with 30 parts of man- 
ganese, as above described, by which an 
increase of at least 9% of strength is 
obtained over the ordinary alloy. This 
seems to be greatly due, as in the case 
of the refined, tough copper, to a chemi- 
cal action of the manganese ; for all or- 
dinary bronzes contain more or less of 
copper and tin oxides, which are reduced 
to metal by the action of the manganese. 
An addition of manganese seems, how- 
ever, to have also physically a strengthen- 
ing effect, and an addition of 3 to 6% 
of manganese copper has been experimen- 
tally found to suit the purpose best. 

PLATINUM 

Platinum Bronze. — Several alloys of 
platinum, of a comparatively inexpensive 
nature, have been manufactured under the 



[105] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Platinum Alloys) 



above name, and it has been claimed for 
them that they are indifferent to the ac- 
tion of air and water. They admit of a 
high polish, and retain their luster for a 
long time. The following are some of 
their compositions and uses : For table 
utensils, nickel, 90% ; platinum, 0.9% ; 
tin, 9%. For bells, nickel, 81.5% ; plati- 
num, 0.8% ; tin, 16% ; silver, 1.7%. For 
articles of luxury, nickel, 86.5% ; plati- 
num, 0.5% ; tin, 13%. For tubes for tele- 
scopes, etc., nickel, 71% ; platinum, 
14.5% ; tin, 14.5%. For ornaments, nickel, 
31.6% ; platinum, 3.2% ; brass, 65.2%. 

Cooper's Pen Metal. — This alloy is es- 
pecially well adapted to the manufacture 
of pens, on account of its great hardness, 
elasticity, and power of resistance to at- 
mospheric influences, and would certainly 
have superseded steel if it were possible 
to produce it more cheaply than is the 
case. The compositions most frequently 
used for pen metal are copper, 1 part ; 
platinum, 4 parts ; silver, 3 parts ; or, 
copper, 12 parts; platinum, 50 parts; sil- 
ver, 36 parts. Pens have been manufac- 
tured consisting of several sections, each 
of a different alloy, suited to the special 
purpose of the part. Thus, for instance, 
the sides of the pen are made of the 
elastic composition just described ; the 
upper part is of an alloy of silver and 
platinum, and the point is made either 
of tiny cut rubies, or of an extremely 
hard alloy of osmium and iridium, joined 
to the body of the pen by melting in the 
flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. The 
price of such pens, made of expensive 
materials, and at the cost of great labor, 
is, of course, exceedingly high, but their 
excellent qualities repay the extra ex- 
pense. They are not in the least affected 
by any kind of ink, are most durable, 
and can be used constantly for years with- 
out showing any signs of wear. The great 
hardness and resistance to the atmos- 
phere of Cooper's alloys make them very 
suitable for manufacturing mathematical 
instruments where great precision is re- 
quired. It can scarcely be calculated how 
long a chronometer, for instance, whose 
wheels are constructed of this alloy, will 
run before showing any irregularity due 
to wear. In the construction of such in- 
struments the price of the material is 
not to be taken into account, since the 
cost of the labor in their manufacture so 
far exceeds this. 

Gold Alloys, Platinum and. — 1. — Small 
quantities of platinum change the charac- 
teristics of gold in a considerable degree. 
With a very small percentage the color 
is noticeably lighter than that of pure 



(Platinum Alloys) 



gold, and the alloys are extremely elas- 
tic ; alloys containing more than 20% of 
platinum, however, almost entirely lose 
their elasticity. The melting point of the 
platinum-gold alloy is very high, and al- 
loys containing 70% of platinum can bo 
fused only in the flame of oxyhydrogen 
gas, like platinum itself. Alloys with a 
smaller percentage of platinum can be pre- 
pared in furnaces, but require the strong- 
est white heat. In order to avoid the 
chance of an imperfect alloy from too low 
a temperature, it is always safer to fuse 
them with the oxyhydrogen flame. The 
alloys of platinum and gold have a some- 
what limited application ; those which con- 
tain from 5 to 10% of platinum are used 
for sheet and wire in the manufacture of 
artificial teeth. 

2. — For Dental Purposes. 

I. IT. III. 

Platinum 6 14 10 

Gold 2 4 6 

Silver 1 6 

- Palladium 8 

3. — Mirrors. — Alloy of gold and plati- 
num for coating. A solution of 500 
grams of spongy platinum in 100 c. c. of 
a mixture of equal parts of hydrochloric 
and nitric acids is evaporated to dryness, 
and the dry residue, after powdering, di- 
gested with 2,000 grams of lavender es- 
sence, 100 grams of turpentine, and 25 
grams of sulphureted turpentine rosins. 
The gold, 30 grams, is transformed into 
chloride, and this is dissolved in 1,000 
c. c. of a mixture of equal parts of ether 
and water. The mixture is well shaken, 
and ethereal solution added to the plati- 
num and left to evaporate spontaneously. 
The mixture receives afterward a charge 
of 50 grams of litharge and a like quan- 
tity of lead borate, and 100 grams of 
lavender oil are added to it, when it will 
be ready for coating the mirror, which 
has to be exposed to red heat until the 
composition is burnt in. 

Iridio-Platinum. — Platinum is capable 
of being united to most other metals, the 
alloys being, as a rule, more fusible than 
platinum itself. It occurs in nature in 
combination with a rare metal called 
iridium, with which it is often alloyed ; 
the resulting metal is called iridio-plati- 
num, and though still malleable, is hard- 
er than platinum, and unattacked by aqua 
regia ; it is also much less readily fusible 
than platinum itself. Silver is hardened, 
but rendered brittle, by being alloyed with 
very small quantities of platinum. 

Platinum and Nickel. — According to 
Lampadius, equal parts of nickel and plat- 



[106] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Silver Alloys) 



inum unite to form a pale yellowish-white 
alloy, perfectly malleable, susceptible of 
a high polish, equal to copper in fusibility 
and to nickel in magnetic power. 

Platinum and Silver. — An addition of 
platinum to silver makes it harder, but 
also more brittle, and changes the white 
color to gray ; an alloy which contains 
only a very small percentage of platinum 
is noticeably darker in color than pure 
silver. Such alloys a'-e prepared under 
the name of *^platine au titre," containing 
between 17 and 35% of platinum. They 
are almost exclusively employed for dental 
purposes. 

Watch Manufacturers, Alloys for.— 
Some very tenacious and hard alloys for 
making the parts of watches which are 
not sensitive to magnetism are as fol- 
lows : 

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. 
Platinum.... 62.75 62.75 62.75 54.32 0.5 0.5. ... 

Copper 18.00 16.20 16.20 16.00 18.5 18.5 25.0 

Nickel 18.00 18.00 16.50 24.70.... 2.0 1.0 

Cadmium.... 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 

Cobalt 1.50 1.96 

Tungsten 1.80 1.80 1.77 

Palladium 72.0 72.0 70.0 

Silver 6.5 7.0 4.0 

Rhodium 1.0 

Gold 1.5 



SILVER 

Silver and Aluminum. — 1. — Alloys of 
these metals were made some years ago, 
and it was thought that valuable metals 
of a white color, and unaffected by the at- 
mosphere, would be obtained, which would 
make them superior to ordinai'y silver- 
copper alloys ; but these great expecta- 
tions have not as yet been realized. Alum- 
inum hardens silver, and the alloys admit 
of a high polish. 

2. — Tiers-Argent. — This alloy is chiefly 
prepared in Paris, and used for the man- 
ufacture of various utensils. As indi- 
cated by its name (one-third silver), it 
consists of 33.33 parts of silver and 66.66 
parts of aluminum. Its advantages over 
silver consist in its lower price and great- 
er hardness ; it can also be stamped and 
engraved more easily than the alloys of 
copper and silver. 

Silver and Antimony. — Alloys of these 
metals may be obtained in all propor- 
tions by direct fusion. They are hard, 
brittle, and gray or white in color. The 
whiteness decreases with the proportion 
of antimony. The alloys are very fusible, 
and wholly decomposed by cupellation or 
by fusion with niter, pure silver remain- 
ing. Mr. R. Smith has prepared the fol- 
lowing alloys : 

[1 



(Silver Alloys) 



Silver 72.65 

Antimony 27.35 



II. 

77.98 
22.02 



III. 
84.16 
15.84 



corresponding to the formulae 3Ag + Sb, 
4Ag + Sb, and 6Ag + Sb, respectively. 
The silver was melted first, under a layer 
of charcoal, and the antimony then added. 
No. I was hard, crystalline, and bluish 
white; No. II was similar to No. I, but 
grayish white ; No. Ill was hard, granu- 
lar, and grayish white. The specific grav- 
ities of 48 silver-antimony alloys contain- 
ing 50% of silver and upward, have been 
determined by Cooke, of Harvard, who 
found that the densities were above the 
mean densities of the constituents, the 
maximum being reached in the alloy con- 
taining 26.6% of antimony. Cooke also 
found that the crystallization of the al- 
loys becomes marked as the same compo- 
sition is approached. 

Silver and Arsenic. — These metals are 
capable of uniting in several proportions, 
forming hard, gray, brittle, and readily 
fusible alloys. Gehlen produced an alloy 
containing 16% of arsenic, which is com- 
pact, brittle, steel-gray, and fine-grained. 
Berthier describes an alloy of 14.8% of 
arsenic as dull gray, brittle, and crystal- 
line : by burnishing, it acquires the luster 
and color of silver ; it is very fusible, and 
not decomposed on heating. Guettier de- 
scribes an alloy containing 14% of ar- 
senic, formerly used for table ware. Mr. 
R. Smith prepared a hard and brittle, 
though somewhat tough alloy, which be- 
came white and lustrous on burnishing. 
It contained 18.54% of arsenic, and cor- 
responded to the formula AggAs. Silver- 
arsenic alloys may be prepared by direct 
fusion of the constituent metals, or by 
melting a mixture of silver, arsenious acid 
and black flux. Alloys containing small 
quantities of arsenic were formerly used 
in England in the manufacture of table 
ware. They are not, however, suitable for 
this purpose, on account of the poisonous 
character of the arsenic. They are com- 
posed usually of 49 parts of silver, 49 
parts of copper and 2 parts of arsenic. 

Silver and Bismuth. — Alloys of these 
metals are hard, easily fusible, brittle, 
and lamellar in structure. The color of 
the 50% silver alloy is the same as that 
of bismuth. An alloy containing 33.33% 
of silver is said to be steel gray and to 
expand on solidification. Schneider states 
that when impure bismuth, containing 
sulphur, arsenic, iron, nickel and silver, 
is fused, and poured upon a cold plate, 
the globules of metal which are thrown 
up during solidification of the mass con- 
07] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Silver Alloys) 



tain at least 99.5% of bismuth, and of 
the heavy metals only silver is found in 
the bismuth. Even a very small quan- 
tity of bismuth renders silver ingots very 
brittle, and if dropped on the floor will 
break into several pieces. The metal is 
then very crystalline, each crystal itself 
being ductile, while the mass of the ingot 
is very brittle. This brittleness is prob- 
ably due to the presence of a fusible 
eutectic which surrounds each of the crys- 
tals. 

Silver, Copper, Nickel and Zinc. — • 
These alloys, from the metals contained 
in them, may be characterized as argen- 
tan or German silver with a percentage 
of silver. They have been used for mak- 
ing small coins, as in the older coins of 

3. — Silver and Copper Alloys. 



Name. 

0. Filigree silver.. 

1. Standard, Hall. 

2. Standard, coin. 

3. Silver alloy.. .. 

4. Silver alloy.. . . 

5. Silver alloy.. . . 

6. Silver alloy... . 

7. Silver alloy.. . . 

8. Silver alloy. . . . 

9. Silver alloy 

10. Silver alloy... . 

11. Common silver. 

12. Common silver. 

13. Common silver. 



(Silver Alloys) 



the factories of Ruolz silver. We give 
below the composition of some of the al- 
loys as produced in the French factories : 

I. II. III. 

Silver 33 40 20 

Copper 37-42 30-40 45-55 

Nickel 25-30 20-30 25-35 

4. — Sterling silver. Fine silver, 5 oz. 
11 dwt. ; fine copper, 9 dwt. 

5. — Equal to sterling-fine silver, 1 oz. ; 
fine copper, 1 dwt. 12 gr. 

6. — Copper, Silver and Cadmium. — 
Cadmium, added to silver alloys, gives 
great flexibility and ductility, without af- 
fecting the white color ; these properties 
are valuable in the manufacture of silver- 
plated ware and wire. The proportions 



Silver. 


Copper. 


Nickel. 


Spelter 
(Zinc). 


oz. dwt. 


gr. 


oz. 


dwt. 


gr. 


oz. 


dwt. 


gr. 


oz. 


dwt. gr. 


Pure 


























19 


6 








18 

















18 


12 





1 


12 

















18 








2 




















16 








4 




















15 








5 














1 





14 








6 




















13 


12 





(^ 


12 

















13 








7 




















12 


12 





7 


12 

















12 








8 




















1 








17 








13 











1 








16 








10 


12 





3 12 


1 





1 


2 








15 












Switzerland. Being quite hard, they have 
the advantage of wearing well, but soon 
lose their beautiful white color and take 
on a disagreeable shade of yellow, like 
poor brass. The silver contained in them 
can only be regained by a laborious proc- 
ess, which is a great drawback to their 
use in coinage. 

1. — The composition of the Swiss frac- 
tional coins is as follows : 

20 10 5 

centimes, centimes, centimes. 

Silver 15 

Copper 50 

Nickel 25 

Zinc 10 

2. — Argent-Ruolz. — The articles which 
are manufactured by the Paris firm of 
Ruolz, under the name of Ruolz silver, or 
Argent Frangais, resemble pure silver per- 
fectly in appearance, but differ from the 
latter in greater hardness and a much 
lower price. According to the quality of 
the object, various alloys are employed in 



10 


5 


55 


60 


25 


25 


10 


10 



of the metals vary in these alloys. Some 
of the most important varieties are given 
below : 

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. 
Silver.... 980 950 900 860 666 667 500 
Copper... 15 15 18 20 25 50 50 
Cadmium. 5 35 82 180 309 284 450 

In preparing these alloys, the great vol- 
atility of cadmium must be taken into 
account. It is customary to prepare first 
the alloy of silver and copper, and add 
the cadmium, which, as in the case of 
the alloys of silver and zinc, must be 
wrapped in paper. After putting it in, 
the mass is quickly stirred, and the alloy 
poured immediately into the molds. This 
is the surest way to prevent the volatili- 
zation of the cadmium. 

7. — Chinese Silver. — Copper, 58% ; 
zinc, 17.5% ; nickel, 11.5% ; cobalt, 11% ; 
silver, 2%. 

8. — Gray Silver (Japanese Silver). — 
An alloy is prepared in Japan which con- 
sists of equal parts of copper and silver, 



[108] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Silver Alloys) 



and which is given a beautiful gray color 
by boiling it in a solution of alum to 
which copper sulphate and verdigris are 
added. The so-called "mokum," also a 
Japanese alloy, is prepared by placing 
thin plates of gold, silver, copper, and the 
alloy just described, over each other and 
stretching them under the hammer. The 
cross-sections of the thin plates obtained 
in this way show the colors of the dif- 
ferent metals, which gives them a peculiar 
striped appearance. Mokum is principally 
used for decorations upon gold and silver 
articles. 

9. — Mousset's Silver Alloy. — Copper, 
59.06%; silver, 27.56%; zinc, 9.57%; 
nickel, 3.42%. This alloy is yellowish, 
with a reddish tinge, but white on the 
fractured surface. It ranks next after 
Argent-Ruolz, which also contains some- 
times certain quantities of zinc, and in 
this case may be classed together with 
the alloy just described. The following 
alloys can be rolled into sheet or drawn 
into wire : 

I. IT. III. 

Silver 33.3 34 40.0 

Copper 41.8 42 44.6 

Nickel 8.6 8 4.6 

Zinc 16.3 16 10.8 

10. — Niello. — This consists of silver, 9 
parts ; copper, 1 part ; lead, 1 part ; bis- 
muth, 1 part ; which are melted together, 
and saturated with sulphur. This mix- 
ture produces the gorgeous blue which has 
often been erroneously spoken of as steel 
blue. 

Silver and Iron. — These metals do not 
alloy well together. Messrs. Stoddard 
and Faraday made some experiments with 
silver in steel, and concluded that 1-300 
of silver corresponds to the best mixture. 
These alloys do not appear to present any 
practical interest. 

Silver and Lead.^AWojs of these met- 
als are of little interest from a commer- 
cial point of view. The metals readily 
unite in all proportions. A very small 
amount of lead is sufficient to diminish 
the malleability and ductility of silver. 
Molten lead dissolves silver just as mer- 
cury does, and homogeneous mixtures are 
obtained only while the metals are liquid. 
Levol has investigated this subject, and 
his results are tabulated below: 

Varia- 
Silver per 1000 of alloy, tions 

Atomic ^ '■■ ^ in the 

formula. Calculated. Found. ingot. 
I AgooPb 912.5 914.0 7.5 
II Ag'i.Pb 862.0 863.0 14.5 
III AgioPb 839.1 840.5 23.5 

[ 



(Silver Alloys) 



Varia- 

Silver per 1000 of alloy, tions 

Atomic , '' ^ in the 

formula. Calculated. Found. ingot. 

IV Ag.Pb 675.9 676.5 49.5 

V Ag,Pb 510.5 516.6 66.5 

VI Ag' Pb 342.8 347.5 11.0 

VII Ag^Pba 258.0 262.0 13.0 

VIII Ag Pba 206.8 206.0 6.5 

IX Ag Pbs 94.4 .... 19.5 

X Ag, Pbi5 65.0 67.25 7.5 

XI Ag" Pbio 49.4 46.00 2.5 

XII Ag Pbso 10.3 9.75 .25 

I. Grayish white, but little malleable, 
and contracts during solidificatioD. 

II. Grayish white, resembles platinum 
in color and grain, contracts during solid- 
ification, and changes rapidly in moist air. 

III. Grayish white ; contracts strongly 
during solidification ; heated in air, it as- 
sumes a beautiful violet-blue tint. 

IV. Alloy tolerably malleable, but has 
only feeble tenacity, and melts near cher- 
ry-red heat ; it is bluish gray in color, and 
quickly oxidizes in moist air. 

V. Is much more like lead than silver, 
soft, and tolerably malleable and ductile. 

The others require no special comments. 

Silver and Nickel. — Berthier described 
an alloy of these metals containing 13.5% 
nickel which was white, and capable of a 
high polish ; it rolled well, and was very 
tough. There appears to be very little 
known concerning alloys of these two 
metals alone. 

Silver and Palladium Alloys. — Silver, 
1 part ; palladium, 8 to 10 parts. Used 
by dentists. 

Silver and Tin. — 1. — A very small 
quantity of tin renders silver brittle. Al- 
loys of tin and silver, according to Guet- 
tier, are harsh, very hard, and brittle. 
An alloy of 80% tin is nearly as hard as 
bronze. An alloy of 52% tin is somewhat 
malleable. These alloys are very easily 
oxidized. They have a specific gravity 
less than the mean of the constituents. 
Tin may be removed from silver by fusion 
with bichloride of mercury (corrosive 
sublimate), leaving the silver pure. Den- 
tists use an alloy of 60 parts silver and 
40 parts tin, in admixture with mercury, 
for stopping teeth. 

2.— Dental Alloys.— (a) Tin, 91.63 
parts ; silver, 3.82 parts ; copper, 4.4 
parts, (b) Tin, 36.78 parts ; silver, 48.32 
parts ; gold, 14.72 parts. 

Silver and Zinc. — Silver and zinc have 
great affinity for each other, and alloys of 
these two metals are, therefore, easily 
made. The required quantity of zinc, 
wrapped in paper, is thrown into the 
melted and strongly heated silver, the 
109 ] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Silver Alloys) 



mass is thoroughly stirred with an iron 
rod, and at once poured out into molds. 
Alloys of silver and zinc can be obtained 
which are both ductile and flexible. An 
alloy consisting of 2 parts of zinc and 1 
part of silver closely resembles silver in 
color, and is quite ductile. With a larger 
proportion of zinc the alloys become brit- 
tle. In preparing the alloy, a somewhat 
larger quantity of zinc must be taken 
than the finished alloy is intended to con- 
tain, as a small amount always volatil- 
izes. Berthier prepared an alloy contain- 
ing 80% of silver, which he states was 
rolled into very thin leaf ; it was rigid, 
elastic, very tenacious, and tough, Mr. 
G. H. Godfrey prepared the following al- 
loys by pouring molten zinc into molten 
silver : 

I. II. III. IV. 

Silver... 8.16 22.47 49.72 67.58 
Zinc... 91.84 77.53 50.28 32.42 

I. The surface was bluish gray. The 
metal was hard, easily frangible, and 
easily scratched with a knife. Its frac- 
ture was bluish gray, finely granular, and 
feebly lustrous. 

II. The surface was bluish gray. The 
metal was harder than No. I, easily fran- 
gible, but less easily scratched. Its frac- 
ture was bluish gray, bright, and fibro- 
columnar. 

III. The surface was copper red after 
solidification. The metal was hard, brit- 
tle, and easily pulverized. The broken 
surface, when fractured cold, was white 
and very bright, and somewhat columnar. 

IV. The surface had a faint reddish- 
yellow tint. The metal was hard and 
easily frangible ; its fracture white and 
very bright, but it soon tarnished ; it was 
columnar in structure. 

An alloy of 2 parts by weight of zinc 
and 1 part of silver is said to be ductile, 
finely granular, and nearly as white as 
silver. 

Silver-zinc alloys have been proposed 
for coinage purposes, Piligot prepared 
alloys containing 5, 10 and 20% of zinc, 
respectively. They were white, with a 
tinge of yellow. The coins were elastic 
and sonorous. These alloys are not so 
readily blackened by sulphuretted hydro- 
gen as silver-copper alloys, 

Silver Substitutes. — 1, — A writer gives 
the constituents of a hard alloy which 
has been found very useful for the spac- 
ing levers of typewriters. The metal now 
generally used for this purpose by the 
various typewriter companies is "alumi- 
num silver," or "silver metal." The pro- 
portions are given as follows : Copper, 



(Silver Substitutes) 



57% ; nickel, 20% ; zinc, 20% ; aluminum, 
8%. This alloy, when used on typewrit- 
ing machines, is nickel-plated, for the 
sake of the first appearance ; but so far 
as corrosion is concerned, nickeling is un- 
necessary. In regard to its other quali- 
ties, they are of a character that rec- 
ommends the alloy for many purposes. It 
is stiff and strong, and cannot be bent 
to any extent without breaking, especially 
if the percentage of aluminum is in- 
creased to 3,5% ; it casts free from pin- 
holes and blowholes. The liquid metal 
completely fills the mold, giving sharp, 
clean castings, true to pattern ; its cost 
is not greater than brass ; its color is 
silver white, and its hardness makes it 
susceptible of a high polish. 

2, — Iron, 65 parts ; tungsten, 4 parts ; 
melted together and granulated. Also 
nickel, 23 parts ; aluminum, 5 parts ; cop- 
per, 5 parts ; in a separate crucible, to 
which is added a piece of sodium, in 
order to prevent oxidation. The two 
granulated alloys are then melted togeth- 
er. Both alloys resist the action of sul- 
phuretted hydrogen. 

3, — Copper, 71 oz. ; zinc, 7 oz, : nickel, 
161/^ oz, ; iron, 1^4 oz, ; cobalt (oxide), 
1% oz, ; tin, 2i/^ oz. First fuse the zinc 
with 12 parts of the copper; then fuse 
the nickel with its own weight of the 
zinc alloy in a good black-lead crucible, 
and the iron, the remainder of the cop- 
per, and the oxide of cobalt mixed with 
charcoal. Cover the mass with charcoal, 
lute, and expose to a high heat. When 
properly fused, allow the heat to subside, 
and add the remainder of the copper-zinc 
alloy when the temperature is just suffi- 
cient to fuse it. Remove the crucible 
from the fire, and stir its contents well 
with a hazel stick. Wrap the tin in sev- 
eral thicknesses of dry paper, drop it into 
the alloy, stir for a moment, and run 
into the molds. When cold it is ready to 
be wrought like silver, which it resem- 
bles in every respect. The zinc is nearly 
all volatilized during the process of fusion. 

4. — Aluminum Silver, — The following 
alloy takes a high silver polish, and ex- 
hibits a beautiful silver color : Copper, 
70 parts ; nickel, 23 parts ; aluminum, 7 
parts. 

5, — Sterlin, — A white metal resembling 
silver has found its way on the market 
under the name of sterlin, which has been 
found to contain 68,52% of copper, 
12.84% of zinc, 17.88% of nickel, 0.76% 
of iron, and traces of lead. Silver and 
manganese were absent. Manganese is 
very useful for introducing iron into such 



[110] 



AUoijs and Amalgams 



(White Alloys) 



51 Hoys. If, says Sperry, an alloy con- 
sisting of 4 parts of iron and 1 part of 
manganese is smelted together with cop- 
per and nickel, the iron combines homo- 



(Tin Alloys) 



geneously with the latter, and an alloy 
free from hard lumps is formed, while the 
manganese disappears entirely after from 
one to four meltings. 



6. 



Description. 
Nickel, or German silver 
White copper of China 
Queen's metal 

Britannia metal 

White button metal.. . . 
Solder for bell metal. . 

Solder for brass 

Solder for tin 

Solder for silver 

Solder for silver 

Solder for silver 

Solder for Mokume. . . 

French coin 

M. Piligot's coin alloy. 
M. Piligot's coin alloy. 
M. Piligot's coin alloy. 
M. Piligot's coin alloy. 
M. Piligot's coin alloy. 
M. Piligot's coin alloy. 
Gin shi bu ichi 



Table of White Alloys 















Cop- Anti- 


Bis- 


Silver. 


Nickel. Brass. 


Zinc. 


Tin 


. Lead 


per. 


mony„ 


muth 




dwts. 


lb. 


dwts. 


lb. 


lb. 


lb. 


lb. 


!b. 




3.0 




16.0 






1.0 






... 


15.0 




13.0 


. . . 




1.0 






... 


.... 






9.0 2.0 




1.0 


2.0 








lb. 












... 




].0 




49.0 ... 


1.0 


3.5 








10.0 


2.0 


1.0 ... 












2.0 




1.5 ... 


1.0 










1.0 




0.6 ... 


0.15 














1.0 0.5 




... 




1.0 




0.5 


.... 


. .. 




,,, 


... 


... 


1.0 




0.3 


.... 


. .. 




... 


,,, 


... 


4.0 






. ... 






1.0 


... 




1.0 




6.15 








... 


... 




835.0 






.... 


• •• 




165.0 


... 


... 


950.0 






50.0 


. .. 




c. 






900.0 




.... 


100.0 


, ., 


fo • "T 


... 


.. . 


... 


800.0 






200.0 


. •• 








... 


900.0 






50.0 


. .• 




50.0 




... 


800.0 






100.0 


o .. 




100.0 


... 


... 


835.0 






72.0 


. .. 




93.0 


... 


... 


100.0 




.... 


.... 


. .. 




30 to 50 







TIN 

Algiers Metal. 

This alloy cannot properly be classed 
with bell metal, as its composition is en- 
tirely different. It is made of copper, 5 
parts ; tin, 94.5 parts ; antimony, 0.5 
part. The antimony is probably used 
only to give greater hardness. Algiers 
metal is nearly pure white in color, and 
takes a fine polish. 

Argentin. 

Tin, 85.5% ; antimony, 14.5% ; suit- 
able for spoons and forks. 

Ashberry Metal. 

Among alloys which bear a certain re- 
semblance to Britannia metal may be 
mentioned Ashberry metal : 

I. II. 

Copper 2 3 

Tin 8 79 

Antimony 14 15 

Zinc . .." 1 2 

Nickel 2 1 

Bearing Metals. 

Anti-friction Metal.— l.—T'm, 16 to 20 
parts ; antimony, 2 parts ; lead, 1 part ; 
fused together and then blended with 



copper, 80 parts. Used where there is 
much friction or high velocity. 

2. — Zinc, 6 parts ; tin, 1 part ; copper, 
20 parts. Used when the metal is ex- 
posed to violent shocks. 

3. — Lead, 1 part ; tin, 2 parts ; zinc, 4 
parts ; copper, 68 parts. Used when the 
metal is exposed to heat. 

4.— (Babbitt's.) Tin, 48 to 50 parts; 
antimony, 5 parts ; copper, 1 part. 

5. — (Fenton's.) Tin, with some zinc 
and a little copper. 

6, — (Ordinary.) Tin, or hard pewter, 
with or without a small portion of anti- 
mony or copper. Without the copper it is 
apt to spread out under the weight of 
heavy machinery. Used for the bearings 
of locomotive engines, etc. 

7. — Belgian Anti-friction Metal. — For 
parts exposed to much friction : Copper, 
20 parts ; tin, 4 parts ; antimony, 0.5 
part ; lead, 0.25 part. For parts subject- 
ed to great concussions : Copper, 20 parts ; 
zinc, 6 parts ; tin, 1 part. For surfaces 
exposed to heat: Copper, 17 parts; zinc, 
1 pai't ; tin, 0.5 part ; lead, 0.25 part. In 
making these alloys, mix all the other in- 
gredients before adding the copper. 

Bahhitt Metal. — "Genuine" babbitt is 
composed of a small quantity of copper 
added to tin and antimony. No lead is 
used, for the adjective "genuine" is ap- 



[111] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Tin Alloys) 



plied especially to distinguish it from the 
cheaper grades containing lead. There is 
considerable temptation to adulterate it 
with lead, owing to the difference in value 
of lead and tin ; 1 lb. of lead added to 100 
lb. of "genuine" makes a gain of about 
18 cents. The character of the alloy 
would not be greatly altered, but when 
the purchaser pays for the best he cer- 
tainly has a right to expect it. Fortu- 
nately, it is easy to detect such adultera- 
tion. Take a piece and use it for a pen- 
cil ; if it makes a mark, then it contains 
lead, as a small amount of lead added to 
tin causes the latter to mark paper. The 
following proportions may be used in 
making this alloy : 

1, — Copper, 4 lb. ; tin, 8 lb. ; antimony, 
8 lb. 

This forms the hardening, as it is 
called. First melt the copper, add the 
tin, and afterward the antimony ; remove 
from the fire and let cool down to a dull 
red heat ; then add IG lb. more tin to in- 
crease the fusibility of the liardening. 
This makes 32 lb. hardening ; add this to 
G4 lb. more tin, the proportions of tin 
to hardening thus being 2 to 1. The addi- 
tional tin should be melted separately in 
a kettle or suitable vessel, and the hard- 
ening added either in ingot form or direct 
from the furnace ; in the latter case, be 
sure the tin is all melted, otherwise an 
accident might occur by the hot metal 
from the furnace falling on the damp 
end of a projecting ingot. To prevent 
loss by oxidation the contents of the ket- 
tle should not be heated much above the 
meltiug point. In cases where a cheaper 
composition is desirable, the following can 
be recommended : 

2. — Genuine hardening, 32 lb. : tin, 64 
lb. ; lead, 93 lb. This forms a good alloy. 
Another one is : 

S.^IIardening, 10 lb. ; tin, 50 lb. ; anti- 
mony, 20 lb. ; lead, 80 lb. In mixing this 
alloy, first melt a portion of the lead, 
say 40 lb., in the kettle, or in a crucible, 
in the furnace, bring to a dull-red heat, 
add the antimony, in small pieces, and 
when melted, add the balance of lead. Do 
not attempt to melt the antimony with- 
out the lead bath, as it is a volatile metal, 
and there would be a loss from oxidation. 
In making all alloys containing harden- 
ing a furnace is necessary to melt the 
copper. The following mixtures contain 
no copper, and are fairly good composi- 
tions : 

4. — For hardening, take : Lead, 145 lb. ; 
tin, 40 lb. ; antimony, 20 lb. Melt 145 lb. 
of lead and 40 lb. of tin, and add 52 lb. 
of hardening. 

[ 



(White Metal) 



5. — For hardening : Lead, 48 lb. ; anti- 
mony, 20 lb. Add this amount to 152 lb. 
of lead. The hardening is used in this 
merely to form a bath for the antimony, 
and any portion of 200 lb. of lead may be 
taken. This is cheap and soft. Another 
cheap composition is formed as follows, 
and is known as "hard lead" : 

6.— Lead, 80 lb. ; antimony, 20 lb. Hard 
lead is a better metal than No. 5. It is 
largely used for lining car journal bear- 
ings. It may be improved by the addi- 
tion of tin, as in the following : 

7.— Hard lead, 100 lb. ; tin, 100 lb. This 
is given as an illustration. A great va- 
riety of alloys can be made by taking 
hard lead as a base and adding tin in 
varying quantities. 

Journal Boxes, Alloy for. — Copper, 24 
lb. ; tin, 24 lb. ; antimony, 8 lb. Melt the 
copper first, then add the tin, and lastly 
the antimony. It should be first run into 
ingots, then melted, and cast in the form 
required for the boxes. 

Lining Metal, for Boxes of Railroad 
Oars.— Mix tin, 24 lb. ; copper, 4 lb, ; anti- 
mony, 8 lb. ^for a hardening) ; then add 
tin, 72 lb. 

White Metal. — The so-called white met- 
als are employed almost exclusively for 
bearings. In the technology of mechan- 
ics an accurate distinction is made be- 
tween the different kinds of metals for 
bearings ; and they may be classed in two 
groups, red-brass and white metal. The 
red-brass bearings are characterized by 
great hardness and power of resistance, 
and are principally used for bearings of 
heavily loaded and rapidly revolving axles. 
For the axles of large and heavy fly- 
wheels, revolving at great speed, bearings 
of red brass are preferable to white metal, 
though more expensive. In recent years, 
many machinists have found it advan- 
tageous to substitute for the soft alloys 
generally in use for bearings a metal al- 
most as hard as the axle itself. Phos- 
phor bronze is frequently employed for 
this purpose, as it can easily be made as 
hard as wrought or cast steel. In this 
case the metal is used in a thin layer, 
and serves only, as it were, to fill out the 
small interstices caused by wear on the 
axle and bearing, the latter being usually 
made of some rather easily fusible alloy 
of lead and tin. Such bearings are very 
durable, but expensive, and can only be 
used for large machines. For small ma- 
chines, running gently and uniformly, 
white-metal bearings are preferred, and 
do excellent work, if the axle is not too 
heavily loaded. For axles which have a 
112] 



Alloys and Amalgami 



(White Metal) 



high rate of revolution, bearings made of 
quite hard metals are chosen, and with 
proper care — which, indeed, must be given 



(White Metal) 



to bearings of any material — they will 
last for a long time without needing 
repair. 



German, 
German, 
German, 
German, 
German, 
German, 
German, 
English 



light loads 85.00 

light loads 82.00 

light loads 80.00 

light loads TG.OO 

light loads 3.00 



loads 00.00 

loads 80.81 

loads 17.47 

loads 76.70 

loads 72.00 

15.00 



heavy 

heavy 

heavy 
English, medium 
English, medium 

For mills 

For mills 

For mills 

Heavy axles ^ 72.70 

Heavy axles 38.00 

Rapidlj'^ revolving axles 17.00 

Very hard metal 55.00 

Very hard metal 12.00 

Cheap metal 2.00 

Cheap metal 1.50 



White Metals for Bearings 

Tin. Antimony. Zinc. 

10.00 

11.00 

12.00 

17.00 

1.00 5.00 

8.00 

7.62 



Iron. 



15.50 
20.00 

'im 

1.00 
18.20 

6.00 
77.00 

82.66 
2.00 
1.50 



76.14 



40.00 

5.00 

10.00 

47.66 



2.00 

88.00 
90.00 



Lead. 



3.00 



42.00 
5.00 
2.00 

'4.66 



70.00 



Copper. 
5.00 
7.00 
8.00 
7.00 
1.00 
2.00 
5.57 
5.62 
7.80 
2.00 
3.00 



9.10 
1.00 
6.00 
2.50 
4.00 
8.00 
7.00 



White Alloys for Bearings 



Kingston's metal with 6% of mercury 

added... 88.0 

Fenton's metal for axle boxes of loco- 
motives and wagons 14.5 

Stephenson's alloy 31.0 

For propeller boxes 14.0 

Dew Fance's metal for locomotives. . 33.3 

Hoyle's alloy for pivot bearings 46.0 

Jacoby's alloy 85.0 

For propeller bush 26.0 

Very hard bearing 12.0 

Anti-friction metal 14.0 

For general bearings 81.0 

For general bearings 81.0 

For general bearings 

For general bearings 

Bearings for light work 85.0 

Bearings for light work 73.0 

Bearings for light work 76.0 



Tin. Copper. Antimony. Lead. Zinc. Iron 



Bearings for heavy work. 

Bearings for heavy work 

Bearings for common work 

Soft alloy for pillow blocks 

Vaucher's alloy for lining journals. 



90.0 

87.0 
2.0 

i8!6 



6.0 
5.5 

19.0 
57.0 

22.2 

■5.6 
5.0 
4.0 
6.0 
5.0 
5.0 
10.0 
12.0 
5.0 
9.0 
7.0 
2.0 
6.0 
8.0 



44.4 
12.0 
10.0 

82.0 



14.0 
10.0 

io.o 

18.0 
17.0 
8.0 
7.0 
2.0 
15.0 
2.5 



42.0 



14.0 

86!6 

88.0 



85.0 
4.5 



80.0 
19.0 
29.0 



69.0 
2.0 

80.0 



31.0 



88.0 
75.6 



White-Metal Alloys. — The following al- 
loys are used as lining metals by the 
Eastern Railroad of France : 



No. 1., 
No. 2., 
No. 3., 
No. 4.. 



Lead. Antimony. Tin. Copper. 
65 25 .. 10 

11.12 83.33 5.55 
70 20 10 

80 8 12 



No. 1 is used for lining crosshead slides, 
rod brasses and axle bearings. No. 2 is 
used for lining axle bearings and con- 
necting-rod brasses of heavy engines. No. 
3 is used for lining eccentric straps and 
for bronze slide valves. No. 4 is a special 
alloy for metallic rod packing. 

White Metal, ffard.— Sheet brass, 32 
oz. ; lead, 2 oz. ; tin, 2 oz. ; zinc, 1 oz. 



[113] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Britannia Metal) 



Britannia Metals. 

Britannia metal is an alloy consisting 
principally of tin and antimony. Many 
varieties contain only these two metals, 
and may be considered simply as tin hard- 
ened with antimony, while others contain, 
in addition, certain quantities of copper, 
sometimes lead, and occasionally, though 
rarely, on account of its cost, bismuth. 
Britannia metal is always of a silvery- 
white color, with a bluish tinge, and its 
hardness makes it capable of taking a 
high polish, which is not lost through 
exposure to the air. Tin, 90%, and anti- 
mony, 10%, give a composition which is 
the best for many purposes, especially 
for casting, as it fills out the molds well, 
and is readily fusible. In some cases, 
where articles made from it are to be 
subjected to constant wear, a harder alloy 
is required. In the proportions given 
above the metal is indeed much harder 
than tin, but would still soon give way 
under usage. A table is appended giving 
the composition of some of the varieties 
of Britannia metal and their special 
names : 



Tin. 

English 81.90 

English 90.62 

English 90.1 

English 85.4 

Pewter 81.2 

Pewter 89.3 

Tutania 91.4 

Queen's metal.. 88.5 

German 72 

German 84 

German (for 

casting) 20 

Malleable (for 

casting) 48 



Anti- 
mony. 
16.25 

7.81 

6.3 

9.66 

5.7 

7.6 



7.1 

24 



Cop- 
per. 
1.84 
1.46 
3.1 
0.81 
1.60 
1.8 
0.7 
3.5 
4 
2 

10 

3 



Zinc. Lead. 



0.3 
0.9 



11.5 
1.8 

7.6 



Britannia metal is prepared by melt- 
ing the copper alone first, then adding a 
part of the tin and the whole of the anti- 
mony. The heat can then be quickly mod- 
erated, as the melting point of the new 
alloy is much lower than that of copper. 
Finally, the rest of the tin is added, and 
the mixture stirred constantly for some 
time to make it thoroughly homogeneous. 

Britannia Metal. — A fine species of 
pewter. — 1. — Melt together equal parts of 
plate brass, bismuth, antimony and tin, 
and add the mixture, at discretion, to 
melted tin, until it acquires the proper 
degree of color and hardness. 

2. — To the last add an equal part or 
one-quarter of its weight of metallic ar- 
senic. To be used as before. 

3. — Melt together 1 part of antimony, 
4 parts of brass, and 5 or more parts of 



(Tin-Lead Alloys) 



tin. This may be used at once, as Britan- 
nia metal. 

4. — Best Britannia, for Sponts. — Tin, 
140 lb. ; copper, 8 lb. ; antimony, 6 lb. 

5. — Best Britannia, for Spoons. — Tin, 
100 lb. ; hardening, .5 lb. ; antimony, 10 lb. 

a.—Best Britannia, for Handles. — Tin, 
140 lb. ; copper, 2 lb. ; antimony, 5 lb. 

7. — Best Britannia, for Lamps, Pillars 
and Spouts. — Tin, 300 lb. ; copper, 4 lb. ; 
antimony, 15 lb. 

8. — Britannia, for Casting. — Tin, 100 
lb. : hardening, 5 lb. ; antimony, 5 lb. 

9. — Good Britannia Metal. — Tin, 150 
lb. : copper, 3 lb. ; antimony, 10 lb. 

10. — Britannia Metal, Second Quality. 
—Tin, 140 lb. ; copper, 3 lb. ; antimony, 
9 lb. 

11. — Britannia Metal, for Casting. — 
Tin, 210 lb. ; copper, 4 lb. ; antimony, 12 
lb. 

12. — Britannia Metal, for Spinning. — 
Tin, 100 lb. ; Britannia hardening, 4 lb. ; 
antimony, 4 lb. 

13. — Britannia Metal, for Registers. — 
Tin, 100 lb. ; hardening, 8 lb. ; antimony, 
8 lb. 

14. — Hardening for Britannia. — (To be 
mixed separately from the other ingredi- 
ents.) Copper, 2 lb.; tin, 1 lb. 

English Metal. 

Tin, 88 ; pure copper, 2 ; brass, 2 (con- 
taining 75 copper and 25 zinc) ; nickel, 
2 ; bismuth, 1 ; antimony, 8 ; tungsten, 2. 

Tinfoil, Alloys for. 

Cop- 
Tin, per. Lead. Iron. Nic. 

Mirror foil 97.60 2.16 0.04 0.11 0.00 

Jews' foil 98.47 0.38 0.84 0.12 0.00 

Ger. "Stanniol" 96.21 0.95 2.41 0.09 0.30 

Kustitien's Metal. 

Take of malleable iron, 3 parts; beat 
it to whiteness, and add antimony, 1 part ; 
Molucca tin, 72 parts ; mix under char- 
coal, and cool. Used to coat iron and 
other metals with a surface of tin ; it 
polishes without a blue tint, is hard, and 
has the advantage of being free from 
arsenic. 

Tin-Lead. 

1. — In former times, before porcelain 
came into general use, alloys of tin and 
lead were very extensively used for the 
manufacture of the so-called tinware, 
which probably never consisted of pure 
tin, but always of a mixture of tin and 
lead. Tin is one of those metals which 
is not at all susceptible to the action of 
acids, while lead, on the other hand, is 



[114] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Pewter) 



very easily attacked by them. In such 
alloys, consequently, used for cooking 
utensils, the amount of lead must be lim- 
ited, and should properly not exceed 10 
or 15% ; but cases have been known in 
which the so-called tin contained a third 
part, by weight, of lead. Alloys contain- 
ing from 10 to 15% of lead have a beau- 
tiful white color, are considerably harder 
than pure tin, and much cheaper. Many 
alloys of tin and lead are very lustrous, 
and are used for stage jewelry and mir- 
rors for reflecting the light of lamps, etc. 
An especially brilliant alloy is called 
"Fahlun brilliants." It is used for stage 
jewelry, and consists of 29 parts of tin 
and 19 parts of lead. It is poured into 
molds faceted in the same way as dia- 
monds, and when seen by artificial light 
the effect is that of diamonds. Other al- 
loys of tin and lead are employed in the 
manufacture of toys. These must fill the 
molds well, and must also be cheap, and 
therefore as much as 50% of lead is used. 
Toys can also be made from type metal, 
which is even cheaper than the alloys of 
tin and lead, but has the disadvantage of 
readily breaking if the articles are 
sharply bent. The alloys of tin and lead 
give very good castings, if sharp iron or 
brass molds are used. 

2.— Tin, 82 parts ; lead, 18 parts ; anti- 
mony, 5 parts ; zinc, 1 part ; copper, 4 
parts. 

Pewter. — 1. — Prep. (Aiken.) Tin, 100 
parts ; antimony, 8 parts ; copper, 4 parts ; 
bismuth, 1 part ; fuse together. Very 
fine. 

2.— Plate Pewter.— Tin, 100 parts ; an- 
timony, 8 parts ; bismuth and copper, of 
each 2 parts. Very fine. Used to make 
plates, etc. 

3. — Trifle. — Tin, 83 parts; antimony, 
17 parts. Some lead is generally added. 

4. — Ley. — Tin, 4 parts ; lead, 1 part. 
Used for beer pots, etc. 

5.— Best Pewter. — Tin, 5 lb.; lead, 1 
lb. 

6. — Common Pewter. — Pure tin, 82 
parte ; lead, 18 parts. 

7. — Plate Pewter. — Tin, 90 parts ; an- 
timony, 7 parts ; bismuth, 2 parts ; cop- 
per, 2 parts. 

Pipe Metal for Organs. — 1. — Melt equal 
parts of tin and lead. This alloy is cast 
instead of rolled in the desired form of 
sheets, in order to obtain a crystallized 
metal, which produces a finer tone. The 
sheets are formed by casting the metal 
on a horizontal table, the thickness be- 
ing regulated by the height of a rib or 
bridge at one end, over which the super- 
fluous metal flows off. The sheets thus 



(Tin Substitutes) 



[US] 



obtained are planed with a special plane, 
bent up, and soldered. 

2. — The alloy is lead and tin, from 80 
parts of lead and 30 parts of tin for the 
cheapest to 10 parts of lead and 90 parts 
of tin for the best quality. 

Tin- Phosphorus. 

1. — When finely divided tin is heated 
in the vapor of phosphorus a silvery- 
white, very brittle phosphide is obtained, 
containing about 21% of phosphorus. 

2. — When phosphorus is dropped into 
molten tin, combination takes place with 
the formation of a white phosphide, con- 
taining about 15% of phosphorus. 

3. — By placing a bar of zinc in an 
aqueous solution of chloride of tin, a 
spongy mass of metallic tin is obtained ; 
by placing this moist tin on the top of 
sticks of phosphorus, in a crucible, press- 
ing down tightly, and then exposing to a 
gentle heat until the flame of burning 
phosphorus ceases, a crystalline mass of 
phosphor tin is obtained. 

Queen's Metal. 

A very fine silver-looking metal is com- 
posed of 100 lb. of tin, 8 lb. of regulus 
of antimony, 1 lb. of bismuth, and 4 lb. 
of copper. 

Stereotype Metal. 

Tin, 1 part; antimony, 1 part; lead, 4 
parts. In using stereotype metal, brush 
the type with plumbago or a small quan- 
tity of oil, then place in a frame, and 
take a cast with plaster of paris. The 
cast is dried in a very hot oven, placed 
face downward upon a flat plate of iron ; 
this plate is laid in a tray or pan of iron 
having a lid securely fastened, and fur- 
nished with a hole at each corner. Dip 
the tray in the fluid metal, which will 
flow in at the four corners. When the 
tray is removed, dip the bottom only in 
water ; and as the metal contracts in cool- 
ing, pour in melted metal at the corners, 
so as to keep up the fluid pressure, and 
obtain a good solid cast. When cool, 
open the tray, remove the cake of plas- 
ter and metal, and beat the edges with 
a mallet to remove superfluous metal. 
Plane the edges square, turn the back 
flat, in a lathe, to the required thick- 
ness, and remove any defects. If any 
letters are damaged, cut them out and 
solder in separate types instead. Finally, 
fix upon hardwood to the required height. 

Substitutes for Pure Tin. 

The metallic admixtures in tin for tin- 
plating are ail, with the exception of iron. 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Tin Substitutes) 



poisonous, and therefore only permissible 
in the case of tinware not intended for 
use in cooking or keeping food. Besides 
lead, copper and iron, zinc is used, and 
sometimes bismuth. An admixture of 
zinc or of lead makes the tin a more 
effectual protector of iron against rust. 
A French allo3% especially good for coat- 
ing sheet iron for constructive purposes, 
consists of zinc, 5.5% ; lead, 23.5% ; tin, 
71%. If it is a question of a fine white 
color and high luster, 5 or 10% of bis- 
muth may be added, making a composi- 
tion of tin, 90 to 95 parts ; bismuth, 10 
to 15 parts. This alloy is more readily 
fusible than pure tin, but is more expen- 
sive on account of the high price of bis- 
muth. Its brilliant luster adapts it es- 
pecially to artistic purposes. 

An admixture of %%, or, at most. 
1%%, of iron in tin, greatly increases 
its hardness and durability. The alloy is 
harmless, and can therefore be used for 
covering kitchen utensils, but as it is 
much more difficult of fusion than pure 
tin or alloys of tin and lead, it is not 
easy to make a uniform layer with it. 
. Remarkably beautiful and durable coat- 
ings are produced from mixtures of tin, 
iron and nickel ; the only objection to 
these alloys is that they are more costly 
than pure tin, a fact for which, however, 
their great durability makes compensa- 
tion. Some formulae are here given for 
such alloys, compositions which have 
stood the test of experiment : 

1. — Tin, 80 parts ; iron, 10 parts. 

2.— Tin, 160 parts ; nickel, 10 parts. 

3. — Tin, 90 parts ; iron, 5 parts ; nickel, 
7 parts. 

4. — Tin, 160 parts ; iron, 7 parts ; 
nickel, 10 parts. 

These alloys are made by melting the 
tin in a Hessian crucible, bringing it to 
a white heat, and adding the iron, in the 
form of filings, stirring vigorously with 
an iron rod; finally the nickel, pulver- 
ized, and heated red hot, is put in, and 
the mixture stirred with a hardwood 
stick. The decomposition of the wood by 
the red-hot metal causes an intimate mix- 
ture of all constituents by means of the 
ascending bubbles of gas. It is strongly 
recommended, in making these or any oth- 
er alloys, to stir the metallic mass for a 
long time with wooden sticks ; this is the 
only way of insuring a perfectly uniform 
alloy of metals which have high and dif- 
ferent specific weights. In proceeding ac- 
cording to the method given, the melting 
of the alloy under a cover of glass or 
borax, often recommended, is unneces- 

[1 



(Type Metal) 



sary ; if the work goes on rapidly enough, 
no oxidation is to be feared ; and the 
gases evolved from the wood also act as 
a preventive of oxidation. — Translated 
from the German of Fricdrich Hart- 
mann's "Das Yerzinnen, Yerzinhen, Yer- 
nickeln,^' etc. 

Taps, Alloys for, (According to Yigou- 
reux. ) 

I. II. III. 

Tin 78.5 80.7 71.3 

Antimony 19.5 17.5 21.5 

Nickel 2.0 1.8 7.0 



I is for the body of the tap, II for the 
spigot of the plug, and III for the bushing 
of the plug. 



Tinning, Metal for. 

Malleable iron, 1 lb. ; heat to white- 
ness ; add 5 oz. of regulus of antimony 
and 24 lb. of Molucca tin. 



Tourun-Leonard's Metal. 

Composed of 500 parts of tin and 64 
parts of bell metal. 

Trabuk Metal. 

Contains tin, 87.5 parts ; nickel, 5.5 
parts ; antimony, 5 parts ; bismuth, 5 
parts. This is similar to Warne's metal. 

Type Metals. 

An alloy which is to serve for type 
metal must allow of being readily cast, 
fill out the molds sharply, and be as hard 
as possible. It is difficult to satisfy all 
these requirements entirely, but an alloy 
of antimony and lead answers the pur- 
pose best. At the present day there are 
a great many formulae for type metal in 
which other metals besides lead and anti- 
mony are used, either to make the alloy 
more readily fusible, as in the case of 
additions of bismuth, or to give it greater 
power of resistance, the latter being of 
especial importance in newspaper types, 
which are subjected to constant use. Cop- 
per and iron have been recommended for 
this purpose, but the fusibility of the al- 
loys is greatly impaired by these, and the 
manufacture of the types is consequently 
more difficult than with an alloy of lead 
and antimony alone. In the following 
table some alloys suitable for casting type 
are given : 
16 1 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Type Metal) 



I. II. III. IV. 



Lead 3 

Antimony 1 

Copper 

Bismuth 

Zinc 

Tin 

Nickel 



(Tungsten Alloys) 



VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. 



10 10 70 60 55 55 100 



18 
2 



20 25 30 



10 20 20 



15 



30 

8 

2 

20 

8 



6 



90 



2. — The French and English types con- 
tain a certain amount of tin, as shown 
by the following analyses : 

English Types. French 
I. II. III. Types. 

... 69.2 



Lead . . . . 
Antimony. 
Tin 

Copper 



19.5 
9.1 
1.7 



61.3 


55 


55 


18.8 


22.7 


80 


20.2 


22.1 


15 



3. — Ledebur gives the composition of 
type metal as follows : 

I. II. III. IV. 

Lead 75 60 80 82 

Antimony 23 25 20 14.8 

Tin 22 15 .. 3.2 

5. — Type Metal, Alloys used for. 



Printiug types 

Printing types 

Printing types 

Printing types. 

Small types and stereotypes .... 
Small types and stereotypes. . . . 
Small types and stereotypes. . . . 
Small types and stereotypes. . . . 
Small types and stereotypes. . . . 
Plates for engraving music, etc. 
Plates for engraving music, etc. 
Plates for engraving music, etc. 
Plates for engraving music, etc. 



I, ordinary ; II, fine ; III, alloy for 
sticks ; IV, for stereotype plates. 

4. — Erhardt recommends the following 
as being both ductile and hard : Zinc, 89 
to 93 parts ; tin, 9 to 6 parts ; lead, 2 to 4 
parts ; copper, 2 to 4 parts. The tin is 
first melted, and the lead, zinc and cop- 
per added successively. 

The alloy given by Karmarsch, consist- 
ing of 16 parts of tin and 1 part of anti- 
mony, is much harder than lead, melts 
at 264° C. (about 507° F.), and can be 
drawn out into wire. It becomes flexible 
by working, and can be used in the place 
of pure lead for many articles. 

6. — Nine parts of lead to 1 part of an- 
timony forms common type metal ; 7 parts 
of lead to 1 part of antimony is used for 
large and soft type ; 6 parts of lead and 1 
part of antimony for large type ; 5 parts 
of lead and 1 part of antimony for mid- 

[ 



die type ; 4 parts of lead and 1 part of 
antimony for small type ; and 3 parts of 
lead and 1 part of antimony for the small- 
est kinds of type. 

7. — Erhardfs Type Metal. — Zinc, 93% ; 
lead, 3% ; tin, 3% ; copper, 2%. 

8. — Heterogeneous Metal for Music 
Printing Plates, etc. — (Jean.) Tin, 10 
parts ; zinc, 12 parts ; antimony regulus, 
3 parts ; copper, 1 part ; lead, 74 parts. 

9. — Tutenag. — Copper, 8 parts ; nickel, 
3 parts ; zinc, 5 parts. 

The manufacture of type from the al- 
loy by stamping or pressing is only adopt- 
ed in certain cases, the types being gener- 





Anti- 




Bis- 


Cop- 






Lead. 


mony. 


Tin. 


muth. 


per. 


Zinc. 


Arsenic 


4.0 


1.0 


.... 










7.5 


2.5 






6.5 






9.0 


1.0 




... 






6.5 


64.0 


8.0 


12.0 




... 


16.0 




9.0 


2.0 


.... 


2.0 


... 


.... 




16.0 


4.0 


5.0 










3.0 


1.0 


.... 


... 






... 


5.0 


1.0 






... 


.... 




10.0 


2.0 
5.0 
2.5 


'5.6 

7.5 


1.0 


... 


.... 




64.0 


8.0 


12.0 . 




... 


16.6 




60.0 


2.5 


37.5 


... 


... 







ally cast. The alloys, being well adapt- 
ed for castings, are employed for certain 
kinds of ornamental work. 

An alloy for keys of flutes, and similai* 
parts of musical instruments, consists of 
2 parts of lead and 1 part of antimony. 

"Warne's Alloy. 

Tin, 37% ; nickel, 26% ; bismuth, 26% ; 
cobalt, 11%. 

TUNGSTEN BRONZES 

In the arts, tungsten bronzes of differ- 
ent colors are used, namely, golden yel- 
low, reddish yellow, purple red, and bku>. 
The first two crystallize in forms resem- 
bling cubes, while the third is obtained 
partially in cubes and partially in amor- 
phous pieces, and the last named forms 
prismatic crystals. Other circumstances 
being equal, the yellow bronze is obtained 
117] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Zinc Alloys) 



from mixtures poor in acid, the other 
two from those containing more acid. 
But the color is dependent not merely on 
the composition of the soda tungstate salt, 
but also on the amount of tin, and on 
the duration of the fusion ; so that when 
much tin is used, and the fusion is pro- 
longed, a yellow bronze is obtained from 
a very acid mixture, and, on the contrary, 
a salt that is but slightly acid, when 
fused only a short time and with very lit- 
tle tin, may yield a red or even a blue 
bronze. 

A mixture in the proportion of 2 mole- 
cules of soda tungstate and 1 molecule of 
anhydrous tungstic acid, with tinfoil slow- 
ly added, and kept melted for 1 or 2 
hours, will yield cubes 1-5 in. long when 
about 4 oz. are melted, and they will pro- 
duce a yellow or reddish-yellow bronze, 
the powder of which seems light brown, 
and when stirred up with water it im- 
parts to the liquid the property of ap- 
pearing of a fine blue color by transmit- 
ted light. 

The red bronze obtained from 10 parts 
of soda carbonate, 70 parts of soda tung- 
state, and 20 parts of tinfoil, yields, on 
pulverization, a powder that, stirred up 
in water, transmits green light. 

According to J. Philipp, a blue bronze 
is always obtained, if the fused mixture 
contains more than 3 molecules of tung- 
stic acid to 1 molecule of soda ; if the 
fused product is boiled alternately with 
muriatic acid and with carbonate of soda, 
the result will be a considerable quantity 
of fine blue prismatic crystals, with which 
there are intermixed, in most cases, sin- 
gle red and yellow cubes. Moreover, all 
the tungsten bronzes obtained by fusion 
with tin can also be prepared by electroly- 
sis of fused acid tungstates, but the yield 
is so small that it is unprofitable. 



ZINC 

Bidertj, Vidry. — 1. — An alloy of which 
the chief seat of manufacture is the city 
of Bider, near Hyderabad, India. Many 
articles made of it were greatly admired 
at the International Exhibition of 1851. 
Its color is between that of pewter and 
zinc, does not corrode by exposure to air 
or damp, and can only be broken by ex- 
treme violence. Zinc, 31 parts ; copper 
and lead, each 2 parts ; melted together, 
with the usual precautions, under a mix- 
ture of rosin and beeswax, to prevent 
oxidation. 

2. — (Dr. Heyne.) Copper, 8 parts; 
lead, 2 parts : tin, 1 part ; melted as be- 
fore. For use, the resulting alloy is re- 



(Zinc Alloys) 



melted, and to every 3 parts of it IG 
parts of zinc are added. 

3. — Genuine Indian Bidery metal (fre- 
quently imitated fn England) is about as 
follows : 

% % 

Copper 3.5 11.4 

Zinc 93.4 84.3 

Tin 1.4 

Lead 3.1 2.9 

Zinc Bronzes (Fontaine Moreau) . 
Zn. Cu. Fe. Pb. 

90 8 1 1 

91 8 1 

92 8 
92 7 1 

The above may be considered the maxi- 
mum of zinc and minimum of copper that 
will cast free of crystalline fracture. By 
lessening the zinc from 1 to 4%, and in- 
creasing the copper 1-8 to 1-6, a better 
texture may be looked for. 

Zinc-Nickel. — Zinc, 9 parts ; nickel, 1 
part. Used for painting. 

SoreVs Alloy. — This alloy has conspic- 
uously valuable properties, which adapt 
it to many purposes. Its most striking 
characteristic is its hardness, which equals 
that of good wrought iron, while in tenac- 
ity it sui-passes the best cast iron. In 
casting, it is readily detached from the 
mold, and can be mechanically worked 
with great ease, but is too brittle to be 
rolled out into sheets or drawn into wire. 
It takes all the lines of the mold exceed- 
ingly well, and on this account is much 
used for casting small statues, which, aft- 
er careful bronzing, are given the name 
of cast bronze. The large proportion of 
zinc contained in this alloy makes the 
price of production comparatively low. It 
is quite suitable for the manufacture of 
articles which are to be exposed to the 
influences of the weather, as it does not 
easily rust, and becomes covered, after a 
while, with a thin layer of oxide, which 
prevents further oxidation. Two mix- 
tures, given below, have practically the 
same properties, although they vary con- 
siderably in actual composition. 

I. II. 

Copper 1 10 

Zinc 98 80 

Iron 1 10 

The iron is used in the form of cast- 
iron shavings, added to the zinc. The 
copper is then added, and the alloy kept 
fluid for some time, under cover of glow- 
ing coals, in order to insure an intimate 
combination of the metals, without the 
combustion of the zinc. The combusti- 



[ 118 ] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Miscellaneous Alloys) 



(Miscellaneous Alloys) 



bility of the zinc makes this method of 
preparation difficult, however, and it is 
recommended, in preparing large quanti- 
ties, not to mix the metals directly, but 
to use brass of known composition, which 
is to be melted down under a cover of 
charcoal, and slightly overheated. The 
zinc is then added, and finally the iron. 

Stopcocks, Alloy for. — Zinc, 72 parts; 
tin, 21 parts ; copper, 7 parts. 

MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS 

Cork Metal. — At one of the recent aero- 
nautical exhibitions samples of a metal 
were shown under the name of "cork 
metal," which was said to be 40% lighter 
than aluminum, and to have numerous 
other properties which should make it a 
rival of the latter. Great secrecy was 
maintained as to the nature of this won- 
derful metal, but its properties were such 
as to rouse my interest, as a consequence 
of which I have submitted it to chemical 

Electric Resistances, Alloys Used for 

Man- Alumi- Tung- 
Copper. Zinc. Nickel. Iron, ganese. num. sten. 

Aluminum bronze 95 

German silver 

German silver 

Nickelin 

Platinoid 60 24 14 1.2 

Nickel-manganese copper 73 

Manganin 84 

Rheotan 

Manganese copper 

Manganese steel (1% C.) 

Aluminum steel (2% C. ) 

Nickel-manganese steel (1% C.) .. 25 69 5 

The above alloys are arranged approximately in the order of their resistances, 
aluminum bronze offering the least and nickel-manganese steel the greatest resistance. 



1,762, thus confirming the conclusion that 
cork metal is, in fact, magnesium. 

Marlie's Alloy. — This alloy is also said 
to be non-oxidizable, like Lemarquand's 
alloy (see below), if the materials are 
pure. Nickel, 7 parts ; iron and zinc, 2 
parts each ; brass, 5 parts ; tin, 4 parts. 
After casting the articles they must be 
heated to a white heat and dipped in a 
mixture of acids prepared as follows : 
Mix 12 parts of sulphuric acid, 2 parts 
of nitric acid and 1 part of hydrochloric 
acid, and the whole diluted with 5 parts 
of water. Great care should be used in 
mixing the acids. They should be added 
very gradually. 

Martial Regulus. — Antimony, 35 parts ; 
iron, 5 parts. 

Non-oxidizahle, Alloys said to he. — Le- 
marquand's alloy is said to consist of : 
Copper, 75 parts ; nickel, 14 parts ; co- 
balt, 15 parts ; tin, 18 parts ; zinc, 72 
parts. The metals must be pure. Mar- 



60 


25 


14 


0.3 




55.5 


20 


24 


0.3 


0. 


74.5 




25 


0.5 




60 


24 


14 






73 




3 




24 


84 


. 


12 




4 


84 


4 


. . 




12 


70 


• • 


• • 


84.5 
94 


30 
14 



analysis. In appearance the metal re- 
sembles very strongly the alloys known 
as magnalium. The surface presents a 
lusterless whitish-gray color, both sheets 
and bars showing the scorings and 
scratches so frequently found on badly 
rolled or drawn aluminum. Careful analy- 
sis gave the following result : Aluminum, 
5.04%; iron, 0.017%; zinc, 0.48%; so- 
dium, 0.21% ; magnesium, 99.30%. It 
will be seen, therefore, that, essentially, 
"coi'k metal" is nothing but magnesium 
to which a small amount of zinc has 
been added. Whether this latter has been 
purposely introduced, or, as is more prob- 
able, is merely present as an impurity, 
I am unable to say. As the metal evolves 
hydrogen when immersed in water, I 
found it necessary to use organic solvents 
for the determination of the specific grav- 
ity. In alcohol this was found to be 

[ 



lie's alloy consists of : Iron, 10 parts ; 
nickel, 35 parts ; brass, 25 parts ; tin, 20 
parts; zinc, 10 parts. Articles prepared 
from this alloy are made white hot, and 
dipped into a mixture of sulphuric acid, 
60 parts ; nitric acid, 10 parts ; hydro- 
chloric acid, 5 parts ; water, 25 parts. 

Soft Alloy. — This alloy will adhere so 
firmly to metallic, glass and porcelain 
surfaces that it can be used as a solder, 
and is invaluable when the articles to 
be soldered are of such a nature that they 
cannot bear a high degree of tempera- 
ture. It consists of finely pulverized cop- 
per or copper dust, and is obtained by 
precipitating copper from the sulphate by 
means of metallic zinc ; 20, 30 or 36 parts 
of this copper dust, according to the hard- 
ness desired, are placed in a cast-iron or 
porcelain-lined mortar, and well mixed 
with some sulphuric acid having a spe- 
119] 



Alloys and Amalgami 



(Amalgams) 



cific gravity of 1.85. Add to the paste 
thus formed 70 parts (by weight) of 
mercury, constantly stirring. When thor- 
oughly mixed, the amalgam must be care- 
fully rinsed in warm water to remove the 
acid, then laid aside to cool. In 10 or 
12 hours it will be hard enough to scratch 
tin. When it is to be used, it should be 
heated to a temperature of 707° F. (375° 
C), when it becomes as soft as wax by 
kneading it in an iron mortar. In this 
ductile state it can be spread upon any 
surface, to which, as it cools and hardens, 
it adheres very tenaciously. 

Tubanio, Engestrum. — Copper, 4 parts ; 
antimony, 8 parts ; bismuth, 1 part ; add- 
ed to tin, 100 parts. 

Tnhania, English. —'Br ass (containing? 
parts of copper and 3 parts of zinc), 12 
parts; tin, 12 parts; bismuth, 12 parts; 
antimony, 12 parts. 

Tubania, German. — Copper, 0.4 part ; 
tin, 3.2 parts ; antimony, 42 parts. 

Tubania, Simnish. — 1. — Iron and steel 
scraps, 24 parts ; antimony, 48 parts ; 
niter, 9 parts. The iron and steel are 
heated to whiteness, and the antimony 
and niter gradually added ; 2 oz. of this 
is alloyed with 1 lb, of tin ; a little ar- 
senic is an improvement. 

2. — Iron or steel, 8 oz. ; antimony, 16 
oz. ; niter, 3 oz. Melt and harden 8 oz. 
of tin with 1 oz. of this compound. 

AMALGAMS 

Mercury is well known to be the only 
metal which is liquid at ordinary tem- 
peratures. The best mercury is crystal- 
line in character, and of a silver-white 
color, freezing at — 40° F. and boiling at 
662°. When compounded with other met- 
als it forms alloys whose properties differ 
greatly according to the nature of the met- 
als used. In most cases the amalgams 
are at first liquid, and afterward become 
crystalline, any mercury in excess being 
separated. The amalgams offer an excel- 
lent opportunity for studying the behav- 
ior of the metals toward each other, the 
low temperature at which these com- 
pounds are formed making the examina- 
tion easier. If a metal is dissolved in 
mercury with an excess of the latter, a 
crystalline compound will soon separate 
from the originally liquid mass. This is 
the amalgam, whose proportions can be 
expressed according to fixed atomic 
weights, and easily obtained by removing 
the excess of mercury by pressure. Many 
amalgams are at first so soft that they 
can be kneaded in the hand like wax, 
but become hard and crystalline in time. 
TTiese are especially adapted for filling 



(Amalgams) 



teeth, and much used for that purpose. 
Before the action of the galvanic current 
upon metallic solutions was known, by 
means of which certain metals can be 
separated in a pure state from solutions, 
and deposited upon a given surface, the 
amalgams were of great importance in 
gilding and silvering. The article was 
coated with the amalgam, and the mer- 
cury volatilized by heat, the gold or sil- 
ver remaining upon the surface as a co- 
herent coat. The process was called fire 
gilding. The chemical affinity of other 
metals for mercury varies greatly ; many 
combine with it very easily, others with 
such difficulty that an amalgam can only 
be obtained in a roundabout manner. 
Amalgams are of great interest theoreti- 
cally, and important to a general knowl- 
edge of alloys, but only a limited num- 
ber are actually employed in the indus- 
tries. 

Barium Amalgams. 

These can, by distillation, furnish ba- 
rium. It is one of the processes for pre- 
paring this metal, which, when thus ob- 
tained, almost always retains a little so- 
dium. 

Bismuth Amalgam. 

Mercury and bismuth can be very easily 
combined by melting the latter and intro- 
ducing the mercury. The resulting amal- 
gam is very thinly fluid, and can be used 
for filling out very delicate molds. An 
addition of bismuth also makes other 
amalgams more thinly fluid. Such com- 
binations are cheaper than pure bismuth 
amalgam, and frequently used. 

Bismuth amalgams can be used for 
nearly all purposes for which cadmium 
amalgams are employed. On account of 
their fine luster, which equals that of 
silver, they are applied to special pur- 
poses, such as curved mirrors, and the 
preparation of anatomical specimens. 

For silvering glass globes or spherical 
and curved mirrors, the glass is heated 
carefully to the melting point of the amal- 
gam, and a small quantity of the amal- 
gam is poured into the cavity of the 
globe or convex mirror, and this is swung 
to and fro until it shows a reflecting sur- 
face. If the amalgam is not intended to 
remain upon the glass, the surface is 
rubbed with olive oil before pouring it in, 
and the oil carefully wiped off. An ex- 
tremely thin layer will remain, suflficient 
to prevent the amalgam from adhering. 
When it has cooled it can be removed 
by gently striking the glass upon a soft 



[120] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Amalgams) 



surface. To make concave mirrors in this 
way the glass is surrounded by an edge 
of thick paper, pasted upon the concave 
side of the glass, and then treated as in 
making convex mirrors. 

If the work is properly done, the metal- 
lic surface will be perfectly bright, and 
will need no polishing ; the trace of oil 
which adheres to it is removed by rubbing 
with ether or some other solvent. Sul- 
phide of carbon should not, however, be 
used, as this liquid frequently contains 
small quantities of sulphur in solution, 
which would turn the white color of the 
mirror black. Mirrors prepared with 
bismuth amalgam acquire a yellowish tone 
after long exposure to the air, a phe- 
nomenon which is to be attributed to the 
formation of small quantities of sulphur- 
ous metals upon the surface of the mir- 
ror. They are at present little used, as 
curved mirrors can be more easily and 
cheaply prepared by the separation of 
silver upon them. If the very thin layer 
of silver which has been produced upon 
the surface is coated with copper by elec- 
troplating, or simply treated with a so- 
lution of asphalt in benzol, the mirror 
will retain its luster for an indefinite 
time, as the metal is perfectly protected 
from the access of air. The bismuth 
amalgam for mirrors is made of bismuth, 
2 parts ; lead, 2 parts ; tin, 2 parts ; mer- 
cury, 18 parts. 

Bismuth Amalgams. — The amalgam 
formed of 1 part of bismuth and 4 parts 
of quicksilver will cause the strong ad- 
herence of glass. For the purpose of 
economizing the bismuth, of which the 
price is high, the preceding amalgam is 
replaced by another composed of 2 parts 
of quicksilver, 1 part of bismuth, 1 part 
of lead and 1 part of tin. The bismuth, 
broken into small fragments, is added to 
the tin and lead, previously melted in 
the crucible, and when the mixture of 
the three metals becomes fluid the quick- 
silver is poured in, while stirring with an 
iron rod. The impurities floating on the 
surface are removed, and when the tem- 
perature is sufficiently lowered this amal- 
gam is slowly poured into the vessels to 
be tinned, which have been previously 
well cleaned and slightly heated. M. Ditto 
recommends for the same employment, as 
a very strong adherent to tb ; glass, an 
amalgam obtained by dissolving, hot, 2 
parts of bismuth and 1 part of lead in 
a solution of 1 part of tin in 10 parts 
of quicksilver. By causing a quantity 
of this amalgam to move around the in- 
side of a receiver, clean, dry, and slightly 
heated, the surface will be covered with 



(Amalgams) 



a thin, brilliant layer, which hardens 
quite rapidly. 

Bismuth Amalgam for Anatomical 
Preparations. — For the injection of ana- 
tomical pieces, an amalgam formed of 10 
parts of quicksilver, 50 parts of bismuth, 
31 parts of lead and 18 parts of tin, fus- 
ible at 77.5°, and solidifiable at 60° C, 
is made use of ; or, again, an amalgam 
composed of 9 parts of Darcet alloy and 
1 part of quicksilver, fusible at 53°, and 
pasty at a still lower temperature. This 
last amalgam may also be used for filling 
carious teeth. The Darcet alloy, as 
known, contains 2 parts of bismuth, 1 
part of lead and 1 part of tin, and melts 
at 93°. The addition of 1 part of quick- 
silver lowers the fusing point to 40°. 

Fusible Alloy, for Silvering Glass. — 
Tin, G oz. ; lead, 10 oz. ; bismuth, 21 oz. : 
mercury, a small quantity. 

Production of Small Statues ?>?/ Means 
of the Amalgam of Lipowitz Metal. — 
This amalgam is prepared as follows : 
Melt in a dish, cadmium, 3 parts, by 
weight ; tin, 4 parts ; bismuth, 15 parts ; 
lead, 8 parts ; adding to the alloy, while 
still in fusion, 2 parts of quicksilver, pre- 
viously heated to about 100° C. The amal- 
gamation proceeds easily and smoothly. 
The liquid mass in the dish, which should 
be taken from the fire immediately upon 
the introduction of the mercury, is stirred 
until the contents solidify. While Lipo- 
witz alloy softens at 60° C, and fuses 
perfectly at 70° C, the amalgam has a 
still lower fusing point, which lies around 
62° C. This amalgam is excellently 
adapted for the production of impressions 
of various objects of nature, direct im- 
pressions of leaves, and other delicate 
parts of plants having been made with 
its aid, which in point of sharpness are 
equal to the best plaster casts, and are 
possessed of a very pleasing appearance, 
the amalgam having a silver-white color 
and a lovely gloss. It is perfectly con- 
stant to influences of the air. This amal- 
gam has also been used with good suc- 
cess for the making of small statuettes 
and busts, which are hollow, and can be 
readily gilded or bronzed by electro-depo- 
sition. The production of small statues 
is successfully carried out by making a 
hollow gypsum mold of the articles to be 
cast, and heating the mold evenly to 
about 60° C. ; a corresponding quantity 
of the molten amalgam is then poured in 
and the mold moved rapidly to and fro, 
so that the alloy is thrown against the 
sides all over. The shaking should be 
continued until it is certain that the amal- 
gam has solidified. When the mold has 



[121] 



Alloys mid Amalgams 



(Amalgams) 



cooled off it is taken apart and the seams 
taken off by means of a sharp knife. If 
the operation is carried on correctly, a 
chasing of the cast mass becomes unneces- 
sary, since the alloy fills out the finest 
depressions of the mold with the greatest 
sharpness. 

Cadmium Amalgam. 

Cadmium combines with mercury with- 
out difficulty, forming an amalgam which 
readily becomes crystalline. The method 
of preparation of the actual cadmium 
amalgam, whose chemical composition is 
represented by the formula Cd, Hgg, is 
the same as that of the other amalgams 
described ; the mercury being heated near- 
ly to boiling in a crucible, and the cad- 
mium added in the form of thin sheets. 
Cadmium amalgam remains soft for some 
time, becoming crystalline only after a 
considerable period. The mass obtained 
by heating is therefore allowed to stand 
in the crucible until the excess of mer- 
cury separates out of its own accord ; or 
it may be removed in the usual manner 
by pressing in a leather bag. 

Pure cadmium amalgam is strongly 
crystalline, and forms a mass of a tin- 
white or silver-white color, which, on be- 
ing moderately heated, softens, and can 
be worked like wax. It is used for fill- 
ing teeth, either by itself or compounded 
with other metals, which makes it still 
better for the purpose. The addition of 
tin or bismuth makes it more pliant in 
the heat, and for this reason the amal- 
gams used for filling teeth are, at pres- 
ent, often composed of several metals. 
A few compositions are herewith given, 
but those containing lead are not recom- 
mended. Metals possessing such distinct- 
ly poisonous properties as lead and cop- 
per are liable to be attacked by organic 
acids even in an amalgam, and should 
never be used for filling teeth, especially 
as the harmless compounds of cadmium, 
tin and bismuth answer the purpose per- 
fectly. 

I. II. III. IV. V. 
Cadmium. 25.99 21.74 1 lto2 3 

Mercury.. 74.01 78.26 

Tin 2 2 4 

Lead 7to8 15 

The amalgam numbered I corresponds 
to the centesimal composition of the com- 
bination of mercury and cadmium de- 
scribed above, and is very well adapted 
for filling teeth. After a time it becomes 
so hard that it can be worked with the 
lathe or file, and, of course, becomes hard 
in the mouth. Cadmium amalgams are 



(Amalgams) 



very ductile, and can be used for many 
other purposes. An amalgam of equal 
parts of cadmium and mercury is ex- 
tremely plastic, and can be stretched un- 
der the hammer like pure gold. It is 
silver white in color, and not affected by 
the air. 

Cadiiiium Amalgams. — Amalgams of 
cadmium, formed of equal weights of cad- 
mium and quicksilver, have much power 
of cohesion, and are quite malleable ; the 
case is the same with an amalgam formed 
of 1 part of cadmium and 2 parts of 
quicksilver. They are used as dental 
cements, for plugging teeth ; for the same 
purpose an amalgam of 2 parts of quick- 
silver, 1 part of cadmium and 2 parts of 
tin may be used. 

Evans's Metallic Cement. — This alloy is 
prepared by dissolving cadmium amalgam 
(25.99 parts of cadmium and 74,01 parts 
of mercury) in an excess of mercury, 
slightly pressing the solution in a leather 
bag and thoroughly kneading. If the 
amalgam is first heated to about 97° F., 
and then kneaded, it becomes as plastic 
as wax, and can be shaped into any de- 
sired form. On cooling, it becomes quite 
hard, but does not equal in this respect 
the pure cadmium amalgam. 

Chromium Amalgam. 

This amalgam has been produced by 
electrolyzing a solution of chromium chlo- 
ride. 

Copper Amalgam. 

The peculiar properties of copper amal- 
gam give it quite an important place in 
several branches of industry. It crystal- 
lizes very easily, and becomes so hard 
that it can be polished like gold. It can 
also be hammered or rolled, and stamped, 
and retains its luster for a long time in 
the air, unless the air contains hydrogen 
sulphide, in which case it quickly tar- 
nishes and turns black. If placed in 
boiling water it becomes soft, and so 
pliable that it can be shaped into the 
most delicate forms, hardening again in a 
few hours to a very fine-grained, quite 
malleable mass. It was formerly recom- 
mended for filling teeth, but is no longer 
used for that purpose, as there are other 
amalgams equally suitable, and free from 
copper, which has a poisonous effect. An 
important use of copper amalgam is in 
cementing metals ; it is only necessary to 
apply it to the metals, which must be 
bright, and previously heated to from 176 
to 194° F., and press them together ; they 
will be joined firmly. 

There are many methods of preparing 



[122] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Amalgams) 



copper amalgam, but the simplest and 
easiest is as follows : Place strips of 
zinc in a solution of copper sulphate, and 
shake vigorously. The copper thus ob- 
tained, in the form of a delicate powder, 
is washed and treated, while still moist, 
in a rubbing-dish, with a solution of mer- 
curous nitrate. Hot water is then poured 
over the copper, the dish kept warm, and 
the mercury added. The contents of the 
dish are kneaded with a pestle until the 
powdery copper has combined with the 
mel'cury to a plastic mass, which will 
become the more homogeneous the longer 
the kneading is continued. The best pro- 
portions are 3 parts of copper to 7 parts 
of mercury. 

When the amalgam has reached the 
proper consistency the water is poured 
off, and the soft mass molded into the 
form in which it is to remain. For the 
purpose of cementing, it has been found 
best to roll it into small cylinders, about 
Vs in. in diameter and % to 1% in. long. 
To take impressions with this amalgam, 
of casts made from wood carvings, the 
amalgam is rolled out, while warm, into 
a thin sheet, and pressed firmly upon 
the cast, also warmed. After the amal- 
gam has hardened, the thin sheet can be 
made stronger by pouring over it melted 
type metal. 

The so-called Vienna metal cement con- 
sists of the amalgam just described ; and 
the so-called imitation gold, which, on ac- 
count of its golden color and capability 
for taking a high polish, serves a good 
purpose in the manufacture of cheap jew- 
elry, consists of copper, 86.4 parts, and 
mercury, 13.6 parts. As this alloy is 
very susceptible to hydrogen sulphide, it 
is advisable to give the articles a thin 
coating of pure gold by electroplating. 

Copper Amalgams. — 1. — An amalgam 
of 30% of copper has been employed for 
filling teeth. This use has been aban- 
doned on account of the inconvenience oc- 
casioned by the great changeableness of 
the product. 

2. — The amalgam of 30% of copper, 
designated by the name of "metallic mas- 
tie," is an excellent cement for repairing 
objects and utensils of porcelain. For 
this employment the broken surfaces are 
heated to 350° C, and a little of the 
amalgam, previously heated to the con- 
sistency of melted wax, is applied. 

3. — Copper amalgam, of 30 to 45% of 
copper, rendered plastic by heating and 
grinding, may serve for obtaining, with 
slight compression, copies of delicate ob- 
jects, which may, after hardening of the 

[ 



(Amalgams) 



amalgam, be reproduced, either in wax or 
by galvanic process. 

4. — According to Debray, when a medal, 
obtained with an amalgam of 45% of 
copper, by compression, in the soft state, 
in molds of gutta percha, is heated pro- 
gressively to redness in an atmosphere of 
hydrogen, the quicksilver is volatilized 
gradually, and the particles of copper 
come together without fusion in such a 
way as to produce a faithful reproduc- 
tion, formed exclusively of metallic cop- 
per, of the original medal. 

5. — In the metallurgy of gold the crush- 
ers are furnished with amalgamated 
plates of copper for retaining the gold. 
The preparation of these plates, which 
are at least 3.2 millimeters in thickness, is 
delicate, requiring about two weeks. They 
are freed from greasy matter by rubbing 
with ashes, or, better, with a little sand 
and caustic soda ; or, if a more rapid 
action is desired, with a cloth dipped in 
dilute nitric acid ; they are washed with 
water, then with a solution of potassium 
cyanide, and finally brushed with a mix- 
ture of sal ammoniac and a little quick- 
silver, until the surface is completely 
amalgamated. They are finally made to 
absorb as much quicksilver as possible. 
But the plates thus treated are useful for 
only a few days when they are sufficiently 
covered with a layer of gold amalgam ; in 
the meantime they occasion loss of time 
and of gold. So, it is preferable to cover 
them artificially with a little gold amal- 
gam, which is prepared by dissolving gold 
in quicksilver. Sometimes the amalgam 
of gold is replaced by an amalgam of 
silver, which is readily prepared, and 
more economical. 

6. — Another method giving better re- 
sults consists in silvering copper slabs by 
the electroplating method, and covering 
them with a layer of silver of 30 or 35 
grams per square decimeter. Then it is 
only necessary to apply a little quicksil- 
ver, which adheres quite rapidly, so that 
they are ready for use almost immedi- 
ately, and are quite active at the outset. 
These amalgamation slabs ought to be 
cleaned before each operation. Potassium 
cyanide removes fatty matter, and sal 
ammoniac the oxides of the low metals. 

7. — The following alloy of copper will 
attach itself firmly to surfaces of metal, 
glass or porcelain : Finely blended cop- 
per, 20 to 30 parts, made by reduction of 
oxide of copper with hydrogen, or pre- 
cipitation from solution of its sulphate 
with zinc, are made into a paste with oil 
of vitriol. To this add 70 parts of mer- 
cury, and triturate well ; then wash out 
123] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Amalgams) 



the acid with boiling water, and allow 
the compound to cool. In 10 or 12 hours 
it becomes sufficiently hard to receive a 
brilliant polish, and to scratch the surface 
of tin or gold. When heated it becomes 
plastic, but does not contract on cooling. 

8. — Gersnein's Alloy. — Precipitated cop- 
per, 25 to 35 parts, ground with strong 
sulphuric acid, in a porcelain mortar, and 
then 65 to 70 parts, by weight, of mer- 
cury gradually added. When the copper 
is well amalgamated wash well in boiling 
water. When required for use, make it 
soft and plastic by heating to 375° C. 
and grinding in a mortar until soft. 

9. — Ironier's bronze consists of copper 
and tin, with 1% of mercury. 



Gold Amalgam. 

Gold belongs among those metals which 
combine easily with mercury, and a gold 
amalgam can be prepared by direct union 
of the two metals. If gold is used which 
has been obtained by the chemical process 
of reducing gold salts, it must be remem- 
bered that this, being in a finely divided 
state, will not dissolve easily in the mer- 
cury, for the reason that the fine powder 
will remain floating upon the surface. 
Gold, however, which has been reduced 
in the form of somewhat larger crystals, 
will dissolve in a comparatively short 
time. These small gold crystals can easily 
be obtained by dissolving gold chloride in 
amyl alcohol and heating the solution to 
the boiling point, whereby the gold will 
be separated in the form of small, lus- 
trous crystals. 

Gold amalgam is procured in large 
masses in the process of obtaining gold 
from auriferous sand, and by subsequent 
heating in iron retorts the combination 
is decomposed, the mercury volatilizes, 
and the pure gold is left behind. Gold 
forms with mercury a chemical combina- 
tion, Anjig, which has a strong tendency 
to crystallize. This must be prevented 
as much as possible in preparing the 
amalgam, since it is difficult to use a 
crystalline amalgam for gilding. 

A particularly good amalgam for fire 
gilding is prepared as follows : Place 
the gold in a graphite crucible, rubbed 
on the inside with chalk, to prevent ad- 
hesion, and bring the crucible to a red 
heat. It is not absolutely necessary to 
use chemically pure gold. Alloyed gold 
will answer the purpose, but it should be 
at least 22 carats fine, and preferably al- 
loyed with silver instead of copper. Gold 
amalgam containing copper will become 
as hard as stone in a short time, and 



(Amalgams) 



even a small percentage of copper makes 
it difficult to apply the amalgam uniform- 
ly to metallic surfaces. It is best to use 
the gold in the form of thin sheets, cut 
into small pieces before being put into 
the crucible. When it is red hot put into 
the crucible about the eighth or ninth 
part of the weight of the gold, previously 
heated to boiling. Stir constantly with 
an iron rod, and after a few minutes 
remove the crucible from the fire. If 
the amalgam were allowed to cool in the 
crucible it would become strongly cfys- 
talline, and could not be used for fire 
gilding ; as soon, therefore, as the crucible 
is taken from the fire, the contents are 
poured into a larger vessel filled with 
water, so that it may cool rapidly. The 
amalgam will crystallize in spite of all, 
if kept for any length of time ; it is there- 
fore advisable to have it freshly prepared 
a shoi't time before use. In crystalliz- 
ing, the amalgam separates from the mer- 
cury in excess. If this has happened, it 
may be restored to its proper condition 
by heating in a crucible with an excess 
of mercury. In the preparation of the 
amalgam, as well as in the process of 
gilding, it is necessary to use a wind fur- 
nace with a well drawing chimney, as the 
vapors evolved from the mercury are in- 
jurious to health. 

Gold Amalgams. — 1. — Gilding with 
quicksilver. — This process of gilding, 
much employed formerly, is now but lit- 
tle used. It can be applied only to met- 
als slightly fusible, and capable of amal- 
gamation, like silver, copper, bronze and 
brass. Iron can also be gilded by this 
method, provided it is previously covered 
with a coating of copper. To perform 
this gilding the surface is well cleaned, 
and the gold amalgam, consisting of 2 
parts of gold and 1 part of quicksilver, 
prepared as mentioned before, is applied. 
The piece is afterward heated to about 
the red, so as to volatilize the mercury. 
The gold remains, superficially alloyed 
with the metal, and forms an extremely 
solid layer of deadened gold, which can 
be afterward polished. The volatiliza- 
tion should be effected under a chimney 
having a strong draught, in order to avoid 
the poisonous action of the mercurial va- 
pors. 

2. — The amalgamation of gold finds its 
principal applications in the treatment of 
auriferous ores. The extraction of small 
spangles of gold scattered in gold-bearing 
sands is based on the ready dissolution of 
gold in quicksilver, and on the formation 
of an amalgam of solid gold by compres- 



[124] 



Alloy's and Amalgams 



(Amalgams) 



sion and filtering through a chamois skin, 
in a state more or less liquid. The span- 
gles of gold are shaken with about their 
weight of quicksilver, collected in the 
cavities of sluices, and mixed with a small 
quantity of sand. The gold is dissolved 
and the sand remains. The amalgam 
thus obtained is compressed in a chamois 
skin, so as to separate the excess of mer- 
cury, which passes through the pores of 
the skin ; or, yet again, it is filtered 
through a glass funnel having a very slen- 
der stem, with almost capillary termina- 
tion. In both cases, an amalgam of solid 
gold^ remains, which is submitted to _ the 
action of heat in a crucible or cast-iron 
retort, communicating with a bent iron 
tube, of which the extremity, surrounded 
with a cloth immersed in water, is ar- 
ranged above a receiver half full of water. 
The quicksilver is vaporized and con- 
densed in the water. The gold remains 
in the retort. The property of gold com- 
bining readily with quicksilver is also 
used in many kinds of amalgamating ap- 
paratus for extraction and in the metal- 
lurgy of gold. In various operations it 
is essential to keep the quicksilver active 
by preserving its limpidity. For this pur- 
pose, potassium cyanide and ammonium 
chloride are especially employed ; some- 
times, wood ashes, carbonate of soda, hy- 
posulphite of soda, nitrate of potash, cu- 
pric sulphate, sea salt and lime ; the lat- 
ter for precipitating the soluble sulphates 
proceeding from the decomposition of 
pyrites. 

The amalgamation of gold is favored 
by a temperature of 38 to 4.5° C, and 
still more by the employment of quick- 
silver in the nascent state. This last 
property is the base of the Designol proc- 
ess, which consists in treating auriferous 
or auro-argentiferous ores, first ground 
with sea salt, in revolving cylinders of 
cast iron, with iron and mercury bichlo- 
ride, in such a way that the mercury pre- 
cipitated collects the gold, and eventually 
the silver, more efiicaciously. 

Fire Gilding. — For fire gilding, or sil- 
vering, only a pure amalgam is used, such, 
namely, as is freed, as far as possible, 
from an excess of mercury. For the pur- 
pose of removing this excess the amalgam 
is tied up in a bag of strong chamois 
leather, and subjected to a gradually in- 
creasing pressure, whereby the mercury 
is forced through the pores of the leather. 
This pressed out mercury contains a con- 
siderable quantity of gold or silver, and 
can be -used in making fresh amalgam. 

Fire gilding, or silvering, is, of course, 
only employed with metals which will 



(Amalgams) 



stand a temperature near that of the 
boiling point of mercury without meltings 
The amalgam will adhere only to per- 
11 tly bright metals, and the articles are 
su]3lected, before gilding, to a preparatory 
process, which consists in bringing them 
to a red heat, whereby the grease, dust, 
etc., adhering to the surface are burnt 
away, and the metal becomes covered with 
a film of oxide. They are then dipped 
into a mixture of 3 parts of nitric acid 
and 1 part of sulphuric acid, which quick- 
ly dissolves the oxide, leaving the metal 
with a bright surface. Articles which 
are to be heavily gilded must remain 
longer in the acid mixture, as a rougher 
surface is essential to the adherence of 
a large amount of the amalgam. The ar- 
ticles are rinsed in water, without touch- 
ing them with the hands, and left in 
water until they are to be amalgamated, 
this being to prevent oxidation. The so- 
called amalgamation process consists in 
covering them with a layer of metallic 
mercury. The amalgamating water is 
prepared by dissolving 100 parts, by 
weight, of mercury in 110 parts, by 
weight, of strong nitric acid, and adding 
25 parts of water. It is applied to the 
surface of the metal with a brush of fine 
brass wire. By the action of the metal 
upon the mercury salt, the latter is re- 
duced to metallic mercury, in the form 
of very small drops, which give a white 
color to the metal. 

When the articles are thoroughly amal- 
gamated the amalgam is applied with a 
stiff scratch-brush, quickly and evenly, 
and they are then placed upon glowing 
coals. The mercury evaporates, and the 
gold or silver is left in a coherent layer. 
During the process of heating, the arti- 
cles must frequently be removed from 
the fire and the amalgam reapplied to de- 
fective places. 

The workmen employed in the process 
sufCer greatly from the fumes of the evap- 
orating mercury, and it must be carried 
on in a thoroughly well ventilated apart- 
ment, or, still better, in the open air. 
In spite of all precautions, however, the 
work is very dangerous to health, and 
for this reason fire gilding, though more 
durable than any other, is falling into 
disuse. 

Many articles are not finished by one 
gilding, but the process is repeated two 
or three times to give a thicker coating 
of gold. By suitable treatment during 
heating, and by burning off the so-called 
gilders' wax, a coating of which is given 
to the finished article, various shades of 
color can be obtained. 



[125] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Amalgams) 



Iron Amalgam. 

Iron is one of the metals which does not 
combine easily with mercury, and iron 
amalgam, as such, is not used for plating 
purposes. Iron which is to be gilded or 
silvered in the fire must be given a coat- 
ing of mercury, which is done by making 
the object perfectly bright by means of 
pickling or scouring, then rinsing in pure 
water and boiling in a compound con- 
sisting of 12 parts, by weight, of mercury, 
1 part of zinc shavings, 2 parts of green 
vitriol, 1% parts of hydrochloric acid, 
and 12 parts of water. The green vitriol 
is first dissolved in the water, the mer- 
cury added next, and finally the zinc. _A 
porcelain vessel must be used for the boil- 
ing. The object immersed in the liquid 
is very quickly covered with an even, 
silvery coating of mercury, after which it 
is rinsed several times with water, dried 
In the air, and immediately subjected to 
treatment with the gold or silver amal- 
gam. From the moment when it comes 
from the pickling fluid it must not be 
touched with the hands, for neither the 
mercury nor the gold amalgam would ad- 
here to any places where it had been 
taken hold of. If the object cannot be 
fire gilded at once, it is best to keep it 
under a glass bell-jar, or in a box, so that 
it may not gather dust, and also that the 
mercury, which is deposited in a very 
thin layer upon the surface, may not 
gradually evaporate. If the gold amal- 
gam is applied as soon as the object is 
taken from the mercury bath and rinsed, 
it will adhere easily and firmly. 

Lead Amalgams. 

These meet with an interesting employ- 
ment for the autogenous soldering of lead. 
After the surfaces to be soldered have 
been well cleaned a layer of lead amalgam 
is applied. It is afterward sulficient to 
pass along the line of junction a solder- 
ing iron heated to redness, in order that 
the heat should cause the volatilization 
of the quicksilver, and that the lead, lib- 
erated in a state of fine division, should 
be melted and cause the adherence of the 
two surfaces. The only precaution neces- 
sary is to avoid breathing the mercurial 
vapor, which is quite poisonous. 

Magnesium Amalgam. 

This amalgam is_ slowly formed by con- 
tact of mercury with pure magnesium in 
the cold, but quickly at the boiling point 
of mercury. In this amalgam the affini- 
ties of magnesium are exalted. An amal- 
gam containing 5% of magnesium swells 
up instantly in contact with air, and 



(Amalgams) 



loses its luster ; it decomposes water read- 
ily. Magnesium amalgam may also be 
prepared by covering sodium amalgam 
With a solution of magnesium sulpliate. 

Manganese Amalgams. 

These may serve for the preparation of 
manganese. For this purpose it is suffi- 
cient to distil in a current of pure hydro- 
gen. The manganese remains in the form 
of a grayish powder. 

Platinum Metals, Amalgams of. 

The platinum metals can be combined 
with mercury, but the amalgams thus ob- 
tained have not, thus far, found any ex- 
tensive use in the industries, the process 
of electroplating being almost exclusively 
employed in such cases. 

Potassium Amalgams. 

Potassium unites with mercury with 
great violence, and forms an amalgam 
similar to sodium amalgam. 

Silver Amalgam. 

The properties of silver amalgam are 
similar in most respects to those of gold 
amalgam, but it has a still stronger ten- 
dency to crystallize. Pure silver must be 
used in its preparation, as a content of 
copper would have the same detrimental 
effect upon the character of the amalgam 
as in the case of gold amalgam. Tlie 
easiest method of making silver amalgam 
is by the use of silver in powdered form, 
obtained by reducing silver solutions. If 
a solution of nitrate of silver is put into 
a bottle with 10 or 15 parts of water, 
and a few small pieces of sheet zinc, and 
the mixture shaken vigorousiy for a few 
minutes, the silver will separate in the 
form of a very fine blackish-gray powder, 
which only needs washing and drying to 
be ready for the preparation of amalgam. 
This powder can be directly dissolved in 
the mercury, but it takes some time. A 
quicker method is to heat the mercury 
nearly to the boiling pcJint in a crucible, 
and throw in the powdered silver, stirring 
vigorously with an iron rod. Silver amal- 
gam can also be prepared without heat. 
In this method a concentrated solution 
of nitrate of silver (1 part of the nitrate 
in 3 parts of distilled water) is mixed 
with 4 times the quantity of mercury, and 
the liquids combined by shaking. The sil- 
ver will be reduced from the nitrate by 
the mercury, and dissolve in the excess 
of it. If the amalgam is to be used for 
fire silvering, the small quantity of ni- 
trate of mercury adhering to it is of no 
consequence, and it can be used at once. 



[126] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Amalgams) 



Silver Amalgams. — 1. — In the silvering 
'of mirrors by -the Petitjean method, which 
has almost universally replaced tinning, 
the property of silver in readily amalga- 
mating is taken advantage of, by sub- 
mitting the glass, after silvering, to the 
action of a dilute solution of double cya- 
nide of mercury and potassium, in such a 
manner as to form an amalgam of white 
and brilliant silver adhering strongly to 
the glass. To facilitate the operation, 
and utilize all the silver, while economiz- 
ing the double cyanide, M. Lenoir has 
recommended the following : Sprinkle the 
glass, at the time when it is covered with 
the mercurial solution, with very fine zinc 
powder, which precipitates the quicksil- 
ver and regulates the amalgamation. 

2. — The metallurgy of silver also takes 
advantage of the property of this metal 
in combining cold with quicksilver ; this 
for the treatment of poor silver ores. 

In the Saxon or Freiberg process for 
treating silver ores, recourse is had to 
quicksilver in the state of amalgam in 
amalgamating casks, in which the ore, 
after grinding, is shaken with disks of 
iron, and with mercury and water. The 
amalgam, collected and filtered under 
strong pressure, contains from 30 to 33% 
of silver. It is distilled, either in cylin- 
drical retorts of cast iron, furnished with 
an exit tube immersed in the water for 
condensing the mercurial vapors, or on 
plates of iron, arranged over each other 
along a vertical iron stem, supported by 
a tripod at the bottom of a tank filled 
with water, and covered with an iron re- 
ceiver, which is itself surrounded with 
ignited charcoal. It should be remai-ked 
that the last portions of quicksilver in a 
silver amalgam submitted to distillation 
are volatilized only under the action of 
a high and prolonged temperature. 

Sodium Amalgam. 

Sodium amalgam is not used by itself, 
as it quickly decomposes in the air into 
caustic soda and mercury. But it can be 
employed in preparing many other amal- 
gams which cannot be made directly. If, 
for instance, sodium amalgam is brought 
together with a solution of metallic chlo- 
ride, the other metal in the combination 
is usually separated from the chlorine by 
the sodium, and at the moment of the 
separation unites with the mercury to 
form an amalgam, while the sodium com- 
bines with the chlorine. The presence of 
a very small quantity of sodium amalgam 
exerts a very favorable influence upon 
the formation of other amalgams, and by 
its use in the process of obtaining gold 

[1 



(Amalgams) 



and silver by amalgamation considerable 
time is saved and the amalgamation is 
more complete. 

Sodium amalgam is prepared by melt- 
ing sodium under petroleum and intro- 
ducing the mercury through a very nar- 
row glass tube. Both the metals com- 
bine at once, with a very peculiar noise, 
and the amalgam hardens to a silver-white 
mass, which, however, must be kept under 
petroleum until it is to be used, to pre- 
vent the oxidation of the sodium. 

If sodium amalgam is put into a solu- 
tion of ammonium chloride, it swells to 
many times its first bulk, rises to the sur- 
face of the liquid, and is converted into 
amalgam of ammonium, which, however, 
is a very unstable compound, quickly de- 
composed into ammonia, hydrogen and 
metallic mercury on exposure to the air. 

Strontium Amalgams. 

These amalgams, washed and dried rap- 
idly, immediately after their preparation, 
and then heated to the nascent red in a 
current of dry hydrogen, yield a fused 
mass of strontium. 

Tin Amalgam. 

1. — This amalgam was formerly of im- 
portance for making mirrors, but at the 
present day mirrors coated with a thin 
layer of silver are more beautiful and 
cheaper than those prepared with amal- 
gam. Tin has a great affinity for mer- 
cury, which makes the preparation of the 
amalgam easy. It is only necessary to 
rub the two together, the tin being best 
used in the form of foil or shavings. The 
amalgam will harden in a shorter or long- 
er time, according to the quantity of mer- 
cury used, 

2. — Tin amalgam for filling teeth is 
prepared by rubbing together 1 part of 
tin and 4 parts of mercury, removing the 
excess of mercury by pressing in a leather 
bag and kneading or rubbing. It is a 
flexible mass, which hardens in the course 
of a few days. 

3. — Amalgam for Mirrors. — Amalgam 
for coating mirrors is the completely satu- 
rated compound of the two metals, hard- 
ened in a crystalline form. It is prepared 
directly upon the mirror plate by the fol- 
lowing method. A sheet of tinfoil, some- 
what larger than the mirror, is placed 
upon the silvering table, which has a mar- 
ble top, adjustable by screws to either a 
horizontal or inclined position. After the 
sheet of foil has been spread out, and 
made perfectly smooth, a small quantity 
of movoury is poured over it, and evenly 
27] 



Alloys and Amalgams 



(Amalgams) 



distributed by means of a woolen cloth. 
When the whole sheet has been dampened 
with the mercury, more is poured on, to 
make a layer about % in. deep, and the 
plate of glass, first thoroughly cleansed 
(which is best done with strong soda lye), 
is laid upon it. To do this a strip of 
paper is pushed in between the mercury 
and the layer of amalgam, at one side, 
the edge of the glass laid upon it, and the 
plate is then pushed slowly forward across 
the table and finally allowed to settle 
down upon it. The table is now slightly 
inclined, so that the mercury can drop 
off and the plate settle firmly against the 
amalgam. When the mercury has ceased 
to run off, except very slowly, soft, thick 
woolen cloths are spread over the plate, 
and weights are put on it, to press out 
all excess of mercury. At the same time 
the table is somewhat more sharply in- 
clined. The weights may be removed in 
about 30 hours, as the amalgam will by 
this time adhere closely to ttie glass. The 
plate of glass is set up on edge, and a lit- 
tle more mercury will drop off. After 
about four weeks the mirror may be con- 
sidered as finished. 

If curved glass plates are to be made 
into mirrors, the amalgam is prepared 
by itself, and after spreading it as evenly 
as possible upon the plate, the latter is 
heated until the amalgam melts. 

Great care must be taken to have the 
plates of glass perfectly clean, as the 
amalgam will only adhere to a bright 
surface. The cleansing is best per- 
formed by means of washing with 
strong soda lye. Since the pi-ocess of 
making mirrors by the reduction of silver 
solutions upon the glass has been known, 
and can be quickly and cheaply carried 
out, the use of amalgam is falling more 
and more into disuse, a desirable condi- 
tion in view of the fact that the work is 
very injurious to the health of the work- 
men employed, who must constantly 
breathe in the fumes of the mercury. 

4. — An amalgam consisting of 2 parts 
of zinc and 1 part of tin may be used 
for covering the cushions of frictional 
electric machines. This amalgam is pre- 
pared by first melting the zinc and tin in 
a crucible and adding the quicksilver, pre- 
viously heated. 

5. — We have already spoken of the cad- 
mium amalgam employed for plugging 
teeth, an amalgam of 2 parts of quick- 
silver, 2 parts of tin, and 1 part of cad- 
mium. For the same purpose an amal- 
gam of tin, silver and gold is employed. 



(Amalgams) 



6. — Amalgam for Tinning. — Small arti- 
cles of iron, as pins, for example, can be. 
tinned by first making them bright by 
pickling in an acid, dipping in melted 
tin amalgam, blanching in dilute acid, 
drying and polishing. 

Zinc Amalgam. 

Zinc amalgamates readily with mer- 
cury, it being only necessary to heat the 
latter to the boiling point and add the 
zinc in small pieces. Zinc amalgam is 
not employed directly, but is largely used 
in the zinc anodes of galvanic batteries. 
For this purpose it is prepared upon the 
zinc plate itself, by heating the latter to 
about 482 to 500° F., and dipping it at 
once into mercury, after first coating it 
quickly and uniformly with a solution of 
chloride of zinc and ammonia, applied 
with a brush. Amalgamation takes place 
immediately, and the plates thus treated 
give currents of greater strength and con- 
stancy than ordinary zinc plates. 

Zinc Amalgams. — The principal em- 
ployment of zinc amalgams is their use 
as a cathode or negative electrode in the 
batteries of Munson, Daniell and Le- 
clanche. This combination is designed to 
render the zinc unattackable by the excit- 
ing liquid of the battery with open cir- 
cuit. The action of the mercury is to 
prevent the zinc from forming a large 
number of small voltaic elements when 
foreign bodies are mingled with the 
metal ; in a word, the giving to ordinary 
zinc the properties of pure zinc, and con- 
sequently of causing a great saving in ex- 
pense. For amalgamating a zinc plate it 
is plunged for a few seconds in water 
in which there is 1-16 in volume of sul- 
phuric acid, then rubbing with a copper- 
wire brush which has been dipped in the 
quicksilver. The mercury takes more 
readily on the zinc when, after the zinc 
has been cleaned with water sharpened 
with sulphuric acid, it is moistened with 
a solution of corrosive sublimate, which 
is reduced, and furnishes a first very thin 
coat of amalgam, on which the quick- 
silver is immediately fixed by simple im- 
mersion, without rubbing. The zinc of 
a battery may be amalgamated by putting 
at the bottom of the compartment con- 
taining each element a little quicksilver 
in such a way that the zinc touches the 
liquid. Tlie amalgamation is effected un- 
der the influence of the current, but this 
process applies only on condition that the 
zinc alone touches the bottom of the ves- 
sel containing the quicksilver. 



[128] 



CHAPTEK IV 



AET AJ^D AETISTS' MATERIALS 



Constant reference should be made to the Index, also to the chapters on 
Cleansing, Glass, Leather, Lapidary Arts, etc.; also to the very full chapter on 
Paints, Varnishes, etc. 



Academy Board. 

1. — Smooth. — Apply to junkboard a 
coating of size ; when dry, spread on thick 
paint with a palette knife. 

2. — Rough. — Size heavy manila paper, 
apply to two sheets a thick coat of paint, 
place the painted sides together, then 
pull them apart. This will give the board 
a roughened surface or tooth. 

Books, To Gild the edges of. 

To gild the edges, the book should be 
put into the press straight, and on a level 
with the cheeks of the press between cut- 
tingboards, the boards of the book be- 
ing thrown back. The press should be 
screwed up very tightly, and any pro- 
jection of the cuttingboards should be 
taken away with a chisel. If the paper 
is unsized, or at all spongy, the edge 
should be sized and left to dry. This 
may be ascertained by wetting a leaf 
with the tongue ; if spongy, the moisture 
will sink through, as in blotting paper. 
The edge should be scraped quite flat, 
and perfectly even, care being taken to 
scrape every part equally, or one part 
of the edge will be hollow, or perhaps 
one side scraped down, and this will make 
one square larger than the other. When 
scraped quite smooth and evenly, a mix- 
ture of black lead and thin glair water 
is painted over the edge, and with a hard 
brush it is well brushed until dry. 

The gold is now cut on the gold cush- 
ion. Lift a leaf out of the book with 
the gold knife, lay it on the gold cushion, 
breathe gently on the center of the leaf 
to lay it flat ; it can then be cut with 
ease to any size. The edge is now glaired 
evenly, and the gold is taken up with a 
piece of paper previously greased by draw- 
ing it over the head. The gold is then 
gently laid on the edge which has been 
glaired. The whole edge or end being 
done, it is allowed to get perfectly dry, 
which will occupy two hours. 



Before using the burnisher on the gold 
itself some gilders lay a piece of fine pa- 
per on the gold and gently flatten it with 
the burnisher. Books are often treated 
in this manner ; they then become dull 
gilt. When intended to be bright, a 
waxed cloth should be gently rubbed over 
the surface two or three times before 
using the burnisher. The beauty of bur- 
nishing depends upon the edge presenting 
a solid and uniform metallic surface, 
without any marks of the burnisher. 

Gilding Books. — White of egg, well 
beaten up, is the ordinary sticking mate- 
rial used by binders to put the gold leaf 
on. The leather back of the book is 
varnished with it, and when dry a strip 
of gold leaf is put on the place where 
the letters or ornaments are to be placed ; 
the letters used are common printing 
types (they must be new, however, and 
not been used with printing ink). They 
are heated a little above the boiling point 
of water, which is easily tried with a 
wet finger, and then they are pressed 
on the gold leaf for a few seconds only, 
when the heating of the albumen, or white 
of egg, under it fixes them to the leather 
of the book. The ornamental figures used 
are commonly made of brass, and manu- 
factured for the use of book binders, while 
the type is screwed in an appropriate 
brass or iron holder, with wooden han- 
dle. The back of a well bound book 
being always round, the proper way of 
putting on the gilded letters and orna- 
ments requires a certain way of manipu- 
lation, which it is best to acquire by vis- 
iting some good bookbinder's shop in 
the next large city, to see the operation, 
and use your eyes properly so as to get 
all little details. The sides of books be- 
ing flat, it is best to put the letters and 
ornaments under a press. The type is 
put up in a proper form, it is heated, put 
under the press with the varnished side 
of the book, covered with gold leaf on 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[ 129 ] 



Art and Artists* Materials 



(Bronzing) 



the right place, and the press screwed 
down. Sometimes the binder puts the 
strip of gold leaf on the face of the type, 
in place of on the book. This is equally 
good, and, under certain circumstances, 
preferable. 

Bronzing. 

This term is applied to the process of 
imparting to the surfaces of figures of 
wood, plaster of paris, etc., a metallic 
appearance. This is done by first giv- 
ing them a coat of oil or size varnish, 
and, when this is nearly dry, applying 
with a dabber of cotton, or a camel's-hair 
pencil, any of the metallic bronze pow- 
ders ; or the powder may be placed in a 
little bag of muslin and dusted over the 
surface, and afterward finished off with 
a wad of linen. The surface must be aft- 
erward varnished. (See also chapter on 
Paint, Vaknishes, etc.) 

1. — Mosaic gold is prepared by incor- 
porating and grinding : tin, 16 ; flower 
of sulphur, 7 ; mercury, 8 ; and sal am- 
moniac, 8 ; then subliming the amalgam. 
A flaky gold-colored powder remains in 
the matrass. 

2. — Copper powder is obtained by sat- 
urating nitrous acid with copper and then 
precipitating the copper by exposing iron 
bars in the solution. 

3. — Bisulphide of tin has a golden lus- 
ter, flaky texture, and is used for orna- 
mental work, such as paper hangings, and 
as a substitute for gold leaf. 

4. — Dutch foil, reduced to a powder by 
grinding, is also used ; and powdered 
plumbago gives an iron-colored shade. 

5. — Another kind is made from verdi- 
gris, 8 ; putty powder, 4 ; borax, 2 ; niter, 
2 ; bichloride of mercury, i/4 ; grind into 
a paste with oil, and fuse them together. 

6. — Another (red) : Sulph. copper, 
100 ; carb. soda, 60 ; mix and incorporate 
by heat ; cool, powder, and add copper 
filings, 15 ; mix ; keep at a white heat 
for 20 minutes ; cool, powder, wash, and 
dry. 

7. — Bright yellow : Copper, 83 parts ; 
zinc. 17 parts. Orange : Copper, 90 to 
95 parts ; zinc, 5 to 10 parts. Copper 
red : Copper, 97 to 99 parts ; zinc, 1 to 
3 parts. 

8. — Bronze powder may be mixed into 
a paint by using japan drier with a small 
percentage of boiled linseed oil. Both 
should be fresh. 

9. — Gold Bronze Powder. — a. — Pure 
gold bronze powder may be made as fol- 
lows : Grind leaf gold with pure honey 
until the leaves are broken up and mi- 
nutely divided. Remove this mixture 



(Canvas, Preparing) 



from the stone by a spatula and stir up 
in a basin of water ; the water will melt 
the honey and set the gold free. Leave 
the basin undisturbed until the gold sub- 
sides. Pour off the water, and add fresh 
instead, until the honey is entirely washed 
away, after which collect the gold on fil- 
tering pans and dry for use. 

b. — A cheaper sort may be made thus : 
Melt 1 lb. of tin in a crucible and pour 
it on % lb. of pure mercury ; when this 
is solid grind it into powder, with 7 oz. 
of flowers of sulphur and i^ lb. of sal 
ammoniac. 

10. — Silver Bronze Powder. — Melt to- 
gether 1 oz. each of bismuth and tin, then 
add 1 oz. quicksilver ; cool, and powder. 

Burnt Wood. 

A very old process of decorating wood 
is to burn in the design with needles of 
different shapes, whereby quite artistic 
effects may be produced, and which only 
requires little practice and a steady hand. 
The clean, smooth surface of light wood 
is rubbed down well, and the design 
sketched on lightly, or pounced on, so 
that the plate does not get soiled. Now 
a steel needle, which has been provided 
at the end with a covering of horn or 
wood, is made red hot over an alcohol 
flame. With this needle the sketch is 
worked, so that the design becomes burnt 
in and fixed. If it should be burnt in 
too deeply in places, the spot is rubbed 
with fine glass paper. Platinum points 
come with special outfits, and are more 
effective. 

Canvas, To Prepare for Painting. 

1. — Nail the canvas on the stretcher, 
then give it a coat of thin glue size. Al- 
low this to dry, then apply paint of the 
desired tint with a palette knife. The 
paint should have about the consistency 
of that sold in artists' tubes. 

2. — White lead, 1 part ; whiting, 2 
parts ; a small portion of litharge and 
sulphate of zinc for driers ; mix with 
equal parts of boiled linseed oil and raw 
linseed, tinted with either brown umber 
or lampblack, for a neutral ground. The 
canvas is tacked upon a stretching frame, 
and sized with weak glue size to which 
a small portion of zinc sulphate is added. 
When dry it is stippled over with some 
driers and raw linseed oil, as thin as pos- 
sible, not saturated. When very nearly 
dry the white lead, whiting, etc., is mixed 
up very smooth, and put upon it very 
thin and smooth with a large palette 
knife, and hatched over with a large 
sash tool, drawing it across one way, and 



[130] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Cards, Gilding) 



then at right angles, until the face pre- 
sents a face like a piece of fine linen or 
cartridge paper, when it is left to dry. 

Cards, To Gild the Edges of. 

1. — Obtain an extremely thin leaf of 
gold. Put your cards together so that 
the edges are perfectly even. Then place 
in a press, with the exposed edge upper- 
most. Coat the edge with a mixture of 
red chalk and water. The gold is blown 
out from small books, and spread on a 
leather cushion, where it is cut to the 
proper size by a smooth-edged knife. A 
camel's-hair pencil is dipped into white 
of egg mixed with water, and with this 
the partially dry edge is moistened ; the 
gold is then taken up on a tip brush 
and applied to the moistened edge, to 
which it instantly adheres. When all the 
four edges have been gilt in this way, 
and allowed to remain a very few min- 
utes, take a burnisher formed of a very 
smooth piece of hard stone (usually blood- 
stone), and rub the gold very forcibly, 
which gives the gold a high degree of 
polish. To silver edges take a brush, dip 
it in a saturated solution of gallic acid, 
and wash the edges ; then dip the brush 
into a solution composed of 20 parts ni- 
trate of silver to 1,000 parts distilled 
water. Keep on alternating these solu- 
tions until the edges assume a brilliant 
tint. Then wash with distilled water, and 
dry by free air and heat. 

2. — A composition consisting of 4 parts 
of Armenian bole and 1 of candied sugar, 
ground together, with water, to a proper 
consistency, and laid on by a brush, with 
the white of an egg. This coating, when 
nearly dry, is smoothed by the burnisher. 
It is then slightly moistened by a sponge 
dipped in clean water, and squeezed in 
the hand, after which gold leaf is applied. 
Carton-pierre Ornaments. 

Composed of the pulp of paper, mixed 
with whiting and glue, pressed into plas- 
ter piece-molds backed with paper, and, 
when suflBciently set, hardened by drying 
in a hot room. Carton-pierre ornaments 
are stronger and lighter than those made 
of plaster of paris. 

Coin Impressions. 

Sharp impressions of coins may be ob- 
tained by using a mixture of equal quan- 
tities of molten, thinly liquid sulphur and 
infusorial earth and a little graphite. 
Liquefy the mixture by heat, and apply 
with a spoon or spatula to the coin ; on 
cooling, an impression of great sharpness 
will result. The graphite prevents the 
impression becoming dull or unsightly. 

[ 



(Color Mixing) 



Colored Pencils for Sketching on Glass, 
Porcelain, etc. 

1. — Black. — Lampblack, 10 parts ; white 
wax, 40 parts ; tallow, 10 parts. 

2. — White. — Zinc white, 40 parts ; white 
wax, 20 parts ; tallow, 10 parts. 

3. — Light Blue. — Prussian blue, 10 
parts ; white wax, 20 parts ; tallow, 10 
parts. 

4. — Dark Blue. — Prussian blue, 15 
parts ; gum arable, 5 parts ; tallow, 10 
parts. 

5. — Yellow. — Chrome yellow, 10 parts ; 
wax, 20 parts ; tallow, 10 parts. 

The colors are mixed with the fats in 
warmed vessels,' levigated with the same, 
and are then allowed to cool until they 
have acquired the proper consistency for 
being transferred to the presses. In 
these the mass is treated and shaped sim- 
ilarly as the graphite in the presses for 
ordinary pencils. 

Colors Produced by Mixing Pigments. 

According to S. Paris Davis, colors 
may be produced by mixtures of pigments 
as follows : 

Bismarck Brown. — Take carmine, crim- 
son lake and gold bronze, and mix to- 
gether. If a light shade is desired, use 
vermilion in place of carmine. 

Bottle Green. — Dutch pink and Prus- 
sian blue for ground ; glaze with yellow 
lake. 

Brick Color. — Two parts of yellow 
ocher, 1 of red and 1 of white. 

Bronze Green. — Five parts of chrome 
green, 1 of black and 1 of umber. 

Brown. — Three parts of red, 2 of black 
and 1 of yellow. 

Canary Yellow. — Five parts of white 
and 3 parts of lemon yellow. 

Carnation Red. — Three parts of lake 
and 1 of white. 

Chestnut. — Two parts of red, 1 of black 
and 2 of chrome yellow. 

Chocolate. — Add lake or carmine to 
burnt umber, or take Indian red and 
black to form a brown ; then add yellow 
to bring about the desired shade. 

Citron. — Three parts of red, 2 of yel- 
low and 1 of blue. 

Claret. — Red and black, or carmine and 
blue. 

Clay Drah. — Raw sienna, raw umber 
and white lead, equal parts ; then shade 
with chrome green. 

Copper. — One part of red, 2 of yellow 
and 1 of black. 

Cream. — Five parts of white, 2 of yel- 
low and 1 of red. 
131] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Color Mixing) 



Deep Buff. — The same, with the addi- 
tion of a little red. 

Drab. — Nine parts of white and 1 of 
umber. 

Dove. — Red, white, blue and yellow. 

Fawn. — Eight parts of white, 1 of red, 
2 of yellow and 1 of umber. 

Flesh. — Eight parts of white, 3 of red 
and 3 of chrome yellow, 

French Gray. — White, shaded with 
ivory black. 

French Red. — This color is simply In- 
dian red, lightened with vermilion and 
glazed with carmine. 

Gold. — White and yellow, shaded with 
red and blue. 

Grass Green. — Three parts of yellow 
and 1 of Prussian blue. 

Green. — Blue and yellow, or black and 
yellow. 

Jonquil Yellow. — Mix flake white and 
chrome yellow, and add vermilion or car- 
mine. 

Lead. — Eight parts of white, 1 of blue 
and 1 of black. 

Lemon. — Five parts of lemon yellow 
and 2 of white. 

Light Buff. — Yellow ocher, tinted with 
white. 

Light Gray. — Nine parts of white, 1 
of blue and 1 of black. 

Lilac. — Four parts of red, 3 of white 
and 1 of blue. 

Maroon. — Three parts of carmine and 
2 of yellow. 

Medium Gray. — Eight parts of white 
to 2 of black. 

Oak. — Five parts of white, 2 of yellow 
and 1 of red. 

Olive. — Eight parts of yellow, 1 of blue 
and 1 of black. 

Olive Brown. — One part of lemon yel- 
low with 3 parts of burnt umber. Change 
the proportions for different shades. 

Peach Blossom. — Eight parts of white, 
1 of red, 1 of blue and 1 of yellow. 

Pea Green. — Five parts of white and 1 
of chrome green. 

Pearl. — White, black and red, in pro- 
portions to suit the taste. 

Plum. — Two parts of white, 1 of blue 
and 1 of red. 

Portland Stone. — Three parts of raw 
umber, 3 of yellow ocher and 1 of white. 

Purple. — The same as lilac, but dif- 
ferently proportioned ; say 2 parts of 
blue. 

Rose. — Five parts of white and 2 of 
carmine. 

Salmon. — Five parts of white, 1 of yel- 
low, 1 of umber and 1 of red. 

Snuff. — Four parts of yellow and 2 of 
Vandyke brown. 



(Copying Paper) 



Stone. — Five parts of white, 2 of yel- 
low and 1 of burnt umber. 

Straw. — Five parts of yellow, 2 of 
white and 1 of red. 

Tan. — Five parts of burnt sienna, 2 of 
yellow and 1 of raw umber. 

Violet. — Similar to lilac, but more red 
than purple. 

Willow Green. — Five parts of white 
and 2 of verdigris. 

Compositions. 

See also chapter on Rubber, Gutta 
Perciia and Celluloid. 

1. — A mass for molding, according to 
a process patented by Heinrich Sommer, 
of Griinberg, in Silesia, can. be prepared 
by first making a mixture of about 2-5 
chalk, rather more than % burnt gypsum, 
and a small quantity of zinc white ; then 
a second mixture of 1-3 boiled linseed, 
1-5 poppy oil, 1-5 varnish, 1-5 strongly 
hydrated boiled glue, about 1-10 to 1-12 
chalk with a small addition of zinc white 
and gypsum, and combining these two 
mixtures, before use, in the proportion of 
2:1 or 3:1. 

2. — Beerit is a material discovered by 
Sculptor Beer in Paris for the production 
of castings of the smallest and also of 
the largest dimensions, the outlines and 
tracing displaying, in both cases, a sharp- 
ness never obtainable with plaster. The 
casting, in about 3 hours after being run 
into the mold, is perfectly hard and com- 
plete, and but seldom requires working 
over. Beerit is said to be composed of 
100 parts of marble dust, 10 to 25 parts 
of pulverized glass, and 5 to 10 parts 
of pulverized, screened lime, mixed with 
water glass. 

3. — Substitute for Plaster of Paris. — 
Best whiting, 5 lb. ; glue, 2^ lb. ; linseed 
oil, 2l^ lb. Heat these materials, and 
mix them thoroughly. After this com- 
pound has cooled, lay on a stone which 
is covered with powdered whitening, heat 
until the mass is tough and firm. Cover 
with wet cloths to keep moist. Orna- 
ments may be made of this material by 
pressing it into a mold with a screw 
press. It becomes very hard after a time. 

Cotton, To Gild. 

The cotton should be spread with glue, 
dried, then coated with a thick solution 
of parchment size, and dried again thor- 
oughly. Then apply the gilding. 

Copying Paper. 

1. — The following is communicated to 
the Polytechn. Notishlatt by E. Dieter- 
ich, in regard to the method he employs 



[132] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Copying Paper) 



for making the copying paper which has 
obtained so good a reputation in Ger- 
many. The manufacture may be divided 
into two parts, viz., the production of 
the color and the application of the same 
to the paper. For blue paper, Dieterich 
uses exclusively the blue color known as 
Paris blue, as covering better than any 
other mineral color. Ten kgm. of the 
same are coarsely ground, and mixed with 
20 kgm. of ordinary olive oil ; 0.25 kgm. 
of glycerine is then added. This mixture 
is exposed for a week in a drying room 
to a temperature of 40 to 50° C, and 
then ground as fine as possible in a paint 
mill. The glycerine softens the hard 
paint and tends to make it more easily 
diffusible. Then Dieterich melted 0.5 kgm. 
of yellow wax with 7.5 kgm. of ligroine, 
and added to this 3 kgm. of the blue mix- 
ture, mixing slowly at a temperature of 
30 or 40° C. The mass is now of the 
consistency of honey. It is applied to 
the paper with a coarse brush, and after- 
ward evenly divided and polished with a 
badger's-hair brush. The sheets are then 
dried on a table heated by steam. This is 
done in a few minutes, and the paper is 
then ready for shipment. The quanti- 
ties mentioned will be sufficient for about 
1,000 sheets of 50 x 90 centimeters, be- 
ing a day's work for two girls. For black 
paper aniline black is used in the same 
proportion. The operation must be car- 
ried on in a well ventilated room pro- 
tected from fire, on account of the com- 
bustibility of the material and the nar- 
cotic effects of the ligroine. The paper 
is used by being placed between two 
sheets of paper, the upper one receiving 
the original, the lower one the copy. 

2. — Permanently Moist Copying Paper. 
— A perpetually damp copying paper, al- 
ways ready for use, is described in The 
Paper Trade Journal. It is prepared by 
dissolving 1 lb. of chloride of magnesium 
in a moderate quantity of warm or cold 
water — about 1 lb. When dissolved, ap- 
ply this solution with a brush to ordinary 
copying paper, whether in book form or 
otherwise, or preferably by means of cloth 
pads saturated with the liquid ; then place 
these pads between any suitable number 
of leaves ; apply pressure, at first very 
moderate, until the absorption by the pa- 
per is complete ; then remove the cloth 
pads and apply with the press a strong 
pressure. It is then ready for use. Paper 
prepared by this process will remain per- 
manently moist under ordinary tempera- 
tures, and if made dry by an extraordi- 
nary heat, will regain its moisture upon 
being subjected to the common atmos- 



( Draughting) 



phere. One advantage of this method is 
that the sheets of paper will not adhere 
to each other, as is frequently the case 
when the paper is prepared with com- 
pounds containing glycerine, etc. The 
above process is patented. 

Draughting. 

Conventional Sectioning. — Our engrav- 
ing illustrates a set of conventional sec- 
tions prepared originally for use in the 
Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering, 
of Cornell University. They were pre- 
pared by Mr. J. S. Read, in charge of 
mechanical drawing and locomotive de- 
sign in this institution. Our engraving 
is made from his new book, entitled "A 
Course in Mechanical Drawing," which 
has just been published by John Wiley 
& Sons. It is, of course, not intended 
that the sections should be used on either 
rough or hurried drawings, but they will 
be useful in all cases where well finished 
and artistic drawings are required. Fig. 
1 shows a conventional method of draw- 
ing sectional rock, wall, and water. When 
no color is to be used, as in tracings for 
blueprint making, the rocks are shaded 
with India ink, and no color is used. A 
No. 175 Gillott pen is recommended. For 
colored drawing the groundwork is made 
of gamboge or burnt umber, and the water 
is represented by a wash of Prussian 
blue. No. 2 shows a conventional method 
of representing marble. The whole sec- 
tion is thoroughly wet, and then each 
stone is streaked with Payne's gray. 
Building stone is shown in the opposite 
corner, and is made with a light wash 
of Payne's gray, the shading being added 
with ruling and writing pens. Fig. 8 
shows the method of representing earth. 
The body is made by washing with India 
ink and neutral tint with India ink in 
irregular penned lines. Our engraving 
shows four kinds of timber. No. 3 is 
chestnut, and is made by a ground wash 
of gamboge with a little crimson lake 
and burnt umber. The colors for grain- 
ing in the sections of the chamber should 
be crimson, and consist of burnt umber, 
Payne's gray, and crimson lake, in equal 
but sufficient quantity to make a con- 
trast with the ground color. Fig. 5 shows 
black walnut, and consists of a ground 
of Payne's gray, burnt umber, and crim- 
son lake in equal quantity, using the same 
mixture, with the addition of some burnt 
umber, for the graining. Fig. 6 shows 
hard pine. It is colored with a light wash 
of crimson lake, burnt umber and gam- 
boge, and in equal parts with a graining 
mixture of crimson lake and burnt um- 



[133] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Draughting) 



ber. Woods in general are shown in 
Fig. 4, which should be colored with a 
light wash of burnt sienna, and grained 
with a writing pen and a dark mixture 
of burnt sienna and India ink. The other 
sections are solid wash colors, and do 
not call for special comment. Various 
other conventional sections are clearly 
shown in the engraving. 



(Drawing Paper) 



thickish paper, as smooth as possible, a 
little larger than the intended illustration, 
is heated by laying it, with proper pre- 
cautions against being injured, on the, 
top of a stove, and a piece of beeswax 
is rubbed over it until the paper is com- 
pletely covered with a thin coating. A 
piece of glass, the size of the paper, is 
blackened by being held over a candle, 




STANDARD CONVENTIONAL SECTIONS FOR DRAWINGS. 



Draughting Paper. — Water, 15 parts ; 
powdered tragacanth, 1% parts; dissolve, 
and strain through gauze. Stretch the 
paper on a board, apply the mixture 
smoothly to it. The paper thus treated 
will take either oil or water colors. 

Drawing Paper. 

Astronomical Draioing Paper. — Felix 
Plateau describes in Les Mondes an in- 
genious process for drawing on paper 
white lines on a black ground — a method 
frequently used for astronomical illustra- 
tions — by means of which both author and 
artist are able to judge of the effect of 
such an illustration before putting it into 
the hands of the engraver. A piece of 



and, when thoroughly cooled, it is laid 
on the waxed paper and rubbed thor- 
oughly with the fingers, the result being 
that the blackened surface is produced on 
the paper, on which any design can be 
traced with a needle for the finer lines, 
or the back of a steel pen for the thicker 
ones. 

Blice Drawing Paper. — The blue draw- 
ing paper of commerce, which is fre- 
quently employed for technical drawings, 
is usually little durable. For the pro- 
duction of a very serviceable and strong 
drawing paper the following process is 
recommended. Mix a solution of : Gum 
arable, 2 c. cm. ; ammonia iron citrate, 
3 c. cm. ; tartaric acid, 2 c. cm. ; distilled 



[134] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Drawing Paper) 



water, 20 c. cm. After still adding 4 
c. cm. of solution of ammonia with a so- 
lution of potassium ferrocyanide, 2.5 
c. cm. ; distilled water, 10.0 c. cm., and 
allow the mixture to stand in the dark 
half an hour. Apply the preparation on 
the paper by means of a soft brush, in 
artificial light, and dry in the dark. Next, 
expose the paper to light until it appears 
dark violet, place in water for 10 sec- 
onds, air a short time, wash with water, 
and finally dip in a solution of eau de 
javelle, 50 c. cm. ; distilled water, 1,000 
c. cm., until it turns dark blue. 

Creases Out of Dratving Paper or 
Drawings, To Remove. — Place the draw- 
ing face downward on a sheet of smooth 
white paper, cover with another sheet, 
slightly dampened ; iron with an iron 
moderately warm. Engravings may be 
treated in the same way. 

Fixing on Drawing Boards. — Take a 
sheet of drawing paper and damp it on 
the back side with a wet sponge and 
clean water. While the paper is expand- 
ing take a spoonful of wheat flour, mix 
with a little cold water, and make it 
a moderately thick paste ; spread the 
paste around the edge of the drawing 
paper 1 in. wide with a feather, then 
turn the drawing paper over and press 
the edges down on the board. After this 
take four straight pieces of deal wood, 
% X 2% in. wide, place them on the edge 
of the drawing paper, and put a large 
book or heavy weight on each corner to 
make the paper adhere firmly to the board. 
In about an hour's time the paper will 
be straight and even, and quite ready for 
executing a drawing. When the drawing 
is finished take a sharp knife and raise 
one corner of the paper, then take a scale, 
run it around the edges, and the paper 
will come off easily. Turn it over and 
take the dry paste off with a knife, and 
all will be perfectly clean, and no paper 
will be wasted. 

4. — Oil Spreading, To Prevent. — Dis- 
solve 44 oz. of clear gelatine in 6 oz. of 
hot water, strain, and apply to paper. 
Let it get dry before painting. 

5. — Prepared Paper. — Paper prepared 
so that a brass pointer leaves a black 
mark on it. Dissolve % oz. of pure so- 
dium sulphide and % oz. of sodium hypo- 
sulphite in 1 qt. of rain water ; filter the 
solution, and with it uniformly moisten 
the surface of the paper ; then dry the 
latter under pressure between clean blot- 
ting paper. 

6. — Transparent. — a. — Dissolve a given 
quantity of castor oil in 1, 2 or 3 vol- 



( Drawing) 



umes of absolute alcohol, according to the 
thickness of the paper, and apply with a 
sponge. The alcohol evaporates in a few 
minutes, and the tracing paper is ready 
for immediate use. The drawing or trac- 
ing can be made either with lead pencil 
or India ink, and the oil removed from 
the paper by immersing it in absolute al- 
cohol, thus restoring its original capacity. 
The ink used must be of the waterproof 
variety. 

b. — An American trade paper recom- 
mends saturation with benzine. In a lit- 
tle while the absorbed liquid is again dis- 
persed by evaporation, and no evidence 
of the treatment remains. 

7. — Washable. — Any kind of paper is 
lightly primed with glue or another suit- 
able binder, to which a finely powdered 
inorganic body, such as zinc white, chalk, 
lime, or heavy spar, as well as the desired 
coloring matter for the paper, are added. 
Next, the paper thus treated is coated 
with soluble glass — silicate of potash or 
of soda — to which small amounts of mag- 
nesia have been admixed, or else it is 
dipped into this mixture, and dried for 
about 10 days in a temperature of 25° 
C. (77° F.). Paper thus prepared can 
be written or drawn upon with lead pen- 
cil, chalk, colored crayons, carbon, India 
ink, and lithographic crayon, and the 
writing or drawing may be washed off 
20 or more times, entirely or partly, 
without the paper changing materially. 
Hence, paper treated as indicated pre- 
sents the advantage of great economy in 
schools, especially schools of designing. 
In making designs and sketching plans, 
etc., it offers the convenience that any- 
thing wrong may be readily and quickly 
removed with a moist sponge and imme- 
diately corrected, since the washed places 
can be worked on again at once. This 
paper is pi-eferable to the heavy slates 
used in teaching writing and drawing, 
and is commendable for that purpose, if 
only for the reason that it can be given 
any color not tiring the eye. 

Drawings. 

1. — Chalk Drawings, To Fix. — Dissolve 
40 parts of alum and 20 parts of isin- 
glass in 2,000 parts of rain water by 
boiling ; strain the mixture through linen, 
and add to it about 250 parts of alcohol. 
The paper may be dipped in the liquid, or 
the latter can be poured over it. 

2. — Diagrams for Lantern Use. — Take 
thin, transparent sheet zylonite, or cel- 
luloid, and wash thoroughly with water. 
When dry, rub with fine whiting to re- 
move all grease. Drawings or writing 



[135] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Drawings) 



can now be placed on the zylonite as eas- 
ily as on paper. Tracings can be readily 
made which are better than those on 
gelatine. Clamp the finished work be- 
tween two glasses 3^x4 in., and bind 
the edge with paper. 

3. — Fixing Draivings. — a. — Immerse the 
drawing in skimmed milk. A special fix- 
ative is sold for the purpose by dealers 
in art materials. Collodion, i-f very thin, 
might be used with advantage ; often used 
for manuscripts. 

b. — JFlow with very thin collodion. 

c. — Two tablespoonfuls of rice, boiled 
in 1 pt. or iy2 pt. of water; strain, and 
pass the drawing quickly through the li- 
quid ; use a large flat dish for the liquid. 

d. — Prepare water starch in the man- 
ner of the laundress, of such strength as 
to form a jelly when cold, and then ap- 
ply with a broad camel's-hair brush, as in 
varnishing. The same may be done with 
thin cold isinglass water or size, or rice 
water. 

4. — Mounting and Varnishing. — Paste 
the drawing on the background. Flour 
paste is as good as any ; and when it is 
dry, size the surface with a solution of 
gum arable or white glue. When that 
is dry, use any varnish you please. For 
a delicate picture or drawing, dammar 
Tarnish is the best ; but it must be ap- 
plied rapidly to secure an even surface. 

5. — Alounting on Linen. — The linen or 
calico is first stretched by tacking it 
tightly on a frame or stretcher. It is 
then thoroughly coated with strong size, 
and left until nearly dry. The sheet of 
paper to be mounted requires to be well 
covered with paste ; this will be best if 
done twice, leaving the first coat about 
10 minutes to soak into the paper. After 
applying the second coat place the paper 
on the linen and dab it all over with a 
clean cloth. Cut off when thoroughly 
dry. 

6. — Varnishing. — a. — Put a drop or two 
of acetic acid in the ink, and when the 
drawing is dry, varnish with mastic var- 
nish. 

b. — Boil parchment cuttings until a size 
is produced. 

Engravings, To Bleach Copper Plate. 

Stir 0.5 part of chloride of lime with 
2 parts of water, add 8 parts more water, 
stir the fluid during 2 hours, 5 or 6 times, 
allow it to settle, and pour off the clear 
fluid ; dilute with 3 parts of clean water. 
Lay the copper-plate print between two 
frames covered with linen, then in a box 
pour the chloride of lime solution over 
it, and leave it standing from half an 

[ 



(Flowers, Wax) 



hour to an hour. Allow the fluid to run 
out at the bottom of the box, pour in 
clean water several times, take out both 
frames, dry partially, remove upper frame 
and press the print between cardboard 
sheets. 

Engravings, To Clean. (See also Index.) 
Mounting. — Strain thin muslin on a 
frame, then carefully paste on it the en- 
graving, so as to be free from creases ; 
afterward, and when dry, give the en- 
graving two coats of thin size (made by 
putting a piece of glue the size of a 
small nut into a small cupful of hot 
water) ; finally, when this dries, varnish 
the engraving with a varnish known as 
white hard. ( See also Drawings. ) 

Flowers, How to Make Wax. 

1. — This affords a pleasant way of 
passing time, and is useful. Use only the 
purest virgin wax, entirely freed from all 
extraneous matters. Wax that is either 
granular or friable must be rejected. It 
is generally melted in vessels of tinned 
iron, copper or earthenware. To render 
it ductile, fine Venice turpentine, white, 
pure, and of an agreeable odor, is added. 
The mixture is constantly stirred with a 
glass or wooden spatula. All contact with 
iron must be avoided, and if the vessels 
are of that material they must be well 
and carefully tinned. When stiff leaves 
are to be executed, 2 parts of spermaceti 
are added to 8 parts of wax, to give 
transparency. Much care and tact are 
needed in coloring the wax. The colors 
being in fine powder, are made into a 
paste by adding, little by little, essence 
of citron or lavender. When the tritura- 
tion is perfect this paste is mixed with 
melted wax, stirring rapidly all the while ; 
and while the mass is still liquid it is 
poured into molds of pasteboard or tinned 
iron, of the shape of tablets, and is then 
ready for use. Sometimes it is passed 
through fine muslin as it flows into the 
molds. 

Another method is to tie up the color 
in a muslin bag, and wave it about among 
the molten wax until the desired tint is 
obtained. To combine colors it is only 
necessary to have 2 or 3 bags containing 
different colors, and to employ as much 
of each as shall have the desired effect. 
These bags, far from being spoiled by 
dipping in wax already containing other 
shades, have only to be rinsed in pure 
water to fit them for coloring other wax. 
The colors most in use in wax flower 
making are pure forms of white lead, 
vermilion, lake, and carmine, ultramarine, 
136] 



Ai't and Artists^ Materials 



(Flowers, Wax) 



cobalt, indigo, and Prussian blue, chrome, 
Naples yellow, and yellow ocher. Greens 
and violets are chiefly made from mix- 
tures of the above. 

The wax being prepared, the manufac- 
ture of the artificial flowers is carried on 
in two ways. The first consists in steep- 
ing liquid wax in little wooden molds 
rinsed with water, around which the wax 
foi'ms in a thin layer, so as to take the 
form of the mold, and thus to present, 
wiien detached from it, the appearance 
of the whole or part of a flower. In 
this way lilac and other simple blossoms; 
are obtained with much rapidity. 

The branches are also executed with 
wax. softened by heat, and molded with 
the fingers, round a thread of wire. 

As for leaves and petals, they are cut 
out of sheets of colored wax of the proper 
thickness. These sheets are glossy on one 
side and velvety on the other. 

To express the veining of leaves they 
are placed in moistened molds and pressed 
with the thumb suflSciently to get the im- 
pression, which is accurately copied from 
nature. 

The petals are made to adhere simply 
by pressure ; the leaves are placed on a 
little foot stalk and the latter fastened 
to the stem. 

The manner of procuring molds for the 
accurate imitation of leaves is as follows : 
A natural leaf of the plant it is wished 
to imitate is spread out on a flat surface 
of marble, for example. It is lightly but 
equally greased with olive oil, and sur- 
rounded with a wall of wax, which must 
not touch, it. Then in a small vessel 
containing a few spoonfuls of water a 
few pinches of plaster of paris are to be 
thrown, and briskly stirred till the liquid 
has the consistency of thick cream. This 
is poured over the leaf, and left till it 
is well hardened. It is then lifted up and 
the leaf detached, when it will be seen 
that the plaster has taken a perfect im- 
pression of every vein and indentation. 
Such molds are rendered far more dur- 
able if they are impregnated, while warm, 
with drying oil. This gives them greater 
solidity, and prevents their crumbling 
from frequent immersion in water. 

It is necessary to impress strongly on 
all amateur wax flower makers the ne- 
cessity for having all tools and molds 
completely moistened with water, other- 
wise the wax will be constantly adhering, 
and preventing neatness of workmanship. 

2. — Get a sheet of glass, 18 in. square. 
Put some soft soap in hot water, in a 
bath, and stir it until it lathers. Warm 
some of the wax, as for fruit, adding a 



(Flowers, Wax) 



little balsam fir ; color according to the 
work in hand. When the soap-water in 
the bath is blood-warm, and the wax 
melted and colored, steep the glass in 
the water, take it out, plunge it into the 
warm wax, and when it has an even coat 
of wax on it plunge it into the water 
again, so obtaining a smooth sheet of 
wax. Lay this on the board, dry it, and 
lay a natural leaf on it, making the veins 
on the wax with the thumbnail. Cut out 
the shape of the leaf with a sharp pen- 
knife, and curl by bending over the fin- 
ger or back of the hand. Join the leaves 
by the aid of fine wire, and mount un- 
der a glass case. Practice in making 
leaves will lead to the making of flowers, 
which are more diflicult than fruit or 
leaves, as there are no molds. Take a 
rose, for instance ; every leaf has to be 
made separately, of very thin wax, and 
joined by wire. Keep on trying, however, 
as the same wax will do over and over 
again. The following short table serves 
as a guide to coloring. "Cast" means the 
color the wax should be made while warm. 
"Applied" means put on dry after fruit 
is completed. Always get a fine specimen 
to copy : 



Fruit or Article 


Cast 


Applied 


Apples 


Chromeyellow 


Greenish 

touches 


Banana Melon 


Chrome yellow 


Greenish 
touches 


Cherries 


White or pale 


Touched up 




yellow 


with lake 


Egg Plums 


Chromeyellow 


Touched up 
greenish 


Filberts 


Green 




Oranges 


Differentparts 
yellow and 
red lead well 
mixed in the 
wax before 
casting 




Pears 


Yellow 


Touched up to 
nature 


Plums 


Prussian blue 
and red well 
mixed before 
casting 




Pineapple 


Yellow 


Experi m e n t 
with gam- 
boge 


Pomegranate 


Burnt umber 


Touched up 
with purple 


Peach 


White 


Touched up 
with chrome 
yellow and 
lake 


An Egg 


White 


Touched up 
with chalk 



Cleanliness is indispensable ; not a parti- 
cle of dirt must be near the work. In 



[137] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Fruit, Wax) 



mixing the plaster, always remove all 

traces of one lot before preparing the 

next. 

Fruit, How to Make Wax. 

The necessary things include 4 lb. of 
medium sand, a large pie dish, a pudding 
basin, a wooden spoon, and a small table 
knife. For the mold obtain a 7-lb. bag 
of best fine plaster of paris ; for the model 
3 or 4 lb. of best white wax. It will also 
be necessary to have a small quantity of 
each of the following dry colors : Prus- 
sian blue, ultramarine blue, carmine, 
chrome yellow, rose pink, purple, scarlet 
powder, No. 1 chrome green, No. 2 chrome 
green, and any other colors that taste 
may suggest. One bottle of balsam fir 
and some fine wire will also be needed. 
Begin by making a lemon. Take the 
basin, and stand a lemon upright in it ; 
surround the lemon evenly with sand till 
exactly half has been covered, so that one- 
half projects from an even layer of sand. 
Now encircle the visible half of the lemon 
by a band of pasteboard 2 in. high, and 
exactly 1 in. larger in circumference than 
the fruit. In the pie dish mix enough 
plaster of paris to the thickness of a stiff 
cream to cover the half of the lemon 
with a coat % in. thick. Having got it 
to the right thickness, pour it over the 
half lemon, taking care that an even coat 
is deposited. The cardboard circle will 
prevent the plaster running away. Leave 
it alone until it is hard enough to handle, 
then take it up gently, take out the fruit 
without injuring the fine indentations of 
the peel in the interior of the shell, re- 
move any sand that may be clinging to 
the base of the half mold, and make in 
the rim of it four holes, each large enough 
to hold a pea. Grease the rim and holes 
with a little oil and fat, mixed ; replace 
the lemon in the mold exactly as it was 
when removed, taking great care in that 
respect ; fix a card rim around the outer 
edge of the half mold, and the mold can 
then be completed. Wash from the uten- 
sils all traces of the previous plaster ; this 
is most important. Mix fresh plaster, 
and pour it over the other half of the 
lemon, taking care that this is as thick 
as that previously mixed. The fruit is 
now completely coated with plaster. Let 
this dry as before ; when it is ready, in- 
sert a knife between the joints and pry 
it apart without damaging the interior ; 
take out the fruit, and the mold is com- 
plete. Let the mold rest for half an 
hour. Casting the wax is the easiest part 
of the business. Melt in a covered basin 
enough wax nearly to fill one of the 
halves of the mold, and while it is warm 



(Gilding) 



well mix with it sufiicient chrome yellow. 
Now take the mold and immerse it in 
hot water for a minute ; then add a lit- 
tle balsam fir to the wax, and pour it into 
one of the half molds. Fix the other 
half on, and, taking the mold in the 
hands, press the halves together, and 
shake the whole in such a way that the 
wax is run evenly over the interior of 
the mold. Do this for a few minutes, 
then plunge the hands, with the mold, 
into cold water, and leave it there for 
two minutes ; take it out, open the mold, 
and the lemon will be complete, unless 
it is desired to touch up the ends with 
No. 2 chrome green. In this way almost 
anything that is moldable — including 
fruits, nuts, vegetables, etc. — may be 
made ; and wax-working is not only in- 
structive and pleasant, but, in the hands 
of a smart person, remunerative. 
Gilding. 

See also chapter relating to Glass, 
Leather, etc. ; also Picture Frames, 
Marble, etc., in this section. The spe- 
cial chapter relating to Lapidary Arts, 
Horn, Bone, etc., should be consulted, as 
well as the Index. 

Oil Gilding. — This species of gilding 
may be divided into several operations. 

1. — The surface is prepared by a coat- 
ing of white lead in drying oil. 

2. — Another coat is given, made with 
calcined white lead or masiscot, ground in 
linseed oil and turpentine ; three or four 
coats of this mixture are often given, ob- 
serving to carefully smooth off each coat 
with pumice or shave grass before the 
application of the following ones. 

3. — The gold color, or paint, is next 
applied. It is usually very adhesive gold 
size, or the bottom of the pot or dish in 
which painters wash their brushes. For 
this purpose it is thoroughly ground and 
strained. 

4. — When the gold color becomes par- 
tially dry, and sufiiciently tenacious, the 
gold leaf is applied, and pressed on with 
a wad of cotton, wood, or a soft brush. 

Oil Size for Gilding. — Grind calcined 
red ocher with the best and oldest drying 
oil, and mix with it a little oil of tur- 
pentine when used. When the work is 
to be gilded, first give it a coat of parch- 
ment size, then apply ^ the above size, 
where requisite, either in patterns or let- 
ters, and let it remain till, by touching 
it with the finger, it feels just sticky ; 
then apply the gold leaf, and dab it on 
with a little piece of cotton ; in about an 
hour wash off the superfluous gold with 
a sponge and water, and when dry var- 
nish with copal varnish. 



[138] 



Art and Artists'' Materials 



(Gilding) 



Sise for Bronzing and Gilding. — A com- 
bination of asphaltum, drjing oil and 
spirits of turpentine will be found useful 
as a size for bronzing and pale gilding. 
A size for cloth, silk, etc., may be made 
by taking a little honey mixed with thick 
glue. This is to be reduced to a proper 
consistency, and it then has the effect 
of giving a fine bright luster. 

Wax, Gilder^s, Production of. — For the 
production of various colorings of gold 
in fire gilding, the respective places are 
frequently covered with so-called gilder's 
wax. Same consists of mixtures of vari- 
ous chemicals which have an etching ac- 
tion in the red heat upon the bronze 
mass, thus causing roughness of unequal 
depth, as well as through the fact that 
the composition of the bronze is changed 
somewhat on the surface, a relief of the 
gold color being effected in consequence 
of these two circumstances. The gilding 
wax is prepared by melting together the 
finely powdered chemicals with wax ac- 
cording to the following recipes : 

I. II. III. IV. V. 
Yellow wax 32 32 32 96 36 



Red chalk. 



24 18 48 18 

Verdigris 2 4 18 32 18 

Burnt alum 2 4 

Burnt borax 2 1 3 

Copper ash 4 6 20 8 

Zinc vitriol 32 18 

Green vitriol 1 6 

Glass. 

Bronze Drawing on Glass Plates. — • 
After the glass has been polished clean, 
take a solution of isinglass, the same as 
used for gilding, and by means of a soft 
otter's-hair brush apply it quickly to the 
glass. It is, of course, understood that 
the solution must be carefully filtered. 
Then the glass is held by the corners, 
obliquely over the flame of a lamp, so 
that the fluid runs off until it is per- 
fectly dry. The position must not be 
changed, otherwise ridges will be produced 
on the surface. When the glass has been 
prepared in this manner write firmly on 
it. By this means, lettering, etc., in mi- 
croscopic proportions, can be done. It 
is best tO' use a drawing pen. The glass 
remains perfectly clear and clean, and it 
is not necessary to wash it off. Aquarelle 
colors may also be used, and, for outlin- 
ing, India ink. (See also special chapter 
on Glass.) 

Granite, Gilding on. 

Apply a coat of size and then two or 
three coats of size and fine powdered 



(Maps) 



whiting. Let each coat dry, and rnb down 
with fine glass paper before the next is 
applied. Then go over it thinly and even- 
ly with gold size, and apply the gold 
leaf. 

Lithographic Paper. 

To prevent ink from adhering to and 
sinking into lithographic paper, which 
would render a perfect transfer to the 
stone impossible, the following plans are 
used : 

1. — Coat the paper with 3 successive 
layers of sheep's-foot jelly, 1 of cold starch 
and 1 of gamboge. The first coat is ap- 
plied by a sponge dipped in the hot so- 
lution of jelly, thinly but very evenly 
over the whole surface ; the others are 
applied in succession, each previous one 
being allowed to dry first. When the 
paper is dry it is smoothed by passing 
through the lithographic press. 

2. — Cover rather strong unsized paper 
with a varnish composed of 120 parts 
starch, 40 of gum arable, and 20 of alum. 
Make a moderate paste of the starch by 
boiling, dissolve the gum and alum sep- 
arately, and then mix all together. When 
well mixed, apply hot, with a flat, smooth 
brush, to the leaves of paper. Dry, and 
smooth by passing under the press. 

3. — This paper, which is written upon 
with lithographic ink, may be prepared 
by either of the following formulae : Take 
starch, 6 oz. ; gum arable, 2 oz. ; alum, 1 
oz. Make a strong solution of each, sep- 
arately, in hot water, then mix the whole, 
and strain the liquor through gauze. It 
must be applied to one side of the paper 
while still warm by means of a soft brush 
or sponge. A second or third coating 
may be given as the preceding one be- 
comes dry. Tlie paper is finally pressed 
to render it smooth. 

4. — The paper must first receive 3 coats 
of thin size, 1 coat of good white starch, 
and 1 coat of a weak solution of gamboge 
in water. The ingredients are to be ap- 
plied cold with a sponge, and each coat 
allowed to dry before the next is ap- 
plied. 

Maps. 

Backing Maps witTi Muslin. — Stretch 
your muslin (ordinary cotton stuff) on 
a wooden stretcher by means of tacks, 
cover your map on the back with an even 
and thin coat of good boiled starch or 
flour paste, or other sticking material, no 
matter what, if it only sticks. Lay the 
map on the cloth, only taking care to 
do this smoothly and to avoid wrinkles ; 
rub it evenly down after temporarily cov- 



[139] 



Art and Artists^ Materials 



(Maps) 



ering the place you rub with a piece of 
clean paper, so as to avoid friction over 
the map itself. Let it dry, and the work 
is done. In order to avoid wrinkles, it 
is quite essential to let your paper map, 
after being covered with the starch paste, 
soak for a few minutes, so as to give 
the paper a chance to expand from the 
moisture. It will then, while contract- 
ing from the drying, obtain a very smooth- 
ly stretched surface. Bookbinders al- 
ways carefully observe this when pasting 
papers on book covers, etc. 

1. — Map Colors. — Blue. — A weak mix- 
ture of sulphate of indigo and water, to 
which add a small quantity of gum. 

2. — Green. — Dissolve crystals of verdi- 
gris in water, and add a small quantity 
of gum. 

3. — Red. — Make a decoction of Brazil 
dust in vinegar and a small quantity of 
gum and alum ; or make an infusion of 
cochineal and add a little gum. 

4. — Yellow. — Dissolve gamboge in wa- 
ter, or make a decoction of French ber- 
ries, strain, and add a small quantity of 
gum arable. 

1. — To Mount Maps. — Stretch smooth 
factory cloth upon a frame and coat it 
with glue size. Before this dries apply 
a strong flour paste to the back of the 
map and lay it smoothly on the cloth. 
Let it remain until perfectly dry. If 
the map is to be varnished, apply two 
or three coats of isinglass size, and after 
it becomes thoroughly dry flow on a coat 
of varnish consisting of balsam of fir 
diluted to the proper consistency with tur- 
pentine. 

2. — Stretch the muslin on a flat table, 
tacking the edges, if necessary ; spread the 
paper face downward on another table, 
and rub it over with perfectly smooth 
flour paste. If necessary, the paste must 
be passed through a fine wire sieve. If 
properly made, this will not be required. 
Then lift the paper and place it, paste 
side downward, on the muslin. Lay an- 
other piece over it, and rub it down with 
the hand. 

Relief Maps. — Suppose you have a 
map of a section of country on which 
are marked contour lines, made by pass- 
ing horizontal planes at vertical distances 
of 10 ft., or any other distance. Take 
sheets of cardboard so that the thickness 
shall represent 1 ft., then 10 superposed 
will give 10 ft. The thickness of the 
cardboard is, of course, the unit of your 
scale, both vertical and horizontal. Now 
cut out pieces of cardboard of the same 
size and shape as the horizontal space 
embraced by the different contour lines. 



(Marble) 



Then on your map draw in between the 
contour lines and approximately parallel 
to the nine other lines, and cut pieces of 
cardboard corresponding to them. Super- 
pose these in their regular order, and you 
have the rough formation in relief of 
yonr map. The pieces of cardboard are 
pasted together and carefully pressed to 
keep the whole mass uniform. Then 
smear wax over the whole, in order to 
make a smooth surface. Different col- 
ors will represent roads, grass, rivers, etc. 
Trees or forests can be represented by 
dried green moss. Houses and other build- 
ings and constructions are made of wax. 
In the practical work of making such 
a map, other details may come up, but 
they will generally be such as will pre- 
sent little difficulty to any one at all con- 
versant with modeling. The chief diffi- 
culty lies in procuring maps with contour 
lines marked on them. 

Marble. 

Artificial. — A new process by L. Beau- 
mel has for its purpose the production 
of imitation of statuary marble, onyx, 
and other multicolored kinds of stone. 
The mass used consists of alum and heavy 
spar (barium sulphate), with the addi- 
tion of water and the requisite pigments. 

The following proportions have been 
found to be very serviceable : Alum, 
1,000 ; heavy spar, 10 to 100 ; water, 100 ; 
the amount of heavy spar being governed 
by the degree of translucence desired. 

The alum is dissolved in water with 
the use of heat. As soon as the solution 
boils mix in the heavy spar, stirred with 
water and the pigment ; boil down until 
the mixture has lost about 3% of its 
weight, at which moment the mass ex- 
hibits a density of 34° B. at a tempera- 
ture of 100° C. Allow to cool, with con- 
stant stirring, until the substance is semi- 
liquid. 

The resultant mass is poured into a 
mold covered on the inside with several 
layers of collodion, and the cast permitted 
to cool completely in the mold, where- 
upon it is taken out and dried entirely 
in an airy room. Subsequently the ob- 
ject may be polished, patinized, or fin- 
ished in some other way. 

Gilding Letters on. — Apply a coating 
of size first, then apply successively sev- 
eral coats of size thickened with whiting, 
until a good face is produced. Let each 
coat dry, and rub it down with fine glass 
paper before applying the next. Then 
go over the marble thinly and evenly 
with gold size. Apply the gold leaf, and 



[140] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Modeling Compounds) 



burnish with an agate. The gold leaf 
must be applied several times to give a 
good effect. 

Modeling Compounds and Waxes for 
Artistic Purposes. 

1. — Clay. — Knead dry clay with glycer- 
ine instead of water, work thoroughly 
with the hands, moisten work at inter- 
vals of 2 or 3 days, keep covered with 
an old piece of rubber cloth to prevent 
evaporation of moisture. 

2. — Sculptor's Putty. — Mix 200 parts 
of dry clay or powdered soapstone with 
100 parts of wheat flour ; stir the mix- 
ture carefully into 300 parts of melted 
white wax, not too hot. If desired, the 
mass may be colored at pleasure. The 
so-called "modeling clay" may be made 
by kneading dry clay with glycerine in- 
stead of water. The mass must be worked 
thoroughly Avith the hands, and moistened 
at intervals of 2 or 3 days. To prevent 
evaporation, it should be kept covered 
with a piece of rubber cloth. 

3. — Wax. — a. — Yellow wax, 16 oz. ; com 
starch, 8 oz, ; Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; 
olive oil, 1 oz, ; Venetian red, 1 oz. Melt 
the wax and oil, to which add the corn 
starch and Venetian red, constantly stir- 
ring ; lastly add the Venice turpentine. 
Pour the mixture in thin layers upon 
greased tiles, and when cold remove and 
roll into bundles. 

b. — In the following the first column 
gives the proportions for a soft wax, the 
second for a harder one 

Parts. Parts. 

White wax 64 64 

Lard 8 4 

Venice turpentine 8 3 

Burgundy pitch 8 7 

Color 8 8 

The soft wax is used for large models, 
the hard for small ones. Any earthy 
color may be used. 

c. — For summer use : White wax, 20 
parts ; soft turpentine, 4 parts ; benne oil, 
1 part ; cinnabar, 2 parts. 

d, — For winter use : White wax, 10 
parts ; soft turpentine, 3 parts ; benne oil, 
1 part ; cinnabar, 1 part, 

e, — Work up pure beeswax, either the 
natural yellow or bleached, as desired, 
in twice its weight of spirit of turpen- 
tine. Color with yellow or red ocher, or 
with alkanet. Put the ochers into the 
turpentine at the same time as the wax, 
steep the alkanet in the essence for 12 
hours or so before, and decant off the 
clear-colored liquid. No heat is used. 



(Molds) 



f. — Melt 20 oz, best white wax, and 
while it is cooling mix with 1 oz. of 
flake white, 

g. — Best yellow wax, 50 parts ; Venice 
turpentine, 7 parts ; lard, 3% parts ; bole 
elutriated, 36 parts ; mix, and knead thor- 
oughly, 

h. — White wax, melted, and mixed with 
lard to make it workable. In working 
it the tools used, the board or stone, are 
moistened with water to prevent its ad- 
hering ; it may be colored to any desirable 
tint with a dry color. 

i. — Engravers' Border Wax. — (1) — 
Beeswax, 1 part ; pitch, 2 parts ; tallow, 
1 part. 

(2) — Rosin, 3 oz. ; beeswax, 2 oz, ; 
sweet oil, q, s. Incorporate thoroughly 
by heat, turn into cold water, and work 
thoroughly with the hands ; if brittle, melt 
again, and add more oil. 

k, — Engraving Wax, — The following is 
said to be a good receipt for map en- 
graving wax : Linseed oil, 4 oz, ; gum 
benzoin, i/^ oz. ; white wax, % oz. ; boil 
two-thirds. 

1, — Impression Wax. — Temper paraffine 
wax with olive oil to suit conditions. Mix 
a little whiting with it while hot. 

m, — Repairing Wax Dummies. — For re- 
pairing cracks in the face, etc, of wax 
dummies, a suitable composition may be 
made by melting 3 parts of white wax 
with, say, 1 part of clarified lard. More 
or less lard will make it softer or harder, 
as desired. If it is wished to be of the 
same general tone as the figure, the neces- 
sary color, in dry powder, may be added 
in melting ; or the new work may be 
made to match afterward with dry color 
and a camel's-hair brush. If the repair 
is in the mouth, eyebrows, etc., tube oil 
color may be necessary. A few drops of 
balsam fir added to the wax will prevent 
it from melting in the sun. The tools 
for smoothing down should be of polished 
boxwood, or better, of bone ; in form they 
are like the human thumb, but on a 
smaller scale. Such modeling tools can 
be bought at the larger tool shops and 
of artists' colormen. Failing anything 
better, a raunded toothbrush handle will 
serve the purpose. Wetting the tool will 
prevent the wax sticking. 

Molds. 

1. — Alloys. — Plaster of paris, mixed 
with equal parts of powdered pumice- 
stone, makes a fine mold for casting fus- 
ible metals. The same mixture is useful 
for incasing articles to be soldered or 
brazed. Casts of plaster of paris may be 
made to imitate fine bronzes by giving 



[1413 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Molds) 



them two or three coats of shellac var- 
nish, and when dry applying a coat of 
mastic varnish and dusting on fine bronze 
powder when the mastic varnish becomes 
sticky. 

2. — Blackening for Molds. — Charcoal 
powder, or, in some instances, fine coal 
dust. 

3. — Gelatine. — a. — Allow 12 oz. of gel- 
atine to soak for a few hours in water 
until it has absorbed as much as it can, 
then apply heat, by which it will liquefy. 
If the mold is required to be elastic, add 
3 oz. of molasses and mix well with the 
gelatine. If a little chrome alum (pre- 
cise proportions are immaterial) be added 
to the gelatine, it causes it to lose its 
property or being again dissolved in wa- 
ter. A saturated solution of bichromate 
of potash, brushed over the surface of 
the mold, allowed to become dry, and 
afterward exposed to sunlight for a few 
minutes, renders the surface so hard as to 
be unaffected by moisture. 

b. — Take the very best glue you can 
get, place it in plenty of cold water at 
night ; the next morning take it out, and 
you will find it swollen ; the water it has 
absorbed during the night is sufficient to 
melt it by heat ; mix then as much thick 
glycerine with it as you had glue, and 
keep the vessel containing them in a steam 
or water bath till all the water is about 
evaporated, and till you have left as much 
in weight as the weight of the dry glue 
and the glycerine, taken together, amount- 
ed to. You will then have a compound 
of glue and jlycerine which will never 
dry, and a mold made of it can be used 
over and over again. 

c. — A good gelatine mold may be made 
in the following manner : Soak the best 
white glue in cold watei for 24 hours, 
then drain off all the water. Melt the 
soaked glue in a water-jacketed kettle, 
then pour the glue upon the object, the 
latter being incased in a lead or paste- 
board box. Let it cool for 12 hours, then 
separate the cast from the obJ3ct. If 
the object be a statuette, a thread should 
be attached to the back, and extended out 
of the mold at both ends, so that it may 
be used for cutting open the mold after 
it has cooled, to permit of taking out the 
statuette. A good material for a mold 
is made in the following way : Dissolve 
20 parts of fine gelatine in 100 parts of 
hot water, and add % part of tannin 
and the same amount of rock candy. It 
is said that a mold made of gelatine or 
glue alone may be made more durable by 
pot-ring over it a solution of bichromate 
of potash in water, 1 part of bichromate 



(Molds) 



to 10 parts of water, and afterward ex- 
posing it to sunlight. Most objects re- 
quire oiling slightly before being covered 
with glue or gelatine. 

4. — Paraffine Molds for Plaster Casts. — 
Prepare the specimen or preparation, 
making it as clean as possible ; place on 
oiled paper, in a position that will show 
it to advantage. Soft projections may be 
held in position with threads suspended 
from a frame or from a heavy cord, 
stretched across the room. Paraffine, melt- 
ed in a water bath, is painted over the 
preparation with a soft brush, the first 
layer being put on with single and quick 
strokes, that the rapid cooling of the par- 
affine may not cause the brush to adhere 
to the preparation, thus drawing the soft 
tissues out of place, until the mold is 
formed about % in. thick ; all undercuts 
must be well filled. When the mold is 
hard it can be readily separated from 
the preparation ; it is then well washed 
with cold water. Stir fine dental plaster 
into cold water to the consistency of 
cream, pour into tba mold and out again 
several times, so that there will be no 
air bubbles on the surface, then fill the 
mold and let it stand until hard. Place 
the whole in a vessel containing boiling 
water until the paraffine is all melted ; 
wash with clean boiling water. When 
the cast is thoroughly dry it may be 
tainted with oil colors by coating it first 
w'th shellac varnish. Casts of any part 
of the body may be made from a living 
"ubject if the parts are not too sensitive 
to bear the heat of the paraffine, which 
is about 150° F. 

5. — Statuary. — The flexible molds re- 
ferred to are prepared as follows : Glue, 
8 lb.; molasses (New Orleans), 7 lb. 
Soak the glue overnight in a small quan- 
tity of cold water, then melt it by heat 
over a salt-water bath, stir until froth 
begins to rise, then add and stir in brisk- 
ly the molasses, previously heated. Con- 
tinue to heat and stir the mixture for 
about half an hour, then pour. 

6. — Wax. — Whether the beeswax have 
stearine in it or not, it is best to pre- 
pare it in the following manner: Put 
some common virgin wax into an earthen- 
ware pot or pipkin, and place it over a 
slow fire ; and when it is all melted stir 
into it a little white lead (flake white), 
or black lead (plumbago), say about 1 
oz. white lead to 1 lb. wax ; this mixture 
tends to prevent the mold from cracking 
in the cooling, and from floating in the so- 
lution ; the mixture should be remelted 
two or three times before using it for the 
first time. Rosin has been recommended 



[142] 



Art cmd Artists' Materials 



(Papier MacM) 



as a mixture with wax, mixtures of 
which, in various proportions, have been 
used with success ; but when often used, 
decomposition or some change talies place, 
which makes the mixture granular and 
flexible, rendering it less useful for tak- 
ing molds. When rosin is used, the mix- 
ture, when first melted, should be boiled, 
or nearly so, and kept at that heat until 
effervescence ceases ; it is then to be 
poured out upon a flat plate to cool, after 
which it may be used as described. 

Paper. 

Gold Leaves, To Apply. — Glaire, which 
is pure albumen, is sometimes used. It 
is made by shaking up the white of an 
egg with a few drops of ammonia and 
drawing off the clear liquid, which has 
subsided on standing. This is painted 
on the lines, and by slight heat, as of a 
hot iron, the leaf adheres. Gold size is 
used on thick papei*, or thick gum arable 
water may be used. The illuminators of 
to-day cannot get as good results as did 
the old workers of the Middle Ages. The 
old gilding is never equaled now. 

Paper Casts from the Antique. 

This method of obtaining facsimiles of 
sculpture in basso-relievo is very easy. 
Stiff, unsized, common white paper is best 
adapted for the purpose. It should be 
well damped, and, when applied to sculp- 
ture still retaining its color, not to in- 
jure the latter care should be taken that 
the side of the paper placed on the fig- 
ures be dry ; that is, not the side which 
has been sponged. The paper, when ap- 
plied to the sculpture, should be evenly 
patted with a napkin folded rather stiffly ; 
and if any part of the figures or hiero- 
glyphics be in intaglio, or elaborately 
worked, it is better to press the paper 
over that part with the finger. Five min- 
utes is quite sufficient time to make a 
cast of this description ; when taken off 
the wall it should be laid on the ground 
or sand to dry. 

Papier Mache. 

1. — The following are the ingredients 
necessary to make a lump of papier 
mache a little larger than an ordinary 
baseball, and weighing 17 oz. : Wet pa- 
per pulp (dry paper, 1 oz. ; water, 3 oz.), 
4 oz. averdupois ; dry plaster of paris, 8 
oz. averdupois ; hot glue, % gill, or 4% 
tablespoon fuls. 

While the paper pulp is being prepared 
melt some best Irish glue in the glue pot, 
and make it of the same thickness and 
general consistency as that used by cabi- 



( Papier Mache) 



netmakers. Measure the different in- 
gredients to be used, until the resuli 
teaches you what good papier mache is 
like, and after that you can be guided 
by your judgment as you proceed. On 
taking the paper pulp from the water 
give it a gentle squeeze, but by no means 
squeeze it as dry as you can. Now put 
it in a bowl, put over it 3 tablespoonfuls 
of your hot glue, and stir the mass up 
into a soft and very sticky paste. Next 
add your plaster of paris, and mix it 
thoroughly. By the time you have used 
about 3 oz. of the plaster the mass is so 
dry and thick you can hardly work it. 
Now add the remainder of your glue, 
work it up again until it becomes sticky 
once more, then add the remainder of 
your plaster. Squeeze it vigorously 
through your fingers to thoroughly mix 
the mass, and work it until it is free 
from lumps, is finely kneaded, and is 
sticky enough to stick fast to the surface 
of a planed board when you rub it a bit 
on it by firm pressure of the finger. If 
it is too dry to stick fast, add a few 
drops of either glue or water, it makes 
little difference which, and work it up 
again. "When the paper pulp is poor, and 
the mache is inclined to be lumpy, lay 
the mass upon a smooth board, take a 
hammer and pound it hard to grind it 
up fine. 

If the papier mache is not sticky 
enough to stick fast to whatever a bit of 
it is rubbed upon, it is a failure, and 
requires more glue. In using It the mass 
should be kept in a lump, and used as 
soon as possible after it is made. Keep 
the surface of the lump moist by means 
of a wet cloth laid over it, for if you do 
not, the surface will dry rapidly. If you 
wish to keep it overnight, or longer, wrap 
it up in several thicknesses of wet cot- 
ton cloth and put it under an inverted 
bowl. If it should by accident or delay 
become a trifle too stiff to work well, add 
a few drops of water to the mass, pound 
it with the hammer, and work it over 
again. If you wish to keep a lump for 
a week, to use daily, add a few drops of 
glycerine when you make it, so that it 
a will dry more slowly. 

The papier mache made when the above 
formula was prepared had the following- 
qualities: When tested by rubbing be- 
tween the thumb and finger, it was sticky, 
and covered the thumb with a thin coat- 
ing. (Had it left the thumb clean it 
would have been because it contained too 
much water.) When rubbed upon a pane 
of glass it stuck tightly, and dried hard 
in three hours without cracking, and 



[143] 



Art and Artists* Matt 



(Papier Maclie) 



could only be removed with a knife. When 
spread in a layer as thin as writing pa- 
per it dried in half an hour. A mass 
actually used dried hard enough to coat 
with wax in 18 hours, and, without crack- 
ing, became as hard as wood ; yet a simi- 
lar quantity wrapped in a wet cloth and 
placed under an inverted bowl kept soft 
and fit for use for an entire week. 

Such are the qualities of first-class pa- 
pier mache, and the method of produc- 
ing it. 

2. — Papier mache is obtained from old 
paper, and the like, made into a pulp 
by grinding with milk of lime or lime 
water, and a little gum dextrin or starch. 
This pulp is then pressed into form, coat- 
ed with linseed oil, baked at a high tem- 
perature, and finally varnished. The pulp 
is sometimes mixed with clay (kaolin), 
chalk, etc. ; and other kinds are made of 
a paste of pulp and recently slaked lime. 
This is used for ornamenting wood, etc. 

3. — Pulped Paper Molded Into Forms. 
— It possesses great strength and light- 
ness. It may be rendered partially water- 
proof by the addition of sulphate of iron, 
quicklime and glue, or white of egg to 
the pulp ; and incombustible by the addi- 
tion of borax and phosphate of soda. The 
papier mache tea trays, waiters, snuflE 
boxes, etc., are prepared by pasting or 
gluing sheets of paper together, and sub- 
mitting them to powerful pressure, by 
which the composition acquires the hard- 
ness of board when dry. Such articles 
are afterward japanned, and are then per- 
fectly waterproof. 

4. — A durable and inexpensive method, 
of employing papier mache as a substi- 
tute for mattings, carpets, etc., is as fol- 
lows : After the floor has been thoroughly 
cleaned, the holes and cracks are then 
filled with paper putty, made by soaking 
newspaper in a paste made of wheat flour, 
water, and ground alum ; that is, to 1 lb. 
of such flour aire added 3 qt. of water 
and a tablespoonful of ground alum, these 
being thoroughly mixed. With this paste 
the floor is uniformly coated, and upon 
this a thickness of manila or hardware 
paper is placed ; or, if two layers are 
desired, a second covering of paste is 
spread on the first layer of manila pa- 
per, and then the second thickness of 
paper is put on, and the whole allowed 
to become perfectly dry ; on this being ac- 
complished, another surface of paste is 
added, succeeded by a layer of wall pa- 
per of any style or pattern desired. On 
the work becoming entirely dry, it is 
covered with two or more coats of siz- 
ing, made by dissolving i^ lb. of white 



(Papier Mache) 



glue in 2 qt. of hot water, and when 
this has dried, a coat of hard oil finish 
varnish. 

5. — Paper is pulped in a mortar (or 
pulping engine) and mixed with ordinary 
glue size thinned somewhat with hot 
water. Remove the pulp and let it par- 
tially drain upon a linen-covered frame. 
l*ut a quantity of this into the mold 
under strong pressure, and let it remain 
until it becomes hard enough to handle. 
A counter mold is used in casting such 
thin sheets. Plaster molds are too fra- 
gile. Casts in type metal or fusible metal 
are much better. 

6. — For papier mache furniture the fol- 
lowing method of manufacture is fol- 
lowed : The pulp is prepared, consisting 
for the most part of waste papers broken 
up in the engine, and run into drainers. 
This half stuff is then taken and molded 
into the required form, and after drying 
is varnished and polished. Articles made 
in this way are termed papier mache, 
and very light and durable tables, chairs, 
trays, and numberless other articles of 
furniture, are produced at very small 
cost. The principal objection to this sub- 
stance is that it has not the same power 
of retaining a firm hold of nails, screws, 
etc., which is possessed by wood, so that 
for articles requiring hinges, or other 
similar arrangements, it is not so suit- 
able. It may be turned in a lathe or 
molded to any shape in the condition of 
pulp, so that it is very suitable for arti- 
cles made in one piece only ; it is also 
susceptible of a considerable amount of 
ornamentation by inlaying with mother- 
of-pearl and other substances, which is 
easily done when the article is in the 
damp, soft state. 

7. — Articles, so named, are produced 
by pressing the pulp of paper between 
dies, or by pasting paper in sheets upon 
models. The articles, when dry, are var- 
nished, japanned, and ornamented. By 
the first method a variety of cheap arti- 
cles is manufactured in Paris ; the mate- 
rials for the pulp, viz., paper and paste, 
being supplied by the bill-stickers, whose 
bills, having served the purposes of ad- 
vertisement, are pulled down and taken 
to the factory, mashed in water, and 
pressed in molds. The second method is 
the superior of the two, and is thus con- 
ducted at Birmingham : Paper of a por- 
ous texture, saturated with a solution 
of flour and glue, is applied to an iron, 
brass or copper mold, of somewhat small- 
er size than the object required ; repeated 
layers of this paper are put on with glue, 
a drying heat of 100° F. being applied 



[144] 



Art and Artists* Materials 



(Papier Mach^) 



after every new coat. When a sufficient 
thickness is attained the shell is removed 
from the mold and planed and filed to 
shape. About 10 layers are used for or- 
dinary tea trays, more or less for other 
articles, according to requirements. A 
stoving varnish mixed with lampblack is 
next laid on, and the article is stoved. 
Several coats of varnish are added, with 
a stoving after each (see Japanning). 
When sufficiently covered with this prep- 
aration the inequalities are removed with 
pumice-stone, and the artist applies the 
ornament in bronze powder, gold or color. 
Several coats of shellac varnish are then 
put on, and the article is stoved at a heat 
of 280° F. The surface is polished with 
rotten-stone and oil, and brought to a 
brilliant gloss by hand-rubbing. 

8. — Papier mSche used for decorative 
purposes is prepared by laying sheets of 
brown paper one over the other, with a 
coat of glue between every two layers. 
This mass of paper is pressed into a 
metal mold of the ornament required ; 
the molded paper being trimmed to shape, 
a composition of the pulp of paper mixed 
with rosin and glue is put into a mold 
in a thin layer ; the paper is again in- 
serted and pressed upon the pulp com- 
position, which adheres to it and produces 
a sharp, well defined ornament. 

9. — Two modes of making articles of 
papier mache are adopted, either by glu- 
ing or pasting different thicknesses of pa- 
per together, or by mixing the substance 
of the paper into a pulp and pressing it 
into molds. The first mode is adopted 
principally for those articles, such as 
trays, in which a tolerably plain and flat 
surface is to be produced. Sheets of 
strong paper are glued together, and then 
so powerfully pressed that the different 
strata of paper become as one. Curva- 
tures may be given while the material is 
damp, by the use of presses and molds. 
Articles such as snuff boxes are made 
by gluing pieces of paper cut to the size 
of the top, bottom and sides, one on an- 
other, round a frame or mold, which is 
afterward removed. 

Articles made of pasteboard have a fine 
black polish imparted to them in the fol- 
lowing manner : After being done over 
with a mixture of size and lampblack, 
they receive a coating of a peculiar var- 
nish. Turpentine is boiled down until it 
becomes black, and three times as much 
amber in fine powder is sprinkled upon 
it, with the addition of spirit or oil of 
turpentine. When the amber is melted 
some sarcocolla and more spirit of tur- 
pentine are added, and the whole is well 



(Parchment Paper) 



stirred. After being strained, this var- 
nish is mixed with ivory-black and ap- 
plied in a hot room, on the papier mache 
articles, which are then placed in a heated 
oven. Two or three coatings of the black 
varnish will produce a durable and glossy 
surface, impervious to water. 

10. — Papier mache, properly so called, 
is that which is pressed into molds in the 
state of a pulp. This pulp is generally 
made of cuttings of coarse paper, boiled 
in water, and beaten in a mortar till they 
assume the consistency of a paste, which 
is boiled in a solution of gum arable or of 
size to give it tenacity. The molds are 
carved in the usual way, and oiled, and 
the pulp is poured into them, a counter 
mold or core being employed to make the 
cast nothing more than a crust or shell, 
as in plaster casts. In some manufacto- 
ries, instead of using cuttings of made 
paper, the pulp employed by the paper 
maker is, after some further treatment, 
poured into the molds to produce papier 
mache ornaments. 

Papier mache has now, in some cases, 
superseded the carved and composition or- 
naments employed to decorate picture and 
glass frames ; but it is in the ceilings and 
walls of rooms and the interiors of public 
buildings that papier mache is found most 
valuable. Plaster and composition orna- 
ments are ponderous ; carved ornaments 
are costly ; but those of papier mache are 
light and of moderate price. Maps in re- 
lief are also occasionally made of papier 
mache. Paper roofs have been occasion- 
ally used. Sheets of stout paper are 
dipped in a mixture of tar and pitch, 
dried, nailed on in the manner of slates, 
and then tarred again ; this roof is water- 
proof, but, unfortunately, very combus- 
tible. 

Parchment Paper and Vegetable Parch- 
ment. 
In the manufacture of parchment pa- 
pers certain mixture proportions of water 
and acids, a definite temperature and du- 
ration of the mixing must not be neg- 
lected, the conversion occurring only un- 
der certain conditions. Gaines employs 
a mixture of 2 parts concentrated sul- 
phuric acid and 1 part water ; probably 
parts by volume are here indicated. Ac- 
cording to Hofmann, the limits of dilu- 
tion may be between % volume and % 
volume of water to 1 volume of pure 
sulphuric acid. Dullo recommends 1,000 
parts of sulphuric acid to 125 parts of 
water. If we mix 1 1. of sulphuric acid, 
or 1,834 grams, with 250 c. c. of water, 
or, what is the same thing, 1,000 grams 



[145] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Parchment Paper) 



of oil of vitriol with 136 grams of water, 
we obtain an acid of 1.754 specific grav- 
ity, or 63° Be. In the second mixing 
proportion, which is described by Hof- 
mann as just admissible, 1 1. of sulphu- 
ric acid, or 1,834 grams, is mixed with 
500 c. c. of water ; or, what is the same 
thing, 1,000 grams of oil of vitriol with 
273 grams of water ; in this case, after 
cooling, the acid will have a specific grav- 
ity of 1.659, or 58° Be. If we take the 
mean between these two values, we shall 
have an acid of 60° Be., as made by 
chemical factories by evaporation in lead 
pans, proportionately cheaper than the 
concentrated acid can be applied, which 
probably is best to work with, and en- 
ables one to avoid the exceedingly troulDle- 
some mixing of large quantities of acid 
with water. The temperature of the acid 
should not be above 60° F. ; a somewhat 
lower temperature will do no harm, 
whereas at a higher heat the paper may 
be dissolved into a slimy mass. The 
period of contact between paper and acid 
must not be long ; it must be gauged to 
some extent by the thickness of the pa- 
per. For thin papers 5 seconds suffices ; 
even the thickest do not require more than 
20 seconds. Immediately after the pa- 
per has been removed from the acid it 
must be put in water, and washed, with 
constantly fresh water, until it no longer 
shows a trace of acid. To be certain 
that all acid has been neutralized, the 
paper may be finally passed through a 
weakly alkaline bath and then washed 
again. In wholesale manufacture, as in 
a factory, the unsized, endless web of 
paper, wound as a reel, is passed through 
a lead-lined vessel, about a lead-covered 
roller, submerged in the acid. After 
emerging from the acid it is passed be- 
tween a pair of rollers, which, by mod- 
erate pressure, express the superfluous 
acid, which flows back into the first re- 
ceptacle. From here it is passed in the 
same manner through several vessels con- 
taining water, into the last of which a 
continuous supply of fresh water is pour- 
ing. To remove the last trace of free 
acid it is then passed through a recep- 
tacle the water in which, by means of 
an addition of ammonia renewed from 
time to time, is kept always weakly al- 
kaline. It is finally passed again through 
clean water. The more thorough the 
washing before it enters the alkali bath, 
the less ammonia will be used ; it is there- 
fore to the interest of the manufacturer 
to make the washing as perfect as pos- 
sible, so that the ammonia bath may 
be a more useful than necessary precau- 



( Parchment Paper) 



tion. After the last washing the paper 
passes between a pair of felted rollers, in 
order to be freed as far as possible from 
water, then, kept tight by drying felts, 
between the drying cylinders, and before 
it is perfectly dry, through a calendering 
press, the rolls of which are heated by 
steam. During the drying care must be 
taken to maintain high tension in the 
breadth, parchment paper wrinkling at 
this stage to a much greater extent than 
ordinary paper, and it may acquire an un- 
even surface, if this is not obviated by 
stretching. If it is desired to produce 
particularly thick parchment paper, two 
paper webs are carried separately into 
the acid bath, but on leaving the acid, 
caused to pass between the first pair 
of rolls, before they enter the water, they 
are passed together between the compres- 
sion rolls. The two sheets will then ad- 
here so closely together that they can 
by no means be separated. 

Coloring. — 1. — Prepare the parchment 
with pounce, as for writing. Use ordi- 
nary water colors mixed with alum water. 
The alum makes the parchment take the 
paints readily. Go over the part to be 
painted quickly with the color. It is 
best to have the parchment on a slanting 
surface, as then the water does not soak 
in so much. Parchment does not cockle 
unless wet through. 

2. — Green. — Boil 8 parts of cream of 
tartar and 30 parts of crystallized verdi- 
gris in 500 parts of water ; when this so- 
lution is cold pour into it 4 parts nitric 
acid. Moisten the parchment with a 
brush, and then apply the above liquid 
evenly over its surface. The necessary 
surface finish is given with white of egg, 
or mucilage of gum arable. 

3. — When the plans on deeds (parch- 
ment) are colored so that the coloring 
is a flat wash of water color over a large 
surface, a little fine whiting should be 
rubbed over the parchment, and the sur- 
face dusted over ; the color can then be 
laid on evenly, provided the colorist has 
had sufficient previous practice in color- 
ing ordinary drawings. If the parchment 
has been handled much, a little oxgall 
mixed with the color will make it go on 
more evenly. Very old or badly pre- 
pared parchment may show spots where 
the color goes through. The skin should 
be left lying flat after coloring, and not 
dried before a fire. Do not attempt to 
color on parchment until suflBcient prac- 
tice has been obtained to do perfect work 
on drawing paper. Some draughtsmen 
cannot color without causing even the pa- 
per to cockle. 



C 14'6 ] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Parclmieiit) 



Drumhead Parchment. — The following 
is the best way to preserve and clean a 
goatskin that is to be used for a drum- 
head. The skin should first be soaked 
for several days in a solution of lime and 
water, and the hair removed by shaving 
with a sharp knife. The skin should 
then be nailed tightly, flesh side out, to 
a board, and the fleshy and rough parts 
removed ; this may be done with a close- 
set spokeshave and a steel scraper. The 
skin should next be sprinkled with chalk 
and rubbed down with a smooth piece 
of pumice-stone until perfectly smooth, the 
refuse being washed off ; it is then al- 
lowed to dry. It may be again rubbed 
down with smooth pumice-stone, after 
which it should be taken off the board 
and again nailed on, but with the hair 
side out, any roughness on that side be- 
ing also smoothed with pumice-stone. The 
skin should finally be removed and worked 
backward and forward over a round piece 
of wood till it becomes supple and smooth. 

Fastening Parchment to Polished Sur- 
faces. — To fasten parchment paper to pol- 
ished surfaces employ the following ce- 
ment, which, when made, should be kept 
in well corked bottles : Macerate in a 
small quantity of water, in separate ves- 
sels, 4 oz. of gum arable and 1 oz. of 
gum tragacanth, and well stir the latter, 
when it gets swollen and softened, un- 
til it is homogeneous throughout. Mix 
the two gums, and filter the whole through 
linen, and then add slightly more than 
1 gill of glycerine in which 0.9 oz. of 
thymol has been dissolved. Add water 
to bring the bulk of the whole up to 
about 1% pt. 

Imitation Parchment Paper. — Most of 
the artificial or imitation parchment pa- 
pers are made from sulphite cellulose, or 
pulp, with additions of glue and sulphate 
of alumina, the sulphite cellulose made 
according to Mitcherlisch's process, owing 
to its long, strong fibers, being best adap- 
ted for the purpose. Other manufactur- 
ers use a mixture of sulphite of cellu- 
lose and straw pulp, also sized ; others, 
again, use sulphite cellulose without size, 
but add a little sulphuric acid in the 
Holland engine. The following recipes 
have been successfully employed in prac- 
tice: 

1. — Sulphite cellulose, 60% ; soda cellu- 
lose, 25% ; wood pulp, 15%. Fully sized, 4 
parts size, 5 parts sulphate of alumina 
to 100 parts of dry stuff. The paper is 
admittedly good, but not of the best 
quality. 
.2.— Sulphite cellulose, 100%,, fully 
sized; glue and sulphate of alumina, 5 



(Parchment) 



parts each to 100 parts of dry stuff. The 
result is the ordinary parchment paper 
imitation. 

3.— Sulphite cellulose II, 100% ; 2 parts 
of sulphuric acid diluted with water, are 
added to each 100 parts of dry stuff in 
the Holland engine. The paper made 
from second quality sulphite cellulose is 
of coarse appearance, but is very much 
like parchment. 

4. — Sulphite cellulose, 60% ; straw 
pulp, 40% ; size, 4 parts ; sulphate of 
alumina, 4 parts to 100 parts of dry stuff. 
A very bright-colored paper, clearly trans- 
lucent. 

5. — Sulphite cellulose, 60% ; straw 
pulp, 40% ; size, 4 parts ; sulphate of 
alumina, 3 parts to 100 parts of dry 
stuff. 

6. — Sulphite cellulose, 60% ; straw 
pulp, 40% ; size, 3 parts ; sulphate of 
alumina, 3 parts to 100 parts of dry 
stuff. 

7. — Sulphite cellulose, 70% ; straw 
pulp, 30% ; size, 3i/^ parts ; sulphate of 
alumina, 3 parts to 100 parts of dry 
stuff. 

8. — Sulphite cellulose, 100% ; size, 5 
parts ; sulphate of alumina, 5 parts ; stear- 
ine, 2 parts to 100 parts of dry stuff. 
The paper is good, and more greasily 
brilliant than the others. The stearine, 
in No. VIII, is to be chopped into small 
pieces, mixed with warm water, and in 
this form added to the stuff in the Hol- 
land engine. According to experience, 
the paper made according to No. VIII, 
with the addition of stearine, has been 
found best for the different purposes. 

9. — Of the greatest importance in the 
manufacture of artificial parchment pa- 
per is the grinding in the Holland engine. 
The stuff must be ground long, to a 
smeary paste, and before discharging into 
the tub thoroughly beaten up — after ele- 
vating the engine roller — for % to % 
hour. On the machine it must be moder- 
ately shaken and heavily pressed. No 
worn-out felts must be used, and the dry- 
ing felts must be tightly stretched to pre- 
vent, as far as possible, any formation 
of blisters in the paper ; the drying must 
also proceed as slowly as possible, other- 
wise the paper will readily shrink or 
wrinkle. It is advisable, at the first cyl- 
inder, or, better still, at the first and 
second, to allow on each side of the paper 
web a strip of paper 4 centimeters (about 
1.6 in.) wide, to run completely around 
the cylinder, on which the two edges of 
the wet paper web can lie. This pre- 
vents too rapid a drying at the edges, and 
a consequent blistering of the entire pa- 



[147] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Parchment) 



per web. The tensions in the machine 
must also be kept tight throughout. 

Liquid Parchment. — According to Dr. 
Hofmann, a fluid by this name, consist- 
ing of gutta percha, softened and soaked 
in ether, is especially adapted for form- 
ing a coating for pictures and cards, it 
permitting the removal of dirt with a 
moist rag. Pencil and craj'on drawings 
may be rendered ineffaceable by sprink- 
ling with this liquid by means of an ato- 
mizer, an exceedingly delicate film remain- 
ing on the evaporation of the ether. 

Paper, Parclimentized. — 1. — Paper is 
parchmentized by passing it through a 
bath of weak sulphuric acid. The acid in 
the paper must afterward be neutralized 
by passing the paper through an alka- 
line bath or through water. Adding the 
acid to the pulp in the heating process 
would not have the same effect as the 
acid bath, because the acid must act on 
the surface of the paper. 

2. — Strong unsized paper is immersed 
for a few seconds in oil of vitriol diluted 
with half its volume of water. It is then 
washed in pure water or weak ammonia 
water. The acid solution must not be 
warmer than the surrounding atmosphere. 

Pasting. — Moisten the surface of that 
part of the paper which is to be joined 
with alcohol or brandy, then apply the 
glue or paste ; gum arable will not an- 
swer. A firm joint may be made by in- 
serting a piece of very thin paper between 
the surfaces of the parchment paper. 

Smoothing. — To smooth parchment 
which has become wrinkled, place the 
parchment face down upon clean blotting 
paper. Beat up to ^ clear froth, with 
a few drops of clove oil, the whites of 
several fresh eggs, and with the fingers 
spread this over the back of the sheet, 
and rub it in until the parchment becomes 
smooth and yielding. Then spread it out 
as smooth as possible, cover with oil 
silk, and press for a day. Then remove 
the silk and cover with a linen cloth, and 
press with a warm iron. 

Scaling of White Pigment, To Prevent. 
— Reduce to powder, and dissolve quickly 
in cold water, a quantity of gum traga- 
canth. There must be sufficient water to 
give the diluted gum the consistency of 
a jelly. Mix with this your pigments 
(sulphate of baryta), and, after finish- 
ing the work, spray with a little naphtha 
in which has been digested for some time 
a quantity of caoutchouc. The naphtha 
will soon evaporate, leaving behind the 
caoutchouc as an extremely thin and 
adhesive, but perfectly transparent film. 

Transparent.- — Soak a thin skin of 



(Passe-Partout) 



parchment in a strong lye of wood ashes, 
often wringing it out, until you find it 
becomes transparent ; then strain it on 
a frame and let dry. This will be much 
improved if, after it is dry, you give it 
a coat, on both sides, of clear mastic var- 
nish, diluted with spirits of turpentine. 

Vegetable Parchment. — v. — Is made by 
dipping ordinary paper for a few sec- 
onds into a solution containing 1 part 
Avater to 6 parts sulphuric acid, then 
washing it carefully to remove every trace 
of acid, 

2. — To Prepare for Writing and Draw- 
ing. — Ordinary vegetable parchment is 
not suitable for writing or drawing, since 
India and other inks blur on it. This 
evil is obviated by the following process : 

The parchment is saturated with a 
glycerine solution, and in certain cases 
with an alum solution, next dried some- 
what, and then treated with size. If 
parchment cut in sheets is to be sized, 
the sheets, after having been dipped into 
the glycerine solution, or the alum solu- 
tion, are stretched on frames, dried a 
little, and next dipped in diluted animal 
or vegetable glue, or painted or sprinkled 
with it. Among the vegetable sizes, the 
so-called rosin size is especially suited, 
but the glue made from cellulose waste- 
lies, or else starch, may also be employed. 

But if the parchment is to be sized at 
or immediately after the production, with- 
out having been cut into sheets, it is 
drawn through the glycerine solution after 
leaving the dried bath and after having 
been washed and pre-dried, and is, after 
a suitable desiccation, slowly passed 
through the size, whereupon it is dried 
on cylinders or in any other manner, and 
finally glazed between zinc plates or in 
calenders, or similarly. 

By the treatment of glycerine or alum 
solution the parchment is rendered pliant 
and loosened, thus being enabled to take 
up and bind the size better. 

In order to give the parchment a white 
color and take away its glossy transpar- 
ency, the size is mixed with alumina. 
Likewise, any desired color may be im- 
parted to the parchment by the addition 
of corresponding other pigments. 

Passe-Partout Framing. 

In order to make passe-partout frames 
properly a board should be prepared as 
follows : Select a smooth board without 
warp, 2 or 3 in. longer and wider than 
the largest frame desired. Finish the 
two longer sides by nailing on the edge 
a narrow strip, which should project 
above the working side of the board not 



[148] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Passe-Partout) 



more than 1-16 in. This will be found 
sufficient to prevent the glass used from 
slipping off the board, and will provide 
a resting shoulder against which the 
glass may be pressed during the making 
of the frame. On one side of the board 
draw a line at a distance of % in. from 
the projecting edge ; at the other side of 
the board a line should be drawn % in. 
from the opposite projecting edge. These 
lines should be marked plainly and ac- 
curately, as they form the guide lines 
upon which the binding strips are placed, 
and if they vary in distance the binding 
strips cannot be accurately placed in po- 
sition. 

The binding strips should be selected 
from some strong paper or gummed bind- 
ing cloth that will either harmonize with 
the print to be framed, or with the paper 
which may be used as a mat to give the 
print a sufficient margin. For this pur- 
pose use the lighter grades of cover pa- 
pers which are cut into strips by the 
use of the common yardstick and a very 
sharp knife. A smooth sheet of binder's 
board underneath the cover paper will 
render the cutting of the binding strips 
much easier. The strips should be 2 in. 
wide if a large size frame (11x14) is 
to be made ; for smaller sizes a narrower 
strip may be used, but the wide strip 
is much easier to handle, and gives added 
strength to the frame. 

For backing, the ordinary strawboard 
is all that is required. This can often 
be found among the waste pasteboard 
boxes in the home. In fact, parts of old 
boxes are preferable to new stock bought 
at the paper warehouse, for the reason 
that new stock is rarely thoroughly dried, 
and instances have been known where the 
drying of the backing board has caused 
such a warping tendency that the cover 
glass has been broken. The backing 
boards should be cut to the exact size 
of the glass which is to be used in fram- 
ing. Any deviation in the measurement 
of the glass and the backing board will 
result in an unsightly frame that the 
most skilful worker cannot avoid. 

The hangers for the frame can usually 
be secured at stores where picture frames 
are made. If these are not procurable, 
the small brass rings can be purchased 
at hardware stores, and narrow strips of 
tin can be used to form the loops on which 
the rings are fashioned. These strips 
should be fully 2 in. in length, and 
should be threaded through the rings, then 
doubled, so that the ring will hang mid- 
way between the ends, which are passed 
through narrow slits in the backing board. 



(Passe-Partout) 



and then spread in the manner of a pa- 
per fastener, and hammered down until 
they are perfectly flat. To make the 
frame proceed as follows : Place the 
glass upon the board so that it will be 
in perfect register with the projecting 
edge. The binding strips should have 
been previously moistened and the sur- 
plus water blotted off. With a bristle 
brush apply Higgins' paste, or some simi- 
lar mountant, to one of the binding strips 
and work the paste in thoroughly, so 
that the strip will be well saturated with 
the paste, so well worked in that it will 
not ooze out upon the glass. This pre- 
caution will not be necessary if a pre- 
pared gum strip be used. The binding 
strip, which should be of the exact length 
of the side of the glass to be covered, 
should now be laid upon the glass, using 
the line described above as a guide. Press 
the strip gently with the fingers until 
partial adhesion results, and then rub in 
perfect contact with a soft cloth. The 
glass should be then turned and the oppo- 
site side covered in the same manner. 

In binding the last two sides, tiny 
strips of paper should be placed on the 
edges of the binding strips already in 
position, so that the paste from the re- 
maining strips will not soil the corners, 
which are to be mitered. In finishing the 
last sides the outer strips should be mi- 
tered by the use of a miter pattern made 
from a thin piece of wood or cardboard. 
This pattern is laid upon the binding 
strips after they are firmly placed in po- 
sition, and the outer strip cut with a very 
sharp knife. The corners, with the un- 
derlying protecting paper, can then be 
removed and the last binding strips rubbed 
into thorough contact. 

The cover glass is now ready for the 
final binding with the print and the back- 
ing board. The glass should be removed 
from the board and a clean paper spread 
upon the board, upon which the glass is 
placed face downward. Upon this lay 
the print, with its mat — if any — face 
downward ; place upon this the backing 
board, taking care that the hangers are 
in the right position, or the framed print 
may be found, when finished, to be ar- 
ranged for hanging in a reversed position. 
Great care should be taken to see that 
the print, the mat and the backing board 
are in accurate register. Paste should 
then be liberally applied to the project- 
ing edge of the binding strip on the right- 
hand side, and when thoroughly pliable 
the strip should be closely drawn over 
the edges of the frame, on to the back 
of the backing board, and then rubbed in 



[149] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Patent Drawings) 



contact with tlie soft cloth. The frame 
should then be turned so that the left- 
hand side occupies the place of the right 
side, now completed, and this side and the 
ends treated in the same manner. 

Patent Drawings. 

The size of a sheet on which a draw- 
ing is made must be exactly 10 x 15 in. 
One inch from its edges a single mar- 
ginal line is to be drawn, leaving the 
sight precisely 8 x 13 in. Within this 
margin all work and signatures must be 
included. One of the shorter sides of 
the sheet is regarded as its top, and meas- 
uring downwardly from the marginal 
line, a space of not less than I14 ii^- is 
to be left blank for the heading of title, 
name, number and date. Patent drawings 
are very difficult to make, and those not 
prepared under the direction of compe- 
tent attorneys are often rejected by the 
Patent Office as informal. 

Picture Frames. 

Preparation and Gilding. — For the fol- 
lowing description of picture frame gild- 
ing we acknowledge our indebtedness to 
"Workshop Receipts," Series 1 : Suppose 
that we have a plain picture frame ; it is 
made by the joiner in a 12-foot length of 
molding, and in that state it passes into 
the hands of the gilder. He first gives it 
a priming of hot size and whiting, called 
thin white. The whiting employed by the 
gilder is not the same as that used for 
domestic purposes, but is finer and more 
free from grit. The size employed is pre- 
pared by the gilder from parchment cut- 
tings or glove cuttings. The cuttings are 
well washed in water and then boiled in a 
certain quantity of clean water until the 
latter has a particular degree of adhesive- 
ness, which can only be determined by 
experience ; this is then poured off into a 
clean, dry vessel and allowed to cool. 
When about to be used, the grease at the 
top and the sediment at the bottom are 
cut off with a knife, the size is melted in 
an earthen pipkin, and a small quantity 
of finely powdered whiting is mixed with 
it. When the thin white is dry all holes 
and irregularities in the molding are filled 
up with putty. This putty is not the 
same as that employed by the glazier, but 
consists of whiting and size mixed to the 
consistency of putty. When the puttying 
is dry a coating of thick white is laid on 
with a brush. This thick white differs 
from the thin white only in having a 
larger proportion of dry whiting mixed 
with a given amount of size, the consist- 
ency attained being rather thicker than 



(Picture Frames) 



that of oil paint. When the first thick 
white is dry another is laid on in the same 
manner, and. similarly, a third, a fourth 
and a fifth are laid on, all about equal in 
thickness, and each one being perfectly 
dry before the next is applied. As in lay- 
ing on this large body of thick white, the 
fine squares, hollows and fillets would be 
liable to be stopped up and lose all their 
clearness and sharpness, opening tools, 
consisting of crooks, chisels and gouges, 
are drawn along the fine parts of the 
molding, while the thick white is still wet, 
by which means the forms of the various 
moldings are retained. This is still better 
effected by the double opening white,, 
which consists of 2 thick whites, the one 
laid on almost immediately after the 
other, by which a thick soft coating covers 
the molding. Hard stones, shaped to the 
forms of the moldings, together with the 
opening tools before described, are to be 
worked over every part of the molding, by 
which asperities are smoothed down, de- 
pressions filled up and edges brought up 
nearly to their required sharpness. In 
this state the whiting on the molding is 
from 1-16 to 1-12 of an Inch in thickness. 
It is now trimmed at the back and edges 
by cutting off the whiting which had 
flowed over from the front, which pre- 
pares it for the process of smoothing. 
This is done by means of pieces of pumice 
and other stones, shaped so as to fit the 
various parts of the molding. A sponge 
or soft brush is used to wet the molding, 
and the stone which is to be used, being 
likewise wetted, is rubbed or worked to 
and fro along the molding until that part 
is perfectly smooth. Another stone, fit- 
ting a different part, is then used in the 
same way, and so on until every part of 
the length and breadth of the molding has 
been worked over by the stones. The 
molding, if the smoothing has been prop- 
erly performed, now presents a smooth- 
ness of surface exceeding and a keenness 
of the edge nearly equaling that which 
the molding presented when it left the 
hands of the joiner, but this must be at- 
tained without rubbing off too much of 
the whiting, since the whole beauty of 
the frame mainly depends on having a 
sufficient body or foundation of whiting. 
The brilliant burnishing on frames is, in 
a peculiar degree, dependent on the whit- 
ing which is first laid on the wood, and 
which, if deficient in quantity, cannot be 
adequately replaced by other means. The 
molding being thoroughly dried from the 
effects of the smoothing, is rubbed down 
with glass paper or sand paper, to take 
off any little asperities that may remain. 



[150] 



Art and Artists* Materials 



(Picture Frames) 



and to make the whole perfectly smooth. 
It is now ready for the process of gold 
sizing. The burnish gold size used in this 
process is composed of ingredients exceed- 
ingly opposite in their nature, such as 
pipe clay, red chalk, black lead, suet and 
bullock's blood. This diversity of ingre- 
dients is intended to produce different ef- 
fects ; one substance helps to give a bril- 
liancy to the burnish, another to the mel- 
lowness and smoothness and so on. The 
form in which the gilder purchases his 
burnish gold size is that of a solid rather 
softer than butter. He first takes some 
very clear size, boiled purposely to a 
smaller degree of strength than the size 
for thick white, or, if already boiled, 
weakened by water. This size he melts in 
an earthen pipkin, but without making it 
very hot, and then mixes the gold size 
with the melted size by means of a clean 
brush, much in the same manner as a 
painter mixes his oil paint ; the consist- 
ency to be about equal to that of cream. 
It is a source of some confusion that the 
same term, burnish gold size, is applied to 
this creamy liquid as to the thicker sub- 
stance from which it is prepared; it is 
necessary to say mixed gold size or un- 
mixed gold size, in order to indicate which 
is meant. This gold size is laid on the 
molding either with a very soft hog's-hair 
brush or by a large camel's-hair pencil 
fixed in a swan's quill. The gold size 
must be barely warm and must be laid on 
with great care so as to leave it equally 
thick in every part, and obliterate the 
marks of the brush ; upon the due observ- 
ance of a medium between hot and cold, 
strong and weak and thick and thin in the 
gold size laid on depends much of the 
beauty of the molding when gilt. From 4 
to 8 coats of this gold size are laid on the 
molding, each one being perfectly dried 
before the next is applied. A soft, par- 
tially worn piece of glass paper is occa- 
sionally used to take off any little rough- 
ness that may exist. When a sufficient 
body of gold size is laid on it is carefully 
washed with clean water, a soft sponge 
and a piece of linen rag. This must 
be done with attention to the soft edges, 
which "are very likely to lose the whole 
of their gold size if care is not used ; the 
object is to produce a perfectly smooth 
surface, especially in those parts which 
are to be matt gold. 

The test of good work is to produce the 
smoothest surface with the least loss of 
gold size. When the molding is partially 
dry from this process, the matt parts are 
polished with a piece of woolen doth, and 
the parts to be burnished receive another 



(Picture Frames) 



coating of gold size, laid on as smoothly 
as possible. The piece of molding which 
is to be gilt is laid along the bench with 
one end higher than the other, and as the 
width of the molding is broken up into 
several divisions, such as hollows and 
squares, it would be impossible to make a 
leaf of gold bend into all the various parts 
without breaking. The gilder learns by 
experience how many separate lays, as 
they are called, of gold will be required to 
cover the width of the molding without 
the breaking of the gold into irregular 
fractures called spider legs. In general 
a deep hollow, or a depressed square, can- 
not be gilt at one lay, but must be covered 
with 2 strips of gold laid side by side and 
meeting at the center of the depression. 
When the gilder has made his decision as 
to the number of lays that will be re- 
quired, he selects one lay and proceeds 
with it through the whole length of the 
molding before he begins another portion 
of the width. If the necessary lay be 
about % or % of an inch in width, he 
cuts the leaf which is spread out on his 
cushion into 4 strips ; if it be about 1 
inch in width, he cuts the leaf into 3, 
regulating the division of the leaf of gold 
according to the width of the lay. It is 
not often that a larger piece than ^/^ a 
leaf is used at once. The gilder has at 
hand a pan with clean water and 2 or 3 
camel's-hair pencils of different sizes. With 
one of these pencils he wets a few inches 
of that part of the molding which is to 
form his first lay, taking care not to wet 
much beyond that lay. The water is to 
be allowed to remain pretty full on the 
surface, after some of it has been imbibed 
by the gold size. The gilder then takes his 
tip in his right hand and lays it on the 
slip or gold, which slightly adheres to 
the hairs ; whence he places it on the 
molding, with particular attention to 
straightness of direction. It frequently 
happens that the hairs of the tip will not 
take up the gold ; in such case it is usual 
to rub the hairs between the cheek and 
the palm of the hand, by which their 
power of taking up the gold is increased. 
When the gold is laid on it is blown 
forcibly to expel as much of the water as 
possible from beneath it, the dry camel's- 
hair pencil being used to press down any 
parts which fail to adhere. Another por- 
tion is then wetted and another piece laid 
on, lapping about Ys of an inch over the 
end of the former piece. Thus the gilder 
proceeds, piece after piece, until the one 
lay is carried down the whole length of 
the molding; he then proceeds with an- 
other lay joining the former. In doing 



[151] 



Art and Artists* Materials 



(Picture Frames) 



this he has to observe that the water 
must be made to flow a little over the 
edge of the former lay ; but not so as 
to wash it up or break away the edge ; 
the second lay must lap a little over the 
first, and therefore the water must like- 
wise extend over the first lay. Thus he 
proceeds with all the lays into which he 
has found it necessary to divide the width 
of the molding ; evei-y piece, lengthwise, 
lapping over the piece previously put on 
and every lay lapping over the previous 
lay. The molding is then set aside to 
dry. There is a particular state or de- 
gree of dryness, known only by experience, 
in which the molding is in a fit state for 
burnishing. 

The burnishers used by the gilder are 
either of flint or agate, generally the for- 
mer. The steel burnishers employed by 
the jeweler would not do for the gilder. 
Burnishers of different forms and sizes 
must be employed, in order to adapt them 
to the part of the work which is being 
burnished. They are generally crooked or 
curved near the end. When the burnish- 
ing is done, those parts which have not 
been burnished are weak sized — that is, 
they are wetted with water in which a 
very little clear piece of size has been 
melted ; this helps to secure the gold. 
When dry, the gold is wiped carefully 
with a piece of soft cotton wool, to re- 
move rough or ragged edges of gold, and 
there are now visible a number of little 
breaks, holes and faulty places in the 
gilding, arising from the impossibility of 
laying on the gold quite soundly and per- 
fectly. 

These defective parts are repaired by 
the process of faulting, which consists of 
cutting up a leaf of gold into small pieces 
and laying them on the faulty places, pre- 
viously wetted with a camel's-hair pencil. 
If the defective part is on the burnish, it 
is necessary to be careful not to wet any 
part but what is to be covered by the gold, 
as it will stain the burnished gold. When 
the faulting is dry, the gold is again care- 
fully wiped and finally wetted with finish- 
ing size. This is clear size of a certain 
degree of strength, laid on the matt parts 
with a pencil, and completes the process 
of gilding. 

When a glass frame is to be gilt, the 
joiner's work is generally quite complete 
before the gilder begins, and great care is 
required in whiting such frames, to pre- 
vent filling up the corners with whiting 
and giving them a clumsy appearance. 
For this purpose modeling tools, such as 
chisels, gouges and crooks, are used to 
clear out the corners from time to time 



(Picture Frames) 



and preserve the original sharpness and 
clearness ot the several parts. 

Burnished Gilt Frames. — When new 
burnished gilding requires varnishing, 
white hard spirit varnish is used or yellow 
gold lacquer. Old burnished work must 
be cleaned with great care. First remove 
the dust with a badger's-hair brush ; after- 
ward clean the gilding by passing a clean 
sponge, dipped in gin and water, lightly 
over the surface, wiping off the moisture 
with a very soft dry sponge or silk hand- 
kerchief; then apply the varnish and 
finish. 

Cleaning Gilt Frames. — Gilt frames 
may be cleaned by simply washing them 
with a small sponge, wet with urine, hot 
spirits of wine or oil of turpentine, not 
too wet, but sufiiciently to take off the 
dirt and fly marks. They should not be 
afterward wiped, but left to dry of them- 
selves. 

Composition for Molding. — 1. — The 
following is used by gilders : Mix glue, 
14 lb. ; rosin, 7 lb. ; pitch, % lb. ; linseed 
oil, 2% pt. ; water, 5 pt. more or less ac- 
cording to the quantity required. Boil 
the whole together, well stirring until dis- 
solved, add as much whiting as will render 
it of a hard consistency, then press it into 
mold, which has been previously oiled 
with sweet oil. No more should be mixed 
than can be used before it becomes sen- 
sibly b^rd, as it will require steaming be- 
fore ii can be used agaiu. 

2. — Make a very clear glue with 3 parts 
of Flanders glue and 1 part of isinglass 
by dissolving the two kinds separately in 
a large quantity of water, and mix them 
together, after they have been strained 
through a piece of fine linen to separate 
the parts which could not be dissolved. The 
quantity of water cannot be fixed, because 
all kinds of glue are not homogeneous, so 
that some require more than others. The 
proper strength may be found by suffering 
the glue to become perfectly cold ; it must 
then barely form a jelly. The glue is to 
be gently heated, then mixed with sawdust 
sifted through a fine sieve. The molds 
are then to be oiled with nut oil and the 
glue pressed into the mold, covered with 
weighted board and then set to dry near a 
stove. When the casting is dry it is to 
be trimmed. 

Regilding Frames. — Take a sponge and 
some clean water and wash the frame 
well, then let it dry ; procure some water 
gold size ; make some thin size from dry 
hide or parchment, mix enough warm with 
the gold size to enable you to work it on 
the frame with a camel's-hair brush ; give 
it 2 coats. When dry rub it over with a 



[152] 



Art and Artists^ Materials 



(Plaster Casting) 



piece of fine sand paper ; it will then be 
ready for gilding. When the frame is 
covered, rest it on its edge to drain ; when 
perfectly dry dip a pencil into water and 
wipe the gold over with it ; it will take 
the particles of gold off and make it ap- 
pear solid. For any parts not covered 
take bits of leaf with a dry pencil and 
lay on as before, then give the whole a 
coat of clear parchment size. Brush the 
back edges over with ocher and the frame 
is then ready. 



Plaster Casting. 

1. — The model (of clay or otherwise) 
is first covered with a layer of good plas- 
ter of paris, mixed, or "gauged," as plas- 
terers call it, to the consistency of batter, 
and colored with a little red or yellow 
ocher. This layer should average about 
% in. thick. It is best applied with the 
pewter or metal spoon used to mix the 
plaster with. The plaster is mixed in a 
basin half full of water, into which it is 
sprinkled by the hand, as oatmeal is sprin- 
kled in making stirabout ; when the plas- 
ter reaches the surface of the water it is 
about sufficient, but experience soon 
teaches the right proportion. The mixed 
plaster can be jerked by a dexterous twist 
of the spoon into the deep undercut places, 
and care must be taken not to inclose bub- 
bles of air. A practical molder would 
place the clay slab in a vertical position, 
as he would see the process of his Ivork 
better. A large model would require sev- 
eral mixings of plaster, as when the plas- 
ter begins to set or harden it is useless 
for molding. When the first colored coat 
of plaster is hardened a wash of clay 
water should be applied nearly all over it, 
and the second coating, which may be of 
coarser stuff, put on to the thickness of 
about 1 in. If the mold is very large, 
some strips of iron nail rod, i/4 in, square, 
may be imbedded in the back of the mold 
to prevent warping. When the mold is 
set hard it must be turned over and the 
clay picked out. If the work has been 
modeled on a board or slate, or best of 
all, on a plaster slab, it may be necessary 
to pass a wire between the clay and the 
board to separate them. When the mold 
has been well cleaned and washed with a 
soft brush it should be soaked in a tub 
of water until quite saturated through 
and through, drained, but not wiped, and 
a sufficient quantity of superfine plaster, 
carefully mixed, poured into it, and, by 
moving the mold about, carefully dis- 
tributed all over. This may be backed 
with coarser plaster and strengthened 



(Piaster Casting) 



with iron rods, which in this case should 
be painted or coated with a varnish of 
rosin and tallow. When the cast is set 
hard the most difficult part, called "knock- 
ing out," begins. A light mallet and a 
carpenter's firmer chisel, by a few dexter- 
ous strokes applied upon the edge, will 
separate the coarse outer backing of the 
mold, prevented by the wash of clay water 
from adhering to the first colored layer. 
The cast should then be placed upon a soft 
elastic bed — an empty sack folded is as 
good as any — -and by gentle taps, holding 
the chisel perpendicularly, or nearly so, to 
the face of the work, the colored plaster 
may be snapped off, sometimes in large, 
sometimes in minute pieces, the color pre- 
venting the operator chipping away the 
best part of his work, which may happen 
when mold and cast are of one color. A 
chisel 1 in. or more broad may be used 
for the first rough work ; smaller will be 
required for delicate parts. 

A figure in the round may be molded by 
the same process, but the mold must be in 
2 parts. A strip of clay 1 in. or so wide 
must be fixed all around the clay figure, 
to be removed when the first half of the 
mold is done. The edge of the first half 
must have sunk holes, made by any con- 
venient steel modeling tool, to insure the 
fitting of the two halves in the mold. 
Projecting limbs must be cut off with a 
fine wire and cast separately. If an iron 
support enters the back of the model a 
little clay must be put round it, close to 
the model, to enable the iron to be drawn 
through the mold, and the hole in the 
mold stopped up with plaster. The two 
parts, carefully saturated and bound to- 
gether, may be about half filled with well- 
mixed superfine plaster, as thick as cream, 
which, by carefully turning and inclining 
the mold, can be made to cover the whole 
of the mold, leaving a large hollow to be 
filled with a coarser plaster, in which a 
painted iron rod may be inserted. Good 
plaster smells sweet, sets in 10 to 20 mi i- 
utes as hard and as crisp as loaf sugar. 
Bad plaster smells of sulphur and never 
sets hard. Beginners must make sure of 
their materials, and even then should try 
their hands on unimportant work. 

Small reliefs may be molded in wax. A 
border of clay or strips of wood a little 
higher than the highest part of the model 
must be fixed all round, and melted bees- 
wax with a little rosin and tallow added, 
poured over the clay. When the wax is 
cold and the clay well washed out super- 
fine plaster can be poured in as into a 
plaster mold. The wax is afterward 
melted off or softened before a fire and 



[153] 



Art and Artists* Materials 



(Plaster Casting) 



peeled off, to serve again as often as you 
please. 

2. — In the first place, use the finest and 
purest plaster of paris obtainable. When 
filling a mold, learn to beat up the requi- 
site quantity of cream quickly and with 
care to avoid making it too thick. In 
pouring this in use a good camel's-hair 
brush to displace air bubbles ; a mere sur- 
face cover of this thin cream is all that 
is requisite. While doing this have ready 
the thicker plaster, of the consistency of 
light syrup, and fill up the mold at once. 
In about 20 minutes you can open the 
mold, if your plaster is pure and has been 
properly mixed. If you do not put too 
much oil on the object to be molded, and 
have used your brush properly, you will 
find clear, sharp molds. 

3. — Bronzing Plaster Cast. — a. — Coat 
the figure with isinglass size until the sur- 
face continues in a moist state and will 
absorb no more ; then touch it over lightly 
and sparingly with gold size and put it 
away in a clean dry place for 48 hours. 
Touch the figure all over with bronze 
powder, and after the lapse of 24 hours 
brush off all the loose powder and par- 
ticularly from the projecting parts of the 
figure. 

b. — The following is given as a process 
used in Prance for this purpose. Linseed 
oil soap is made by saponifying the oil 
with caustic soda and precipitating the 
soap with salt. It is separated, dissolved 
in rain water and a mixture in solution 
of 4 parts blue vitriol and 1 part cop- 
peras is added as long as a precipitate 
forms. This is filtered out, washed and 
dried and 8% oz. are applied with 1 lb. 
quick-drying varnish and 5% oz. white 
wax. This is applied to the surface pre- 
viously heated and is baked in if neces- 
sary. The high parts are touched up with 
a bronze powder. As a simpler process 
shellac the bust and then gild it with 
bronze powder and varnish. The varnish 
is sold with the powder. See also No. 23 
below. 

c. — Plaster-of-paris statuettes, models, 
etc., are bronzed in the following manner : 

Prepare a soap from linseed oil boiled 
with caustic soda lye, to which add 
a solution of common salt, and concen- 
trate it by boiling till it becomes some- 
what granular upon the surface ; it is then 
strained through a linen cloth, and what 
passes through is diluted with boiling 
water and again filtered. Dissolve 4 parts 
blue vitriol and 1 part copperas separately 
in hot water and add this solution to the 
solution of soap as long as it occasions 
any precipitate. This flocculent precipi- 



( Plaster Casting) 



tate is a combination of the oxides of 
copper and iron with the margaric acid of 
the soap, the former giving a green and 
the latter a reddish brown color, the com- 
bination of the two resembling that green- 
ish rust which is characteristic of ancient 
bronzes. When the precipitate is com- 
pletely separated a fresh portion of the 
vitriol solution is to be poured upon it in 
a copper pan and boiled in order to wash 
it. After some time the liquid is poured 
off and the soap washed with warm and 
afterward with cold water, pressed in a 
linen bag, drained and dried, when it is 
ready for use in the following manner : 
3 lb. of pure linseed oil are boiled with 
12 lb. of finely powdered litharge, and 
the mixture is strained through a canvas 
cloth and permitted to stand in a warm 
place until it becomes clear. 15 oz. of 
this, 12 oz. of the above described soap 
and 5 oz. of fine white wax are melted to- 
gether at a gentle heat in a porcelain 
basin by means of a water bath. The 
mixture must be kept some time in a mol- 
ten state, to expel any moisture which it 
may contain. It is then applied by means 
of a paint brush to the surface of the 
gypsum, which is heated to the tempera- 
ture of about 200° F. After exposure to 
air for a few days the surface is rubbed 
with cotton wool or a fine rag and varie- 
gated with a few streaks of metal powder 
or shell gold. Small objects may be dipped 
in the melted mixture and then exposed 
to the heat of the fire until thoroughly 
penetrated and evenly coated with it. 

4. — Carved Articles. — If the objects are 
cut conically they are simply pressed into 
a lump of soft clay ; then paint the mold 
thus produced with linseed oil and pour in 
the plaster of paris. For complicated ob- 
jects, such as animal heads, deepened 
reliefs, etc., glue molds are employed. 
Prepare a box just large enough to re- 
ceive the model. Boil good joiner's glue 
in sufficient quantity, and after the model 
(which has been thoroughly coated with 
shellac, and after this is dry with linseed 
oil) has been laid in the box, pour the 
liquid glue into the box. After a few 
hours the glue is sufficiently dry so that 
the model can be taken out. Now coat 
the glue mold all over with linseed oil and 
pour in the gypsum. In this manner very 
good impressions are obtained at a com- 
paratively slight expense. The molding 
glue can be used over again at any time. 

5. — Hardening Plaster Casts. — a. — The 
following is one way of treating them : 
First dry the cast in an oven heated to 
about the temperature used for baking 
bread. When the cast has cooled down 



[154] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Plaster Casting) 



so that it may be handled without burn- 
ing the hands immerse it in. a strong aque- 
ous solution of alum and leave it there 
until crystals begin to form on the sur- 
face, then remove and wipe dry. Any ad- 
herent crystals may be removed with a 
wet rag. Now return the cast to the oven 
and heat, at a temperature of about 140° 
F., until thoroughly dry. Remove and 
immerse in a bath of boiled linseed oil, 
cut with a little oil of turpentine. Let 
remain a few minutes, then remove, let 
the surplus oil drain back into the bath 
and stand aside in a warm place to let 
the oil become "tacky," then apply bronze 
powder. 

b. — A few coats of a hot and saturated 
solution of borax, alum or similar sub- 
stances are applied with a brush until 
the surface has the desired hardness. Two 
coats will generally answer, but occasion- 
ally as many as 5 or 6 may be necessary. 
A few (generally 2) coats of a hot satu- 
rated solution of chloride of barium and a 
few coats of soap water are then applied 
with a brush, and the surplus soap is 
washed off until the clear water forms 
beads on the surface of the cast. 

These operations can be performed in a 
few hours and produce a hard surface 
consisting of substances insoluble in water 
and which will prevent the appearance of 
yellow spots, for the neutral salts that 
have been employed will prevent any ac- 
tion of the gypsum on the iron contained 
in the same. Different neutral salts may 
be used, and the operations may be per- 
formed in the reverse order. Instead of 
chloride of barium, other barium, stron- 
tium or calcium salts, that will produce 
an insoluble precipitate and will not pro- 
duce oxide of iron, may be used. 

c. — Glycerine is said to be a good coat- 
ing for the interior, but lard and oil is 
most commonly used. Plaster casts im- 
mersed in a hot solution of glue long 
enough to be well saturated will bear a 
nail driven in without cracking. 

d. — The articles made from crude plas- 
ter are heated to 212 to 228° F., put first 
in concentrated solution of calcium chlo- 
ride, then in a hot, concentrated solution of 
sulphate of magnesia and finally then laid 
in water. These operations are repeated 
several times (the temperature being, if 
desired, increased to 212° F.). After im- 
pregnation, the pieces should be treated 
alternately with glue and tannin solu- 
tions, each time from 1 to 4 days, finally 
dried in a drying room at a depressing 
temperature. For colored marble add to 
the chloride of calcium solution such me- 
tallic chlorides as will produce, with the 



(Plaster Casting) 



subsequent treatment with metallic salts, 
colored, insoluble deposits, 

6. — Life Casting. — Casting from life is 
very unpleasant for the person operated 
upon, and especially when the face is 
molded the pain is considerable. The face 
is first greased well with vaseline, the eye- 
lashes and eyebrows being well buried in 
pomade or clay and the small hairs well 
smoothed down. Whiskers, etc., should 
be well coated with clay. Quills are in- 
serted in the nostrils for respiration. 
Then when the patient is lying in a re- 
cumbent position the plaster is laid on. 
The patient must not move or laugh or 
speak until the plaster is set. The plaster 
is mixed with warm water, as the plaster 
sets better than with cold water. When 
the cast is sufficiently set, it is removed. 
This is the painful part of the operation. 
A hand can be done by thrusting it in a 
basin of plaster, then placing it on a 
towel in desired position. As the plaster 
sets, lay a strong thread on the wet plas- 
ter along the hand down the middle finger. 
A second thread may be laid from the 
wrist to the thumb. The object of these 
threads is to make divisions in the mold 
and thus enable the hand to be with- 
drawn. Now lay on the plaster over the 
whole to a sufficient thickness. When it 
is nearly set (still soft and wet) take the 
ends of the threads, and by jerking them 
sharply through the plaster, sections ara 
made in the mold. In a few minutes the 
plaster is hard and the mold may be burst 
asunder at the divisions cut by the thread 
and the hand released. Fractures which 
will probably occur in thin parts of the 
mold must be cemented carefully in their 
places after they are dry by a solution of 
shellac in alcohol. Limbs and even the 
entire figure can be molded in this man- 
ner. Professional molders should be em- 
ployed in taking casts of deceased persons. 

7. — Marhling Plastic Figures. — Dis- 
solve 1 oz. of pure curd soap grated in 
water and add 1 oz. of white wax, cut in 
thin slices. When the whole is incorpo- 
rated it is fit for use. Having dried the 
figure before the fire, suspend it by a 
string and dip it in the mixture ; when it 
has absorbed the varnish dip it in a sec- 
ond time, and that generally suffices ; 
cover it carefully from the dust for a 
week, then rub it gently with soft cotton 
wool, and you will have a brilliant shining 
gloss, resembling polished marble. 

8. — Mending Plaster Models. — Sanda- 
rac varnish is the best material for mend- 
ing plaster models. Saturate the broken 
surfaces thoroughly, press them well to- 
gether and allow them to dry. 



[155] 



/ 



/ 



Art and Artists^ Materials 



(Plaster Casting) 



9. — Polishing. — Tlie polish on plaster 
figures is said to be produced by immer- 
sion in melted paraffine or wax and rub- 
bing smooth. A prize for such a process 
was offered by some society in Berlin. 

10. — Retarding the Setting of Plaster 
of Paris. — When, for some reason, in 
making plaster casts or bandages, it be- 
comes desirable to retard the setting of 
the plaster magma, this may be accom- 
plished by adding to the water powdered 
althaea root in the proportion of 2 to 4%. 
When dry, such casts may be sawed, filed 
and turned. An addition of 8% of althaea 
retards setting for a full hour, and the 
mass may be kneaded, rolled and other- 
wise shaped. The addition of a very little 
alum or ferric chloride produces a very 
hard cast. Good plaster should not set 
in less than 3 minutes. 

11. — Silvering Plaster Models. — Ordi- 
nary plaster models are covered with a 
thin coat of mica powder, which perfectly 
replaces the ordinary metallic substances. 
The mica plates are first cleaned and 
bleached by fire, boiled in hydrochloric 
acid and washed and dried. The material 
is then finely powdered, sifted and min- 
gled with collodion, which serves as a 
vehicle for applying the compound with a 
paint brush. The objects thus prepared 
can be washed in water and are not liable 
to be injured by sulphureted acids or dust. 
The collodion adheres perfectly to glass, 
porcelain, wood, metals or papier mache. 

12. — Stuccoed Floivers from Plaster of 
Paris. — Take natural flowers and coat the 
lower side of their petals and stamens 
with parafiine or with a mixture of glue, 
gypsum and lime, which is applied lightly. 
Very fine parts of the flower, such as 
stamens, etc., may be previously supported 
by special attachments of textures, wire, 
etc. After the drying of the coating the 
whole is covered with shellac solution or 
with a mixture of glue, gypsum, lime with 
lead acetate, oil, mucilage, glycerine, colo- 
phony, etc. If desired, the surface may 
now be painted with bronzes in various 
shades. Such flowers are now much em- 
ployed in the form of festoons for decorat- 
ing walls, ceilings, lusters, etc., and are 
very handsome. 

13. — Transparent Casts. — Beautiful 
semi-transparent casts of fancy articles 
may be taken in a compound of 2 parts 
unbaked gypsum, 1 of bleached beeswax 
and 1 of parafiine. This becomes plastic 
at 120° F. and is quite tough. 

14. — Washable Casts. — a — Jacobsen 
prepares casts which retain no dust and 
can be washed with lukewarm soap water 



(Plaster of Paris) 



by immersing them or throwing upon them 
in a fine spray a hot solution of a soap 
prepared from stearic acid and soda lye in 
10 times its quantity by weight of hot 
water. 

b. — Shellhass recommends the coating 
of plaster-of-paris casts with a compound 
of finely powdered mica and collodian pre- 
pared as follows : The mica rendered per- 
fectly white by boiling with hydrochloric 
acid or calcining, is ground very fine, 
sifted and elutriated and then mixed with 
dilute collodion to the consistency of oil 
paint and applied with a soft brush. 
Casts coated in this way possess a silvery 
luster, have the advantage of being indif- 
ferent to sulphurous exhalations and can 
be washed without injury. 

c. — Coating or saturating the cast with 
a neutral soap from stearic acid and soda 
lye dissolved in 10 times the quantity of 
hot water is recommended. Cleaning of 
dust may be done with lukewarm water. 
Of special merit, however, is the follow- 
ing process : Leave the plaster-of-paris 
casts after complete drying for 24 hours 
in a cold barytes solution, wash them off 
carefully with cold water after removal, 
so as to eliminate the adhering barytes 
and allow them to dry 3 or 4 days at an 
ordinary room temperature. Next put 
them for a short time (about % hour) 
in a hot solution of 1 part grain soap in 
15 to 20 parts water and dry them finally, 
after the adhering soap particles have 
been removed with water in suitable dry- 
ing rooms. 

d. — Thoroughly dry the plaster figure, 
cover with the best linseed oil, just warm. 
Take out in 12 hours and dry in a place 
free from dust. The figure looks like wax 
when dry and can be washed without 
injury. 

Plaster of Paris. 

This very useful material is made by 
calcining calcium sulphate (gypsum) at 
a temperature of 500° F., by which all 
the water of crystallization is expelled. It 
is of the greatest use, especially in the 
formation of casts or molds. 

1. — Hardening. — a. — Plaster of paris 
may be caused to set more quickly if some 
alum be dissolved in the water used for 
rendering it plastic. If the gypsum is 
first moistened with a solution of alum 
and then again burned, the resulting com- 
pound sets very quickly and becomes as 
hard as marble. Borax may be similarly 
employed. In 1877 the Prussian Govern- 
ment awarded 3 prizes for inventions sub- 
mitted at its invitation of processes for 
hardening plaster-of-paris casts. The 



[156] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Plaster of Paris) 



principle of all these consists in this, that 
the objects are to be treated with a solu- 
tion of caustic baryta. But it has been 
found that no matter how deep this pene- 
trates, the baryta is again drawn toward 
the surface when the water evaporates, a 
portion efflorescing on the outside and 
only a thin layer remaining in the outer 
shell, where it is converted into carbonate. 
This at the same time stops up the pores, 
rendering it impossible to repeat the op- 
eration. It was later found that the 
whole mass of the cast might be hardened 
by applying to it with a brush made of 
glass bristles a hot solution of baryta. To 
prevent separation of the crystallized 
baryta at the surface, the object must be 
raised to a temperature of 60 to 80° C. 
To produce good results, however, it is 
necessary to add to the plaster before 
casting certain substances with which the 
baryta can combine. These are silicic 
acid in some form, or the sulphates of 
zinc, magnesium, copper, iron, aluminum, 
etc. With some of these the resulting ob- 
ject may be colored. As it is, however, 
difficult to insure the production of uni- 
form tint, it is better when employing 
salts producing color to mix the plaster 
with about 5% of quicklime, or, better, 
to render it plastic with milk of lime and 
then to soak the object in a solution of 
metallic sulphate. 

b. — Mix the plaster of paris witli a 
weak solution of gum arable (% oz. to % 
pt. of water) or for common uses with a 
weak solution of size. This not only 
makes the plaster hard, but gives smooth- 
ness to the surface. 

c. — To a thin milk of lime, or lime 
water, add 14 or 15 drops of liquid silicate 
of soda for every pint of fluid used ; this 
is then thickened with plaster to a thick 
cream. Plaster thus prepared will set in 
5 minutes or thereabout, according to the 
thickness of the cream. If too much sili- 
cate is used, the soda will effervesce on 
the surface and spoil the sharpness of the 
impression. 

d. — Ordinary plaster of paris is brittle, 
porous and hygroscopic, and by absorption 
of water becomes a conductor of the elec- 
tric current, hence is unsuitable for elec- 
tro-technical purposes. In a hardened 
condition, however, it is serviceable for 
parts which are neither under high ten- 
sion nor exposed to high temperatures 
and great changes of temperature. In 
the latter case the expensive putty of 
litharge and glycerine must be used. 

The hardening of the plaster of paris 
is accomplished in the following manner : 

Intimately mix with the powdered gyp- 

[ 



(Pottery) 



sum 2 to 4% of powdered marshmallow 
root and knead into a dough with 40% of 
water. Ilie mass resembles fat clay, 
hardens after about 1 hour and is then so 
tough that it may be cut, filed, turned 
and drilled. An admixture of 8% of 
marshmallow root renders it still tougher. 
Instead of the marshmallow root, dextrin, 
gum arable and glue may also be em- 
ployed. 

e. — If 6 parts of gypsum are mixed 
with 1 part freshly slaked lime and the 
articles in question shaped from this and 
saturated with concentrated magnesium 
sulphate solution the plaster becomes so 
hard that it cannot be scratched with the 
finger nail. 

Lubricant for Plaster Molds. — The mix- 
tures, greases and oils usually employed 
for this pupose have the disadvantage of 
being sticky or of easily attracting dust. 
According to Puscher, this drawback is 
avoided if stearic acid is used instead. 
Melt 1 part stearic acid in a glass by im- 
mersing the same in boiling water and add 
4 to 5 parts alcohol (95%). Agitate the 
clear solution until cold, whereby a thin 
paste of very finely distributed stearic acid 
is formed, with which the molds are 
coated by means of a painting brush. The 
spirit evaporates at once and leaves a very 
thin layer of stearic acid, which admits 
of readily freeing the cast from the mold. 

Pottery. 

1. — Olaze. — The following glaze meets 
all requirements of practical pottery, as 
well as those of hygiene. Although some- 
what slower in fluxing than the ordinary 
pottery glazes, it can very well be burnt 
in any potter's kiln, but it must be stated 
in advance that the vessels must be of 
equally good quality, as white as possible 
and fireproof. Thirty parts of litharge 
(30 parts protoxide of lead, 30 parts red 
lead), 5 parts white clay, 6 parts pure 
quartz sand. The glaze melts out well at 
about 2,190° F. To improve it very con- 
siderably it should remain fluid in the fire 
for some time — i.e., when the drawn sam- 
ple shows the smooth surface, firing 
should be continued evenly for another 2 
hours. During this period the glaze com- 
bines more perfectly with the ware by 
melting the silicic acid in its exterior sur- 
face, this layer being vitrified thereby. A 
part of the lead oxide will be volatilized 
and this will make the glaze richer in 
silicic acid, consequently harder, denser 
and capable of withstanding the diluted 
acids such as are contained in articles 
of food and drink. 

2. — Gilding. — a. — Dissolve in a tared 
157] 



Art and Artists* Materials 



(Pottery) 



capsule any convenient quantity of pure 
gold in nitrohydrochloric acid and add to 
the solution sufficient uranium oxide to 
impart a rich brown color. Evaporate 
the liquid to dryness on a sand bath, cool 
the capsule and weigh. Then to the resi- 
due so ascertained and counted as 1 part 
add sulphur, 1 part ; dammar rosin, 2 
parts ; turpentine oil, 6 parts. With due 
precautions against the mixture igniting, 
heat it over a quick fire, with constant 
agitation, until it becomes homogeneous 
and acquires a fine reddish brown color. 
Add while still hot sufficient rosemary oil 
to give it the consistency of a thick syrup. 
Finally, for every 100 parts of the gold 
originally used, add 35 parts of bismuth 
flux (bismuth trioxide, or bismuthous ox- 
ide, obtained by gently igniting basic 
bismuth nitrate) and let cool. 

b. — China, Gilding on. — The gilding is 
done either by an adhesive varnish or by 
heat. The varnish is prepared by dissolv- 
ing in hot boiled linseed oil an equal 
weight of either amber or copal. This is 
diluted with a proper quantity of oil of 
turpentine so as to be applied as thin as 
possible to the parts to be gilt. Let stand 
after varnishing about 24 hours, then heat 
in an oven until so warm as almost to 
burn the fingers when handled. The heat 
softens the varnish, which is then ready to 
receive the gold leaf, which may be applied 
with a brush or pledget of cotton, and the 
superfluous portions brushed off. Burnish 
when cold, interposing a piece of thin 
paper between the gold and burnisher. 
Where burning in is practiced the gold 
reduced to powder is mixed with pow- 
dered borax glass (anhydrous borax) 
moistened with a little gum water, and 
applied to the clean surface with a 
camel's-hair pencil. When quite dry the 
article is put into a stove heated to about 
the temperature of an annealing oven. 
The gum burns off and the borax, by 
vitrifying, cements the gold with great 
firmness to the surface. 

c— To Dissolve Gold for Gilding Which 
Has to Be Fired. — Triturate in a mortar 
some gold leaf and honey until reduced 
very fine. Then dissolve the honey with 
hot water and mix with a little gum water 
for use, or dissolve gold in hot aqua regia, 
evaporate to dryness in a porcelain dish 
and dissolve in ether for use. 

Printed Matter, Preserving. 

Printed matter will not fade, because 
printer's ink, being colored with carbon, 
is practically indestructible under ordi- 
nary conditions. The discoloration of the 



(Prints) 



paper, as a rule, is due to the effect of 
the residual bleaching material left in the 
paper pulp when it was made — that is, 
chloride of lime ; in good paper, however, 
"antichlores" are now used to destroy the 
excess of chloride. Newspapers, being 
made of common stuff, are sure to become 
brown and rotten in time. Dampness also 
causes the growth of microscopic molds, 
which destroy the fibers. The discolora- 
tion may be prevented to some extent by 
keeping the paper in a thoroughly dry 
place. If expense is not objected to, a 
thin varnish of collodion will help to keep 
the paper a good color. 

Prints. 

Bleaching. — To bleach old prints pre- 
pare 3 solutions as follows: (a) Mix 2 
oz. of chloride of lime with 1 pt. of water ; 
dissolve 3 oz. of washing soda in 1 pt. of 
water and mix. Allow the precipitate to 
subside and use only the clear liquid, 
(b) Dissolve 1 oz. of sulphite of soda in 
1 pt. of water, (c) Add 1 pt. of water 
to 2 oz. of strong pure hydrochloric acid. 
A shallow dish large enough to take a 
print will be required. Place water in 
the dish and float the print in it till 
thoroughly wetted. Now remove the 
print, add 1 oz. of solution (a) and re- 
place the prints allow it to remain for a 
few hours ; if thoroughly bleached run off 
the liquid, wash the print in running 
water, then add a few drops of (b) solu- 
tion ; allow to stand for about an hour, 
again wash in running water for about an 
hour, remove the print to clean, white 
blotting paper, drain and dry. If the 
print is not properly bleached by (a) 
solution, pour off the latter, add water to 
the dish and a few drops of (c) solution, 
allow to stand, wash, treat with (b) solu- 
tion and finish as above described. 

Coloring. — Place the print face upward 
on clean cardboard; put weights on the 
corners to keep it down and pass a piece 
of stale bread gently over to remove any 
surface dirt. Now prepare the requisite 
tints in water-color and lay on broad 
washes with a large-sized camel's-hair 
pencil. Large tools must be used where 
much ground has to be covered with any 
color, as the absorbent nature of the 
printing papers in general use renders it 
impossible to get an even tint otherwise ; 
indeed, it will often be found necessary to 
allow large surfaces, such as sky, etc., to 
absorb a considerable quantity of water 
(applied evenly with a camel's-hair tool) 
before the laying-in of color is attempted. 
Body color — that to which white has been 
added — is used sparingly, and only, as a 



[158] 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Prints) 



rule, to heighten the effect of jewelry, 
armor, etc. When the coloring is finished 
pass carefully over the deep shadows with 
a weak solution of gum arable. This 
gives force to the work and depth and 
transparency to the dark parts. The gum 
must not be used strong or it will crack 
immediately the print is rolled. 

Mounting Engravings Printed on Silk. 
— The safest plan is lay the silk face 
downward on a drawing-board and then 
drive in a row of tacks all round the silk, 
about 2 in. or 3 in. from its edge. Next, 
opposite each tack, take a stitch with 
needle and thread through the silk (going 
just far enough iiito the material to get a 
firm hold) and secure the thread by wind- 
ing it round the tack. When this has 
been done all round the threads must be 
very gradually tightened, special care 
being taken that the fabric is not pulled 
awry. By this means, if due patience and 
care are exercised, perfect smoothness 
may be secured, because the threads are 
only lightly fastened by a few turns round 
the tacks and can be unwound and tight- 
ened anywhere as required. A piece of 
millboard that has been glued round the 
edges only is then laid on the silk and 
pressed until the glue has set. The silk 
can then be turned face upward and 
mounted. 

Pasting Prints in Scrap-looh. — Touch 
the corners only of the print with a mix- 
ture of glue and paste ; then, if the pic- 
ture is dropped into position and pressed 
down, it will lie smooth. When it is nec- 
essary to paste a print all over, the paste 
should be allowed to set partly before 
mounting and a very thin coat only ap- 
plied ; then, while the prints are wet, close 
the book and place heavy pressure upon 
it. However, no precaution will entirely 
prevent wrinkles on a paper so thin as 
cartridge. 

Reproducing Old Prints. — The follow- 
ing is the process employed in a Paris 
concern that makes a specialty of litho- 
graphic facsimiles of old and rare prints 
(which facsimiles are sold as genuine an- 
tiques) : Prepare a bath as follows: Sul- 
phuric acid, 3 to 5 parts (according to 
the antiquity of print, thickness of paper, 
etc.) ; alcohol, 3 to 5 parts; water, 100 
parts. In this soak the print from 5 to 15 
minutes (the time depending on age, etc., 
as above), remove, spread face downward 
on a glass or ebonite plate, and wash 
thoroughly in a gentle stream of running 
water. If the paper is heavy, reverse the 
sides and let the water flow over the face 
of the print as well. Remove carefully 
and place on a heavy sheet of blotting 

[1 



(Signs) 



paper, cover with another and press out 
every drop of water possible. Where a 
wringing machine is convenient and suffi- 
ciently wide, passing the blotters and 
print through the rollers is better than 
mere pressing with the hands. The print, 
still moist, is then laid face upward on a 
heavy glass plate (a marble slab or a 
lithographer's stone answers equally well) 
and smoothed out. With a very soft 
sponge go over the surface with a thin 
coating of gum araLio water. The print 
is now ready for inkiag, which is done 
exactly as in lithographing, with a roller 
and printer's or lithographer's ink, cut 
with oil of turpentine. Suitable paper if 
then laid on and rolled with a dry roller, 
'lliis gives a reverse image of the print, 
which is then applied to a zinc plate or a 
lithographer's stone, and as many prints 
as desired pulled off in the usual litho- 
graphing method. When carefully done 
and the right kind of paper used, it is 
said that the imitation of the original is 
very perfect in every detail. 

Size (Ackerman's Liquor). — Use 4 oz. 
each of the finest pale glue and white curd 
soap ; boiling water, 3 pt., 12 fl.oz. ; dis- 
solve, then add of powdered alum 2 ojs, 
Used to size prints and pictures before cQl" 
oring them. 

Ribbons, Silvering of. 

Make a solution of nitrate of silver and 
add a little gum to it, so that the liquid 
will not run. Then with a camel's-hair 
pencil or a new pen draw any sort of or- 
namental figure on the silk. After the 
drawing is dry, hold the ribbon over a 
vessel containing water, zinc and a little 
sulphuric acid. In a short time the silve?' 
will be reduced and adhere quite strong! 
to the fabric. Arabesques, wreaths, e'ce., 
executed in this manner have a pretty ap- 
pearance. 

Shells, Silvering. 

Grind silver leaf in gum water to the 
required thickness and apply to the inside 
of the shell. For gold color grind gold 
leaf in gum water. 

Signs. 

Gilding Letters. — 1. — When the sign is 
prepared as smooth as possible, go over it 
with a sizing made by white of an egg, 
dissolved in about 4 times its weight of 
cold water, adding a small quantity of 
fuller's earth ; this to prevent the gold 
sticking to any part but letters. When 
dry set out the letters and commence writ- 
ing, laying on the size as thinly as pos- 
sible with a sable pencil. Let it stand 
59] 



Art and Artists* Materials 



(Signs) 



until you can hardly feel a slight sticki- 
ness ; then go to work with your gold leaf 
knife and cushion and gild the letters. 
Take a leaf upon the point of your knife, 
after giving it a slight puff into the back 
part of your cushion, and spread it on the 
front part of it as straight as possible ; 
give it another slight puff with your 
mouth to flatten it out. Now cut it to 
the proper size, cutting with the heel of 
your knife forward. Now rub the tip of 
the knife lightly on your hair ; take up 
the gold on the point and place it neatly 
on the letters. When they are all cov- 
ered, get some very fine cotton wool and 
gently rub the foil until it is smooth and 
bright. Then wash the sign with clean 
water to take off the egg size. 

2. — Use gold and silver leaf. Take a 
little fine isinglass, as much as will lie on 
a 5-cent piece, and dissolve in a little 
boiling water. Add as much alcohol as 
there is water and strain through silk. 
Paint the letters on a sheet of paper with 
Brunswick black; fix the paper, with the 
writing reversed, on the glass. Use the 
isinglass solution as a mordant, laying 
it on with a camel's-hair pencil, and then 
apply the gold leaf. Place the glass in a 
warm room and when the gilding is dry 
rub over with a piece of cotton w^ool. 
Pass a flat camel's-hair brush, moistened 
with the isinglass solution, lightly over 
the gold letters ; let the solution be hot for 
this operation. A second coating of gold 
leaf will improve the work. Mark in the 
outline on the back with soap, use a size 
composed of gum tragacanth in water, 
have the size as thin as possible. 

Silvering. 

Silver Leaf, Varnished. — Use, first, pre- 
pared oxgall ; next, isinglass ; then alum 
to kill the former ; finish with hard white 
lac. 

Silver Size, Preparation of. — Put in a 
pan Spanish chalk, 4% oz. ; Venetian 
soap, V2 oz. ; beeswax, V2 oz., and finely 
pulverized fat pipeclay, 9 oz. ; roast thor- 
oughly. Rub fine with the whites of 40 
eggs. Form the mass into small balls, 
dry upon a glass plate. To apply the size, 
triturate a piece with water, then put in a 
glass and dilute with water. Brush the 
frame with the dissolved size and let it 
dry before applying another cast. (See 
also chapter on Paints, etc.) 

Tracing. 

1. — Drawings. — a. — If the paper upon 
which the tracing is to be made is soaked 
with benzine by means of a cotton pad, 
sopping it into the pores of the paper, the 



(Tracing) 



latter will become so transparent that the 
most delicate lines and tints may be seen 
more readily than through the finest trac- 
ing paper. Indian ink, water colors or 
pencil take equally well upon paper thus 
treated and last better than upon any 
other kind of tracing paper. Any kind of 
opaque drawing paper in ordinary use 
may be employed for this purpose, 
stretched in the usual manner over the 
drawing to be traced. The benzine rapid- 
ly evaporates and the paper resumes its 
original opaque appearance without show- 
ing the slightest trace of the process to 
which it has been subjected. When large 
pictures are to be traced, the benzine 
should only be applied to a part of the 
paper at a time, in accordance with the 
progress of the work. 

2. — Cleaning. — Tracing cloth may be 
very quickly and easily cleaned and pencil 
marks removed by the use of benzine, 
which is applied to a cotton swab. It 
may be rubbed freely over the tracing 
without injury to lines drawn in ink or 
even in water color, but the pencil marks 
and dirt will quietly disappear. The ben- 
zine evaporates almost immediately, leav- 
ing the tracing unharmed. It must, how- 
ever, be borne in mind that the surface 
has been softened and must be rubbed 
doAvn with talc or some similar substance 
before drawing any more ink lines. 

The glaze may be restored to tracing 
cloth after using the eraser by rubbing 
over the roughened surface with a piece 
of hard wax from an old phonograpli 
cylinder. The surface thus produced is 
superior to that of the original glaze, as 
it is absolutely oil and water proof. 

In the Rushmore works all pencil draw- 
ings that go into the shop are first rubbed 
over with this wax, and it has been found 
that while common pencil drawings are 
soon destroyed by dirt and grease, those 
treated with the wax return to the draw- 
ing room after the completion of special 
jobs without the slightest blemish. 

Cloth. — 1. — Boiled linseed oil, bleached, 
10 lb, ; lead shavings, i/^ lb, ; zinc oxide, 
21/^ lb, ; Venetian turpentine, i/4 lb. Boil 
for several hours, then strain and dis- 
solve in the strained composition 2i/^ lb. 
white gum copal. Remove from the fire, 
and when partly cold add oil of turpen- 
tine (purified), sufficient to bring it to 
proper consistency. Moisten the cloth 
thoroughly in benzole and give it a flow- 
ing coat of the varnish. 

2. — Varnish the cloth with Canada bal- 
sam dissolved in turpentine, to which may 
be added a few drops of castor oil, but do 
not add too much or it will not dry. Try 



[160] 



Art and Artists^ Materials 



(Tracing) 



a little piece first with a small quantity 
of varnish. The kind of cloth to^use is 
fine linen; don't let the varnish be too 
thick. 

Coloring. — It is always best to color 
tracings on the back, as the ink lines are 
liable to be obliterated when the color is 
applied. Mix the colors very dark, so that 
they may appear of proper depth on the 
other side- If ink or color does not run 
freely on tracing cloth, mix both with a 
little oxgall. 

Tracing Paper, — The following receipts 
are from the "Mechanics' Own Book" : 

1. — A German invention has for its ob- 
ject the rendering more or less transpar- 
ent of paper used for writing or drawing, 
either with ink, pencil or crayon, and also 
to give the paper such a surface that such 
writing or drawing may be completely re- 
moved by washing, without in any way in- 
juring the paper. The object of making 
the paper translucent is that when used 
in schools the scholars can trace the copy 
and thus become proficient in the forma- 
tion of letters without the explanations 
usually necessary ; and it may also be 
used in any place where tracings may be 
required, as by laying the paper over the 
object to be copied it can be plainly seen. 
Writing paper is used by preference, its 
preparation consisting in first saturating 
it with benzine and then immediately coat- 
ing the paper with a suitable rapidly dry- 
ing varnish before the benzine can evapo- 
rate. The application of varnish is by 
preference made by plunging the paper 
into a bath of it, but it may be applied 
with a brush or sponge. The varnish is 
prepared of the following ingredients : 
Boiled bleached linseed oil, 20 lb. ; lead 
shavings, 1 lb. ; zinc oxide, 5 lb. ; Venetian 
turpentine, i/^ lb. Mix and boil 8 hours. 
After cooling, strain and add 5 lb. white 
copal and ^2 lb. sandarac. 

2. — The following is a capital method of 
preparing tracing paper for architectural 
or engineering tracings : Take common 
tissue or cap paper, any size of sheet ; lay 
each sheet on a flat surface and sponge 
over (one side) with the following, tak- 
ing care not to miss any part of the sur- 
face : Canada balsam, 2 pt. ; spirits of 
turpentine, 3 pt. ; to which add a few 
drops of old nut oil ; a sponge is the best 
instrument for applying the mixture, 
which should be used warm. As each 
sheet is prepared it should be hung up to 
dry over 2 cords stretched tightly and 
parallel, about 8 in. apart, to prevent the 
lower edges of the paper from coming in 
contact. As soon as dry the sheets should 
be carefully rolled on straight and smooth 



(Tracing) 



wooden rollers about 2 in. in diameter, 
covered with paper. The sheets will bo 
dry when no stickiness can be felt. A 
little practice will enable any one to make 
good tracing paper in this way at a mod- 
erate rate. The composition gives sub- 
stance to the tissue paper. 

3. — You may make paper suflSciently 
transparent for tracing by saturating it 
with spirits of turpentine or benzoline. 
As long as the paper continues to be 
moistened with either of these you can 
carry on your tracing ; when the spirit 
has evaporated the paper will be opaque. 
Ink or water colors may be used on the 
surface without running. 

4. — A convenient method for rendering 
ordinary drawing paper transparent for 
the piirpose of making tracings and of 
removing its transparency, so as to restore 
its former appearance when the drawing 
is completed, has been invented by 
Puscher. It consists in dissolving a given 
quantity of castor oil in 1, 2 or 3 volumes 
of absolute alcohol, according to the thick- 
ness of the paper, and applying it by 
means of a sponge. The alcohol evaporates 
in a few minutes and the tracing paper is 
dry and leady for immediate use. The 
drawing or tracing can be made either 
with lead pencil or Indian ink, and the 
oil removed from the paper by immersing 
it in absolute alcohol, thus restoring its 
original opacity. The alcohol employed 
in removing the oil is, of course, pre- 
served for diluting the oil used in pre- 
paring the next sheet. 

5. — Put 44 oz. gum mastic into a bottle 
holding 6 oz. best spirits of turpentine, 
shaking it up day by day ; when thorough- 
ly dissolved it is ready for use. It can 
be made thinner at any time by adding 
more turps. Then take some sheets of the 
best quality tissue paper, open them and 
apply the mixture with a small brush. 
Hang up to dry. 

6. — Saturate ordinary writing paper 
with petroleum and wipe the surface dry. 

7. — Lay a sheet of fine white wove tis- 
sue paper on a clean board, brush it softly 
on both sides with a solution of beeswax 
in spirits of turpentine (say about Va oz. 
in % pt.) and hang to dry for a few days 
out of the dust. 

8. — Steep sheets of suitable paper in a 
strong solution of gum arable and after- 
ward take off the superfluity of the liquid 
by pressing each sheet between two others 
of similar paper, but dry. It will be 
found that the 3 sheets are converted into 
a first-rate tracing paper. It is indis- 
pensable that the solution be strong, about 
the consistency of boiled oil. Paper pre- 



[161] 



Art and Artists* Materials 



(Transfer Paper) 



pared as aboA'e directed possesses every 
requisite that can be wished for. 

9.— Tracing Paper That May Be 
Washed. — Use writing paper, saturate it 
with benzine and then immediately coar. 
the paper with a suitable, rapidly drying- 
varnish before the benzine can evaporate. 
The varnish is prepared as follows : 
Boiled bleached linseed oil, 20 lb. ; lead 
shavings, 1 lb.; zinc oxide, 5 lb.; Venice 
turpentine, % lb. ; mix and boil for 8 
hours. After cooling strain and add white 
gum copal, 5 lb., and gum sandarac, % 
lb. Thus prepared the paper will be 
found to possess all the requisites for use 
as stated above. 

Transfer Paper. 

1. — Rub the surface of thin post or 
tissue paper with graphite, black lead, 
vermilion, red chalk or other pigment and 
carefully remove the excess of coloring 
matter by rubbing with a clean rag. 

2. — Rub into thin white paper a mix- 
ture of 6 parts lard and 1 part beeswax, 
with sufficient fine lampblack to give it a 
good color ; apply the mixture warm and 
not in excess. 

3. — Under exactly the same conditions 
use a compound consisting of tallow, 2 
oz. ; powdered black lead (graphite), % 
oz. ; linseed oil, % pt., and enough lamp- 
black to produce a creamy consistency. 

4. — Black Transfer Paper. — Get some 
unglazed paper and rub it well with a 
paste made of gas black or black from a 
paraffine lamp and olive oil, with a piece 
of sponge. 

5. — Writing and Drawing on Transfer 
Paper. — To dissolve solid lithograph ink, 
warm the pot at the fire or gas, using rain 
or distilled water to rub it down with, 
as it is softer than other water. The pen 
will be found to work better at first if it 
is dipped in oil and then wiped previous 
to writing. 

6. — Brackelsberg's multiplying paper 
consists of sheets of paper, each one sup- 
plied with a coloring layer whose princi- 
pal element is a violet aniline methyl. An 
oiled leaf serves as a hard, smooth under 
layer. Place a sheet of the copy paper 
on this, then a sheet of writing paper and 
write with a hard lead pencil. The back 
of the writing paper will give a negative 
of the writing in high color. Wet the 
copy sheet thoroughly, and from it 20 or 
more copies can be made, which will not 
roll nor show a gelatinous coating. Em- 
broidery and compass sawing patterns are 
finely rendered in this way. 

Coloring Transfer Paper. — The addi- 



( Transfer Paper) 



tion of coloring matter to transfer paper 
is for the more ready determination of 
the coated side. Gamboge is generally 
used, but any kind of coloring matter will 
answer the purpose. A light pink tint is 
distinguishable by artificial light, while 
a 3'ellow is scarcely visible. Rose pink or 
a solution of cochineal in ammonia an- 
swers this purpose. 

Decalqtie Rapide. — The new transfer 
paper invented by J. B. Duramy consists 
of a paper of the kind generally used for 
making pottery transfers, but coated with 
a mixture of gum and arrowroot solutions, 
in the proportion of 2% parts of the lat- 
ter to 100 of the former. The coating is 
applied in the ordinary manner, but the 
paper is only semi-glazed. Furthermore, 
to decorate pottery ware by means of this 
new transfer paper there is no need to 
immerse the ware in a bath in order to get 
the paper to draw off, as it will come 
away when moistened with a damp 
sponge, after having been in position for 
less than 5 minutes, whereas the ordinary 
papers require a much longer time. 

Lithographic Transfer Paper. — ^Dissolve 
in water i^ oz. gum tragacanth. Strain 
and add 1 oz. of glue and 1 oz. of gam- 
boge. Then take French chalk, 4 oz. ; old 
plaster of paris, % oz. ; starch, 1 oz. ; 
powder and sift through a fine sieve ; 
grind up with the gum, glue and gamboge : 
then add sufiicient water to give it the 
consistency of oil and apply with a brush 
to thin sized paper. 

Stones, Paper for Cold. — Take 4 oz. of 
starch and 1 oz. best pale-colored glue. 
Break the glue and put it in cold water 
overnight to soak. Mix the starch with 
a little cold water and then pour boiling 
water upon it till it thickens, stirring it 
all the time. Now put in the glue and 
boil over a slow fire or gas jet ; brush 
over the paper while warm. This may be 
used on tracing paper, printing paper or 
writing paper. For ordinary use print- 
ing paper is preferable, because the water 
penetrates more quickly through the back 
of it in transferring. Some persons add 
a little flake white. If a more adhesive 
paper is required, a common kind of glue 
may be used and its proportion increased, 
or gum arable, or even dextrine, may be 
added. 

Stones, Paper for Warm. — Make a size 
by boiling parchment cuttings. Let it be 
so strong that when cold it will be firm 
jelly. Grind dry flake white with water, 
add it to the size after warming it, mix 
well and rub through a sieve. The pro- 
portion of flake white may vary with cir- 



[162] 



Art and Artists^ Materials 



(Transferring) 



cumstances. If too much be used pens 
will not work upon it properly, and prob- 
ably the finest lines will fail in trans- 
ferring. Coat the paper with the compo- 
sition with a full brush or use a sponge 
and give 2 coats, the second when the first 
is dry. If for writing, the paper may be 
thin, if for drawing it should be thicker, 
using drawing paper for very large sub- 
jects. The stone for this paper should be 
quite warm. Similar paper is made from 
gelatine or from the better sorts of glue, 
instead of parchment cuttings. Other 
substances are also used instead of flake 
white, such as chalk and old plaster of 
paris. Flake white is best because it 
grinds up so finely. 

Transferring. 

1. — Engravings. — a. — The liquid used 
for this pudpose may be made by dissolv- 
ing 1^2 dr. of common yellow soap in 1 pt. 
of hot water, adding when nearly cool % 
fl.oz. of spirit of turpentine and shaking 
thoroughly together. Apply the fluid lib- 
erally to the surface of the engraving or 
other printed matter with a soft brush or 
sponge (being careful not to smear the 
ink, which soon becomes softened), and 
allow it to soak for a few minutes. Then 
well damp the plain paper, on which the 
transfer is to be made, place it upon the 
engraving and subject the whole to mod- 
erate pressure for about 1 minute. On 
separating them a reversed transfer will 
be found on the paper. The transfer will 
not be equal in intensity to the original, 
as only a part of the printer's ink is re- 
moved. If the ink be very old, a longer 
soaking and more pressure may be neces- 
sary. 

b. — Engravings may be transferred on 
white paper as follows : Place the en- 
graving a few seconds over the vapor of 
iodine. Dip a slip of white paper in a 
weak solution of starch, and when drv in 
a weak solution of oil of vitriol. When 
again dry lay a slip upon the engraving 
and place both for a few minutes under a 
press. The engraving will be reproduced 
in all its delicacy and finish. 

2. — Pictures, Prints, etc. — a. — In order 
to transfer prints of various kinds to 
glass, wood, etc., soak them for a short 
time in a solution of 10 parts of potas- 
sium hydrate in 90 parts of alcohol (more 
or less). This procedure is to soften the 
varnish in the printer's ink. After rins- 
ing in pure water the print is placed face 
down on the plate which is to receive the 
picture or print, covered with a dry sheet 
and then pressed with squeegee or in a 
letter press. 

[ 



(Transferring) 



Colored prints are painted over with a 
colorless, sticky varnish, pressed against 
the object intended to receive them, and, 
when dry, the paper is removed by rub- 
bing cautiously with an aqueous solution 
of potash. 

b. — Some years ago a French typo- 
graphical journal gave the following curi- 
ous process for the reproduction of any 
printed design whatever — pictures, print- 
ed pages, etc. The paper to receive the 
reproduction is treated with the following, 
which is applied with a sponge, or, prefer- 
ably, with a soft, flat brush : Gelatine, 10 
parts ; ferric chloride, 22 parts ; tartaric 
acid, 10 parts ; zinc sulphate, 10 parts ; 
distilled water, 400 parts. Mix in the 
dark and keep in a deep, orange-colored 
glass bottle (an ordinary bottle, tightly 
covered with a heavy, yellow-colored 
paper, and kept in a close pasteboard box, 
will answer). The coating should be ap- 
plied in a dark place and the paper dried 
in the dark. When dry, place the design 
on the coated surface and bring into close 
contact. Place on a sheet of glass, cover 
with another, clamp together and expose 
to the direct rays of the sun until the 
yellow cover of the surface of the sensi- 
tive paper is bleached to a white. Re- 
move from light and develop by leaving 
for 3 or 4 minutes in the following : 
Gallic acid, 2 parts ; alcohol, 7 parts ; dis- 
tilled water, 100 parts. If left exposed 
exactly the right length of time the lines 
will appear on a white ground of an in- 
tensely black color. If exposed too long 
they will become more or less gray. 

c. — To Glass. — a. — First coat the glass 
with dammar varnish or else with Canada 
balsam mixed with an equal volume of 
oil of turpentine and let it dry until it is 
very sticky, which takes half a day or 
more. The picture or printed paper to be 
transferred should be well soaked in soft 
water and carefully laid upon the printed 
glass, after removing surplus water with 
blotting paper and pressing upon it, so 
that no air bubbles or drops of water are 
seen underneath. The picture should then 
dry a whole day before it is touched : then 
with wetted fingers begin to rub off the 
paper at the back. If this be skilfully 
done, almost the whole of the paper can 
be removed, leaving simply the ink upon 
the varnish. When the paper has been 
removed another coat of varnish will serve 
to make the whole more transparent. 

d. — Any picture, print or even clipping 
from newspapers, any engraving, no mat- 
ter in how many colors, or on what kind 
of paper, may be transferred to glass, says 
an art journal, only the treatment of the 
163 ] 



Art and Artists* Materials 



(Transferring) 



different kinds of paper differs. Proceed 
in tlie following manner : Place the ob- 
ject to be transferred, face downward, 
upon a larger sheet of manila paper; pre- 
pare a solution of from 1 to 3% of nitric 
acid in water, according to thickness and 
strength of paper and how strong it was 
sized ; ordinary newspapers and printings 
or engravings on unsized glaze paper re- 
quire even less than 1% nitric acid — one 
of the purposes of adding nitric acid is to 
remove the sizing out of the paper. This 
solution apply with a sponge to the back 
of your object to be transferred ; be care- 
ful not to overdo it ; you only want to 
render the paper soft, but not wet. Con- 
tinue sponging with this solution until 
you see the printing plainly ; that is, until 
the paper becomes quite transparent. 

To prepare the glass for transferring 
proceed as follows : Clean the glass plate 
thoroughly with alcohol by means of a 
ball of clean cotton. Dry it off well; 
wash it with turpentine ; dry it off again ; 
place the glass plate upon a smooth elastic 
layer — for instance, flannel — and with 
this elastic layer upon a table, or better 
yet, upon a rubber blanket in the litho 
hand-press. Now coat the cleaned surface 
with a thin coat of half turpentine and 
half dammar varnish ; let it dry from 10 
minutes to 1 day according to temperature 
and thickness of dammar varnish. The 
coating should not be allowed to dry en- 
tirely ; it should be a trifle adhesive. Lay 
your impression face downward upon the 
glass plate ; it is important that neither 
acid nor water touches the surface during 
the entire process. To properly lay down 
the impression, take it up with both hands 
by holding the left-hand under corner and 
the right-hand upper corner ; be careful 
not to get any air bubbles under the sheet. 
This is best accomplished by marking 
upon the plate the exact position and size 
of the sheet. 

Laying down the paper first, adjust the 
right-hand upper corner to the mark on 
the plate, hold it there with the tip of 
your finger and adjust the left-hand lower 
corner, but be careful to avoid air bubbles. 

Press the sheet to the adhesive dammar 
coat. This may be done in many differ- 
ent manners. It does not require a very 
strong pressure, but it should be observed 
that each and every spot has to be pressed 
repeatedly against the plate. When the 
paper sticks quite smoothly to the plate, 
fan it perfectly dry, and then, with wet 
finger tips, slowly rub off the paper. 

If this is done with great care you will 
remove every vestige of paper, and the 
print, of whatever color or nature it may 



(Transferring) 



be, will remain on the glass plate. Upon 
this apply another coat of dammar var- 
nish containing very little turpentine. 
With too much turpentine you run the 
risk of washing the entire picture from 
the plate again. 

e. — To Glass, Steel, etc. — To transfer 
prints to polished steel or to glass make 
a varnish as follows : Gum sandarac, 4 
oz. ; mastic, 1 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 
oz. ; alcohol, 15 oz., or any smaller quan- 
tity in proportion. Digest in a bottle, 
with frequent shaking. Moisten the print 
slightly upon the back by laying a wet 
cloth upon it ; then varnish the steel plate 
or glass with a thin, even coat; lay the 
print with the face next to the varnish, 
commencing on one side so as not to in- 
close air bubbles, pressing it down close 
with the fingers if the print is small, or a 
soft roller if the print is large. Be care- 
ful that all parts of the print are in con- 
tact with the varnish. Lay aside to dry. 
After it is dry, wet the back with water 
and cautiously rub the paper off with the 
fingers; rub lightly toward the last with 
plenty of water, and the surface of the 
varnish will come up smooth with the ink 
of the print solidly imbedded. Then a 
thin coat of mastic varnish will give it a 
finish. 

4. — Newspaper Pictures. — Prepare a 
liquid by dissolving 1% dr. common yel- 
low soap in 1 pt. of hot water, adding, 
when nearly cold, 314 A-oz. spirits of tur- 
pentine and shaking thoroughly together. 
This fluid is applied liberally to the sur- 
face of the printed matter with a soft 
brush or sponge (being careful not to 
smear the ink, which soon becomes soft- 
ened ) and allowed to soak for a few min- 
utes ; then well damp the plain paper on 
which the transfer is to be made, place it 
upon the engraving and subject the whole 
to moderate pressure for about 1 minute. 
On separating them a reversed transfer 
will be found on the paper. 

5. — Ornamenting, — There are many dif- 
ferent ways of putting on the ornament, 
some preferring one way, others a differ- 
ent method, according to circumstances 
and individual skill. We shall endeavor 
to give the most simple and successful 
method known. 

First, let it be understood that all pic- 
tures that show the colors complete are 
only suitable for white or very light- 
colored brown ; those that are covered 
with a white grounding, gold, metal or 
silver leaf can be used on any color, light 
or dark. After getting the work ready 
for ornamenting, give the picture^ a 
smooth, thin coat of some quick-drying 



[164] 



Art and Artists* Materials 



(Transferring) 



copal varnish, thinned with turpentine 
(other preparations are used of which we 
will speak hereafter), being careful not to 
go beyond the outline of the design. Al- 
low it to dry until it has a good tack and 
put it on the work in its proper place. 
Roll it smooth with an India rubber 
roller or smooth it with a paper folder 
until every part adheres well. (For very 
large pieces it is well to lay them, after 
they have the right tack, between 2 sheets 
of damp blotting paper. It will stretch 
the paper and make a smooth transfer.) 
Now wet the paper, smoothing it down at 
the same time, until it has absorbed all the 
water possible ; leave it about a minute 
and pull off the paper carefully. Should 
any parts of the design still adhere to the 
paper, press it down again, wet-rub it 
until it separates easily. 

After having removed the paper, press 
the design on well and wash and dry it off. 
Should any blisters appear, prick them 
with a pin and press down. In a few 
hours the design may be varnished, which 
will increase the brilliancy of the colors. 

6. — To Paper.— a.. — A very weak solu- 
tion of soft soap and pearlashes is used 
to transfer recent prints, such as illustra- 
tions from papers, etc., to unglazed paper. 
Soft soap, V2 oz. ; pearlash, 2 dr. ; distilled 
water, 16 fl.oz. The print is laid upon a 
flat surface, such as a drawing board, and 
moistened with the liquid. The paper on 
which the reproduction is required is laid 
over this, and then a sheet of thicker 
paper placed on the top, and the whole 
rubbed evenly and hard with a blunt in- 
strument, such as the bowl of a spoon, 
until the desired depth of color in the 
transfer is obtained. Another and more 
artistic process is to cover the print with 
a transparent sheet of material coated 
with wax, to trace out the pictures with a 
point and to take rubbings of the same 
after powdering with plumbago. 

b. — Printing ink may be loosened and 
rendered transferable by several sub- 
stances, but probably the best are creo- 
sote, or oil of tar, and balsam of copaiba. 
To obtain a reversed picture, brush a 
plentiful quantity of creosote (10c. per 
oz.) quickly over the original print. It acts 
immediately, so be careful not to smear 
the ink by unnecessary brushing. Dis- 
solve 1 oz. of common soda or 1 oz. of 
oxalic acid in 1 pt. of water and moisten 
the paper on which the reversed impres- 
sion is to appear. "When the creosote has 
soaked well into the print, transfer by 
placing it face downward on the damp 
paper and rubbing the back with any 
smooth, hard article, and a clear picture 



(Transferring) 



will be the result. Transparencies are 
made by coating the paper with a mixture 
of 1 part Canada balsam and 2 parts 
spirit of turpentine instead of the soda or 
acid solutions, and letting it dry thor- 
oughly before transferring the picture. 

7. — Wagons, Transferring Pictures to. 
— Cover the picture entirely (taking care 
not to go beyond the outlines) with a 
slight coat of fixing varnish, then put the 
picture on the object to be ornamented, 
being careful to place it properly at once, 
to avoid spoiling it by moving. The var- 
nish newly applied being too liquid, the 
picture should be allowed to dry for about 
10 minutes and placed on the object to 
be ornamented when just damp enough to 
be adherent ; this done, cover the back of 
the picture with a piece of cloth steeped 
in water; then, by means of a knife or 
penholder, rub it all over, so as to fix 
every part of it ; then remove the piece 
of cloth and rinse the paper with a paint 
brush steeped in water ; at the end of a 
few minutes the paper will come off, leav- 
ing the painting transferred. Care must 
be taken that the piece of cloth, without 
being too wet, is sufiiciently so for thr 
paper to be entirely saturated. The pic- 
ture must now be washed with a wet 
brush and dried very lightly with some 
blotting paper. Keep the ornamented ar- 
ticle in a warm, dry place until dry. The 
polishing varnish should not be applied 
until the next day, keeping the pictures 
meanwhile out of the dust. The latter 
varnish should be applied as lightly as 
possible. If dark-colored objects are to 
be ornamented, the picture should first be 
covered with a mixture of white lead and 
turpentine, following the outlines of the 
design and covering it entirely. When 
this coat is perfectly dry proceed as above. 

8. — Wood, Transferring Pictures to. — 
a. — Wood surfaces (white woods, lime, 
maple, poplar, etc.) should first be rubbed 
smooth with decolorized linseed oil, then 
dried over a coal fire and given 3 coats, 
one after another, of a varnish made of 30 
parts of sandarac, 15 parts shellac, 15 
parts turpentine and 375 parts of alcohol 
(90%). The varnish may be colored at 
discretion with dragon's blood, turmeric, 
etc. The engraving to be transferred is 
thoroughly soaked in salt water and 
spread on blotting paper, remaining moist. 
A smooth board, as hot as possible, and 
screw clamps must be all ready. The 
wood surface must be again coated with 
varnish, also the picture on the printed 
side. It must then be laid smoothly on 
the wood surface, over it a piece, of flan- 
nel and on that the heated board, and the 



[165 J 



Art and Artists' Materials 



(Transferring) 



whole pressed tightly together by means 
of the screw clamps. After a few hours 
it will be dry. Rub the back of the pic- 
ture with linen rags, wet with water, 
until the greater part of the paper is 
rubbed off; cover the svirface with linseed 
oil and rub off any parts of the paper 
that remain with the finger. The picture 
surface can then be rubbed down with lin- 
seed oil and linen rags, dried, the surface 
varnishing repeated 10 times and finally 
given a coat of copal varnish and polished. 

b. — First varnish the wood once with 
white hard varnish, then cut off the mar- 
gins of the print, which should be on un- 
sized paper. Wet the back of it with a 
sponge and water, using enough water to 
saturate the paper, but not so as to be 
watery on the printed side. Then, with a 
flat camel's-hair brush, give it a coat of 
transfer (alcohol) varnish on the printed 
side and apply it immediately, varnished 
side downward, on the woodwork, placing 
a sheet of paper on it and pressing it 
down evenly with the hand till every part 
adheres. After standing a short time, 
gently rub away the back of the print with 
the fingers, till nothing but a thin pulp 
remains. It may require being wetted 
again before all that will come (or rather 
ought to come) off is removed. Great 
care is required in this operation, that 
the design or printed side be not disturbed. 
When this is done and quite dry, give the 
work a coat of white hard varnish and it 
will appear as if printed on the wood. 

c. — Boxwood for Engraving. — A solu- 
tion of potash or lye is used to soften 
prints, by means of which and heavy pres- 
sure they are transferred to boxwood and 
then re-engraved by hand. In order to 
make a printing block without re-engrav- 
ing as above the photo process must be 
employed. 

9. — Writing, Transferring to Type 



(Wood Gilding) 



Metal. — Sprinkle the ink lines, while 
moist, with gum arable in finest powder. 
When perfectly dry dust off excess, 
stretch the paper on a smooth level back- 
ing and pour on the fusible metal. 

Vellum, Cleansing. (See Cleansing.) 
Vellum, Coloring. 

For a green dye take 1 oz. of verdigris 
and 1 oz. of white wine vinegar and place 
in a bottle near the fire for a few days, 
shaking it 3 or-4 times a day. Previous to 
applying the dye wash the vellum with a 
weak solution of salt of tartar; Then, 
when dry, wash with the green solution to 
the shade required. For a red dye : To 1 
pt. of white wine vinegar add 14 lb. of 
Brazil dust and a small piece of alum. 
Cork the mixture up and let it stand in a 
warm place for a few days before apply- 
ing. There are one or two points to be 
attended to before applying. 

Wood, Gold Leaf on. 

The surface must first be very carefully 
prepared, and when quite dry treated with 
the appropriate gold size, which is laid on 
with a very soft hog's-hair brush or 
camel's-hair pencil ; several coatings are 
applied, each being dry before the applica- 
tion of the other, and finally smoothed 
down. To this surface the gold leaf, cut 
into suitable sized pieces, is taken up by 
the tip of a special brush and laid on to 
the prepared surface, pressed down by a 
dry camel's-hair brush, and so on piece 
after piece until the whole surface is cov- 
ered. The whole operation, as we say, is 
one which requires much experience to 
carry out satisfactorily. Finally, when 
dry, certain parts of the gilded frame are 
burnished with a flint or agate burnisher 
specially made for the purpose. See also 
Burnt Wood, Picture Frames above. 



[166] 



CHAPTER y 



EEYERAaES 

(For page ntimbers of indi vidiial formulas see Index) 
BRIEF SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 



NON=ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES 

CARBONATED AND ARTIFICIAL 

MINERAL WATERS 
COLORING AGENTS 
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS 
SYRUPS 
FOAM 

FRUIT JUICES 
NON-ALCOHOLIC BEERS 
EGG AND MILK DRINKS 
FRAPPES 

GINGER ALES, POP, ETC. 
GLACES 
GRAPE JUICE 
ICE CREAM BEVERAGES 
LEMON, MINT, LIME DRINKS 
MALT BEVERAGES 



NON=ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, Co;/ 

MALTED MILK 

MEAD 

PHOSPHATES 

PUNCHES 

SUNDAES 

HOT BEVERAGES 

BEVERAGES FOR THE SICK 

CIDERS 

ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES 

ESSENCES FOR ALCOHOLIC BEV- 
ERAGES 
LIQUORS (LIQUEURS) AND COR- 
DIALS 

MIXED DRINKS 
WINES AND WINE MAKING 



CARBORATED AND ARTIFICIAL 
MINERAL WATERS 

Carbonating Water for the Fountain. 

Properly carbonating the water used at 
the fountain is an important operation 
for the successful dispensing of soda 
water. 

When the normal temperature is about 
76 to 80° F,, water at this same tempera- 
ture will not absorb more than about 60 
per cent, of gas ; the balance of the gas 
refusing to blend with the water, it rises 
to the top of the carbonator dome and 
merely registers with a false pressure. 

The gas that remains in the water will 
throw off or leave the water almost imme- 
diately upon being drawn, and this is 
because the gas globules are only im- 
mersed and not throughly blended with 
the water. To obtain the best results in 
the carbonator and to give the water a 
lasting effervescence, it is advisable to 
use cold water that has been chilled by 
refrigeration and not by putting ice in the 
water. The proper temperature of water 
for good carbonation is 42 to 45° F. At 
this temperature the gas absorption is 
from 92 to 98°. The water must not be 
colder than this or the carbonic-acid gas 
will form tiny ice globules in the carbo- 
nator. 

Cold water and carbonic-acid gas have 



an _ affinity for each other and will re- 
main in saturation, the gas thoroughly 
permeating the water, whereas in the case 
of warm weather or water it is merely 
immersed. 

Artificial Mineral Waters. 

Mineral waters, both natural and arti- 
ficial, have been used from time out of 
mind. We have it on good authority that 
the old Romans made artificial mineral 
waters in imitation of the natural springs 
of Sicily, Gaul and Iberia, while, during 
the Middle Ages, the alchemists made an 
endless number of such imitations. In 
fact, the origin of soda water is due to 
these attempts at reproducing the natural 
mineral waters, and the generic name of 
"seltzer" water, which is the common 
term employed to-day among the Latin 
races to designate "plain soda," and is 
not uncommon even in England and 
America, owed its adoption to the fact 
that one of the most popular of these 
artificial mineral waters was the imita- 
tion of the natural water obtained from 
the springs of Selters, near Frankfort. 
The virtues of these waters were soon 
found to be due mainly to the carbonic- 
acid gas they contained, and the other 
ingredients were gradually dropped in the 
imitations. Bicarbonate of soda was the 
last ingredient to be retained, and conse- 



Always consult ithe Index when using: this book. 

[167 1 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Mineral Waters) 



quently the name "soda water" has per- 
sisted to the present time. 

The sale of mineral waters by druggists 
is much larger than would be commonly 
believed, and as the profit on this class of 
goods is much greater than that on the 
sweetened drinks, it pays to push their 
sale, and as they are more refreshing in 
the long run than a syruped drink, it 
should not be a difficult matter largely to 
increase the custom for these goods. 

Artificial and Natural Waters Con- 
trasted. — An authority, Mr. Thomas War- 
wick, says : True, I have heard it urged 
that any mineral water if drunk in excess 
is likely to produce bad effects on the sys- 
tem, and this is undoubtedly the case 
with certain of the mineral waters, but 
I doubt very much if either plain soda 
or Vichy could ever be really harmful in 
the doses in which they are served up at 
the soda fountain. Even at the Saratoga 
Springs, where a customer is allowed for 
five cents all the mineral water he wishes 
to drink, I was unable to learn of any 
case of evil effects arising from the prac- 
tice, and although I have personally 
known several soda water "topers," I 
never knew of one who suffered from his 
overindulgence, while I did know a num- 
ber who experienced very beneficial re- 
sults from the use of this beverage. The 
above remarks apply as well to the arti- 
ficial waters as to the natural ones, for in 
spite of the assertions of the mineral 
spring owners to the contrary, the natural 
and the artificial waters are practically 
the same in their effects on the system. 
If anything, the artificial waters are more 
uniform in quality and less likely to con- 
tain traces of injurious matters. Where 
the mineral spring obtains its great ad- 
vantage is in the change of scene a trip 
thither necessitates and in the regime 
which has to be followed. When the 
choice is between a natural mineral water 
in bottles and a careful imitation of the 
same, the imitation is generally better 
than the natural water. 

How Artificial Waters Must Be Made. 
— In making an artificial mineral water 
it must be remembered that it is seldom 
possible to reproduce the water by merely 
combining its chemical components. In 
other words, the analysis of the water 
cannot serve as a basis from which to 
prepare it, because even though all of the 
components were put together many 
would be found insoluble and others 
would form new chemical combinations, 
so that the result would differ widely 
from the mineral water imitated. 

For example, carbonate of magnesia 



(Mineral Waters) 



and carbonate of lime, which are impor- 
tant ingredients in most mineral waters, 
will not make a clear solution unless 
freshly precipitated ; hence, when these 
are to be reproduced in a mineral water it 
is customary to employ other substances 
which will dissolve at once, and which 
will, upon combining, produce these 
salts. The order in which the salts are 
added is also a very important matter, 
for by dissolving the salts separately and 3 
then carefully combining them, solutions l 
may be effected which would be impos- i 
sible were all the salts added together to 
the water in the portable fountain. 

Formulas for various waters follow : 
Formulas. 

The formulas given below are for 
making 10 gallons of mineral water — 
i.e., a sufficient quantity to charge the 
ordinary 10-gallon portable fountain. 
For the sake of convenience the different 
groups of substances in the formulas are 
separated by dashes. All the compo- 
nents above the first dash must be mixed 
together as directed in the first part of 
this article, and must then be added to 
the 10 gallons of water in the portable 
fountain, rocking the fountain all the 
while to secure a thorough mixture. The 
ingredients above the second dash must 
afterward be combined together and added 
to the fountain ; and so on with each of 
the other groups in turn. The formulas 
given are designed to produce a very 
close imitation of the natural waters. 
Less elaborate formulas, which merely ap- 
proximate the principal ingredients in the 
natural waters, are frequently used, and 
a few of these are given at the end of 
this section. 

Apollinaris. — Sodium carbonate, 2.835.- 
27 gr. ; sodium sulphate, 335.2 gr. ; so- 
dium silicate, 10 gr. 

Magnesium chloride, 198.1 gr. ; calci- 
um chloride, 40.2 gr. 



Potassa alum, 57.1 gr. 

Magnesium carbonate, hydr., 158.5 gr. 

Iron sulphate, 21.3 gr. 

Deep RocTc. — Sodium chloride, 1,504.8 
gr. ; potassium chloride, 1,490.8 gr. ; so- 
dium silicate, 1,458 gr. ; sodium carbon- 
ate, 521.1 gr. 

Magnesium chloride, 102.5 gr. ; calci- 
um chloride, 202 gr. ; hydrochloric acid, 
257.4 gr. 

Kissingen. — Sodium phosphate, 3.6 gr. ; 
sodium silicate, 16.1 gr. ; sodium chloride, 
2,11Q.4: gr. ; potassium chloride, 176.2 gr. ; 
sodium bromide, 5 gr. ; sodium nitrate, 



[168] 



Berjerafres — Non- Alcoholic 



(Mineral Waters) 



57 gr. ; ammonium carbonate, 1.6 gr. ; 
sodium carbonate, 1,986.7 gr. 

Lithium chloride, 12.2 gr. ; calcium 
chloride, 960 gr. ; magnesium chloride, 
14.9 gr. 

Magnesium sulphate, 1,213.8 gr. 

Iron sulphate, 46.1 gr. 

Saratoga Vichy. — Sodium carbonate, 
4,249.8 gr. ; sodium chloride, 112.2 gr. ; 
potassium chloride, 141.1 gr. ; sodium 
bromide, 9.9 gr. ; sodium silicate, 15.4 gr. 

Lithium carbonate, 11 gr. 

Calcium chloride, 736.3 gr. ; magnesium 
chloride, 307.9 gr. ; barium chloride, 6.2 
gr. ; aluminum chloride, 12.5 gr. 

Iron chloride, 0.39 gr. 

The foregoing formulas are designed 
to give imitations as closely as possible to 
the analyses of the natural water, the 
analyses of the best chemists having been 
taken in every case. As in many cases 
the composition of the waters of the 
mineral springs differs at different sea- 
sons of the year, the mean or average of 
several analyses has to be taken as a 
standard. 

In cases where a close reproduction of 
the natural waters is not required, much 
simpler formulas may be used, as for ex- 
ample in the three formulas given below : 

Kissingen. — Sodium bicarbonate, 1 
dram ; sodium chloride, 8 oz. ; ammonium 
chloride, 4 gr. ; sodium sulphate, 2 dr. 2 
scr. ; magnesium sulphate, 2 oz. ; magne- 
sium carbonate, 4 dr. 1 scr. ; water 2% 
pt. Add to 10 gallons of water in a 
portable fountain and charge to 150 
pounds. 

Setters. — Calcinim chloride, 0.27 gram; 
magnesium, chloride, 0.8 gram ; sea salt, 
0.23 gram ; sodium phosphate, 0.27 gram ; 
iron sulphate, 0.013 gram ; sodium sul- 
phate, 0.4 gram; water, 605 grams. 
Charge to 150 pounds pressure. 

Vichy. — Sodium chloride, 6 drams ; so- 
dium bicarbonate, 5.25 oz. ; ammonium 
carbonate, 10 gr. ; sodium phosphate, 25 
gr. ; sodium sulphate, 4 scr. ; potassium 
sulphate, 2 drams. Mix in half a gallon 
of water, and filter after standing twelve 
hours. 

This solution may be kept a certain 
length of time, and when required be 
added to 10 gallons of water in the por- 
table fountain and charged to 150 pounds 
pressure. 

N. B. — In the case of these last three 
mineral water solutions it is desirable 
to shake the solution thoroughly before 
adding it to the water in the portable 
fountain. 



(Coloring Agents) 



COLORING AGENTS 

No aniline colors whatever should be 
used in coloring any preparation for in- 
ternal use, as they are liable to be harm- 
ful in themselves, and also in many in- 
stances to be contaminated with poisons 
used in the processes of making them. 

Alkanet. — Deodorized alcohol, 800 
parts ; ground alkanet root, 200 parts. 
Macerate, express and filter. 

Black. — Sugar-black Paste. — Coal 
black (Kohlschwarz), 3 parts; grape 
sugar, 1 part ; water, 6 parts. 

Blue. — Sap-blue Paste. — Dark blue, 
3 parts ; grape sugar, 1 part ; water, 6 
parts. 

Caramel. — Heat three pounds of 
crushed sugar in a kettle with one pint of 
water. At first the sugar will dissolve, 
but after a while it will again solidify 
into a firm mass, which must be broken 
up. When the pieces have again become 
liquefied the mass becomes dark-colored 
and begins to foam, necessitating con- 
stant stirring. Continue to cook over a 
slow fire until the mass becomes very 
dark, then remove the kettle from the 
fire and pour in slowly three pints of boil- 
ing water, replace on the fire and boil 
again a few moments, then remove and 
cool. Add simple syrup to required con- 
sistency. 

Carmine. — 1. — Carmine, 5 parts; dex- 
trin, 1 part ; water, 4 parts. 

2. — Carmine, finely powdered, 300 gr. ; 
stronger aqua ammonia, 6 fl.dr. ; glycer- 
ine, 3 fl.oz. ; water, 30 fl.oz. Dissolve the 
carmine in the ammonia water and add 
the glycerine ; now warm the solution 
until all odor of ammonia has disap- 
peared. The water is then added. 

3. — Carmine No. 40, 1 part ; stronger 
ammonia water, 4 parts ; distilled water 
sufficient to make 24 parts. Rub up the 
carmine in the ammonia water and to the 
solution add the water. If on standing 
the carmine shows a tendency to separate 
out, a drop or two of ammonia will cor- 
rect the trouble. This statement should 
be put on the label of the bottle, as the 
volatile ammonia soon escapes, even in 
stoppered vials. 

Curcuma. — Deodorized alcohol, 600 
parts ; water, 200 parts ; ground curcuma, 
200 parts. Macerate, express and filter. 

Grass. — Deodorized alcohol, 680 parts ; 
blue (or lawn) grass, 320 parts. Chop 
the grass fine and cover with the alcohol ; 
let macerate for 24 hours, express and 
filter. 

Green. — 1. — The base for green color- 
ings is saffron tincture, which see. The 
169] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Coloring Agents) 



complementary color used to give the 
green is an aqueous solution of indigocar- 
mine paste. Small amounts of the latter 
solution are added to the tincture until 
the desired shade of green is obtained. 

2.— Carmine Green. — Woodruff (Wald- 
meister) green, 55 parts; Rosa II., 5 
parts ; dextrin, 35 parts ; potato flour, 5 
parts. 

Orange. — Tincture of red sandalwood, 
1 part ; ethereal tincture of orlean, q. s. 
Add the tincture of orlean to the sandal- 
wood tincture until the desired shade of 
orange is obtained. 

A red added to any of the yellows gives 
an orange color. 

Pink. — 1. — Carmine, 1 part ; liquor po- 
tassse, 6 parts ; rose water, enough to 
make 48 parts. Mix. Should the color 
be too high, dilute with water until the 
requisite tint is acquired. 

2. — Soak red apple parings in Califor- 
nia brandy. The addition of rose leaves 
makes an exquisite flavoring as well as 
coloring agent. 

Raspherry. — Extract of annatto, 8 
av.oz. ; water, 16 fl.oz. ; alcohol, 8 fl.oz. ; 
tartaric acid, 150 gr. Dilute caramel so- 
lution, q. s. Mix the extract of annatto, 
water, alcohol and the tartaric acid. 
When solution is effected, add a sufficient 
quantity of the caramel solution to give 
the liquid a rich raspberry color. 

Red. — 1. — A fine red color may be given 
to syrups by black cherry juice or black 
raspberry juice, and these are, of course, 
unobjectionable, if free from antiseptics. 

2. — Cinnabar Red. — Scarlet, 65 parts ; 
Avhite dextrin, 30 parts ; potato flour, 5 
parts. For every 4 lb. 4i/^ oz. add a 
grain and a half each of potassium iodide 
and sodium nitrate. 

3. — Cochineal. — a. — Powdered cochineal, 
1 av.oz. ; potassium carbonate. 2 av. oz. ; 
water, 26 fl.oz. ; cream of tartar, 6 av.oz. ; 
alum, ^ av.oz. Dissolve the potassium 
carbonate in the water, and add this 
solution to the powdered cochineal : let 
the mixture macerate for two days. Then 
add the cream of tartar and the alum ; 
when effervescence has ceased, pour on 
a filter, and wash the residue with suffi- 
cient hot water to make the filtrate meas- 
ure 30 fl.oz., then add 2 fl.oz. of alcohol. 

b. — Cochineal in coarse powder, _ 6 
parts ; potassium carbonate, 2 parts ; dis- 
tilled water, 15 parts ; alcohol, 12 parts ; 
simple syrup enough to make 500 parts. 
Rub up the potassium carbonate and the 
cochineal together, adding the water and 
alcohol little by little under constant trit- 
uration. Set aside over night, then add 
the syrup and filter. 

[ 



(Essences and Extracts) 



c. — Cochineal, in No. 50 powder, 60 
grams ; potassium carbonate, 30 grams ; 
alum, 30 grams ; potassium bitartrate, 60 
grams ; glycerine, 500 c.c. ; alcohol, 30 
c.c. ; water, a sufficient quantity to make 
1,000 c.c. Triturate the cochineal inti- 
mately with the potassium carbonate and 
500 c.c. of water ; then add the alum 
and potassium bitartrate successively, 
heat the mixture to boilin-g in a capacious 
vessel, set aside to cool, add to it the 
glycerine and alcohol, filter, and pass 
enough water through the filter to make 
1,000 c.c. Yellow may be obtained by 
infusing safflower in water. 

Red Saunders. — Deodorized alcohol, 
800 parts ; ground red saunders, 200 
parts. Macerate, express and filter. 

Rose. — a. — Bluish Rose. — Grenadin, 65 
parts ; white dextrin, 30 parts ; potato 
flour, 5 parts. For every 4 pounds 4% 
ounces, add ly^ grains each of potassium 
iodide and sodium nitrate. 

b.— Yellowish Rose.— Rosa II., 60 
parts ; citron-yellow, 5 parts ; white dex- 
trin, 30 parts; potato flour, 5 parts. 

Saffron Tincture. — Saffron, 3 oz. ; 
water, 1 qt. ; alcohol, 1 qt. Add the saf- 
fron to the diluted alcoholic menstruum. 
Macerate for several days in a moderate- 
. ly warm place, then cool and filter. 

Violet. — Red-violet, 65 parts ; white 
dextrin, 30 parts ; potato flour, 5 parts. 

YelloiD. — 1. — Ground fustic wood, 1% 
oz. ; deodorized alcohol, 4 fl.oz. ; distilled 
water, 4 fl.oz. This color may be made 
in the same manner as the liquid saffron, 
and is a fine coloring for many purposes. 

2. — Turmeric powder, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 
dilute. 16 oz. Macerate for several days, 
agitating frequently, and filter. For 
some beverages the addition of this tinc- 
ture is not to be recommended, as it pos- 
sesses a very spicy taste. 

3. — Pastille Yellow. — Citron-yellow II., 
7 parts : grape sugar, first quality, 1 part ; 
white dextrin, 2 parts. 

ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS 

Essence. — An oil distilled at a com- 
paratively low temperature from a plant 
in which it already exists ; as, essence of 
peppermint. — Century Dictionary. 

Extract. — Anvthing drawn from a 
substance by distillation, heat, solution, 
or other chemical process, as an essence 
or tincture. — Century Dictionary. 

Allspice. — 1. — Allspice, coarsely ground, 
4 oz. ; diluted alcohol, 1 pt. 

2. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 300 parts : oil of allspice, 
100 parts ; carbonate of magnesia, 100 
parts. Color with caramel. 
170] 



Beverages — Non-A Icoholic 



(Essences and Extracts) 



Almonds. — ^1. — One fl.oz. essential oil 
of almonds, 1 pt. spirit ; proceed as all- 
spice. 

2. — Essence of bitter almonds, essence 
of peach kernels, almond flavor. Essen- 
tial oil of almonds, 1 fl.oz. ; rectified 
spirit (56 o.p.), 19 fl.oz. Mix and agi- 
tate them together until united. 

3. — Concentrated essence of almonds, 
double E. of A. Take of essential oil 
of almonds, 1 fl.oz. ; alcohol, strongest, 
9 fl.oz. Mix. Used chiefly to impart 
the nutty aroma and flavor of bitter alm- 
onds and peach kernels to other prepara- 
tions. The first is the common essence 
of the shops. Essences of other essential 
oils may be prepared in a similar man- 
ner. Many of them are now much used 
by confectioners and cooks, as well as in 
perfumery and cosmetics. It should be 
remembered that essence of almonds is 
poisonous. 

4.^0il of bitter almonds, 1 oz. ; alco- 
hol, 13 oz. ; water, 6 oz. Some color it 
with half an ounce of tincture of tur- 
meric. 

Angelica. — 1. — Angelica root, 2 oz. ; 
rectified spirit, 2i/^ oz. ; water, 9 oz. Di- 
gest, strain and evaporate. 

2. — xlngelica root, 2 lb. ; rectified spirit, 
1 gal. ; make a tincture ; to the marc 
add 1 gal. proof spirit and repeat the 
digestion ; filter the two tinctures sepa- 
rately, mix, distil off the spirit, and 
evaporate. 

Anise. — 1. — Aniseed, 2 oz. ; oil of star 
anise, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 2 pt. 

2. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts; 
proof spirits, 300 parts ; oil of anise, 100 
parts ; carbonate of magnesia, 100 parts. 
Color with caramel. 

Apples. — 1. — Peel and reduce to pulp, 
6 lb. unripe crab apples ; add 1 lb. iron 
wire in small coils ; digest in a vapor 
bath for about a week, express, strain, 
decant and evaporate in a porcelain ves- 
sel, with constant stirring, to the con- 
sistency of a soft extract ; dissolve the 
residue in 4 parts water, strain and 
evaporate as before. 

2. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
pure apple brandy, 400 parts ; apple ether, 
100 parts. Color with tincture of red 
Saunders. 

3. — Glycerine. 1 oz. : amvl valerianate, 
4 drams ; linalyl formate, 45 m. ; fld. ext. 
orris, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 11 oz. ; water, q.s. 
ad., 1 pt. 

4. — Cone. ess. of apple peel, 720 parts ; 
valerianate of amyl, 120 parts ; acetic 
ether, C. P., 80 parts; nitric ether, 80 
parts. 

.Apricot. — 1. — Butyric ether, 10 parts ; 



(Essences and Extracts) 



valerianic ether, 5 parts ; glycerine, 4 
parts ; amylic alcohol, 2 parts ; amyl- 
butyric ether, chloroform, enanthic ether, 
and tartaric acid, each 1 part. 

2. — Linalyl formate, 90 m. ; glycerine, 
1 oz. ; amyl valerianate, 4 drams ; alco- 
hol, 11 oz. ; fl. ext. orris, 1 oz. ; water, 
q. s. ad., 1 pt. 

3. — Alcohol, 400 parts ; cone. ess. of 
apricot peel, 360 parts ; butyrate of amyl, 
200 parts ; oil of bitter almond, 40 parts. 

Banana. — 1. — Banana essence, 2 oz. ; 
citric acid, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 70°, 2 pt. 

2. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 200 parts ; pure banana 
juice, 190 parts ; banana ether, 100 parts ; 
tincture of vanilla, 10 parts. Color with 
tincture of curcuma. 

3. — Acetate of amyl, 1 oz. ; valerianate 
of ethyl, 1 dram ; diluted alcohol, 15 oz. 

4. — Amyl acetate, 4 drams ; alcohol, 
10 oz. ; water, enough to make 16 oz. 
Some add butyric ether, which, however, 
is of questionable utility. 

5.- — Alcohol, 430 parts ; cone. ess. of 
banana peel, 400 parts ; butyrate of amyl, 
100 parts ; butyric ether, 50 parts ; 
chloroform, 10 parts ; aldehyde, 10 parts. 

Bergamot. — Alcohol, 780 parts ; pine- 
apple ether, 200 parts ; oil of bergamot, 
20 parts. 

Birch. — 1. — First cut the oil. The es- 
sence is made as follows : Oil of birch 
or wintergreen, 1^^ oz. ; alcohol, 95°, 12 
oz. ; water, 12 oz. 

2. — Sassafras, 1 oz. ; wildcherry bark, 
% oz. ; pimento, 1 oz. ; wintergreen, 1 
oz. ; hops, % oz. ; coriander seed, % oz. 
Percolate with diluted alcohol until 10 
ounces of tincture are obtained. The 
"extract" is added to plain mineral water 
when drawn, in the proportion of a half 
a teaspoonful more or less to an ordinary 
glass. 

Blackherrp. — 1. — Apple oil, 1 oz. ; 
quince oil, 1 oz. ; tincture of orris, 1 oz. ; 
tartaric acid, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 70°, 2 pt. 

2. — Tincture of orris root (1 to 8), 1 
pt. ; acetic ether, 30 drops ; butyric ether, 
60 drops. 

3. — Blackberry. — Deodorized alcohol, 
500 parts ; proof spirits, 200 parts ; pure 
blackberry juice, 170 parts ; blackberry 
ether, 100 parts ; essence of cinnamon, 
10 parts ; essence of coriander, 10 parts ; 
essence of nutmeg, 10 parts, 

4. — Alcohol. 500 parts ; cone. ess. of 
blackberry, 400 parts ; acetic ether, C. P., 
50 parts ; formic ether, 20 parts ; butyrate 
of amyl, 20 parts ; acetate of amyl, 10 
parts. 

Blueherry. — Alcohol, 420 parts ; cone. 
ess. of blueberry, 400 parts ; acetic ether, 



[171] 



Beverages — Non-A IcohoUc 



(Essences and Extracts) 



C. P., 60 parts ; benzoic ether, 60 parts ; 
enanthic ether, 40 parts ; pelargonic 
ether, 20 parts. 

Cacao. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 100 parts ; powdered cacao, 
300 parts ; powdered vanilla, 50 parts ; 
powdered cinnamon, 45 parts ; ambergris, 
5 parts. Macerate for two weeks, ex- 
press and filter. 

Calamus. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 
parts ; proof spirits, 300 parts ; oil of 
calamus, 100 parts; carbonate of mag- 
nesia, 100 parts. 

Caraway. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 
parts ; proof spirits, 300 parts ; oil of 
caraway, 100 parts ; carbonate of mag- 
nesia, 100 parts. Color with tincture of 
grass. 

Cardamom. — 1. — Cardamom seeds, 600 
gr. ; alcohol at 85°, 10.5 liters; water, 5 
liters. Product, 10 liters. 

2. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 400 parts ; oil of carda- 
mom, 50 parts ; carbonate of magnesia, 
50 parts. 

Cassia. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 300 parts ; oil of cassia. 100 
parts ; carbonate of magnesia, 100 parts. 
Color with tincture of red saunders. 

Catechu ( Cachou ) . — Catechu, 600 
grams; alcohol, 85°, 10.5 liters; water, 
5 liters. Product, 10 liters. 

Cedrat. — Rinds of 60 fresh citrons ; 
alcohol, 12 liters. Macerate for twenty- 
four hours ; at the time of distilling add 
5 liters of water and distill ; draw off 11 
liters. Rectify with 5 liters of water. 
Product, 10 liters. 

Celery. — 1. — Bruised celery seed, 41/^ 
oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pt. ; digest 14 days, 
strain. 

2. — Celery seed, 7 oz. ; rectified spirit, 

1 pt. ; digest and strain as 1. 

3. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 300 parts ; oil of celery, 100 
parts ; carbonate of magnesia, 100 parts. 

Cherry. — 1. — Oil of bitter almonds, 2 
drams ; apple oil, 1 oz. ; citric acid, 1 oz. ; 
alcohol, 70°, 2 pt. 

2. — Black. — a. — Benzoic ether, 5 parts ; 
acetic ether, 10 parts ; oil of persico 
(peach kernels) and benzoic acid, each 

2 parts ; oxalic acid, 1 part. 

b. — Alcohol, 550 parts ; cone. ess. of 
black cherry, 400 parts ; acetate of amyl, 
25 parts ; oil of bitter almond. 10 parts ; 
butyrate of amyl, 8 parts ; oil of citron, 
2 parts ; oil of cinnamon, 2 parts ; oil of 
clove, 2 parts ; oil of sweet orange. 1 part. 

3. — Morella Cherry. — Deodorized alco- 
hol, 500 parts ; proof spirits, 200 parts ; 
pure morella cherry juice, 160 parts ; 
morella cherry ether, 100 parts ; carbon- 



( Essences and Extracts) 

ate of magnesia, 20 parts; oil of bitter 
almond, 10 parts ; oil of lemon, 4 parts ; 
oil of sweet orange, 2 parts ; oil of cinna- 
mon, 2 parts ; oil of cloves, 2 parts. 

4. — Wild Cherry. — a. — Wild cherry in 
fine powder, 16 oz. ; glycerine, 4 oz. ; 
water, 8 oz. ; mix the glycerine and the 
water, and digest the wild cherry in 8 oz. 
of the mixture for four days ; pack in a 
percolator and pour on the remaining 

4 oz. glycerine and water ; when this has 
disappeared from the surface, pour on 
rectified spirit (0.817) until 12 oz. of 
fluid have been obtained, and set this 
portion aside. Then percolate with spirit 
until 20 oz. more have been obtained ; 
evaporate to 4 oz. and mix with the re- 
served portion. 

b. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 250 parts ; powdered wild- 
cherry bark, 250 parts. Macerate for 
two weeks, express and filter. Color 
with caramel. 

c. — Acetic ether, 5 fl.dr. ; benzoic ether, 

5 fl.dr. ; enanthic ether, 1 fl.dr. ; oil of 
bitter almond (deprived of hydrocyanic 
acid), 2 fl.dr.; saturated alcoholic solu- 
tion of benzoic acid, 1 fl.dr. ; glycerine, 

4 fl.dr. ; deodorized alcohol, enough to 
make 16 fl.oz. 

Cinchona. — Yellow cinchona bark in 
coarse powder, 16 oz. ; sufficient distilled 
water ; rectified spirit, 1 oz. Macerate 
the bark in 40 oz. water for twenty-four 
hours, pack in a percolator and add 
water until 240 oz. have passed through, 
or until the bark is exhausted ; evaporate 
the liquor to 20 oz. at a temperature not 
exceeding 160° F. (71° C.) ; filter and 
continue the evaporation to 3 oz., or until 
the sp. gr. of the liquid is 1.200; when 
cold add the spirit gradually, constantly 
stirring. 

Cinnamon. — 1. — Oil of cinnamon, 2 
drams ; Ceylon cinnamon, bruised, 4 oz. ; 
diluted alcohol, 2 pt. 

2. — Cinnamon, pulverized, 300 grams ; 
alcohol, 85°, 10.5 liters; water, 5 liters. 
Macerate for twenty-four hours, distil 
over open fire. Rectify the product with 

5 liters water over an open fire — product, 
10 liters. 

Citron. — Alcohol, 700 parts ; pineapple 
ether, 200 parts ; oil of citron, 100 parts. 

Cloves. — 1. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 
parts ; proof spirits, 300 parts ; oil of 
cloves, 100 parts ; carbonate of magnesia, 
100 parts. Color with caramel. 

2. — Powdered clove, 4 oz. ; diluted al- 
cohol, 1 pt. 

Cocoa. — Dissolve 1 lb. of chocolate in a 
quart of boiling water, let it cool ; take 
out the cocoa butter and add to it 4 oz. 



[172] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Essences and Extracts) 



of glycerine and bottle. For flavoring 
ice cream. 

Coffee. — 1. — Pour upon a pound of the 
best fresh roasted coffee 1 qt. of cold 
water, heat gently for half hour, then 
let it come to a boil, cool for two hours, 
strain and add 4 oz. of glycerine. 

2. — For Dispensing (Liebig's).^ — Pour 
1 qt. boiling water on 2 lb. of best ground 
coffee ; allow it to stand one hour, place 
in a percolator ; add enough water to 
obtain 32 fl.oz. of extract; add 2 oz. of 
alcohol to preserve, or more alcohol if 
intended to keep a long time. 

3. — For Dispensing. — Ground Java cof- 
fee, 8 oz. ; sliced vanilla bean, 2 drams ; 
diluted alcohol, q. s. 

4. — Ground roasted coffee, 2 to 8 oz. ; 
cinnamon, bruised, 60 gr. ; vanilla, sliced, 
60 gr. ; diluted alcohol, q. s. Moisten the 
ingredients with some of the liquid and 
pack in percolator. Put in enough di- 
luted alcohol to leave a stratum above 
it. Macerate for forty-eight hours, cov- 
ered ; percolate, pour on enough diluted 
alcohol until 32 fl.oz. of extract is ob- 
tained. 

5. — From 1 part of ground coffee and 
the necessary quantity of boiling water 
make a decoction that after filtration con- 
sists of ^2 part by weight of fluid. This 
with the addition of 0.2 part sugar is 
evaporated in a shallow dish at a tem- 
perature of at the highest 140° F. to such 
an extent that a sample dropped on a 
glass plate on cooling becomes a solid 
mass. The fluid is then poured into 
molds that give the solidified pieces the 
form of tablets and these are wrapped 
in tinfoil or paraffined paper. 

6. — Mocha coffee, % lb. ; Java coffee, 
% lb. ; hot water, sufficient to make 2 qt. 
Grind the coffee to a moderately fine pow- 
der. Moisten with the hot water and 
pack in a glass funnel or preferably in a 
cylindrical percolator and percolate by 
pouring on boiling water in divided por- 
tions until two quarts of percolate are 
obtained. 

7. — Mocha coffee, 4 parts; "Old Gov- 
ernment" Java coffee, 8 parts ; Rio coffee, 
4 parts ; glycerine, 3 parts ; water, 
enough. The coffee should be freshly 
roasted and reduced to a moderately fine 
powder. Put into a vessel provided with 
a tightly fitting cover, and pour over it 
10 parts of boiling water to which the 
glycerine has been added. Put on the 
cover and close tightly. Now wrap the 
vessel in a blanket or felt, to preserve 
the heat as long as possible, and set away 
in a warm place one hour and a half. 



(Essences and Extracts) 



At the expiration of this time pack into 
a percolator and exhaust with boiling 
water until 32 parts of percolate are 
obtained. 

Coriander. — 1. — Coriander seeds, 12 
kilo 500 gr. ; alcohol, 10.50 liters ; water, 
5 liters — product, 10 liters. 

2. — Powdered coriander, 4 oz. ; oil of 
coriander, 1 dram ; alcohol, 24 oz. ; water, 
8 oz. 

Cranlerry. — ^Alcohol, 400 parts; cone, 
ess. of cranberry, 300 parts ; raspberry 
ether, 200 parts; acetic ether, C. P., 50 
parts; French wine vinegar, 20 parts; 
formic ether, 20 parts ; benzoic acid, 10 
parts. 

Cumin. — Cumin seeds, 1 kilo 250 gr. : 
alcohol at 85°, 10.50 liters; water, 5 
liters — product, 10 liters. 

Currant. — 1. — Acetic ether, tartaric 
acid, each 5 parts ; benzoic acid, succinic 
acid, benzoic ether, aldehyde and enan- 
thic acid, each 1 part. 

2. — Black. — Raspberry ether, 500 
parts ; cone. ess. of black currant, 400 
parts ; acetic ether, C. P., 100 parts. 

3. — Red. — a. — Raspberry ether, 900 
parts ; acetic ether, 80 parts ; French 
wine vinegar, 20 parts. 

b. — Acetic ether, 5 parts ; benzoic ether, 
1 part ; aldehyde, 1 part ; acetic acid, 1 
part ; benzoic acid, 1 part ; enanthic ether, 
1 part ; raspberry essence, 10 parts ; de- 
odorized alcohol, q. s. to make 100 parts. 
Mix. The above is rendered much finer 
by the addition of 20 parts of pure fresh 
currant juice. 

Fennel. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 300 parts ; oil of fennel, 100 
parts ; carbonate of magnesia, 100 parts. 
Color lightly with tincture of red saun- 
ders. 

Foam Extract. — Crushed soap bark, % 
lb. ; alcohol, % pt. ; glycerine, % pt. ; 
water, 1 pt. The bark should be satu- 
rated with 3 oz. of the mixture of alco- 
hol, glycerine and water. Pack in a per- 
colator, close the lower orifice ; add 
enough liquid to leave a stratum above 
the bark ; then macerate for twenty-four 
hours, and percolate ; add of alcohol, 
glycerine and water in the above pro- 
portions enough to obtain 1 qt. of ex- 
tract. 

The proportions are from 1 dram to y^ 
oz. to 2 qt. of syrup, according to the 
foam desired on the beverage. 

Fruit Essences. — Dingler^s Polytechnic 
Journal gives the following table of the 
composition of artificial fruit essences, 
showing the number of parts of each in- 



[173] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Essences and Extracts) 



gredient to be added to 100 parts of 
alcohol — all chemically pure. Glycerine 



(Essences and Extracts) 



is found in all — it appears to blend the 
different odors, and to harmonize them : 



Glycerine 


5 


o 

a. 

< 

4 

1 


a 

8 




CD 

s 




1 

5 

1 
1 
2 
10 


g 

10 


(V 



10 

2 


1 


i 

CS 



10 

9 


§ 


ft 

ta 

as 

4 

"l" 

1 
5 
1 

1 




1 


<i3 

PI 
3 


Chloroform . .. 




2 


Nitric Ether 


"5" 




Aldehyde 


2 

5 
5 
5 
5 


"io' 

5 


5 
5 
1 
2 







2 

5 

1 
1 


2 


1 

5 


2 


* '1' ' 


Acetate of Ethyl 


"5' "io" 


^ 


Formiate of Ethyl 






Butyrate of Ethyl 






Valerianate of Ethyl 










.... 


.... 




5 




Benzoate of Ethyl 




5 5 
1 2 






1 




.... 


1 
1 


1 
1 

1 

1 
1 
1 






Enanthylate of Ethyl 


5 
1 

V 


1 






10 






Sebacic Ether 


in 




Salicylate of Methyl 


2 










1 

10 




1 


I 

2 


.... 




Acetate of Amyl 








10 




Butyrate of Amyl 




1 






.... 




10 


Valerianate of Amyl 








10 




10 

1 










Essence of Orange 




















Alcoholic ] Tartaric Acid 










10 






5 


5 


5 






solutions Oxalic Acid 




1 






1 




saturated in Succinic Acid 






1 






3 


1 
1 


1 


... , 




the cold of— Benzoic Acid 








1 ^ 




.... 






























1 





Ginger. — 1 (Creuse's Process). — Fluid 
extract of ginger, li/^ pt. ; water, 3 pt. ; 
carbonate of magnesia, 3 oz. Mix, shake 
often for 24 hours, filter, evaporate to % 
pint and add % pt. alcohol. 

2. — Jamaica ginger, fine powdered, 6 
oz. ; alcohol, 2 pt. Moisten powder with 
% pt. of alcohol and allow it to macer- 
ate for 24 hours. Pack in percolator 
and gradually pour menstruum on it until 

2 pt. are obtained of this extract. Use 

3 oz. to 1 gal. simple syrup and 1 oz. 
foam. 

3. — Ginger, unbleached, 4 oz. ; calamus, 
2 drams ; Canada snake root, 2 drams ; 
cinnamon, mace and cloves, of each 2 
drams ; alcohol, 85 per cent., sufficient to 
make 16 oz. Dextrin syrup is the article 
familiarly known as "glucose." Its use is 
deemed preferable to cane sugar in mix- 
ture, owing to the gum it contains and 
the body given to the preparation without 
excessive sweetness. 

4. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 250 parts ; powdered Ja- 
maica ginger, 250 parts. Macerate for 
two weeks, express and filter. 

5. — Grated ginger, 3 oz. ; fresh lemon 
peel, 2 oz., digested in ll^ pt. brandy for 
ten days. 

6.— Equal parts best unbleached Ja- 



maica ginger in coarse powder, and sili- 
cious sand, sprinkled with enough recti- 
fied spirit of wine to perfectly moisten ; 
after 24 hours the mass is placed in a 
percolator, and after returning the first 
runnings two or three times, the receiver 
is changed and more rectified spirit is 
poured on gradually and at intervals as 
required until as much essence is ob- 
tained as there has been ginger employed. 

7. — Twelve lb. best unbleached Jamaica 
ginger in coarse powder digested in 2% 
gal. rectified spirit for fourteen days ; the 
expressed and strained tincture is re- 
duced by distillation in a steam or water 
bath to 1 gal., cooled, transferred rapidly 
to stoppered bottles and filtered. 

8. — Twenty-four lb. ginger as in 7, 6 
gal. rectified spirit ; make a tincture as 
before, and distil down to 1 gal.; cool as 
quickly as possible out of contact with 
the air and add 1 gal. strongest rectified 
spirit of wine ; filter if necessary. 

9. — Causes no turbidity with water or 
syrup. 1 lb. finest Jamaica ginger in 
powder, macerated in 8 oz. rectified spirit 
for several hours ; add more spirit and 
percolate to 16 oz. ; add 2 oz. heavy car- 
bonate of magnesia, agitate and add 24 
oz. water ; shake well and filter. If the 
filtrate is turbid, shake up with more 
magnesia axid filter again. It becomes 



[174] 



Beverages— N on- Alcoholic 



(Essences and Extracts) 



turbid again after a few days' rest, but 
on filtering continues clear. 

Gooseberry. — Aldehyde, 1 part ; acetic 
ether, 5 parts ; benzoic ether, 1 part ; 
enanthic ether. 1 part ; tartaric acid, 
saturated solution, 1 part ; benzoic acid, 
saturated solution, 1 part ; alcohol (de- 
odorized), q. s. to make 300 parts. 

Grape. — 1. — Chloroform, 2 parts ; alde- 
hyde, 2 parts ; formic ether, 2 parts ; 
enanthic ether, 10 parts ; methyl-salicylic 
ether, 1 part ; tartaric acid, saturated so- 
lution, 5 parts ; succinic acid, saturated 
solution, 3 parts ; glycerine, 10 parts ; al- 
cohol (deodorized), q. s. to make 100 
parts. Mix. 

2. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 300 parts ; pure catawba 
grape juice, 140 parts ; acetic ether, 30 
parts ; butyric ether, 15 parts ; oil of bit- 
ter almond, 10 parts ; cognac oil, 5 parts. 

3. — Enanthic ether, glycerine, each 10 
parts ; tartaric acid, 5 parts ; succinic 
acid, 3 parts ; aldehyde, chloroform and 
formic ether, each 2 parts, and methyl- 
salicylic ether, 1 part. 

4. — Alcohol, 440 parts ; Rhine wine, 
400 parts ; enanthic ether, 100 parts ; 
chloroform, 20 parts ; formic ether, 20 
parts ; aldehyde, 20 parts. 

Juniper Berries. — 1, — Deodorized alco- 
hol, 500 parts ; proof spirits, 300 parts ; 
oil of juniper berries, 100 parts ; carbo- 
nate of magnesia, 100 parts. 

2.- — Dissolve % oz. of oil of juniper in 
3 pt. of rectified spirit, 90 per cent. 
Filter. 

Kola Essence. — The Ap. Ztg. gives this 
formula : Kola, in coarse powder, 75 ; 
confection orange, 50 ; vanilla, 2 ; Ceylon 
cinnamon, 10 ; Muscatel or port wine, 
400 ; alcohol, 500. Mix and macerate 
eight days, express and filter into a solu- 
tion of sugar, 250 ; water, 400. 

Lavender. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 
parts ; proof spirits, 300 parts ; oil of 
Mitcham lavender, 100 parts ; carbonate 
of magnesia, 100 parts ; color with tinc- 
ture of red Saunders. 

Lemon. — 1. — Oil of lemon, acetic ether 
and tartaric acid, each 10 parts ; glyc- 
erine, 5 parts ; aldehdye, 2 parts ; chloro- 
form nitrous ether and succinic ether, 
each 1 part. 

2. — One-half lb. yellow, peel of fresh 
lemons, % gal. boiling water ; infuse one 
hour, express the liquor, boil down to 'Y'i 
pt., cool and add i/4 oz. oil of lemon dis- 
solved in 1% pt. spirit of wine; mix and 
filter. 

3. — Citral, 1 oz. ; oil lemon, 15 oz. ; 
cologne spirit, 3 gal. ; water, 2 gal. 

4. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 



(Essences and Extracts) 

proof spirits, 250 parts ; oil of lemon, 100 
parts ; carbonate of magnesia, 100 parts ; 
pineapple ether, 50 parts. Color with 
tincture of curcuma. 

5. — White sugar, 600 grams ; distilled 
water, 400 grams ; citric acid, 40 grams ; 
orange flower water, 100 grams; alcohol. 




The Ecuelle, for rupturing the oil vessels 
of citrus fruits 

100 grams ; oil lemon, 10 grams. Dis- 
solve the sugar in the water and to the 
syrup add the citric acid dissolved in the 
orange flower water. Filter and add the 
oil of lemon dissolved in the alcohol. To 
make lemonade add 100 grams of this 
essence to 1 liter of water or carbonated 
water. 

6. — Alcohol, 700 parts ; pineapple ether, 
200 parts ; oil of lemon, 100 parts. 

7. — Oil of lemon, 1^ fl.oz. ; alcohol, 
14% fl.oz. ; turmeric, q. s. to color. Fil- 
ter through a little carbonate of magne- 
sia if necessary. 

A cheaper article can, of course, be 
made by using less oil and adding about 
25 per cent, of water. It is scarcely nec- 
essary to add that a fine article can be 
made only from fresh oil. 

8. — Oil of lemon, select, 8 fl.oz. ; oil of 
lemon-grass (fresh), 1 fl.dr. ; peel, freshly 
grated, of 12 lemons; alcohol (Atwood's), 
7 pt. ; water, boiled, 1 pt. Mix and macer- 
ate for 7 days. If in a hurry for the 
product, percolate through the lemon peel 
and filter. 

Lime. — 1. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 
parts ; proof spirits, 250 parts ; oil of lime 
fruit, 100 parts ; carbonate of magnesia, 
100 parts ; pineapple ether, 50 parts. 
Color lightly with tincture of curcuma. 

2. — Dissolve % oz. of oil in 15% oz. 
of alcohol, making just a pint of finished 
product. 

Mace. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts; 
proof spirits, 350 parts ; powdered mace, 
150 parts. Macerate for two weeks, ex- 
press and filter. 



[175] 



Beverages — Non- Alcoholic 



(Essences and Extracts) 

Malt. — 1. — An infusion of malt is 
made in water at IGO to 170° F. (71 to 
77° C), drained off without pressure and 
evaporated to a lioneylike consistency. 
Tlie quantities are 1 pt. crushed malt in 
3 pt. hot water and the infusion occupies 
about four hours. 

2. — 471/^ oz. extract of malt, mixed 
with 1 oz. iron pyrophosphate and am- 
monia citrate dissolved in l^/a oz. water. 

3. — Six oz. coltsfoot leaves, 6 oz. spot- 
ted lungwort, 8 oz. licorice, 2 lb. stoned 
raisins, 6 gal. old strong ale, not hopped ; 
boil down to 4 gal., express strongly and 
evaporate to honeylike consistency. 

Alead. — Oil of lemon, 1 oz. ; oil of 
cloves, 2 drams ; oil of cinnamon, 2 
drams ; oil of nutmeg, 1 dram ; oil of all- 
spice, 30 drops ; oil of sassafras, 40 
drops ; oil of ginger, 1 dram. Cut the 
oils with pumice and sugar ; dissolve 16 
or 32 oz. alcohol. Add gradually an equal 
quantity of water. Clarify. 

Melon. — 1. — Alcohol, 780 parts; se- 
bacic ether, 100 parts ; valerianic ether, 
50 parts ; butyric ether, 40 parts ; alde- 
hyde, 20 parts ; formic ether, 10 parts. 

2. — Sebacylic ether, 10 parts ; valeri- 
anic ether, 5 parts ; glycerine, 3 parts ; 
butyric ether, 4 parts ; aldehyde, 2 parts ; 
formic ether, 1 part. 

Mulberry. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 
parts ; proof spirits, 200 parts ; pure mul- 
berry juice, 200 parts ; mulberry ether, 
100 parts. 

Nectarine. — Extract of vanilla, 2 
parts ; essence of lemon, 2 parts ; essence 
of pineapple, 1 part. 

Nutmeg. — 1. — Oil nutmeg, 2 drams ; 
mace, powder, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 95 per cent., 
deodorized, 32 oz. Dissolve the oil in the 
alcohol by agitation, add the mace, agi- 
tate, then stopper tightly and macerate 12 
hours. Filter through paper. P. D. 

2. — Deodorized qlcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 400 parts ; oil of nutmeg, 50 
parts ; carbonate of magnesia, 50 parts. 
Color lightly with caramel. 

Orange. — 1. — Oil of orange and glyc- 
erine, each 10 parts ; aldehyde and 
chloroform, each 2 parts ; acetic ether, 5 
parts ; benzoic ether, formic ether, butyric 
ether, amylacetic ether, methylsalicylic 
ether and tartaric acid, each 1 part. 

2. — Alcohol, 700 parts ; pineapple ether, 
200 parts ; oil of sweet orange, 100 parts. 

3. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 300 parts ; oil of orange, 
100 parts ; carbonate of magnesia, 100 
parts. Color with tincture of saffron. 

4. — Pure oil of orange, 1^ oz. ; carbo- 
nate magnesium, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 12 oz. ; 
water, q. s. to make 2 pt. Dissolve oil of 

[ 



(Essences and Extracts) 



orange in the alcohol and rub it with the 
carbonate of magnesium in a mortar. 
Pour the mixture into a quart bottle and 
fill the bottle with water. Allow to macer- 
ate for a week or more, shaking every 
day. Then filter through paper, adding 
enough water through the paper to make 
filtrate measure 2 pints. 

5. — Sweet orange peel, in moderately 
fine powder, 16 oz. ; glycerine, 3 fl.oz. ; 
alcohol, q. s. ; water, q. s. Having mixed 
14 fl.oz. alcohol with 2 fl.oz. glycerine, the 
peel is moistened in a Wedgwood mortar 
with 12 fl.oz. of this mixture. After 
standing 12 hours percolation is con- 
ducted in the usual manner. The perco- 
lation is finished with a mixture of 2 
parts alcohol and 1 part water. Reserv- 
ing the first 14 fl.oz., add 1 fl.oz. of 
glycerine to the remainder, evaporate to 
21/^ fl.oz., which mix with the reserved 
portion. The author describes this prepa- 
ration as possessing all the aroma of the 
orange peel. One fl.oz. mixed with 15 
fl.oz. of syrup gives an excellent syrup, 
aurant. quite clear. By adding to a pint 
of simple syrup 4 fl.drms. of the extract 
and a few drops of solution of citric acid, 
a most delicately flavored and unferment- 
able syrup for mineral waters is pro- 
duced. 

6. — Four oz. fresh yellow rind of or- 
ange, y2 pt. rectified spirit, ^ pt. water ; 
digest for a week, press, filter ; add 1 qt. 
sherry. 

7. — Valencia oranges, 1 doz. ; alcohol, 
2 pt. Carefully detach the yellow portion 
of the rind and macerate it for 10 days in 
the alcohol. Owing to the diflBculty of 
procuring fresh oil of orange, this for- 
mula is generally preferred. 

Peach. — 1. — Oil of almonds, 3 dr.; 
pineapple oil, 3 dr. ; tartaric acid, 8 dr. ; 
alcohol, 80°, IVz pt. 

2. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 200 parts ; pure peach juice, 
200 parts ; peach ether, 100 parts. Color 
with tincture of red saunders. 

3. — Formic ether, valerianic ether, 
butyric ether, acetic ether, glycerine and 
oil of persico, each 5 parts ; aldehyde and 
amylic alcohol, each 2 parts ; sebacylic 
ether, 1 part. 

4. — Linalyl formate, 120 m. ; amyl 
valerianate, 8 dr. ; fid. ext. orris, 2 oz, ; 
enanthic ether, 2 dr.; oil rue (pure Ger- 
man), 30 m. ; chloroform, 2 dr.; glyc- 
erine, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 70 per cent., to 3 pt. 

5. — Amylic alcohol, 2 parts ; aldehyde, 
2 parts ; acetic ether, 5 parts ; butyric 
ether, 5 parts ; formic ether, 5 parts ; 
sebacic ether, 1 part ; valerianic ether, 5 
parts ; glycerine, 5 parts ; oil peach ker- 
176] 



Beverages— N on- Alcoholic 



(Essences and Extracts) 



nels, 5 parts; alcohol, 100 parts (all by 
measure). 

Pear. — 1. — Acetic ether, 5 oz. ; acetate 
of amyl, 10 oz. ; glycerine, 10 oz. ; alco- 
hol, 100 oz. 

2. — Amyl acetate, 1 oz. ; pear juice, 2 
oz. ; glycerine, 2 oz. ; cologne spirit, 11 
oz. Mix them and filter. 

3. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 200 parts ; pure pear juice, 
200 parts ; pear ether, 100 parts. Color 
lightly with tincture of red saunders. 

Peppermint. — 1. — Oil of peppermint 
(Mitcham), 1 fl.oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 
pt. ; mix by agitation. White. This is the 
usual strength of that sold in the shops. 
The corresponding preparation of the new 
Br. Ph., "spiritus menthse piperitse," has 
more than double this strength, being 
made with 1 fl.oz. of oil to 9 fl.oz. of 
rectified spirit. 

2. — To the product of No. 1 (above) 
add about 'V^ oz. of herb peppermint, 
parsley leaves, spinach leaves, and digest 
for a week, or until sufficiently tinged ; or 
agitate the essence with 10 or 12 gr. of 
sap green, previously rubbed down with 
about a teaspoonful of hot water. A deli- 
cate light green. The ignorant do not 
conceive it to be good and pure unless it 
has a pale greenish tint. 

Used in toothache and to disguise foul- 
ness of the breath, but chiefly as a flavor- 
ing ingredient by confectioners, cooks and 
druggists. Peppermint (essence, water) 
is a great favorite in domestic and popu- 
lar medicine as a remedy in flatulence, 
colic, nausea, sickness, etc., and to dis- 
guise the flavor of nauseous substances. 
The dose of the essence is 10 to 30 drops 
on sugar, or mixed up with a little water 
or wine ; of the water a teacupf ul or 
more, at will. A few drops of the es- 
sence well agitated with % pint of cold 
water, form an extemporaneous pepper- 
mint water equal to that obtained by dis- 
tillation. This water is an excellent 
mouth wash for smokers. 

3. — One oz. oil of peppermint, 4 oz. 
rectified spirit ; mix. 

4. — To 3 add % oz. herb of peppermint, 
or parsley or spinach leaves (preferably 
one of the first two), digest for a week, 
or until sufficiently colored ; 10 or 12 gr. 
sap green rubbed up with a teaspoonful 
of hot water is also used for coloring. 

5. — Two fl.oz. of oil of peppermint, 16 
fl.oz. rectified spirits. 

Pineapple. — 1. — Pineapple essence, 2 
oz. ; citric acid, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 80°, 2 pt. 

2. — Amyl butyric ether, 10 parts ; bu- 
tyric ether, 5 parts ; glycerine, 3 parts ; 
aldehyde and chloroform, each 1 part. 



(Essences and Extracts) 



[177] 



3. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 200 parts ; pure pineapple 
juice, 190 parts; pineapple ether, 100 
parts ; tincture of vanilla, 10 parts. 
Color with tincture of curcuma. 

4. — Oil of lemon, 2 drams ; butyric 
ether, 4 drams ; acetic ether, 2 oz. ; spirit 
of nitrous ether, 1 oz. ; glycerine, 1 oz. ; 
alcohol, 1 pt. ; water, enough to make 
2 pt. 

5. — Amyl acetate, 1 part ; amyl butyr- 
ate, 10 parts ; ethyl butyrate, 5 parts ; 
glycerine, 3 parts ; oil lemon, 0.1 part ; 
oil orange, 0.2 part ; alcohol, 100 parts. 

6. — Amyl butyrate, 4 drams ; butyric 
ether, 2 oz. ; sebacic ether, 4 drams ; 
acetic ether, 2 drams ; amyl acetate, 2 
drams ; pineapple juice, 2 oz. ; glycerine, 
2 oz. ; cologne spirit, 12 oz. Mix them 
and filter. A very fair essence of pine- 
apple is made by mixing 2 oz. of butyric 
ether with 12 oz. of cologne spirit. Mix 
them and filter. 

7. — Pineapple Punch Essence. — Alco- 
hol, 2 qt. ; rum, 1 qt. ; artificial pine- 
apple essence, % fi.drm. ; essence enan- 
thic ether, 20 gr. ; citric acid solution, 1 
to 1% fl.oz. ; syrup, 2 qt. 

Pistachio. — 1. — Essence of almond, 2 
fl.oz.; tincture of vanilla, 4 fl.oz.; oil of 
neroli, 1 drop. 

2. — Oil of orange-peel, 4 fl.dr. ; oil of 
cassia, 1 fl.dr. ; oil of bitter almond, 15 
m. ; oil of calamus, 15 m. ; oil of nutmeg, 
11/^ fl.dr. ; oil of clove, 30 m. ; alcohol, 
12 fl.oz. ; water, 4 fl.oz. ; magnesium car- 
bonate, 2 drams. Shake together, allow 
to stand 24 hours and filter. 

3. — Oil orange, 45 m. ; amyl acetate, 4 
drams ; oil bitter almonds, 5 drams ; bu- 
tyric ether, 5 drams ; acetic ether, 9 
drams ; alcohol, 16 oz. ; water to make 
24 oz. 

Plums. — 1. — Glycerine, 8 parts ; acetic 
ether and aldehyde, each 5 parts ; oil of 
persico, 4 parts ; butyric ether, 2 parts, 
and formic ether, 1 part. 

2. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 200 parts ; German zwet- 
schen water, 200 parts ; plum ether, 100 
parts. 

Pomegranate. — Oil sweet orange, 3 
parts ; oil cloves, 1 part ; tincture vanilla, 
15 parts ; tincture ginger, 10 parts : 
maraschino liqueur, 150 parts ; tincture 
coccionella, 165 parts ; distilled water, 
150 parts ; phosphoric acid, dilute, 45 
parts ; alcohol, 95 per cent., q. s. to make 
1,000 parts. Mix and dissolve. 

Quassia. — 1. — Digest 1% oz. sliced 
quassia in 1 pt. proof spirits for 10 days 
and filter. 

Quince. — 1. — Fluid ext. orris, 2 oz. ; 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Essences and Extracts) 



enanthic ether, 1^ oz. ; linalyl formate, 
90 m. ; glycerine, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 70 per 
cent., to 3 pt. 

2. — Alcohol, 460 parts ; cone. ess. of 
quince peel, 400 parts ; pelargonic ether, 
100 parts ; chloroform, 20 parts ; alde- 
hyde, 20 parts. 

3. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 200 parts ; pure quince 
juice, 160 parts ; quince ether, 100 parts ; 
carbonate of magnesia, 20 parts ; oil of 
cinnamon, 10 parts ; oil of cloves, 10 
parts. Color with tincture of saffron. 

Raspherry. — 1. — Raspberry essence, 3 
drams ; tincture of orris, ^4 oz. ; citric 
acid, 14 oz. ; liq. carmine, 15 drops ; ex- 
tract rose (from pomade), % oz. ; alco- 
hol, 85°, 1/2 pt. 

2. — Butyric ether, 5 parts ; acetic ether, 
3 parts ; nitrous ether, 1 part ; glycerine, 
2 parts; alcohol (deodorized), q. s. to 
make 100 parts. The addition of from 
25 to 30 parts of fresh raspberry juice is 
recommended. 

3. — Fresh raspberries, 200 grams ; dis- 
tilled water, 100 grams ; vanilla essence, 
2 grams ; alcohol, sufficient. Pulp the 
raspberries, let stand at a temperature 
of about 70° for 48 hours, and then add 
100 grams of water. Fifty grams are 
then distilled (?) off, and alcohol 90 per 
cent., 25 grams, in which 0.01 vanillin 
has been previously dissolved, is added to 
the distillate. 

4. — Fresh raspberries, 16 oz. ; Angelica 
(California), 6 oz. ; brandy (California), 
oz. ; alcohol, 8 oz. ; water, q. s. Mash 
the berries to a pulp in a mortar or bowl 
and transfer to a flask, along with the 
Angelica, brandy, alcohol and about 8 
ounces of water. Let macerate over 
night, then distil off until 32 ounces have 
passed over. Color red. The addition of 
a trifle of essence of vanilla improves this 
essence. 

5." — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 200 parts ; pure raspberry 
juice, 170 parts ; raspberry ether, 100 
parts ; tincture of orris, 20 parts ; triple 
extract of roses, 10 parts. Color with 
tincture of alkanet. 

6. — Acetic ether and tartaric acid, each 
5 parts ; glycerine, 4 parts ; aldehdye, for- 
mic ether, benzoic ether, butyric ether, 
amyl butyric ether, acetic ether, enanthic 
ether, methylsalicylic ether, nitrous ether, 
sebacylie ether and succinic acid, each 1 
part. 

Rhuharh. — 1. — Sliced or bruised rhu- 
barb, 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 5 oz. ; dis- 
tilled water, 50 oz. Macerate four days; 
strain and set to subside ; decant the 
clear, strain, mix and evaporate to a 



(Essences and Extracts) 



proper consistency over a water bath at 
160° F. (71° C). 

2. — Compound. — Extract rhubarb, 3 
drams ; extract of aloes, softened with 4 
drams water, 1 dram ; evaporate to an 
extract ; dry in a warm place and powder. 

3. — Rhubarb powder, 5 oz. ; silicious 
sand, 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 oz. ; extract 
by displacement. 

Root Beer. — Sassafras, 4 oz. ; yellow 
dock, 4 oz. ; allspice, 4 oz. ; wintergreen, 
4 oz. ; wildcherry bark, 2 oz. ; coriander 
seed, 2 oz. ; hops, 1 oz. Reduce to pow- 
der and percolate with a menstruum com- 
posed of 3 volumes of alcohol and 5 vol- 
umes of water until 48 fl.oz. of liquid 
have passed. Of this half-strength fluid 
extract 2 fl.oz. are sufiicient to make 1 
gal. of root beer. Or exhaust the above 
drugs with the menstruum indicated, add 
enough water to make 6 gal., and start 
fermentation with 1 pt. of yeast. 

Percolate the following ingredients 
with 2 parts of water to 1 part of alco- 
hol until the drugs are exhausted : Sarsa- 
parilla, 5 lb. ; spikenard, 2 lb. ; winter- 
green, 1 lb. ; birch bark, 1 lb. ; sassafras 
bark, 1 lb. ; wild cherry, 8 oz. ; prickly 
ash, 1 lb. ; Jamaica ginger root, 4 oz. ; 
nutmeg, 4 oz. 

Rose. — 1. — Red rose leaves, 2 oz. ; oil 
of rose, 1 dram ; alcohol, 2 pt. 

2. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits. 300 parts ; extract of rose 
geranium, 190 parts ; otto of roses, 5 
parts ; carbonate of magnesia, 5 parts. 
Color with tincture of alkanet. 

Sarsaparilla. — Oil of anise, 1 dram ; 
oil of wintergreen, 2 drams ; oil of sassa- 
fras, 3 drams ; alcohol, enough to make 
4 oz. 

Sassafras. — 1. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 
parts ; proof spirits, 400 spirits ; oil of 
sassafras, 100 parts ; carbonate of mag- 
nesia, 100 parts. Color with caramel. 

2. — Oil of sassafras, 1 oz. ; sassafras 
in coarse powder, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 2 pt. 

Savory Spices. — Black pepper, 4 oz. ; 
powdered turmeric, 3 drams ; coriander 
seeds (all ground), IVo, drams; oil of pi- 
mento, 11/^ fl.dr. ; oils of nutmeg, cloves, 
cassia and caraway, % dram each ; recti- 
fied spirit, 1 pt. ; digest with agitation 
for a fortnight. 

Spearmint. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 
parts ; proof spirits, 400 parts ; oil of 
spearmint, 50 parts ; carbonate of mag- 
nesia, 50 parts. Color with tincture of 
grass. 

Spice. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts'; 
proof spirits, 300 parts ; carbonate of 
magnesia, 100 parts ; oil of cassia, 40 
parts ; oil of bitter almond, 20 parts ; 



[178] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Essences and Extracts) 



oil of cloves, 20 parts; oil of lemon, 10 
parts ; oil of neroli, 10 parts. Color with 
caramel. 

Spruce. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 400 parts ; oil of spruce, 50 
parts; carbonate of magnesia, 50 parts. 
Color with caramel. 

Stratvlerry. — 1. — Pineapple oil, IV^ 
oz, ; tincture of orris, % oz. ; tartaric 
acid, % oz. ; alcohol, 80°, 11/2 pt. 

2. — Butyric ether and acetic ether, each 
5 parts ; amyl-acetic ether, 3 parts ; amyl- 
butyric ether and glycerine, each 2 parts ; 
formic ether, nitrous ether and methyl- 
salicylic ether, each 1 part. 

3. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 parts ; 
proof spirits, 200 parts ; pure strawberry 
juice, 140 parts ; strawberry ether, 100 
parts ; pineapple ether, 45 parts ; tincture 
of orris, 10 parts ; tincture of vanilla, 5 
parts. Color with tincture of alkanet and 
saffron. 

4. — Raspberry ether, 840 parts ; pine- 
apple ether, 150 parts ; tincture of orris, 
5 parts ; extract of vanilla, 5 parts. 

5. — Oil of strawberry, i/^ oz. ; glycerine, 
% oz. ; alcohol, 8 oz. ; water, 7 oz. Dis- 
solve oil in the alcohol, add the glycerine 
and then the water ; mix well and filter. 

6. — Oil of wintergreen, 1 part ; nitrous 
ether, 1 part ; acetic ether, 5 parts ; butyr- 
ic ether, 5 parts ; glycerine, 2 parts ; de- 
odorized alcohol, 45 parts ; distilled 
water, q. s. to make 100 parts. 

7. — Acetic ether, 5 parts ; butyric ether, 
5 parts ; nitrous ether, 5 parts ; formic 
ether, 1 part ; amyl acetate, 3 parts ; 
amyl butyrate, 2 parts; tincture of orris 
root, 5 parts ; oil of wintergreen, 1 part ; 
acetate acid, 1 part ; raspberry essence 
(see above), 10 parts; pineapple essence 
( see above ) , 5 parts ; pure, fresh straw- 
berry juice, 20 parts ; deodorized alcohol, 
q. s. to make 100 parts. Mix. 

Tea. — Extract the crushed tea-leaves 
with water and then distil the liquid in 
a vacuum. The first portion of the dis- 
tillate, which contains the essential oil 
and other volatile flavor, is extracted 
with ether, and the oils are afterward 
mixed with the extract which remains 
in the still. Both the delicate and the 
heavier flavors are preserved in the ex- 
tract in this way. 

Tonic Beer Essence. — Oil of winter- 
green, 6 drams ; oil of sassafras and oil 
of orange, 6 drams of each ; oil of anise, 
30 gr. ; oil of cloves, 30 gr. Cut the oils, 
dissolve in 20 fl.oz. alcohol, 95° ; add 
gradually 20 fl.oz. water. 

Tonka. — 1. — Tonka bean, coarsely 
ground, 4 oz. ; diluted alcohol, 1 pt. 

2. — Tonka, 1 oz. ; balsam peru, 2 

[ 



(Essences and Extracts) 



drams; sugar, alcohol, water, of each a 
sufficient quantity. Reduce the beans 
and balsam of peru to a powder with 
magnesium carbonate and gradually add 
sugar to absorb the juice. Transfer to a 
percolator and cover with dilute alcohol. 
When the liquid appears at the exit cork 
the percolator and allow the maceration 
to progress for a period of 24 hours. 
Then remove the stopper and allow per- 
colation to continue until 1 pint of ex- 
tract has been obtained. 

Vanilla. — 1. — Cut up fine 1 oz. vanilla 
bean, grind with 2 oz. of loaf sugar, 
in a mortar, mix 8 oz. of rose water 
and 24 oz. of alcohol, 95°, add a portion 
to the vanilla and sugar, put in a dis- 
placer and pour on the balance of di- 
luted alcohol. Add a few drops of caramel 
if not dark enough. 

2. — Vanilla beans, sliced Mexican, 1 
lb.; alcohol, 90°, 1 gal. Pack in perco- 
lator after thoroughly moistening ; let 
stand one week, and percolate to 1 gal. 

3. — Pure. — Vanilla bean, 1 oz. ; pumice 
stone, 3 oz. ; diluted alcohol, q. s. Cut 
the vanilla into small pieces, and beat 
in an iron mortar with the pumice until 
reduced to fine powder ; moisten thor- 
oughly with diluted alcohol, and allow to 
stand for three days in a warm place. 
Then transfer to a percolator, and add 
diluted alcohol until one pint of extract 
is obtained. The extract may also be 
made by maceration, of course. When 
so made add to the beans a pint of the 
menstruum, ' and when filtered off pass 
enough more through the filter to bring 
the finished preparation to the measure of 
one pint. 

4. — Vanilla bean, % oz. ; tonka bean, 
% oz. ; pumice stone, 3 oz. ; diluted alco- 
hol, q. s. to make 1 pt. Proceed as in the 
foregoing formula. 

5. — 3.75 parts of Peruvian balsam and 
1.75 parts of oil of orange are rubbed 
down with 250 parts of rectified alcohol 
and 10 parts of magnesia ; 125 parts of 
essence of orris root, 62 parts of tonka 
beans, and 30 drops of tincture of casto- 
reum mixed in. The whole is allowed 
to stand for four weeks in a warm place 
and it is then colored with caramel and 
filtered. 

6. — Vanilla, in fine bits, 250 parts is 
put into 1,350 parts of mixture of 2.500 
parts of 95 per cent, alcohol and 1,500 
parts of distilled water. Cover tightly, put 
in the water-bath and digest for one hour 
at 140° F. Pour off the liquid and set 
aside. To the residue in the bath add 
179] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Essences and Extracts) 



one-half of the remaining water, treat 
ill the same manner, and repeat. Now 
pack the vanilla in an extraction ap- 
paratus and treat with 250 parts of alco- 
hol and water, mixed in the same pro- 
portions as before. Mix the results of 
three infusions first made, filter and wash 
the filter paper with the results of the 
percolation, allowing the filtered perco- 
late to mingle with the filtrate of the 
mixed infusions. 

7. — Vanilla. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 
parts ; proof spirits, 300 parts ; sugar, 100 
parts ; vanilla, 100 parts. Slit the beans 
and cut them very fine ; then mix them 
with the sugar, and bruise till moderately 
fine ; add the alcohol and spirits, and 
macerate for two weeks, occasionally 
shaking ; filter. Color with caramel. 

8. — a. — Vanillin, 20 parts; absolute 
alcohol, 600 parts ; water, 450 parts. 
Dissolve the vanillin in the alcohol and 
add the water. 

b. — Musk, 1 part; potassium carbon- 
ate, 1 part ; vanilla beans, 60 parts ; boii- 
ing water, 240 parts ; alcohol, 720 pares. 
Mix the vanilla, cut fine, the musk and 
potassium salt, and pour over them the 
boiling water. Let them stand until quite 
cold, then add the alcohol and set aside 
for 14 days. Finally strain, express and 
filter the percolate. 

9. — Vanillin, 45 gr. ; coumarin, 3 gr. ; 
alcohol, 3 fl.oz. ; glycerine, 2 fl.oz. ; simple 
syrup, 2 fl.oz. ; comp. tincture cudbear, 2 
fl.dr. ; water, enough to make 16 fl.oz. 
Dissolve the vanillin and coumarin in 
the alcohol, add the glycerine, syrup and 
tincture, and lastly enough water to make 
16 fl.oz. 

^Vintergreen. — 1. — Oil of wintergreen, 1 
oz. ; alcohol, 1 pt. ; cudbear or cochineal, 
10 gr. 

2. — Wintergreen, 2 oz. ; sassafras, 2 
oz. ; sarsaparilla, 4 oz. ; burdock root, 4 
oz. ; dandelion, 1% oz. ; calamus, 4 dr. ; 
dilute alcohol, 1 pt. ; water, q. s. Grind all 
the drugs to a coarse powder and mix. 
Moisten the drugs with the dilute alcohol 
and macerate for two days and percolate 
with the dilute alcohol and water till 32 
oz. of product are obtained, then add 
oil wintergreen. % dr. ; oil sassafras, % 
dr., previously dissolved in 2 oz. of alco- 
hol and then filter. Use 4 oz. of this ex- 
tract to a gallon of simple syrup and 
color with caramel to suit. 

Wormwood. — Deodorized alcohol, 500 
parts ; proof spirits, 400 parts ; oil of 
wormwood, .'►0 parts : carbonate of mag- 
nesia, 50 parts. 

[ 



(Syrups) 



SYRUPS 
Preparation. 

In the preparation of syrups, which 
are solutions of sugar, more or less strong 
according to the object for which they are 
used, care should be taken to employ only 
the best refined sugar, and either distilled 
or filtered rain water, as they will be 
rendered much less liable to spontaneous 
decomposition and become perfectly 
transparent without the trouble of clari- 
fying. When, however, impure sugar is 
employed, clarification is always neces- 
sary. This is best done by dissolving the 
sugar in the water or fruit juices cold, 
and then beating up a little of the cold 
syrup with some white of Qgg and one or 
two ounces of cold water, until the mix- 
ture froths well. This must be added to 
the syrup in the boiler, and when the 
whole is frisked up to a good froth, heat 
should be applied and the scum which 
forms removed from time to time with a 
clean skimmer. As soon as the syrup 
begins to simmer it must be removed from 
the fire and allowed to stand until it has 
cooled a little, when it should again be 
skimmed, if necessary, and then passed 
through a clean flannel. By using re- 
fined sugar, however, all this trouble of 
clarification can be avoided. 

When vegetable infusions or solutions 
enter into the compositions of syrups, 
they should be rendered perfectly trans- 
parent by filtration or clarification before 
being added to the sugar. 

The proper quantity of sugar for 
syrups will, in general, be found to be 
two pounds avoirdupois to every pint of 
water or thin aqueous fluid. These 
proportions allow for the water that is 
lost by evaporation during the process 
and are those best calculated to produce 
syrup of proper consistency and possess- 
ing good keeping qualities. They closely 
correspond to those recommended by Grui- 
bourt for the production of a perfect 
syrup, which, he says, consists of 30 parts 
of sugar to 16 parts of water. 

In the preparation of syrup it is of 
great importance to employ as little heat 
as possible, as a solution of sugar, even 
when kept at a temperature of boiling 
water, undergoes slow decomposition. 
The best plan is to pour the water (cold) 
over the sugar and to allow the two to lie 
together for a few hours in a covered ves- 
sel, occasionally stirring, and to apply a 
gentle heat, preferably that of steam or 
of a water bath, to finish the solution. 
Syrups are sufficiently boiled when some, 
taken up in a spoon, pours out like oil, 
180 ] 



Beverages- 



N on- Alcoholic 



(Syrups) 



or a drop cooled on the thumb nail gives 
a proper thread when touched. When a 
thin skin appears on blowing the syrup, 
it is judged to be completely saturated. 
These rude tests, however, often lead to 
errors, which might be easily prevented 
by employing the proper proportions or 
determining the specific gravity by im- 
mersing in the syrup one of Baume's sac- 
charometers or syrup gauges, as indicated 
in the following table : 



Sugar in 




Deg. 


100 parts. 


Sp. Gr. 


Baum6. 





1.000 





5 


....1.020.... 


3 


10 


....1.040.... 


6 


15 


....1.062.... 


8 


20 


1.081 


11 


25 


1.104 


13.5 


30 


1.128 


16 3 


35 


....1.152.... 


19 


40 


1.177 


21.6 


45 


1.204 


24.5 


50 


....1.230.... 


27 


55 


....1.257.... 


29.5 


60 


....1.284.... 


32 


67 


....1.321.... 


35 



A fluid ounce of saturated syrup 
weighs 5771/^ grains ; a gallon weighs 
13 1^ pounds ; its specific gravity is 1.319 
to 1.321, or 35° Baume ; its boiling point 
is 220° F., and its density at the tempera- 
ture of 212° is 1.260 to 1.261, or 30° 
Baume. The syrups prepared with the 
juices of fruits mark about two or three 
degrees more on Baume scale than the 
other syrups. According to Ure, the deci- 
mal part of the number denoting the spe- 
cific gravity of a syrup multiplied by 26 
gives very nearly the number of pounds 
of sugar it contains per gallon. 

The preservation of syrups, as well as 
of all saccharine solutions, is best pro- 
moted by keeping them in a moderately 
cool, but not a very cold place. Let 
syrups be kept in vessels well closed and 
in a situation where the temperature 
never rises above 55° F. They are kept 
better in small than in large vessels, as 
the longer a bottle lasts the more fre- 
quently will it be opened and the syrup 
consequently exposed to the air. By bot- 
tling syrups while boiling hot, and im- 
mediately corking down and tying the 
bottles over with a bladder, perfectly air- 
tight, they may be preserved even at a 
summer heat for years, without ferment- 
ing or losing their transparency. 

The candying of syrups may be pre- 
vented (unless the sjrup be over-satu- 
rated with sugar) by the addition of 
acetic or citric acid, two or three drams 



(Syrups) 



per gallon. Confectioners add a little 
cream of tartar to the syrup to prevent 
granulation. Syrup may be effectually 
prevented from fermenting by the addi- 
tion of a little sulphite of potassa or 
lime ; also by the use of salicylic acid in 
small quantities. Fermenting syrups may 
be immediately restored by exposing the 
vessel containing them to the temperature 
of boiling water. The addition of a little 
spirit is also good, say about 10 per cent. 

A solution of sugar prepared by dis- 
solving two parts of double refined sugar 
in one of water, and boiling this a little, 
affords a syrup which neither ferments 
nor crystallizes. 

The best way to keep fruit syrups from 
fermenting is by bottling while hot into 
suitable bottles or larger vessels and to 
prevent access of air. This is the prin- 
ciple, and it may be carried out in vari- 
ous ways. For instance, fill the syrup 
while hot in quart bottles, previously 
warmed, and fill them almost full. Cover 
or cork the bottles temporarily until the 
syrup cools a little and contracts in vol- 
ume ; then, having heated a small quan- 
tity of the syrup, refill the bottles, cork 
them securely and wax them. 

A great variety of syrups are made by 
the addition of proper flavoring ingre- 
dients to simple syrup, but in other cases, 
especially when the juices of fruits are 
employed, the syrup is not first prepared 
and then flavored, but the processes go 
hand in hand. In such instances specific 
instructions will be given. It is always 
advisable, when fresh fruit can be ob- 
tained, to use it in preference to the es- 
sence. One general recipe, which answers 
for nearly all fresh fruit, is as follows : 
Use nothing but the very best fresh fruit, 
which must be freed from stocks, etc., and 
crushed with a wooden instrument (not 
metal). When well mashed, let it stand 
in a room of even temperature (about 
68° F.) for 4 days, which will give suffi- 
cient time for fermentation to take place ; 
press out the juice from the fruit and let 
it settle in a cool cellar for 2 days, after 
which 5 pounds of the clear juice is to be 
simmered with 9 pounds of loaf sugar. 
While warm strain through flannel. The 
color may be improved by a solution of 
some coloring agent. 

It is advisable to add to the fresh fruit, 
before setting it for fermentation, about 
2 pounds of powdered loaf sugar for 
every 100 pounds of fruit. When cold, 
it is ready for bottling. Cleanliness 
should be strictly observed in all the uten- 
sils used. When bottling for storing, 
skim the top of any floating matter from 



[181] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Syrups) 



the syrups in the large pan, and see that 
no residue at the bottom goes into the 
bottles. Most of the syrups not made of 
fruit may have a little mucilage of gum 
arable added, in order to produce a rich 
froth. The following recipes comprise 
syrups made from the fruit and also from 
essences. These may be varied to suit 
taste and requirements. A variety of 
syrups have been brought into use by 
adding the various wines, such as claret, 
hock, sherry, etc., to simple syrup ; others, 
by the addition of spirits, as milk punch, 
by adding to vanilla cream Jamaica rum 
and nutmeg. Almost any syrup may be 
made by the addition of a suflBcient quan- 
tity of flavoring essence to simple syrup, 
but these artificially prepared syrups are 
inferior to those made from fresh fruits. 
Red Coloring for Soda Water Syrups. 



(Syrups) 



— The most convenient is probably tinc- 
ture of cudbear, as it affords a good, sub- 
stantial and natural-looking color, mis- 
cible with syrups without cloudiness. It 
may be made as follows : 2 to 4 oz. pow- 
dered cudbear, 1 pt. diluted alcohol. Ex- 
haust by maceration or displacement. 
Used alone, the tincture gives a shade of 
red closely imitating the color of rasp- 
berries or currants. For deeper red, like 
blackberries, the addition of some cara- 
mel is all that is necessary. The straw- 
berry color is best imitated with tincture 
of cochineal. Aniline red, owing to its 
cheapness, is often used for coloring 
syrups, but it produces a glaring, arti- 
ficial-looking bluish-red and is liable to 
the objection that it sometimes contains 
arsenic. 



Comparative Cost of Syrups. 

The following table shows the comparative cost of fourteen of the leading soda syrups both 
bought and made from' various methods. In computing these figures, says the "Spatula," the 
average price of five of the leading makers of fruit juices, etc., has been taken, so as to give 
an accurate figure. 







r- 


Price per gallon 

Made 


> 


, Price per 


11/2 ounces. , 

Made 








When 


from 






When 


from 


Kind of Syrup. 


Made bought 


fruit 


Made 


Made 


'bought 


fruit Made 






from ready 


stock, 


from 


from 


ready 


stock, from 






extracts, for use 


juice, etc. fruit, extracts. 


for use. 


juice, etc. fruit. 


Orange .... 




.... $0.42 $1.00 


.$0.78 


$0.55 


$0,005 


$0,012 


$0.0092 $0.0065 


Ijcmon .... 






.42 1.00 
.42 1.00 


.78 
.78 


.52 


.005 
.005 


.012 
.012 


.0092 0062 


Raspberry . 






.0092 


Strawberry 






.42 1.00 


.78 




.005 


.012 


.0092 


Pineapple 






.42 1.00 


.78 




.005 


.012 


.0092 


Peach 






42 1 00 


78 


From 


.005 


012 


0092 From 


Grape 






.42 1.00 


.72 


best 


.005 


.012 


.0086 best 


Cherry .... 






.42 1.00 


.72 


extract 


.005 


.012 


.0092 extract 


Vanilla .... 






.43 1.00 




.55 


.0051 


.012 


.0065 


Sarsaparilla 






.42 1.00 




.50 


.005 


.012 


.006 


Ginger ale. 






.52 1.00 


From 


.81 


.0062 


.012 


From .0096 


Ginger 






.40 1.00 


coffee 


.78 


.0047 


.012 


coffee .0092 


Coffee 






.40 1.00 


.50 




.0047 


.012 


.006 .006 


Chocolate .. 






1.00 


Cheap 


Best 




.012 


Cheap Best 


Chocolate from cocoa. 




.52 


.61 






.0062 .0072 


Table Showing 
tained from 


Amount of Syrup Ob- 


Lbs. sugar Lbs. of 

added to sugar in 

1 gal. Syrup actually obtained. 1 gal. 


1. — The addition of pounds of sugar to 


cold water. Gals. 


Pints. 


Fl. ozs. of syrup. 


1 gallon of 


water, and 






9 


1 


5 


10 5.28 


2. — Amount of 


sugar 


in each gallon of 


10 


1 


6 


4 5.62 


syrup resulting therefrom : 




11 

12 


1 
1 


6 

7 


14 5.92 
8 9.18 


Lbs. sugar 








Lbs. of 


13 


2 





2 6.38 


added to 






sugar in 


14 


2 





12 6.7 


Igal. 


Syrup i 


ictually obtained. 


Igal. 


15 


2 


1 


6 6.91 


cold water. 


Gals. 


Pints 


Fl. ozs. of syrup. 










1 
2 


1 
1 




1 


10 
4 


.93 
1.73 


Syrup Formulas 






3 


1 


1 


14 


2.43 


Apple 


Syr up. - 


-Proceed with apples as 


4 


1 


2 
3 
3 

4 


8 

2 

12 


3.05 
3.6 
4 09 


for pineapple syrups. 




5 

6 

7 


1 

1 
1 


Apricots. — 1.— 


-Strain 


and rub 2 qt. of 


6 


4^52 


apricot pulp through a fi 


ne hair sieve into 


8 


1 


5 





4.92 


a bright 


and clean copper basin; add to 



[182] 



Beverages- 



N on- Alcoholic 



(Syrups) 



this 2 gal. of simple syrup, boiling hot ; 
mix well and add a little dissolved citric 
acid ; stir occasionally until it becomes 
perfectly cold. When serving it add a 
little plain cream or ice cream to each 
glass of soda drawn. 

2. — ^Apricot pulp (French), 1 pt. ; so- 
lution of citric acid, 1 oz. ; rock candy 
syrup, 3 pt. ; orange flower water (best), 
1 pt. Two ounces to 14-ounce glass ; 
crushed ice and straws. 

3. — Three qt. of simple syrup, 1 qt. of 
apricot juice, 2 oz. of soda foam, '^/q, oz. 
of citric acid solution. Color orange. 

Banana. — 1. — Oil of banana, 2 drams ; 
tartaric acid, 1 dram ; simple syrup, 6 pt. 

2. — Proceed with bananas as for pine- 
apple syrups. 

3. — Cut the fruit in slices and place 
them in a jar. Sprinkle with sugar and 
cover the jar, which is then enveloped in 
straw and placed in cold water and the 
latter is heated to the boiling point. The 
jar is then removed, allowed to cool and 
the juice is poured into bottles. 

4. — Bananas, 2; simple syrup (10 lb. 
to gal.), 2 pt. Slice the bananas and 
bray them in a mortar until all lumps are 
reduced, and add the syrup in small quan- 
tities, mixing thoroughly after each addi- 
tion. Care should be taken to employ 
ripe fuit and to peel it thoroughly. This 
syrup should be made fresh every day. 

Blackberry. — 1. — Prepared from ripe 
fruit the same as raspberry syrups. 
Blackberry syrup is improved by adding 
1 oz. best French brandy to each quart. 

2. — Prepare like either strawberry or 
mulberry syrup. 

Calisaya Tonic. — Brown calisaya, 4 
av.oz. ; gentian, 1 av.oz. ; orange peel, 1% 
av.oz. ; cinnamon, 1 av.oz. ; alcohol, 65 
per cent., enough to make 32 fl.oz. For 
use at the soda fountain mix one meas- 
ure of this tincture with two measures of 
syrup. 

Gapillaire (Maidenhair) Syrup. — 1. — ■ 
Maidenhair, 8 oz. ; boiling water, 5 pt. ; 
orange flower water, 4 oz. Sugar, suffi- 
cient. Infuse the maidenhair in the boil- 
ing water. When nearly cold, press out 
and filter the liquid, add to it the orange 
flower water and dissolve it with sugar in 
the proportion of 7 oz. to each 4 fl.oz. of 
liquid. 

2. — Nine lb. leaf sugar, 4 lb. orange 
flower water. Boil till the sugar is dis- 
solved and the syrup is clear. While hot, 
strain through flannel, add to the cool 
syrup 2 drams of tartaric acid, previously 
dissolved in 8 oz. of the strongest orange 
flower water; lastly add 4 oz. of the best 
Rhine wine. 



(Syrups) 



[183] 



3. — Florida orange wine, 1 pt. ; water, 
1 pt. ; granulated sugar, 6 lb. Dissolve 
by agitation or percolation and add liquid 
phosphate, 1 oz. 

Celery. — Tincture celery seed, 2 oz. ; 
juice of lemons, No. 2 ; pineapple juice, 
16 oz. ; syrup, enough to make 1 gal. A 
"gamey" flavor is obtained by bruising 
the fresh lemon peels in the syrup, after- 
ward straining them out. 

Cherry. — 1. — Take sour cherries, a con- 
venient quantity, bruise them in a porce- 
lain, stone or wood mortar, to break the 
stones or pits of the fruit ; express the 
juice, set it aside for three days to un- 
dergo fermentation, and proceed accord- 
ing to the directions given for strawberry 
syrup. 

2. — Crush the cherries, pits and all, in 
a stone or wooden mortar. Express the 
juice, add about a pound of sugar for 
each pint of it, heat to the boiling point 
and strain. While the syrup is still hot, 
pour it into bottles which have been 
boiled and are of about the same temper- 
ature as the syrup and cork or plug the 
bottle's mouth with antiseptic cotton. 
When wanted for use, dilute with plain 
syrup and add about an ounce of a satu- 
rated solution of citric acid to each gal- 
lon of the diluted syrup. 

3. — It is best to use as far as possible 
the black varieties, which are of fine 
flavor and good color. Stone the cher- 
ries, pound about one-tenth of the stones 
to a paste, mash and mix well together, 
let stand for a short time, stirring it oc- 
casionally, and strain. 

4. — Essence of cherries, 4 oz. ; citric 
acid, 3^ oz. ; cane sugar, 6 lb. ; distilled 
water, 10 pt. ; liquid cochineal, sufficient. 
Dissolve the sugar in the water, and, 
when cold, add the other ingredients. 

5. — Stem and wash 1 qt. of cherries. 
Stone the cherries and pass through the 
chopper and add syrup to make 2 qt. 
Cleanliness should be observed in all the 
processes. Utensils and machine should 
be washed before the next fruit is pre- 
pared, and when the work is finished all 
utensils and machines should be carefully 
washed and dried, 

6. — Cherry Phosphate Syrup. — Cherry 
juice, 3 pt. ; sugar, 6 lb. ; water, 1 pt. ; 
acid phosphate, 4 oz. Bring to boil and 
when cool add acid phosphate, 

7. — Wild Cherry Syrup. — a. — Ground 
wild cherry, 2 lb. ; water, 1 gal. Infuse 
for 24 hours, express and add sugar, 9 lb. 

b. — Wild cherry bark (in coarse pow- 
der), 5 oz. Moisten the bark with water 
and let it stand for 24 hours in a close 
vessel. Then pack it firmly in a perco- 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Syrups) 



lator and pour water UT»on it until 1 pt. 
of water is obtained. To this add sugar, 
28 oz. 

8. — Wild Cherry Phosphate Syrup. — 
Syrup of wild cherry, U. S, P., 10 fl.oz. ; 
cherry juice, German, black, 8 fl.oz. ; glu- 
cose syrup, 12 fl.oz. ; diluted phosphoric 
acid, 2 fl.oz. ; oil bitter almond, 4 drops. 
Mix. 

Chocolate. — 1. — Best chocolate, 8 oz. ; 
water, 2 pt. ; white sugar, 4 lb. Mix the 
chocolate in water and stir thoroughly 
over a slow fire. Strain and add the 
sugar. 

2. — Bark of roasted cacao bean, 2 oz. 
Reduce to a moderately fine powder, mix 
with simple syrup, 2 oz. Pack in a per- 
colator and exhaust with the following 
menstruum at a boiling temperature : 
Sugar, 12 oz. ; water, 8 oz., so as to ob- 
tain 1 pt. of syrup. To the percolate 
add, when cold, extract of vanilla, 2 fl.dr. 

3. — Cocoa, soluble, 2 oz. ; water, 32 
fl.oz. ; sugar, 52 oz. ; vanilla extract, 
about 4 fl.dr. Triturate the cocoa in a 
mortar with a portion of the water to a 
smooth paste, add the remainder of the 
water, then the sugar, heat the whole in a 
suitable vessel with constant stirring, 
until it nearly reaches the boiling point, 
then strain through a fine sieve, and when 
cold add the vanilla extract. 

4. — Chocolate, powder, 4 oz. ; sugar, 52 
oz. ; vanilla extract, about 6 fl.dr. ; water, 
boiling, 24 fl.oz. Mix the chocolate and 
sugar, triturate the mixed powders with 
the boiling water added slowly and strain. 
When cool, add the vanilla extract. 

5. — Blank's chocolate, 8.oz. ; powdered 
borax, % oz. ; powdered boric acid, % 
oz. ; starch, 1 oz. ; water, 64 fl.oz. ; sugar, 
6 lb. ; vanilla extract, about 1 fl.oz. Grate 
the chocolate, triturate with the borax, 
boric acid and starch, add slowly, with 
stirring, the water, bring to a boil, strain, 
allow to cool and add the extract. In 
view of the popular outcry against the 
use of boric acid, this formula is open to 
objection. 

6. — Chocolate, 4 oz. ; granulated sugar, 
24 oz. ; water, 48 fl.oz. Put the choco- 
late in an enameled pot and add about 8 
avoirdupois ounces of sugar, stirring well 
with a porcelain pestle until all the lumps 
in the chocolate are reduced to powder 
and are well mixed with the sugar. Add 
the remainder of the sugar, mixing well. 
Heat the water to boiling, pour it on the 
mixture of chocolate and sugar, stir well 
with a wooden ladle and boil the whole 
for a few minutes. 

7. — Cocoa, 8 oz. ; hot water, 2 pt. ; gela- 
tine, Cooper's, ^ sheet ; sugar, 1 lb. Boil 



(Syrups) 



[184] 



together for a few minutes and then 
strain. 

8. — Cocoa, light, soluble, 4 oz. ; granu- 
lated sugar, 2 lb. ; boiling hot water, 1 
qt. ; extract vanilla, 1 oz. Dissolve the 
cocoa in hot water by stirring, then add 
the sugar and dissolve. Strain and when 
cold add the vanilla extract. 

9. — Blank's chocolate, plain, 4 oz. ; 
boiling water, 4 oz. ; water, 28 oz. ; sugar, 
50 oz. ; extract of vanilla, ^2 oz. Cut the 
chocolate into small pieces, then add the 
boiling water and stir briskly until the 
mixture forms into a thick paste and as- 
sumes a smooth and uniform appearance. 
Then slowly add the remainder of the 
water, stirring at the same time, and set 
aside until cold. Then remove carefully 
by skimming the layer of solid fat which 
consists of almost pure cacao butter ; add 
the sugar, dissolve it by the aid of a 
gentle heat and allow the whole to come 
to a boil. Then strain and add the ex- 
tract of vanilla. 

10. — Confectioners' chocolate, % lb. ; 
hot water, 2 qt. ; condensed milk, 1 can ; 
granulated sugar, 5 lb. ; extract of va- 
nilla, 1 oz, ; gum foam, 1 oz. ; whites of 2 
eggs. Cut the chocolate fine, place in an 
evaporating dish and rub with the water 
(which must be boiling hot), gradually 
added, until a smooth paste is obtained ; 
then stir in the milk and sugar, and when 
the latter is dissolved set aside to cool. 
When cold, skim off any particles of 
grease, etc., which may have arisen to the 
top, add the white of egg previously well 
beaten, the extract of vanilla and the gum 
foam. Strain through muslin and it is 
ready for use. 

11. — Fruit Chocolate. — Strawberry 
syrup, 10 fl.oz. ; vanilla syrup, 10 fl.oz. ; 
raspberry syrup, 8 fl.oz. ; chocolate syrup, 
4 fl.oz. In serving draw 2 fluid ounces 
of this syrup into a 12-ounce glass, add 
1 or 2 fluid ounces of cream, nearly fill 
the glass with the coarse stream of carbo- 
nated water and then top ofiE with the 
fine stream. 

Cinchona Syrup. — 1. — Tincture cin- 
chona, detannated (N.F.), 3 fl.oz.; tinc- 
ture vanilla, 1 fl.oz, ; essence orange, 2 
fl.dr. ; alcohol, 3 fl.oz. ; water, 6 fl.oz. ; 
syrup, 6 fl.oz. ; red coloring, enough ; 
syrup lemon, enough to make 32 fl.oz. 
Mix the first five ingredients, filter 
through a small amount of purified talc 
and color red to suit. Serve "solid." 

2. — Tincture of detannated cinchona, 6 
oz. ; extract of vanilla, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 6 
oz. ; rock candy syrup, 8 oz. ; spirits of 
curacoa, 2 dr. ; distilled water, enough to 
make 1 qt. Mix and filter through car- 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Syrups) 



bonate of magnesia and then color a deep 
red with carmine solution. Then add 1 
quart of lemon syrup and shake. Pour 

1 ounce of cinisaya syrup into a mineral 
glass and draw carbonated water in an- 
other glass. Mix thoroughly by pouring 
from one glass to the other and serve. 

Cinnamon. — Oil of cinnamon, 30 m. ; 
carbonate of magnesia, 60 gr. ; water, 2 
pt. ; granulated sugar, 56 oz. Rub the oil 
first with the carbonate of magnesia, then 
with the water gradually added, and filter 
through paper. In the filtrate dissolve 
the sugar without heat. 

Coca. — 1. — Wine coca, 1 pt. ; cane 
sugar or rock candy syrup, 7 pt. This 
has a pleasant, very slightly bitterish 
taste. 

2. — Pepsin. — Crystal pepsin, 20 gr. ; 
elixir of coca, 2 oz. ; syrupy phosphoric 
acid, % dr. ; chocolate syrup, 14 oz. Mix. 
Trim with grated cocoanuf. 

3. — Vanilla. — Wine of cocoa, 1 pt. ; 
strong extract of vanilla, 2 oz. ; cane 
sugar or rock candy syrup, 7 pt. 

Coca-Kola. — 1. — Fid. ext. kola, 4 dr.; 
wine of coca, 2 oz. ; syrup, enough to 
make 32 oz. Serve 1 ounce "solid" in an 
8-ounce glass of carbonated water. 

2. — Fid. ext. kola, 1 oz. ; elixir coca, 

2 oz. ; or wine of coca, 4 oz. ; extract va- 
nilla, 2 dr. ; essence rose, 2 dr. ; essence 
cinnamon, 2 dr. ; syrup, enough to make 
32 oz. Serve as above. 

3. — Wine coca, 4 oz. ; wine kola, 8 oz. ; 
raspberry juice, 4 oz. ; blackberry brandy, 
1 oz. ; lime juice, 1 oz. ; syrup, 8 oz. 
Serve as above. 

4. — Fluid extract coca, 1 fl.dr. ; fluid 
extract kola, 1 fl.oz. ; simple elixir, 8 
fl.oz. ; syrup, sufiicient to make 16 fl.oz. 
Mix the fluid extract with the elixir, filter 
through paper and add to the simple 
syrup. 

5. — Mint. — Wine koka, 6 oz. ; wine cola, 
6 oz. ; orange syrup, 2 pt. ; raspberry 
syrup, 1 pt. M. : Serve 2 oz. to glass, 
adding dash of essence peppermint, solid. 

6. — Wine. — Kola wine is made by ex- 
tracting 1 oz. of fresh kola nut with 10 
oz. of sherry wine. Coca wine is made 
by extracting 1 oz. of coca leaves with 10 
oz. of sherry wine. 

Coffee. — 1. — Coffee syrup, 2 pt. ; cream, 
Ipt. 

2. — Coffee, roasted, % lb. ; boiling 
water, 1 gal. Enough is filtered to make 
% gal. of the infusion to which add 
granulated sugar, 7 lb. 

3. — Ground Java coffee, 2 oz. ; simple 
syrup, 2 fl.oz. Mix and pack in a perco- 
lator and add, boiling hot, a mixture of 
loaf sugar, 12 av.oz. ; distilled water, 8 

[ 



(Syrups) 



fl.oz. To percolate 1 pt. of syrup. 

4. — Take of ground, roasted coffee, 4 
oz. ; boiling water, 2 pt. ; sugar (com.), 
4 lb. Infuse the coffee in the water until 
cold, strain, add the sugar and make a 
syrup. 

5. — Take 1 lb. of fresh roasted Java or 
Mocha coffee and percolate according to 
the directions of the Pharmacopoeia with 
the following mixture : Alcohol, 8 oz. ; 
glycerine, 4 oz. ; water, 4 oz., and con- 
tinue the percolation with diluted alcohol 
until 14 ounces have passed. Set this 
aside and continue the percolation until 
the coffee is exhausted. Evaporate to 2 
ounces and mix with the 14 ounces re- 
served. This makes a fluid extract of 
which 1 ounce is suflBcient for 1 pint of 
syrup. 

6. — Java coffee, 1 oz. ; Mocha coffee, 1 
oz. ; Rio coffee, 4 oz. ; glycerine, 1 fl.oz. ; 
simple syrup, extra heavy, 4% pt. ; hot 
water, a sufficient quantity. Roast the 
coffee, reduce at once to fine powder, 
moisten with about 7 ounces of hot water 
with which the glycerine has been mixed. 
Let stand for 1% hours in a very warm 
place and then percolate until 24 fluid 
ounces of liquid are obtained. Add to 
this the syrup. 

Cral) Apple Tonic. — ^Sweet cider, 1 
gal. ; sugar, 7 lb. ; extract malt, 4 fl.oz. ; 
solution citric acid, 1% fl.oz. Evaporate 
the cider to 4 pints. In this dissolve the 
sugar, strain and add the remaining in- 
gredients. Serve either "solid" or with 
foam. This syrup is said to yield a drink 
quite similar to some proprietary syrups, 
such as champagne mist and kylo. 

Cream. — 1. — Fresh cream, % pt. ; fresh 
milk, % pt. ; powdered sugar, 1 lb. Mix 
by shaking and keep in a cool place. The 
addition of a few grains of bicarbonate of 
soda will for some time retard souring. 

2. — Oil of sweet almonds, 2 oz. ; pow- 
dered gum arable, 2 oz. ; water, 4 oz. 
Make an emulsion and add simple syrup 
enough to complete 2 pt. 

3. — One pt. condensed milk, 1 pt. 
water, 1^4 lb. sugar. Heat to boiling and 
strain. This will keep for over a week 
in a cool place. 

4. — Imitation. — Make an emulsion with 
3 oz. fresh oil of sweet almonds, 2 oz, 
powdered gum arabic and 2 oz. water ; 
then dissolve 1 lb. white sugar by gentle 
heat, strain, and when cool add the whites 
of 2 eggs. It should be put up in small 
bottles, well corked, in a cool place. This 
is not only an excellent imitation ani 
substitute for cream syrup, but will keep 
for a considerable time. 

Currant, — 1. — Refined sugar, 5 kilos ; 
185] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Syrups) 

conserve of currants 2.6 liters. Put the 
sugar in a pan, add the conserve and heat 
ranidlv. Remove the syrup from the tiie 
Lf soon as it boils. Skim and pass 
through woolen cloth. 

2 --Six pt. simple syrup, 2 pt. water, 
2 oz. tartaric acid, 3 dr, fruit essence. 
Mix, color with red carmine for red cur- 
rants and with burnt sugar for black. 

3.— One pt. red currant juice, 1 gal. 

^'T— p^ocled as for strawberry symp. 

5— Framboise Currant Syrup.—Kasp- 
berrv syrup, 1 pt. ; currant syrup, 4 pt. 
^^6 — French Currant Syrup. — French 
currant juice, 1 bottle ; citric acid, 2 dr. , 
caramel, 1 dr.; tincture of cochineal, 3 
dr • syrup, enough to make 2 gal. M. 

Fancy -Syrwp.— Vanilla syrup, 2 pt. , 
pineapple syrup, 8 oz. ; raspberry syrup, 

^ Foam.-l.-If it is thought desirable 
to sive an extra foam or "head this tor- 
mufa will do: Take soap bark m coarse 
Dowder, 2 oz. ; animal charcoal, 1 oz. 
Macerate 2 days in alcohol, 2 oz ; glyc- 
erine, 2 oz.; distilled water, 4 oz. Pei- 
cola?e to obtain 8 oz. of finished produc . 
Quantity to be used, 2 drams to the gal- 
lon of concentrated ginger ale. 

2_To each gallon of syrup add from 
2 to 4 oz. of gum arabic dissolved in its 
own weight of water. , ^ , . 

3.— Quillaya bark, 4 oz. ; alcohol, 4 oz^ , 
fflvcerine, 4 oz. ; water, 8 oz. Exhaust by 
Percolation so as to make one pint ot 
tincture. From 2 to 5 drams of this tinc- 
ture to every gallon of syrup will be 
found sufficient to give every glass ot soda 
drawn that creamy appearance so um- 
versallv liked. At the same time it has 
the advantage of being cheap, is used in 
such minute quantities that it cannot be 
discovered by taste, is always ready for 
use and will never spoil. , ^ . , 

4— Irish Moss.— Take of Irish moss 
1 oz. and water enough to make 1 pt. 
Wash the Irish moss in water, to tree 
from impurities ; add 1 pt. of ^ water and 
boil for 5 minutes, or heat in a_ water 
bath for 15 minutes, or macerate m cold 
water for 24 hours, with occasional stir- 
ring; ; filter through purified cotton, on a 
muslin strainer, in a hot water funnel. 
This mucilage, it is claimed, has no more 
taste than mucilage of gum arabic and is 
said to keep better. It can be used with 
soda syrup in the proportion of from 2 to 
4 oz. to 1 gal. of the syrup. 

Fruit Juices, Preservation of. — JLxpi'ess 
the juice of any fruit ; filter and pour into 
champagne bottles; fill them up to the 
bend of the necks ; cork tightly and fasten 



(Syrups) 



the corks down with cord or wire; then 
put the bottles into a kettle ; set them on 
a double sheet of coarse paper, placed on 
the bottom of the kettle, and pack the 
bottles loosely in with hay or cloths ; then 
fill the kettle up to the necks of the bot- 
tles with cold water; place over a mod- 
erate fire and let boil for 20 minutes, 
then remove the kettle from the fire, al- 
lowing the bottles to remain m the kettle 
until the water becomes cold; then seal 
the corks and pack the bottles sideways 
in a cool, dry cellar. Prepared in this 
way, they will keep in a perfect state tor 
a very long time. Fruit pulps are pre- 
served in precisely the same way, except 
that they have about an ounce of finely 
powdered sugar added for each bottle ot 

pulp so put up. . ^^^^ . . ^f Ti 

De Brevans, in "Manufacture of Lii- 
quors and Preserves," gives the following 
formulas : ^, . j 

Huckleberries, Barberries, Cherries and 
Grapes.— Crush the fruit and pass the 
pulp through a horsehair sieve ; crush the 
marc and unite and carry to the cellar. 
After 24 hours of fermentation filter and 
preserve. The juice of cherries is better 
when a mixture of black and red cherries 
is u^Gcl 

Orange and Lemon Juice.— Remove 
skin and seeds, crush the pulp and press 
and mix with rye straw washed and put 
fine to assist the separation of the juice. 
Clarify by repose, filter and preserve. 

Quince, Pear and Apple Juice.— Peel 
and rasp the fruit, taking care not to 
touch the seeds. Press the pulp, mixed 
with rye straw, washed and cut fine. 
Clarify by repose, filter and preserve. 
The quinces should be fully ripe. 

Raspberry Juice.— Crush the fruit and 
press the marc. The liquid is allowed to 
repose for 1 or 2 days, after which it is 
filtered. One-fifth of the weight of red 
cherries is sometimes added to the rasp- 
berries. Another process reported to have 
given excellent results is this one: Ihe 
clarified juice is heated to boiling in a 
copper vessel and then poured into a dish. 
Meanwhile the bottles are proyided with 
stoppers and are then gradually filled, a 
space of about 2 centimeters m the neck 
being left empty; some alcohol is then 
poured upon the hot liquid and^the bottle 
is quickly stoppered, the cork being fur- 
ther secured as the liquid cools. Ihe al- 
cohol which evaporates into the empty 
space is sufficient for the preservation ol 
the juice. The juice of fresh herbs may 
be preserved in the same manner, ihis 
process seems to be an entirely unobjec- 
tionable one. It is generally believed that 
186] 



Beverages — Non-A Icoholic 



(Syrups) 



many of the fruit juices as found in the 
market are usually preserved by means 
of antiseptics and anti-ferments, such as 
salicylic acid, boric acid, boroglyceride, 
sodium sulphite, peroxide of hydrogen, 
formaldehyde, etc. 

Fruit Punch. — Strawberry syrup, 10 
oz. ; orange syrup, 10 oz. ; pineapple 
syrup, 10 oz. ; lemon juice, 2 oz. Mix. 
Use 2 ounces of this syrup to a large 
glass one-third full of shaved ice, then fill 
with carbonated water and add a slice of 
pineapple and some strawberries. 

Ginger. — 1. — Soluble essence of ginger 
(N.F.), 3 oz. ; tincture of ginger, 1 oz. ; 
syrup, 6 pt. ; water, 2 pt. 

2. — Take of tincture of ginger, 2 oz. ; 
white sugar, 7 lb. (com.) ; water, % gal. 
Heat the sugar and water until the sugar 
is dissolved, raise to the boiling point, 
then gradually add the tincture of ginger, 
stirring briskly after each addition. 

3. — Six pt. simple syrup, 2 pt. water, 
1 oz. tartaric acid, 2 oz. ginger. Burnt 
sugar to color. 

4. — Four oz. extract of Jamaica ginger, 
1 gal. syrup. Shake well. A few drops 
of tincture curcuma to color. 

5. — Nine lb. loaf sugar, 5 lb. water, 12 
oz. essence ginger, 4 oz. Rhine wine. Boil 
sugar and water until dissolved and clear. 
When cool add ginger and wine. Mix 
well and let settle. 

6. — Tincture of ginger, 2 fl.oz. ; simple 
syrup, 4 pt. 

, 7. — Soluble extract of ginger, 2 oz. ; 
tincture of capsicum, 4 dr. ; simple syrup, 
1 gal. Mix. For a good many people 
ginger is scarcely warm enough without 
the addition of Cayenne pepper. 

8. — Syrup of ginger, 2 pt. ; syrup of 
lemon, 1 pt. ; tincture of capsicum, 1 dr. 
Grape. — 1. — Brandy, i^ pt. ; tincture of 
lemon, 1 oz. ; simple syrup, 1 gal. ; tinc- 
ture red saunders, 1 qt. 

2.— Brandy, % pt. ; spirits of lemon, 
% oz. ; tincture of red saunders, 2 oz. ; 
simple syrup, 1 gal. 

3. — A grape syrup, not an artificial 
syrup, or one for fountain use, but a 
syrup from the fruit, for domestic or 
table use, etc. Take 20 lb. ripe freshly 
picked and selected tame grapes, put them 
into a stone jar and pour over them 6 qt. 
of boiling soft water. When sufiiciently 
cool to allow it, well squeeze them 
thoroughly with the hand, after which 
allow them to stand 3 days on the furnace 
with a cloth thrown over the jar, then 
squeeze out the juice and add 10 lb. of 
crushed sugar; let it remain a week 
longer in the jar ; then take off the scum, 
strain and bottle, leaving a vent until 



(Syrups) 



[187] 



done fermenting, when strain again and 
bottle tight and lay the bottles on the 
side in a cool place. 

4. — Brandy, % pt. ; extract of lemon, 
% oz. ; tincture of cudbear, 1 oz. ; simple 
syrup, 1 gal. 

5. — Bottle grape juice, 1 qt. ; sugar, 1 
lb.; simple syrup, 2 qt. ; sol. citric acid, 
1 oz. Dissolve the sugar in the grape 
juice and add the acid and syrup. 

0. — Grape juice, 2 pt. ; acid solution, 1 
oz. ; gum foam, 1 oz. ; simple syrup, q. s. 
1 gal. Mix thoroughly. To serve a grape 
phosphate use 1 oz. of the syrup to an 
8-oz. mineral glass. 

Grenadine. — Extract grenadine, 2 oz. ; 
liquid foam, 1 oz. ; red fruit coloring, 1 
dr.; syrup, 1 gal. Mix, then add fruit 
acid, 2 oz. 

Hoch and Claret. — Hock or claret wine, 

1 pt. ; simple syrup, 2 pt. 

Imperial. — Equal parts of raspberry 
and orange syrups. 

Iron, Malt and Phosphate.— Solution 
of phosphate of iron (1 to 8), 2 fl.dr. ; 
extract of malt, 1 fl.oz. ; solution of acid 
phosphate, 1 fl.oz. ; solution of albumen, 

2 fl.oz. ; solution of caramel, 2 fl.dr. ; ex- 
tract of vanilla, 1 fl.dr. ; extract of bitter 
almonds, % fl.dr.; syrup, sufficient to 
make 20 fl.oz. Mix well. 

Java Tonic. — Compound tincture of 
cinchona, 6 fl.dr.; coffee syrup, 8 fl.oz.; 
vanilla syrup, 4 fl.oz.; glucose svrup, 8 
fl.oz. ; syrup, enough to make 32 fl.oz. 
Serve "solid" in 8-ounce glasses, like the 
phosphates. 

Kola. — 1. — Fluid extract of kola (from 
fresh nuts), 2 fl.dr. ; claret wino, 12 fl.oz. ; 
raspberry juice, li/^ fl.oz.; solution of 
acid phosphate, 4 fl.oz. ; solution of citric 
acid, 2 fl.oz. ; soda syrup, to make % gal. ; 
solution of carmine, to color deep red. 
Serve "solid" in 8-ounce glasses, using 
about 1 ounce of this syrup and filling 
the glass with the coarse stream of carbo- 
nated water. 

2.— Kola cordial, % oz. ; calisaya cor- 
dial, 1 oz. ; Catawba wine, 1 oz. ; frothing 
mixture, i/4 oz. ; blackberry syrup, 14 oz. 
Mix. Trim with fresh berry. 
,^ 3. — Champagne. — a.— Grape jelly, 1 
lb. ; tartaric acid, 1 dr. Dissolve both in 
a little hot water and add fluid extract of 
kola, 5 dr. ; extract of vanilla, 3 dr. ; 
acetic ether, 5 drops; pelargonic ether, 5 
drops; rock candy syrup, 1 gal. Serve 
without foam. 

b. — Stock champagne syrup, 7 pt. ; kola 
wine, 1 pt. ; fruit acid, 3 oz. ; sarsaparilla 
color, Vz oz. ; Tufts' extract vanilla, 
ll^ oz. 

4. — Cherry-Kola. — Serve same as Cold 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Syrups) 



Coca. To make 1 gal. Cherry-Kola : Kola 
wine, 6 oz. ; raspberry syrup, 12 oz. ; 
citric acid (sol,), % oz. ; plain syrup, 
quantity sufficient to make 1 gal. 

5. — Fruit. — Fl. ext. kola, 2 dr.; grape 
juice, 10 oz. ; pineapple juice, 6 oz. ; lemon 
syrup, q. s. 2 pt. M. 

6. — Mint Phosphate. — Kola cordial, 1 
oz. ; syrupy phosphoric acid, % dr. ; spear- 
mint cordial, 3 dr. ; lemon syrup, 15 oz. 
Mix. Trim with sprigs of fresh mint. 

7. — Pepsin. — Crystal pepsin, 15 gr. ; 
kola cordial, 1 oz. ; syrupy phosphoric 
acid, % dr. ; red currant syrup, 15 oz. 
Mix. Trim with sliced lemon. 

Lemon. — 1. — Dissolve 6 dr. of tartaric 
acid and 1 oz. of gum arable, in pieces, 
in 1 gal. of simple syrup ; then flavor 
with 1% fl.dr. of best oil of lemon, or 
flavor with the saturated tincture of the 
peel in cologne spirits. 

2. — Grate off the yellow rinds of 
lemons and beat it up with a sufficient 
quantity of granulated sugar ; express the 
lemon juice ; add to each pt. of juice 1 pt. 
of water, 3i/^ lb. granulated sugar,^ in- 
cluding that rubbed up with the rind ; 
warm until the sugar is dissolved and 
strain. Under no circumstances must the 
syrup be allowed to boil, and the less 
heat that can be used to effect the com- 
plete solution of the sugar the better will 
be the syrup. 

3. — Add to 1 gal. simple syrup, when 
cold, 20 drops fresh oil lemon and % oz. 
citric acid, previously dissolved in 3 oz. 
water ; mix by shaking well in a bottle ; 
add 4 oz. gum solution, made by dissolv- 
ing 2 oz. of fine white gum arable in 2 
oz. warm water. 

4. — Simple syrup, 6 pt. ; distilled water, 
2 pt. ; essence lemon, 2 oz. ; citric acid, 2 
oz., dissolved in boiling water. Mix and, 
if required, color with saffron. 

5. — Simple syrup, 1 gal. ; oil of lemon, 
25 drops ; citric acid, 10 dr. Rub the oil 
of lemon with the acid, add a small por- 
tion of syrup and mix. 

6. — Lemons, 8; alcohol, 4 oz.; citric- 
acid solution, 50 per cent., 2 oz. ; sugar, 
150 oz. ; water, 10 pt. Peel the lemons, 
chop the peeling fine and exhaust with the 
alcohol. Press out the juice of the lem- 
ons and add it to the alcoholic extract. 
Make a syrup of the sugar and water, by 
the aid of a mild heat, let cool and add 
the citric-acid solution. Beat up the 
white of 8 eggs to a stiff foam, stir it into 
the syrup and apply a slow heat, just 
sufficient to coagulate the albumen. Now 
strain and finally add the alcoholic ex- 
tract and lemon juice. 

Licorice Syrup. — To 45 parts water 

[ 



(Syrups) 



add 71/^ parts licorice root, cut in pieces. 
Boil for 15 minutes. Pour the liquid off 
and evaporate to 26 parts. Add 30 parts 
white sugar and 30 parts purified honey. 
Boil up once. 

Malted Milk. — Malted milk, 8 oz. ; hot 
water, 8 oz. ; simple syrup, 4 pt. 

Maple. — 1. — Maple syrup, 4 lb. ; water, 
2 pt. 

2. — Maple sugar, 3% lb. ; water, 1 qt. 
Dissolve, and, if desired, add, a small pro- 
portion of gum solution to produce a rich 
froth. 

3. — Maple sugar, 3% lb. ; water, 1 qt. ; 
solution of citric acid, % oz. ; extract of 
vanilla, 1 dr. ; soda foam, % oz. Dissolve 
the sugar in the water by the aid of a 
gentle heat ; strain and add the solution 
of acid, extract and foam. The extract 
may be omitted if desired. 

4. — Maple sugar, 3 lb. ; water, 30 oz. ; 
solution of citric acid, 4 dr. ; vanilla ex- 
tract, 1 dr. ; soda foam, sufficient. 

5. — Maple sugar syrup, 7 pt. ; fine old 
sherry wine, 13 oz. ; soluble ess. vanilla, 
2 oz. ; lactic acid, 1 oz. Mix well together 
and filter. For dispensing, put into a 12- 
oz. tumbler 2 oz. of this syrup, add 1 
fresh egg and fill up with iced cold rich 
milk. Shake thoroughly and dress with 
whipped cream. 

6. — Artificial. — a. — This is said to be 
given to simple syrup or glucose by the 
addition of aqueous extract of guaiac 
wood. The wood, finely rasped, is boiled 
down to the condition of an extract. 
This is shaken up with ether, or a mix- 
ture of alcohol and ether, to get rid of 
the resinous matters taken up in boiling. 
Some manufacturers attain the desired 
end, though not so completely, by adding 
cold water to the aqueous extract while 
still hot, which causes the resinous mat- 
ter to precipitate. After standing a little 
the clear extractive is poured off and is 
ready for use. It is said that when a 
proper mixture of cane syrup and glucose 
is used the imitation of the maple flavor 
is so near as to puzzle an expert. 

b. — Make a solution of white sugar, 
two in one ; bring to a boil and remove 
from the fire ; then add to it strips of the 
inner bark of hickory (carya alba) or 
white heart hickory (carya tomentosa), 
% oz. to each pint of syi'up ; let stand 10 
minutes and strain. 

c. — Red corn cobs, 4 ; water, 2 pt. : 
enough light brown sugar. Boil the cobs 
in the water until the latter is quite red, 
strain and add sufficient sugar to make a 
heavy syrup. When cold the flavor is 
very pleasant to the taste. 

Marshmallow Syrup. — 1. — Orange 
188] 



Beverages — Non-A Icoholic 



(Syrups) 



flower water, 4 oz. ; gum arable, 12 dr. ; 
extract vanilla, % oz, ; syrup simp., 8 pt. 

2. — Rock candy syrup (Barker's), 7 
pt. ; powdered gum acacia, 10 dr. ; or- 
ange flower water, 4 pt. ; citric acid, 4 
dr. ; water, enough to make 1 gal, 

3. — Althea root, cut, 20 grams ; sugar, 
480 grams ; distilled water, q. s. 1,000 
grams. The althea, previously washed 
Avith cold water, is macerated for 2 hours 
in 400 grams cold distilled water. In the 
strained liquid 480 grains of sugar is dis- 
solved and then sufficient water added to 
make 1,000 grams of syrup. 

Mint. — 1. — Make syrup of 1^ oz. pep- 
permint essence, 4 dr. vanilla extract, 1 
oz. solution citric acid, ^/^ gal. syrup, 
sufficient water and soda foam and 
enough tincture of grass to impart a 
green tint. Mix essence with 2 ounces of 
water and filter through powdered mag- 
nesium carbonate, passing enough water 
.through to make 2 ounces filtrate. Add 
the remaining ingredients. Serve solid in 
8-ounce glass. 

2. — Spirits of peppermint, 1 oz. ; soda 
foam, 1 oz. ; simple syrup, 1 gal. 

3. — Peppermint water (fresh), 4 pt, ; 
sugar, 6 lb. ; enough vegetable green 
color. 

JSfectar. — 1. — Take of vanilla syrup, 5 
pt. ; pineapple syrup, 1 pt. ; strawberry, 
raspberry or lemon syrup, 2 pt. Mix. 

2. — Extract vanilla, 1 oz. ; extract rose, 
1 oz. ; extract lemon, 1 oz. ; extract bitter 
almonds, 1 oz. Mix and add 1 gal. simple 
syrup ; color pink with cochineal. 

3. — Mix 3 parts vanilla syrup with 1 
part each of pineapple and lemon syrups. 

4. — Vanilla syrup, 3 parts ; pineapple 
syrup, 1 part ; cream syrup, 1 part. The 
cream syrup is made by dissolving in the 
cold 3 parts of sugar in 2 of rich milk, 
fortified with some additional cream. 

Nuts. — Blanch 1 lb. of the kernels of 
hickory, or walnuts, in the usual way, 
then powder in a Wedgwood or porcelain 
mortar, a few at a time, adding a few 
drops of lemon juice to prevent the sepa- 
ration of the oil, and sufficient water, 
gradually, to make a pasty emulsion. As 
each batch of kernels is emulsified, says a 
German publication, empty the contents 
of the mortar on a linen cloth, and by 
gathering the corners and twisting, 
squeeze out all that will pass into a 
proper receptacle. The residue on the 
cloth, after squeezing, is to be returned to 
the mortar, to be again treated, along 
with the next batch. Proceed in thi? 
manner until the kernels have all been 
exhausted. The accumulated emulsion is 
to be passed through a strainer, and the 

[ 



(Syrups) 



colate, which should make about 2 pt., is 
to be added to and thoroughly incorpo- 
rated with 3 qt. of cream syrup. This 
formula may be varied and perhaps im- 
proved upon by the addition of vanilla 
extract or other flavoring extracts. Other 
nuts may be used, notably the pecan and 
filbert, the former making an especially 
rich emulsion. 

Nut Fruit Syrup. — Roasted almonds, 1 
lb. ; whole cherries, 8 oz. Grind or chop 
quite fine, then add simple syrup, 1 qt. 
Boil for 10 minutes. When cold add sim- 
ple syrup, to make 1 gal. ; almond ex- 
tract, 5 drops ; rose extract, 3 drops. Mix 
and stir thoroughly. 

Orange. — 1. — Oil of orange, 30 drops; 
citric acid, 4 dr. ; simple syrup, 1 gal. 
Rub the oil with the acid and mix. In- 
stead of the essential oil, a tincture of 
the fresh peel of Florida orange can be 
used with advantage. 

2. — Sicilian oranges, a convenient 
quantity. Express the juice ; to each pint 
of it add % pt. of water, filter or strain, 
and in the liquid dissolve 38 oz. of sugar. 
Flavor with some of the fresh peel 
crushed with the sugar, or still better, 
with Florida orange peel. 

3. — Take 6 select oranges, grate off the 
yellow part only into a good-sized mor- 
tar. Add % lb. of sugar, rub thoroughly 
with a pestle and let stand for 2 or 3 
hours. Extract the juice from the or- 
anges and add. Stir until all the sugar is 
dissolved, adding a little water if neces- 
sary, and strain through cheese cloth into 
a gallon bottle. Add syrup to make 1 
gallon and mix thoroughly. No artificial 
coloring, fruit acid or foam is necessary. 

4. — Fresh oil of orange, i/4 dr. ; citric 
acid, 1 oz. ; water, 2 oz. ; simple syrup, 
1 gal. ; tincture of curcuma, a sufficient 
quantity. Rub the oil and acid crystals 
in a mortar until the latter have been 
reduced to a fine powder, add the water, 
and, when the acid has been dissolved, the 
syrup. A few drops of tincture of cur- 
cuma will give a good color. 

5. — Blood Orange. — Orange juice, 1 
pt. ; raspberry juice, 1 oz. ; claret wine, 
% oz. ; fruit acid, ^ oz. ; foam extract, 
1 oz. ; cochineal color, % dr. ; simple 
syrup, 1 gal. The kind of fruit acid used 
in this formula consists of 2 oz. of citric 
acid dissolved in 4 oz. of water ; the cochi- 
neal color is 2% oz. of cochineal in 20 oz. 
of water, macerated for several days and 
filtered. 

6. — Orange Flower Syrup. — Orange 
flower water, 1 pt. ; granulated sugar, 28 
oz. Dissolve without heat. 
189] 



Beverages — Non- Alcoholic 



(Syrups) 



7. — Orange Peel. — Fresh orange peel, 2 
oz. ; alcohol, 2 oz. ; aqua pura, q. s. to 
percolate 9 oz. ; sugar, 14 oz. Cut the 
peel in small pieces, put in mortar and 
add the alcohol. Thoroughly bruise to a 
pulp, put in a glass percolator, add the 
aqua pura until 9 oz. have percolated. 
Put the sugar in percolator and percolate 
the menstruum through the sugar until 
dissolved. 

8. — Orange Phosphate. — Dispensers 
who use a large quantity of orange phos- 
phate will find it convenient to previously 
prepare a special syrup for the purpose. 
To 1 gal. of fruity orange syrup add 
about 6 oz. of solution of acid phosphate. 
The syrup so made is ready for u^e and 
dispensing with it is much more rapid 
than using a squirt bottle. 

Orgeat Syrup. — 1. — Cream syrup, % 
pt. ; simple syrup, % pt. ; vanilla syrup, 
1 pt. ; oil bitter almonds, 5 drops. 

2. — Beat to an emulsion in a mortar 8 
oz. blanched sweet almonds and 4 oz. 
bitter ones, adding a little water ; when 
smooth add 3 pt. water ; mix and strain. 
Dissolve in this without heat 6 lb. sifted 
white sugar and 4 oz. fresh orange flower 
water. An excellent imitation of orgeat 
syrup is made by flavoring cream syrup, 
made with eggs and milk, with a few 
drops of oil of bitter almonds. 

3. — Sweet almonds, 8 oz, ; bitter alm- 
onds, 21/^ oz. ; sugar, 8 lb. ; water, 26 oz. ; 
orange flower water, 4 oz. Blanch the 
almonds, rub them in a mortar to a fine 
paste with 12 oz, of the sugar and 2 oz. of 
the water. Mix the paste with the re- 
mainder of the water, strain with strong 
expression, add the remainder of the 
sugar and dissolve it with the aid of a 
gentle heat. Lastly, add the orange flower 
water and strain the syrup again. 

4. — Cream syrup, Yq pt. ; vanilla syrup, 
1 pt. ; simple syrup, % pt. ; oil bitter 
almonds, 5 drops. 

Pear Syrup. — Proceed with it same as 
pineapple syrups. 

Peach Syrup. — Proceed in the same 
manner as for strawberry syrup. 

Pepso-Curagoa. — Blood orange syrup, 5 
pt. ; pineapple fruit syrup, 1 pt. ; pepsin 
wine, 1 pt. ; Dutch curagoa, 14 oz, ; citro- 
phosfol, 2 oz. Mix and filter. For dis- 
pensing, draw 2 oz. of this syrup to glass 
and fill up with cold soda. 

Phosphated Syrup. — Syrupy phosphoric 
acid, 50 per cent., 2 oz. ; phosphate of 
soda, 1 oz. ; simple syrup, 1 gal. Flavor 
with either lemon or vanilla. 

Pineapple Syrup. — 1. — Proceed as for 
raspberry, but the hard nature of this 
fruit requires pounding with a heavy 



(Syrups) 



billet of wood (not metal) in a tub with 
a _ strong bottom ; when well mashed it 
will require greajt pressure to extract all 
the juice from this fruit. A cider press 
will answer the purpose, and 14 lb. of 
sugar to a gallon of juice and a little pure 
acetic acid. Put it on a slow fire and 
stir until the sugar dissolves. When cold, 
bottle and tie down. 

2. — Use pineapples of good flavor, cut 
or chop them up, and set aside from 24 
to 36 hours ; press and proceed as directed 
for strawberry syrup. 

3. — Take a convenient number of the 
fruit ; pare and mash them in a marble 
or porcelain mortar, with a small quan- 
tity of sugar ; express the juice ; for each 
quart of juice take l^^ pt. of water and 
6 lb. of sugar ; boil the sugar and water 
and add the juice ; remove from the fire ; 
skim and strain, 

4, — Oil of pineapple, 1 dr, ; tartaric 
acid, 1 dr. ; simple syrup, 6 pt. 

5. — Select a choice pineapple of good 
quality and ripe. One costing about 30 
cents in proper season will make a gallon 
of syrup. Wash it thoroughly ; then with 
a sharp knife remove the outer skin in a 
thin peeling. This is discarded. Now 
take a thicker slice from the outside of 
the fruit, just deep enough to include the 
eyes, and retain these in one of the 
pitcher containers. Now slice the re- 
mainder of the fruit down to the core 
and retain these slices in another pitcher. 
The slices containing the eyes and the 
core are now passed through the chopper, 
using the fine knives. A large amount of 
juice and pulp is obtained. Place in 
cheese cloth to strain, squeeze the pulp 
until it is free from juice and reject it. 
The second slicing is passed through the 
fine knives of the chopper and mixed with 
the juice already obtained. To the whole 
is then added enough rock candy syrup to 
make a gallon, 

6, — Carbonated Pineapple Champagne. 
■ — Plain syrup, 42°, 10 gal. ; essence of 
pineapple, 8 dr. ; tincture of lemon, 5 oz. ; 
carbonate of magnesia, 1 oz. ; liquid saf- 
fron, 21/^ oz. ; citric-acid solution, 30 oz. ; 
caramel, 2% oz. Filter before adding the 
citric-acid solution and lime juice. Use 2 
oz. to each bottle. 

Pistachio for Dispensing. — To % gal. 
syrup add i/^ oz. extract pistachio,, i^ oz. 
essence bitter almond. Condensed milk 
should be added for dispensing. 

Prunes. — Set aside 1 lb. of the best 
prunes, with water enough to cover them, 
for several hours and repeat the washing 
several times. When they are completely 
washed add 1% pt. of distilled water and 



[190] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Syrups) 



gradually heat the whole on sand bath. 
When the ebullition point is reached boil 
from 20 to 30 minutes and allow to cool. 
Place in a suitable vessel, and with the 
aid of a spatula make into a pulpy mass. 
When of the proper consistency remove to 
a half-gallon salt-mouthed glass jar and 
add 1 pt. of 95 per cent, alcohol. Set 
aside for 2 weeks, shake at intervals and 
press the juice out through a strong wet 
muslin strainer and filter. Two parts of 
this extract to 4 parts of syrup will be 
sufficient for making Prune Syrup. 

Raspberries. — 1. — Simple syrup, 6 pt. ; 
water, 2 pt. ; tartaric acid, 2 oz. ; essence 
raspberry, 2 oz. Coloring sufficient. Col- 
oring for raspberry, blackberry, etc., 
syrups may be made by boiling 1 oz. 
cochineal with y^ teaspoonful cream of 
tartar ; filter. 

2. — Take any quantity of fully ripe 
fruit ; free them from stalks ; place them 
in a tub and crush them with a wooden 
spatula ; after they have been mashed, let 
them remain for 3 or 4 hours, and strain 
the crushed berries through a strong flan- 
nel bag or strainer into a suitable vessel. 
Dissolve % oz. citric acid in 3 oz. water 
and add this quantity to each gallon of 
juice ; mix 14 lb. broken sugar to every 
gallon of juice ; put on a slow fire and 
stir until all the sugar is dissolved (not 
boil) ; take off the fire and when cold 
bottle and cork for future use. If too 
thick when cold, it may be brought to a 
proper consistency by the addition of 
water. 

3. — Take fresh berries and inclose them 
in a coarse bag ; press out the juice, and 
to each quart add 6 lb. white sugar and 1 
pt. of water ; dissolve, raising it to the 
boiling point ; strain ; bottle and cork hot, 
and keep in a cool place. Raspberry 
syrup is improved by adding 1 part of 
currants to 4 parts of raspberries. 

4. — Raspberries, 5 qt. ; white sugar, 12 
lb. ; water, 1 pt. Sprinkle some of the 
sugar over the fruit in layers, allowing 
the whole to stand for several hours ; ex- 
press the juice and strain, washing out 
the pulp with the water ; add the re- 
mainder of the sugar and water; bring 
the fluid to the boiling point and then 
strain. This will keep for a long time. 

5. — Black raspberry juice, 8 oz. ; gum 
foam, 1 dr. ; simple syrup, enough to 
make 32 oz. It may be necessary to add 
a little cochineal coloring may be added to 
have the glass of soda the right shade. 

6. — Raspberry juice, 32 oz. ; granulated 
sugar, 3% lb. Dissolve the sugar in the 
juice with the aid of heat. For use add 
20 oz. of this to 40 oz. of simple syrup 



(Syrups) 



and tint to required color with a rasp- 
berry coloring. 

7. — Proceed as directed for strawberry 
syrup. 

8. — Artificial. — a. — Orris root (best), 

1 oz. ; cochineal, 2 dr. ; tartaric acid, 2 
dr. r water, 2 pt. Powder the orris root 
coarsely together with the cochineal ; in- 
fuse in the water with the acid for 24 
hours ; strain, add 4 lb. of sugar, raise to 
the boiling point and strain again. 

b. — Bruised orris root, 3 oz. ; acetic 
acid, 2 oz. ; acetic ether, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 1 
pt. Cochineal to color. Mix and allow 
to stand a few days ; filter and use to 
flavor simple syrup. 

Rose Syrup. — Simple syrup, 1 gal. ; es- 
sence rose, 1 oz. Color pink with pre- 
pared cochineal and acidulate lightly with 
a solution of citric acid. 

Royal Muscadine. — Raspberry syrup, 1 
pt. ; grape juice syrup, 1 pt. ; raspberry 
vinegar, 2 oz. Mix. Pour 2 oz. into a 
mineral water glass, fill with carbonated 
water and serve. 

Sangaree. — Make a syrup of 1 oz. tar- 
taric acid, 1 dr. acetic acid, 8 oz. claret, 

2 pt. port, enough syrup to make 1 gal. 
Serve 1 oz. solid in 8-oz. glass, filling with 
carbonated water. 

Sarsaparilla. — 1. — Oil of wintergreen, 
10 drops ; oil of anise, 10 drops ; oil of 
sassafras, 10 drops ; fluid ext. of sarsa- 
parilla, 2 oz. ; simple syrup, 5 pt. ; pow- 
dered ext. of licorice, % oz. 

2. — Simple syrup, 4 pt. ; comp. syrup 
sarsaparilla, 4 fl.oz. ; caramel, 1% oz.; 
oil of wintergreen, 6 drops ; oil of sassa- 
fras, 6 drops. 

3.— Essence of sarsaparilla, 3 dr. ; so- 
lution of caramel, 1 oz, ; gum foam, 2 dr. ; 
simple syrup, enough to make 32 oz. 

4. — Sassafras bark, bruised, 1 lb. ; 
licorice root, bruised, 7 oz. ; water, 2l^ 
gal. ; oil of sassafras, 1% dr. ; oil of win- 
tergreen, 2 dr. ; alcohol, 95 per cent., 2 
oz. Boil the sassafras and licorice in the 
water half an hour. Strain through flan- 
nel, then add the syrup. Dissolve the oils 
in the alcohol and add them to the syrup. 
Agitate the mixture freely. 

Sherbet Syrup. — 1. — Lemon essence, 2 
dr. ; orange essence, 2 dr. ; pineapple 
juice, 4 oz. ; solution citric acid, 2 oz. ; 
syrup, % gal. Color with solution of 
cochineal. 

2. — Vanilla syrup, 3 pt. ; pineapple 
syrup, 1 pt. ; lemon syrup, 1 pt. 

Simple Syrup. — Take of white sugar 
(com.), 14 lb.; water, 1 gal. Dissolve 
with the aid of a gentle heat, strain and 
when cold add the whites of 2 eggs, pre- 
viously rubbed with a portion of the 



[191] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Syrups) 



syrup, and mix thoroughly by agitation. 
(The Qgs albumen is added to produce 
froth. ) 

Strawberry. — 1. — Put 2 parts of straw- 
berries deprived of the calyx, without 
crushing them, into a large-mouthed jar ; 
add to them 2i/^ parts of sugar and fre- 
quently shake, keeping the vessel in a 
cool place. The sugar absorbs the juice, 
leaving the fruit shriveled and tasteless, 
the latter being removed by means of a 
strainer without pressure. Mix the clear 
syrup with 20% of alcohol. 

2. — Proceed as for raspberry syrup 3, 
but the fruit, being more stubborn, will 
require a good beating with the spatula to 
mash them ; when they have stood 3 or 4 
hours, strain and press the juice out by 
squeezing the strainer between the hands. 
Add to the juice the same quantity of 
citric acid ; dissolve in each gallon 14 lb. 
of loaf sugar ; simply warm the juice 
sufficiently to dissolve the sugar ; take 
from the fire, and when cold bottle and 
cork till required. 

3. — Take of fresh ripe strawberries, 10 
qt. ; white sugar, 24 lb. ; water, 14 gal. 
Spread a portion of the sugar over the 
fruit, in layers, let it stand 4 or 5 hours, 
express the juice, strain, washing out the 
marc with water ; add remainder of sugar 
and water, raise to the boiling point and 
strain. 

4. — Use strawberries of a good flavor. 
Do not forget that if the berries possess 
no flavor, you cannot expect to obtain a 
syrup of fine flavor. Avoid also rotten 
berries, because unless you do, you may 
be sure to find as flavor the smell of the 
rotten berries in your syrup. Mash the 
fruit in a barrel or other suitable vessel, 
by means of a pounder, and leave the pulp 
for 12 or 24 hours at a temperature be- 
tween 70 and 80° ; stir occasionally, 
press, set the juice aside for one night, 
add for every pound avoirdupois of juice 
1 oz. avoirdupois of cologne spirit or 
deodorized alcohol ; mix, set aside for an- 
other night and filter through paper. 

For 1 lb. of the filtered juice take 1% 
lb. of sugar and heat to the boiling point, 
taking care to remove from the fire or 
turn off the steam as soon as the mixture 
begins to boil ; remove the scum and bot- 
tle in perfectly clean bottles, rinsed with 
a little cologne spirit. 

This syrup, as well as those made by 
the same process, is strong enough to be 
mixed with two or three times its weight 
of simple syrup for the soda fountain. 

5. — Strawberry juice, 8 oz. ; cochineal 
coloring, 2 dr. ; gum foam, 1 dr. ; simple 
syrup, enough to make 32 oz. A good 

[ 



(Syrups) 



strawberry flavor is one of the hardest 
to get, and one of the most unsatisfactory. 
Still it is not advisable to be without even 
a poor article. 

6. — Remove the hulls from a quart of 
strawberries and wash the berries in a 
strainer. Pass them through the chop- 
per, using the coarse knives, and add rock 
candy syrup to make 2 qt. 

Tea. — 1. — Black tea, 3 oz. ; green tea, 
5 oz. ; granulated sugav, 36 oz. ; boiling 
water, 16 oz. 

2. — Choice young Hyson tea, 8 oz. ; hot 
water, 2 pt. ; sugar, 4 lb. Infuse the tea, 
rolled or bruised into a coarse powder, 
for 2 hours in a tightly closed vessel. 
Strain and add to the sugar, dissolving 
the latter by agitation. Then add pure 
extract of vanilla, 1 oz. ; pure cognac, 4 
oz. ; pure fruit juice (pineapple), 1 pt. ; 
cane syrup or rock candy syrup, enough 
to make 1 gal. 

3. — English breakfast tea, 1% oz. ; 
sugar, 1 lb. ; boiling water, 2 pt. Infuse 
for 15 minutes ; filter and dissolve the 
sugar in the filtrate. This drink is served 
in mineral glasses, with plenty of milk. 

4. — Best green tea, 1 to 2 oz. ; boiling 
water, 2 pt. ; citric acid, % oz. ; sugar, 56 
oz. Infuse the tea in boiling water ; 
strain the liquid, add enough water to 
complete 2 pt. and with the aid of a 
gentle heat dissolve in it the citric acid 
and the sugar. Strain the syrup through 
flannel and keep it in a cool place. Dis- 
pensed with soda water, this syrup makes 
a drink resembling Iced Tea. 

Vanilla Syrup. — 1. — White syrup, 2 
gal. ; citric acid, 1 oz. ; extract vanilla, 2 
fl.oz. The acid should be dissolved in a 
small quantity of the syrup before add- 
ing to the other ingredients. 

2. — Fluid extract of vanilla, 1 oz. ; sim- 
ple syrup, 3 pt. ; cream (or condensed 
milk), 1 pt. May be colored with car- 
mine. 

3. — Simple syrup, 1 gal. ; extract va- 
nilla, 1 oz. ; citric acid, i/^ oz. Stir the 
acid with a portion of the syrup, add the 
extract of vanilla ; mix. 

4. — Simple syrup, 4 pt. ; extract of va- 
nilla, 2 oz. 

5. — Tincture of vanilla, 4 dr. ; solution 
of caramel, 4 dr. ; gum foam, 2 dr. ; sim- 
ple syrup, enough to make 32 oz. 

Violet Syrup. — Refined sugar, 5 kilos ; 
fresh violets, tops of the flowers only, 
0.525 kilo; water, 2,600 liters. Bruise 
the violets in a mortar ; put in a water 
bath with 1.5 liter at 60° C. Agitate for 
some minutes and press out the flowers. 
Put them back in the water bath ; add the 
rest of the boiling water ; infuse for 12 
192] 



Beveragh- 



-N on- Alcoholic 



(Beers) 



hours; allow it to settle; add the sugar 
and dissolve by heat. 

Whipped. Cream. — 1. — Secure cream as 
fresh as possible. Surround the bowl in 
which the cream is being whipped with 
cracked ice and perform the work in a 
cool place. As fast as the whipped cream 
rises, skim it off and place it in another 
bowl, likewise surrounded with ice. Do 
not whip the cream either too long or too 
violently. The downward motion of the 
beater should be more forcible than the 
upward motion, as the first tends to force 
the air into the cream, while the second 
tends on the contrary to expel the air. 
A little powdered sugar should be added 
to the cream after it is whipped, in order 
to sweeten it. Make the whipped cream 
in small quantities and keep it on ice. 
The object of keeping the cream cool and 
avoiding too much beating is to prevent 
the formation of butter. The beating of 
the cream can be easily effected by means 
o fthe egg beater. 

2. — Artificial. — Gelatine, 4 oz. ; whites 
of 8 eggs ; vanilla extract, 2 oz. ; syrup, 1 
gal. Dissolve the gelatine in water, beat 
the eggs, mix both with syrup, then with 
9 gal. of water and charge at a pressure 
of about 100 lb. 

Wintergreen Syrup. — Oil of winter- 
green, 25 drops ; simple syrup, 5 pt. ; 
burnt sugar (to color), q. s. 

FORMULAS 
Comparative Cost of Carbonated Water. 

Bought, per gal., $0.10 ; per portion of 
8 oz., $0.0062. Made in tanks, per gal., 
$0.02; per portion of 8 oz., $0.0012. 
Made in automatic carbonator, per gal., 
$0.01 ; per portion of 8 oz., $0.0006. 

NON-ALCOHOLIC BEERS 

Beer Tonic. — Plain syrup, 22° Baum6, 
5 gal. ; oil of wintergreen, 2 dr. ; oil of 
sassafras, 2 dr. ; oil of allspice, % dr. ; 
oil of sweet orange, 2 dr. Mix the oil 
with 12 oz. of alcohol and add to the 
plain syrup. Then add 35 gal. of water 
at blood heat and ferment with suflBcient 
yeast. To this add 1 dr. of salicylic acid 
dissolved in conjunction with 1 dr. of bak- 
ing soda in a small glass of water. After 
it has ceased effervescing, add to the fer- 
menting beer. The object of using this 
minute quantity is to prevent putrefac- 
tive fermentation. The natural vinous 
ferments will not be obstructed by it. 

Birch Beer. — 1. — Black birch bark, ^^ 
lb. ; hops, 1 oz. ; pimento, % lb. ; ginger, 
^ lb. ; golden syrup, 6 pt. ; yeast, % pt.. 



(Beers) 



or 2 oz, of German yeast. Boil the bark 
in 3 or 4 pt. of water, and, when con- 
siderably reduced, strain and boil rapidly 
until the liquor is as thick as treacle. 
Meanwhile boil the hops, pimento and 
ginger in 6 qt. of water for 20 minutes, 
then strain it on the bark extract. Stir 
until it boils, add the golden syrup, and, 
when quite dissolved, strain the whole 
into a cask. Add 10 gal. d water pre- 
viously boiled and allowed to cool, and as 
soon as it becomes lu'iewarm stir in the 
liquid yeast. Let it remain loosely bunged 
for 2 or 3 days or until fermentation has 
ceased, then strain into small bottles, cork 
them tightly and store in a cool place. 

2. — ^^Essence of wintergreen, ^ oz. ; es- 
sence of sassafras, % oz. ; essence of 
birch, 1 oz. ; cinnamon (in powder), 1 
teaspoonful ; hops, 1 teacupful ; yeast, 1 
teacupful ; sugar, a sufficiency ; water, to 
make 1 gal. Macerate the essence, cin- 
namon and hops in the water for 12 
hours, then add sugar to taste and the 
yeast. Set aside for a day or two to fer- 
ment ; then strain and bottle. 

Dandelion Root Beer. — 1. — Tincture of 
ginger, 8 oz. ; oil of wintergreen, 2 dr. ; 
oil of sassafras, 1 dr. ; fluid extract of 
dandelion, 1 oz. ; fluid extract of wild 
cherry, 1 oz. ; fluid extract of sarsaparilla, 
1 oz. ; diluted alcohol, enough to make 
1 pt. 

2. — Dandelion, 2 oz. ; burdock root, 4 
oz. ; sarsaparilla, 4 oz. ; sassafras, 2 oz. ; 
caramel, 2 dr. ; calamus, 4 dr. ; oil of 
wintergreen, 30 m. ; oil of sassafras, 30 
m. ; diluted alcohol, 1 pt. ; alcohol, 2 oz. ; 
water, a sufficient quantity. Mix the 
drugs, and, if not already powdered, re- 
duce them to a coarse powder, moisten 
with the diluted alcohol, macerate and 
pa.ck in the percolator and percolate with 
the remainder of the diluted alcohol and 
then with the water until the drugs are 
exhausted. Reserve the first 28 oz. ; 
evaporate the weak percolate to 4 oz. and 
add to the reserved portion. Dissolve the 
oils in the alcohol, add to the percolate 
and filter, if necessary, through purified 
talcum or calcium phosphate. 

Hop Beer. — 1. — Percolate the following 
with a menstruum of 3 volumes of alcohol 
to 5 volumes of water until exhausted : 
Sassafras, 1 oz. ; yellow dock, 1 oz. ; wild 
cherry bark, % oz. ; allspice, 1 oz. ; win- 
tergreen, 1 oz. ; hops, % oz. ; coriander 
seed, % oz. To the percolate add 1 pt. 
of yeast and sufficient water to make 6 
gal. and allow to ferment in a warm 
place. Or a fluid extract of the above 
can be made of one-half the strength of 



[193] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Beers) 



the drug and 2 oz. of the extract used 
for preparing a gallon of beer. 

2. — Water, 5 qt. ; hops, 6 oz. Boil 3 
hours, strain the liquor, add water, 5 qt. ; 
bruised ginger, 4 oz., and boil a little 
longer, strain and add 4 lb. of sugar ; and 
when milk warm, 1 pt. of yeast. Let it 
ferment ; in 24 hours it is ready for bot- 
tling. 

3. — Hops, /> oz. ; water, 8 gal. ; brown 
sugar, 21^ lb. ; yeast, 3 or 4 tablespoon- 
fuls. Boil hops ana wa^er together for 45 
minutes, add the sugar, and, when dis- 
solved, strain into a bowl or tub. As 
soon as it is lukewarm add the yeast, let 
it work for 48 hours, then skim well, and 
strain into bottles or a small cask. Cork 
securely and let it remain for a few days 
before using it. 

Lemon Beer. — 1. — Boiling water, 1 
gal. ; lemon, sliced, 1 ; bruised ginger, 1 
oz. ; yeast, 1 teacupful ; sugar, 1 lb. Let 
it stand 12 to 20 hours and it is ready 
to be bottled. 

2. — Put in a keg 1 gal. of water, 1 
sliced lemon, 1 tablespoon ginger, 1 pt. 
syrup, % pt. yeast. Ready for use in 24 
hours. If bottled, tie down the corks. 

Maple. — 1. — To 4 gal. of boiling water 
add 1 qt. of maple syrup, % oz. of es- 
sence of spruce ; add 1 pt. of yeast and 
proceed as with ginger pop. 

2. — To 4 gal. of boiling water add 1 qt. 
of maple syrup, % oz. essence of spruce 
and 1 pt. of yeast. Let it ferment for 24 
hours and then strain and bottle it. In a 
week or more it will be ready for use. 

3. — Boiling water, 6 gal. ; maple syrup, 
1% qt. ; essence of spruce, % oz. ; add 
1-!^ pt. yeast. 

Molasses Beer. — Take 14 lb. molasses, 
iy2 lb. hops, 36 gal. water, 1 lb. yeast. 
Boil the hops in the water, add the mo- 
lasses and ferment. 

Ottawa Beer. — Sassafras, allspice, yel- 
low dock, wintergreen, 1 oz. each ; wild 
cherry bark and coriander, i/4 oz. ; hops, 
34 oz. ; molasses, 3 qt. Put boiling water 
on the ingredients and let them stand 24 
hours. Filter and add 14 pt. of brewer's 
yeast. Leave again 24 hours, then put it 
in an ice cooler, and it is ready for use. 
It is a wholesome drink, if it is used in 
moderation. 

Ii,oot Beer. — 1. — To 5 gal. of' boiling 
water add 1% gal. of molasses. Allow it 
to stand for 3 hours, then add bruised 
sassafras bark, wintergreen bark, sarsa- 
parilla root, of each % lb., and % pt. of 
fresh yeast, water enough to make 15 to 
17 gal. After this has fermented for 12 
hours it can be drawn off and bottled. 

2. — ^Pour boiling water on 2% oz. sas- 



( Beers) 



safras, ll^ oz.wild cherry bark, 2^^ oz. 
allspice, 2^^ oz. wintergreen bark, ^ oz. 
hops, 'Y'i oz. coriander seed, 2 gal. mo- 
lasses. Let the mixture stand 1 day. 
Strain, add 1 pt. yeast, enough water to 
make 15 gal. This beer may be bottled 
the following day. 

3. — Sarsaparilla, 1 lb. ; spicewood, ^ 
lb. ; guaiacum chips, % lb. ; birch bark, 
% lb. ; ginger, % oz. ; sassafras, 2 oz. ; 
prickly ash bark, 44 oz. ; hops, % oz. 
Boil for 12 hours over a moderate fire 
with sufficient water, so that the remain- 
der shall measure 3 gal., to which add 
tincture of ginger, 4 oz. ; oil of winter- 
green, 14 oz. ; alcohol, 1 pt. This pre- 
vents fermentation. To make root beer, 
take of this decoction, 1 qt. ; molasses, 8 
oz. ; water, 2% gal. ; yeast, 4 oz. This 
will soon ferment and produce a good, 
drinkable beverage. The root beer should 
be mixed, in warm weather, the evening 
before it is used, and can be kept for use 
either bottled or drawn by a common beer 
pump. Most people prefer a small addi- 
tion of wild cherry bitters or hot drops 
to the above beer. 

Sarsaparilla Beer. — Decoction of sarsa- 
parilla compound, 2 oz. ; sassafras root, 
bruised, i/4 oz. ; honey, % lb. ; cane sugar, 

1 lb. ; fresh yeast, 4 oz. ; distilled water, 
boiling, 1 gal. Dissolve the sugar and 
honey in the water, add the sassafras, and 
when cooled down, the sarsaparilla and 
yeast. Set aside in a warm place for a 
few days and then strain and bottle. 

Spruce Beer, — 1. — Sarsaparilla, 4 oz. ; 
pipsissewa, 4 oz. ; licorice root, 3 oz. ; sas- 
safras bark, 3 oz. ; ginger root, 1 oz. Mix 
the drugs and grind to a coarse powder 
and extract by percolation with a men- 
struum of 3 parts of alcohol and 1 of 
water until 24 fl.oz. of product are ob- 
tained, and add the following : Oil lemon, 

2 dr. ; oil sassafras, 2 oz. ; oil spruce, 2 
oz. ; oil wintergreen, 1 dr. ; magnesia, 4 
dr. Dissolve the oils in 6 oz. of alcohol 
and rub with magnesia and add 2 oz. of 
water and mix well. Now mix both solu- 
tions and filter. Use 4 or 5 oz. to 1 
gal. of simple syrup and color with 
caramel. 

2. — Hops, 2 oz. ; chip sassafras, 2 oz. ; 
water, 10 gal. Boil half an hour, strain ; 
add brown sugar, 7 lb. ; essence of spruce, 
1 oz. ; essence of ginger, 1 oz. ; ground 
pimento, % oz. Put in a cask and cool, 
add 11/^ pt. of yeast, let it stand 24 hours, 
fine, draw it off to bottle. 

3. — Hops, 8 oz, ; chip sassafras, 2 oz. ; 
water, 10 gal. Boil half an hour, strain 
and add brown sugar, 7 lb. ; essence of 
spruce, 1 oz. ; essence of ginger, 1 oz. ; 



[194] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Egg Drinks) 



ground pimento, % oz. Put into a cask 
and cool, add l^^ pt. yeast, let it stand 24 
hours, fine, draw it off to bottle. 

4. — To 6 gal. of water add 1 pt. essence 
of spruce, 10 oz. of pimento, 10 oz. gin- 
ger, 1 lb. hops. After boiling about 10 
minutes, add 24 lb. of moist sugar and 22 
gal. of warm water. When the ingredi- 
ents are well mixed and lukewarm, add 1 
qt. yeast. Let it ferment 24 hours. 
Strain and bottle. 

5. — Sugar, 1 lb. ; essence of spruce, % 
oz. ; boiling water, 1 gal. ; mix well and 
when nearly cold add % wineglass of 
yeast and the next day bottle. 

6. — Essence of spruce, % pt. ; pimento 
and ginger (bruised), of each 5 oz. ; hops, 
1/^ lb. ; water, 3 gal. ; boil the whole for 
10 minutes, then add of moist sugar, 12 
lb. ; water, 11 gal. ; mix well and when 
lukewarm add 1 pt. of yeast. After the 
liquor has fermented for about 24 hours, 
bottle it. 

7. — Water, 16 gal. ; boil half, put the 
water thus boiled to the reserved cold 
half, which should be previously put into 
a barrel or other vessel ; then add 16 lb. 
molasses, with a few spoonfuls of the es- 
sence of spruce, stirring the whole to- 
gether ; add % pt. of yeast, and keep it in 
a temperate situation with the bung hole 
open for 2 days, or till fermentation sub- 
sides ; then close it up or bottle it off, and 
it will be fit to drink in a few days. 

White Spruce Beer. — Five lb. loaf 
sugar are dissolved in 5 gal. of boiling 
water, then 2 fl.oz. of spruce are added. 
When almost cold add a gill of yeast. 
Place in warm place and after 24 hours 
strain through a piece of flannel and 
bottle. 

EGG AND MILK OR CREAM 
Egg Drinks. 

Mixing Egg Drinks. — Draw desired 
syrup or syrups into glass ; into shaker 
put q. s. crushed ice, break egg inta 
shaker with one hand by holding ^gg in 
fingers, the thumb being made to give up- 
ward pressure on one end and third and 
fourth fipgers on the other. Strike the 
Qgg on edge of shaker and pull apart in 
above manner. Put syrup into shaker 
with egg and ice and shake well, holding 
both thumbs against bottom of glass and 
fingers around shaker, moving arms out- 
ward from body. Strain into clean glass, 
wash ice out of shaker, then add soda, 
using fine stream freely. 

Calisaya. — White and yolk of 1 egg, i/^ 
tumblerful of cracked or shaved ice, 3 
dashes of elixir calisaya, I14 oz. lemon 



(Egg Drinks) 



syrup. Shake well, strain and add 1 tum- 
blerful of plain soda. Pour from tumbler 
to shaker alternately several times, then 
grate nutmeg on top and serve. 

Egg Sour. — Juice of 1 lemon ; simple 
syrup, 12 dr. ; 1 egg. Shake, strain and 
fill with soda. Mace on top. 

Golden Fizz. — One egg yolk ; catawba 
syrup, 1 oz. ; juice of % lemon ; powdered 
sugar, 1 teaspoonful ; cracked ice. Shake 
together and strain ; then fill the glass 
with seltzer. A good morning drink. 

Grape Egg Phosphate. — Orange syrup, 
2 oz. ; grape juice, 1 oz. ; 3 dashes of 
phosphate ; 1 egg ; a little fine ice. Shake, 
fill with soda and strain. 

Lemon Sour. — Lemon syrup, 12 dr. ; 
juice of 1 lemon ; 1 egg. 

Lemonade. — 1. — Break 1 egg in mixing 
glass, use 1 or 2 lemons, simple syrup to 
taste, shake well with ice, use fine stream 
of soda and serve in bell glass with nut- 
meg or cinnamon. 

2. — In 1 pt. of water dissolve ^/^ lb. 
granulated sugar ; squeeze in the juice of 
4 large lemons and add a cupful cracked 
ice. Have ready the yolks and whites of 
4 fresh eggs, well beaten, separately, the 
whites until stiff and dry ; stir in the 
yolks with the lemonade, and, lastly, the 
whites ; if necessary, add more sugar. 

Phosphate. — 1. — Put some cracked ice 
into a shaker, break in a fresh egg, add 1 
oz. of American orange syrup and a dash 
of phosphate. Shake well, then strain 
into glass. Draw fine stream to make the 
drink creamy, then pour back and forth 
from a shaker to glass. Sprinkle top 
with grated nutmeg and serve with a 
straw. 

2. — Small quantity cracked ice ; lemon 
syrup, iy2 oz. ; 1 egg ; liquid phosphate, 
30 drops. Shake together with hand 
shaker and add enough plain soda to fill 
the glass. Mix well by pouring from 
glass to shaker and serve, after adding a 
little grated nutmeg. 

3. — Orange syrup, 1 oz. ; pineapple 
syrup, 1 oz. ; 1 egg ; acid phosphate, 6 
dashes ; lemon juice, 6 dashes. Shake, 
strain and add soda water, using a fine 
stream freely. Sprinkle mace on top. 

Pineapple. — Break a fresh egg into a 
12-oz. soda-tumbler, add l^/^ oz. pineapple 
syrup, 2 dashes phosphate, 1 oz. plain 
water ; shake thoroughly ; fill shaker with 
fine stream soda, strain carefully into 
tumbler and serve. 

Raspherrp Sour. — Raspberry syrup, 12 
dr. ; 1 egg ; juice of 1 lemon. 

Silver Fizz (non-alcoholic). — Catawba 
syrup, 2 oz. ; lemon juice, 8 dashes ; white 
of 1 egg. 



[195] 



Beveraores — N on- Alcoholic 



(Egg and Milk) 



Vicfiy a la Egg. — One whole egg, ^2 
glass shaved ice, 1 oz. pure water. Shake 
thoroughly, then add slowly, while con- 
stantly stirring, enough vichy water to 
fill the glass. 
Egg and Milk or Cream. 

1. — One egg, % oz. of lemon and va- 
nilla syrup, 1 oz. pure cream, 2 teaspoon- 
fuls shaved ice. Shake and strain. 

2. — Evaporated cream, 4 oz. ; egg yolks, 
4 ; extract vanilla, 1 oz. ; syrup, 12 oz. 

3. — One egg ; vanilla or catawba syrup, 
1 oz. ; other syrups may be used ; glass 
one-quarter full fine ice. Fill with milk 
and shake up well. Sprinkle nutmeg on 
top and serve. 

4. — Cream, 6 oz. ; pulverized sugar, 2 
tablespoonfuls ; 1 Qgg ; shaved ice. Shake, 
strain and add soda water. 

Chocolate. — 1. — Chocolate syrup, 2 oz. ; 
1 egg ; shaved ice ; milk to fill glass ; 
whipped cream. Shake egg, syrup, milk 
and ice together and strain ; draw fine 
stream of soda to fill glass ; use whipped 
cream on top. 

2. — Chocolate syrup, 2 oz. ; cream, 4 
oz. ; white of 1 Qgg. 

Claret. — Claret syrup, 2 oz. ; cream, 3 
oz. ; 1 Qgg. 

Cocoa Mint. — Chocolate syrup, 1 oz. ; 
peppermint syrup, 1 oz. ; white of 1 egg ; 
cream, 2 oz. 

Coffee. — 1. — Cream, 3 qt. ; sugar, 1% 
oz. ; port wine, % oz. ; 1 egg. Add a 
little ice, using a 12-oz. glass, fill with 
milk shake, strain into a clean glass and 
add a few dashes of nutmeg. 

2. — Coffee syrup, 2 oz. ; cream, 3 oz. ; 

1 egg ; shaved ice. 

Currant Cream. — Red currant syrup, 2 
oz. ; cream, 3 oz. ; 1 egg. 

Fruit Blend. — Pineapple syrup, l^ oz. ; 
vanilla syrup, Y2 oz. ; orange syrup, % 
oz. ; 1 egg ; plain cream, 2 oz. ; sherry 
wine, 2 dashes ; ice, % glass, 
strain, toss and serve. 

Orange. — 1 . — Orange syrup, 
catawba or pinapple syrup, 
cream, 2 oz. ; 1 egg. 

2. — Orange syrup, 2 oz. ; ice cream, 1 
tablespoonful ; one egg ; milk, 3 oz. ; 
cracked ice, q. s. This is put into a 
shaker and thoroughly mixed. It is 
served with cracked ice and enough plain 
soda to fiJl the glass. Served with straws. 

Punch. — 1. — Orange syrup, 2 oz. ; 
lemon juice, 6 dashes ; cream, 2 oz, ; 1 egg. 

2. — Break 1 egg in mixing glass, add 1 
oz. catawba syrup, 1% oz. brandy syrup, 

2 oz. plain cream. Shake well with ice 
and use fine stream. Serve in bell glass. 

Quince Flip. — Quince syrup, 2 oz. ; 
cream, 3 oz. ; 1 egg ; shaved ice. 



Shake, 

L oz. 
L oz. 



(Milk or Cream) 



Rose Cream. — Rose syrup, 12 dr. ; 
cream, 4 oz. ; white of 1 egg. 

Rose Mint. — Rose syrup, 6 dr. ; mint 
syrup, 6 dr. ; cream, 3 oz. ; white of 1 egg. 

Sherbet. — Sherry syrup, 4 dr. ; pineap- 
ple syrup, 4 dr. ; raspberry syrup, 4 dr. ; 
cream, 2 oz. ; 1 egg. 

Sherry Flip. — Sherry syrup, 2 oz. ; 
cream, 3 oz. ; 1 egg. Shake, strain and 
add soda water. Mace on top. 

Strawberry. — One egg in mixing glass, 
add 2 oz. of strawberry syrup, 2 oz. plain 
cream. Shake well with ice. Use fine 
stream and serve in bell glass. 

Violet Cream. — Violet syrup, 12 dr. ; 
cream, 4 oz. ; white of 1 egg. 

Milk or Cream. 

Syrup (desired flavor), 1 oz. ; shaved 
ice, % tumblerful ; rich milk, % tumbler- 
ful. Shake vigorously and fill tumbler 
with plain soda from fine stream. 

Banana. — Banana syrup, 12 dr. ; 
cream, 4 oz. ; 1 egg. 

Chocolate. — 1. — Chocolate syrup, 3 oz. ; 
ice cream, 2 tablespoonfuls ; milk, enough 
to fill a soda tumbler. Put into shaker, 
mix well and serve with cracked ice and 
straws. 

2. — Chocolate syrup, 2 oz. ; sweet milk, 
suflBcient. Fill a glass full of shaved ice, 
put in the syrup and add milk until the 
glass is almost full. Shake well and 
serve without straining. Put whipped 
cream on top and serve with straws. 

Clam Juice. — Clam juice, 1^^ fl.oz. ; 
milk, 2 fl.oz. ; soda water, 5 fl.oz. Add a 
pinch of salt and a little white pepper to 
each glass ; shake well. 

Coffee. — Large glass chipped ice, % 
full ; coffee syrup, 2 oz. ; sweet cream, 2 
oz. Shake thoroughly and draw on soda 
in the shaker. Put a spoonful of whipped 
cream in the glass and pour in the drink, 
using the fine soda stream. 

Mineral Milk. — Draw 6 oz. plain carbo- 
nated water into 8-oz. tumbler; fill with 
plain sweet cream ; stir and serve. 

Mint. — Mint syrup, 1^2 fl.oz. ; Angos- 
tura bitters, i/^ fl.dr. ; milk, 3 fl.oz. Car- 
bonated water (coarse stream), enough 
to fill 8-oz. glass. Serve "solid." 

Peach. — Peach syrup, 1 oz. ; grape 
juice, % oz. ; pineapple syrup, ^/^ oz. ; 
shaved ice, l^ glass. Fill the glass with 
milk, shake well and serve with 2 straws. 

Sherbet. — Shaved ice, % glass ; straw- 
berry syrup, 1 oz. ; pineapple syrup, 1 
oz. ; vanilla syrup, 1 oz. ; milk to nearly 
fill glass. Shake well, add soda water, 
fine stream, and pour from tumbler to 
shaker several times. Serve in a 12-oz. 
glass, with straws. 



[196] 



Beverages — Non-A Icoholic 



(Frappes) 



Strawlerry. — Strawberry syrup, % 
oz. ; vanilla syrup, i^ oz. ; orange syrup, 
1/^ oz. ; brandy, 3 dashes ; shaved ice, ^ 
glass ; milk, enough to fill glass. Top 
with whipped cream. 



FRAPPES 

Making Frappes. — Frapp§s are semi- 
frozen beverages, served in glasses or "ice 
cups," and are considered delicious drinks 
in the hot season. They are mainly com- 
posed of fruit juices, with an addition of 
sugar or syrup. They are also made of 
different kinds of punch, such as cham- 
pagne, coffee, etc. In point of color they 
should correspond with the nature of fruit 
used. The freezing process should con- 
sist of the preparation being placed in a 
fi'eezer or packer imbedded in broken 
salted ice, the vessel is twisted to the 
right and left alternately with the hand. 
As the composition becomes frozen up the 
sides of the can remove it with a palette 
knife by scraping it down into the com- 
position and mix it with a spatula, re- 
membering that frappe must be only half 
frozen, resembling snow, and just sufii- 
ciently liquid to admit of its being poured 
into glasses. 

Blackberry. — Juice of 1' lemon ; black- 
berry syrup, % oz. ; raspberry syrup, % 
oz. Fill a 14-oz. glass two-thirds full of 
shaved ice. Shake well ; don't strain ; or- 
nament with fruit and use real straws. 

Chocolate. — Dissolve 1 lb. of chocolate 
(powdered) with 4 qt. of water, adding 2 
lb. of sugar, seeing that the chocolate is 
fully dissolved ; remove from the fire and 
strain. When cold, flavor with vanilla 
and freeze after the manner laid down 
for frappe. 

Coffee. — 1. — Java coffee syrup, lYz 
lb. ; coffee, about 5 oz. of best. Grind the 
coffee fresh every time you want to use 
it. Put 1 qt. of the cream into the farina 
boiler ; when very hot add the coffee, 
stir well, cover the boiler, let it draw for 
10 minutes, stir again, take off the fire 
and set in a warm place to settle, then 
pour off the clear part. Cook the rest of 
the cream, add the coffee and sugar, dis- 
solve it, strain through fine muslin, cool 
and freeze. May also be served with 
whipped cream. 

2. — To every quart of clear, good Mo- 
cha coffee add 1 lb. of sugar and freeze as 
above. 

Lemon. — Make an ordinary lemon 
water ice, rich in fruit flavor and good 
and sweet ; then freeze. 

Maple. — Two oz. maple syrup, 3 oz. 
plain cream, large teaspoonful of ice 

[ 



(Ginger Ale) 



cream ; shake well with ice, use only fine 
stream and serve in bell glass. 

Orange. — 1. — Orange syrup, 1 oz. ; 
ice ; then add in the following order : 
Powdered sugar, 1 tablespoonful ; orange 
syrup, % oz. ; lemon syrup, 2 dashes ; 
raspberry syrup, 1 dash ; acid-phosphate 
solution, % oz. Fill the glass with soda 
water, stir well, strain into a mineral 
water glass and serve. 

2. — Orange syrup, 1% oz. ; ice cream, 

2 oz. ; plain cream, 2 oz. ; ice, ^ glass. 
Shake, strain, toss and serve. 

Pineapple. — Peel and crush 2 pineap- 
ples ; then make a boiling syrup of 2^^ lb. 
sugar and 2 qt. of water and pour it over 
the pineapples. Let it stand until nearly 
cold, then add the juice of 5 lemons ; 
strain, press the liquid from the pineap- 
ples ; pour into freezer, add 4 egg whites 
and freeze. Then work in a good ^ pt. 
of maraschino. 

Tea. — For tea frappe cover 3 table- 
spoonfuls of mixed tea with 2 qt. of boil- 
ing water. Let it stand about 10 min- 
utes, then strain, sweeten to taste, cool 
and freeze to a mush. 

GINGER ALES, BEERS, POP, ETC. 
Ginger Ale. 

Carbonated. — 1. — To make the extract, 
proceed as follows : Bruised ginger, 128 
parts ; cardamom seed, 2 parts ; oil lemon, 
% part ; Cayenne pepper, 8 parts ; alco- 
hol dilute, 256 parts. Mix the aromatics, 
moisten with the alcohol, pack in a per- 
colator and percolate until exhausted. 
Dissolve the oil of lemon in the percolate. 

2. — To charge the fountains : Extract 
ginger ale, 6 dr. ; acid solution, 6 dr. ; 
syrup simplex, 5 pt. ; sugar coloring (car- 
mine), 2 dr.; water, 6 gal. Mix. Charge 
with carbonic-acid gas to 120 or 130 lb. 

3.— rThe acid solution is made as fol- 
lows : Citric acid, 3 oz. ; water, 6 oz. Mix 
and make a solution. 

Extract. — 1. — Soluble essence of gin- 
ger, 1% pt. ; essence of lemon, soluble, 
1% oz. ; essence of ginger oil, soluble, 1% 
oz. ; extract of vanilla, soluble, li/4 oz. ; 
soluble essence rose oil, % oz. ; tincture 
cinnamon, soluble, 1% dr. ; artificial es- 
sence pineapple, % dr. ; essence capsicum, 

3 dr. ; mix. 
2. — Tincture of ginger, 1 gal. ; tincture 

of capsicum, 7% oz. ; extract of orange, 
3 oz. ; extract of lemon, % oz. ; caramel, 
5 oz. ; water, 1^^ gal. ; sugar, 2 lb. ; mag- 
nesium carbonate, 1 lb. Mix and allow 
to stand 12 hours. Shake occasionally 
and filter. 
3. — Jamaica ginger, coarse powder, 4 
197] 



Beverai^es — -Non- Alcoholic 



(Ginger Ale) 



oz. ; mace, powder, % oz. ; Canada snake- 
root, coarse powder, GO gr. ; oil of lemon, 
1 fl.dr. ; alcohol, 12 fl.oz. ; water, 4 fl.oz. ; 
magnesium carbonate or purified talcum, 

1 av.oz. Mix the first four ingredients 
and make 16 fl.oz. of tincture with the 
alcohol and water by percolation. Dis- 
solve the oil of lemon in a small quantity 
of alcohol, rub with magnesia or talcum, 
add gradually with constant trituration 
the tincture and filter. The extract may 
be fortified by adding 4 av.oz. of now- 
dered grains of paradise to the ginger, 
etc., of the above before extraction with 
alcohol and water. 

4. — Capsicum, coarse powder, 8 oz. ; 
water, 6 pt. ; essence of ginger, 8 fl.oz. ; 
diluted alcohol, 7 fl.oz. ; vanilla extract, 

2 fl.oz. ; oil of lemon, 20 drops ; caramel, 

1 fl.oz. Boil the capsicum with water for 

3 hours, occasionally replacing the water 
lost by evaporation, filter, concentrate the 
filtrate on a hot-water bath to the con- 
sistency of a thin extract, add the re- 
maining ingredients and filter. 

5. — Jamaica ginger, ground, 12 oz. ; 
lemon peel, fresh, cut fine, 2 oz. ; capsi- 
cum, powder, 1 oz. ; calcined magnesia, 1 
oz. ; alcohol and water, of each suflBcient. 
Extract the mixed ginger and capsicum 
by percolation so as to obtain 16 fl.oz, of 
water, set the mixture aside for 24 hours, 
shaking vigorously from time to time, 
then filter and pass through the filter 
enough of a mixture of 2 volumes of alco- 
hol and 1 of water to make the filtrate 
measure 32 fl.oz. In the latter macerate 
the lemon peel for 7 days and again filter, 

6. — To be used in the proportion of 4 
oz. of extract to 1 gal. of syrup: Ja- 
maica ginger, in fine powder, 8 lb. ; capsi- 
cum, in fine powder, 6 oz. ; alcohol, a suflS- 
cient quantity. Mix the powders inti- 
mately, moisten them with a sufficient 
quantity of alcohol and set aside for 4 
hours. Pack in a cylindrical percolator 
and percolate with alcohol until 10 pt. of 
percolate have resulted. Place the perco- 
late in a bottle of the capacity of 16 pt. 
and add to it 2 fl.dr. of oleoresin of gin- 
ger ; shake, add 2^2 lb. of finely powdered 
pumice stone and agitate thoroughly at 
intervals of one-half hour for 12 hours. 
Then add 14 pints of water in quantities 
of 1 pt. at each addition, shaking briskly 
meanwhile. This part of the operation is 
most important. Set the mixture aside 
for 24 hours, agitating it strongly every 
hour or so during that period. Then 
take oil of lemon, li/^ fl.oz. ; oil of rose 
(or geranium), 3 fl.dr.; oil of bergamot, 

2 fl.dr. ; oil of cinnamon, 3 fl.dr. ; mag- 
nesium carbonate, 3 fl.oz. Rub the oils 



(Ginger Beer) 



with the magnesia in a large mortar and 
add 9 oz. of the clear portion of the 
ginger mixture, to which has been pre- 
viously added 2 oz. of alcohol, and con- 
tinue trituration, rinsing out the mortar 
with the -ginger mixture. Pass the ginger 
mixture through a double filter and add 
through the filter the mixture of oils and 
magnesia. Finally pass enough water 
through the filter to make the resulting 
product measure 24 pt., or 3 gal. If the 
operator should desire an extract of more 
or less pungency, he may obtain his de- 
sired effect by increasing or decreasing the 
quantity of powdered capsicum in the 
formula. 

Beer. 

1. — Soluble essence of lemon, 1 oz. , Ja- 
maica ginger (bruised), 12 oz. ; English 
honey, 12 oz. ; lemon juice, 1 pt. ; cane 
sugar, 9 lb. ; distilled water, to make 9% 
gal. ; white of an egg. Boil the ginger 
with 1^ gal. of water for half an hour, 
then add the sugar, honey and lemon 
juice, and make up with water to 9^/4 gal. 
When cold, add the white of an egg and 
essence of lemon and stir well together. 
Set aside in a closed vessel for about 5 
days and then bottle. 

2. — Jamaica ginger, 2i/^ oz. ; moist 
sugar, 3 lb. ; cream tartar, 1 oz. ; juice 
and peel of 2 lemons ; brandy, % pt. ; 
good ale yeast, 14 pt. ; water, 3% gal. 
This will produce 4% doz. bottles of ex- 
cellent ginger beer, which will keep 12 
months. Boil the ginger and sugar for 20 
minutes in the water, slice the lemons and 
put them and the cream of tartar in a 
large pan; pour the boiling liquor over 
them and stir well ; when milk is warm, 
add the yeast ; cover and let it remain 2 
or 3 days, skimming frequently ; strain 
through a cloth into a cask and add the 
brandy. Bung down very close ; at the 
end of 2 weeks draw off and bottle, cork 
very tightly. If it does not work well, 
add a very little more yeast. 

3. — Brown sugar, 2 lb. ; boiling water, 
2 gal. ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; bruised gin- 
ger root, 2 oz. Infuse the ginger in the 
boiling water, add your sugar and cream 
of tartar ; when lukewarm strain ; then 
add % pt. good yeast. Let it stand all 
night ; then bottle ; if you desire, you can 
add 1 lemon and the white of an Qgg to 
fine it. 

4. — English. — Water, 3 gal. ; pulverized 
ginger, 3 oz. ; sugar, 4 lb. ; cream tartar, 
4 oz. Boil and when cold add 2 table- 
spoonfuls of yeast. Allow it to stand over 
night, then filter and bottle. 

5. — Fermented. — For a good recipe for 



[ 1'98 ] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Pop) 



fermented ginger beer to put up in stone 
jugs, take best Jamaica ginger, ground, 

1 lb. ; tartaric acid, 6 oz. ; gum arabic, 1 
lb. ; oil lemon, % oz. ; sugar, 21 lb. ; 
water, 21 gal.; yeast, % pt. Stir the 
ginger, sugar and water very thoroughly 
together. Dissolve the gum in suflScient 
water to give it the consistency of cream ; 
to this add the lemon oil and shake them 
well together. Add this mixture to the 
sugar solution. Now stir in the yeast. 
As soon as a brisk fermentation is estab- 
lished, strain through a jelly bag. Let it 
work for another day or two and then 
bottle. This will make 20 gal. ; you can 
double or quadruple the proportions if 
you want to make a larger batch. 

6. — Potvder. — a. — ^Jamaica ginger, pow- 
dered, 1 oz. ; sodium bicarbonate, 7 oz. ; 
sugar, 1% lb. ; oil of lemon, 1 fl.dr. Make 
into powders. 

b.^ — Ginger, bruised, % oz. ; cream of 
tartar, % oz. ; essence of lemon, 4 drops. 
Mix. Some sugar may be added if it be 
thought desirable to make the packet look 
bigger. For use this powder is to be 
added to 1 gal. of boiling water, in which 
dissolve 1 lb. of lump sugar, and when 
the mixture is nearly cool 2 or 3 table- 
spoonfuls of yeast are to be added. The 
mixture should be set aside to work for 
4 days, when it may be strained and bot- 
tled. 

Gingerade. 

Dissolve 3 lb. granulated sugar in 2 
gal. of water. Then add the well-beaten 
whites of 3 eggs and 2 oz. powdered gin- 
ger. It is well to moisten the ginger 
before adding it to the whole with just a 
little water. Now place over the fire in 
an enameled saucepan, bring slowly to the 
boiling point, skim and stand aside to 
settle. When cold, add the juice of 1 
large lemon and ^4 oz. yeast, dissolved in 

2 tablespoonfuls of warm water. Mix 
thoroughly, strain, fill the bottles, cork 
tightly and tie the corks, putting them at 
once in a cool place. Ready for use in 2 



(Glaces) 



Mint. 

Lemon syrup, 4 oz. ; ginger syrup, 12 
oz. ; tincture capsicum, 2 dr. ; tincture 
m.enth. vir., % dr. Mix, serve with 
shaved ice and straws. Decorate with 
mint leaves. 

Pop. 

1. — Five lb. of cream of tartar ; ginger, 
8 oz. ; sugar, 35 lb. ; essence of lemon, 5 
dr. ; water, 30 gal. ; yeast, 2 qt. 

2. — Take 5^^ gal. water; ginger root 

[ 



(bruised), % lb.; tartaric acid, l^ oz. ; 
white sugar, 2% lb. ; whites of 3 eggs, 
well beaten ; 1 small teaspoonful lemon 
oil ; 1 gill yeast. Boil the root for 30 
minutes in 1 gal. water ; strain and put 
the oil in while hot ; mix. Make over 
night ; in the morning skim and bottle. 

3. — Five lb. of loaf sugar to 5 gal. of 
cold water, 4 lemons, 2 oz. white root 
ginger, 4 oz. cream tartar. Boil the 
sugar and ginger (previously pound the 
latter) ; when it has boiled 15 minutes 
strain it through a flannel cloth into a 
large crock, put in the cream tartar, slice 
also the lemon into it ; let it stand until 
milk-warm, then add a teacup of yeast ; 
let it Ltand a little, then bottle it tightly 
in stone bottles ; in 3 days it will be fit 
for use. 

4. — Imperial. — Cream of tartar, 3 oz. ; 
ginger, 1 oz. ; white sugar, 24 oz. ; lemon 
juice, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 1% gal. When 
cool, strain and ferment with 1 oz. yeast. 
Bottle. 

5. — Royal Pop. — To 3 gal. of water add 
% lb. cream tartar, % oz. ginger, 3% lb. 
white sugar, ^^ dr. essence of lemon, % 
pt. yeast. The corks should be tied down. 



GLACES 

Glaces should be served in small, hand- 
some punch glasses, with small spoons to 
match. 

Claret. — Lemon, 1 oz. ; claret, 1 oz. ; 
cream, 2 oz. ; cracked ice, % glassful. 
Shake, strain, draw coarse stream into 
shaker, to fill a 12-oz. glass. Toss and 
serve with 2 straws stuck through a slice 
of lemon in glass. 

Crushed Fruit. — Crushed fruits served 
in the following manner make a delicious 
and refreshing drink : Crushed fruit, ^ 12 
dr. ; juice of half a lemon ; shaved ice. 
Put the ice into a small glass, add the 
fruit and lemon juice, stir well and serve 
with a spoon and straws. 

Pineapple. — a. — Two spoonfuls crushed 
pineapple, % oz. pineapple syrup, shaved 
ice. 

b. — Pineapple snow is a mixture of 
shaved or cracked ice, cream and pine- 
apple syrup with or without carbonated 
water, the whole being topped off with 
shaved ice and dispensed in a glass with 
a spoon. 

c. — Pineapple syrup, 1 oz. ; powdered 
sugar, 1 teaspoonful ; shaved ice, % glass- 
ful. Add some carbonated water, stir 
vigorously in a shaker, strain into an 
8-oz. glass, fill the latter with the coarse 
stream of carbonated water, stir again 
199] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Grape Juice) 



and add a piece of pineapple or some 
crushed pineapple. 

GRAPE JUICE 

Flavor and Quality. — In the making of 
unfermented grape juice a great deal of 
judgment can be displayed and many vari- 
ations produced so as to suit almost any 
taste by the careful selection of the vari- 
eties of grapes from which it is made. 

Equally as pronounced variations in 
color can be had, as, for instance, almost 
colorless, yellow, orange, light red, red 
and a deep purple. 

Unfermented grape juice may be made 
from any grape ; not only this, but unfer- 
mented juice is made from other fruits 
as well ; for instance, apples, pears, cher- 
ries and berries of different kinds. The 
richer, sweeter and better in quality the 
fruit, the better will be our unfermented 
juice. If, on the other hand, the fruit is 
sour, green and insipid, the juice will be 
likewise. 

Fermentation. — Fermentation may be 
prevented in either of two ways. 

1. — By chemical methods, which con- 
sist in the addition of germ poisons or 
antiseptics, which either kill the germs 
or prevent their growth. Of these the 
principal ones used are salicylic, sulphur- 
ous, boracic and benzoic acid, formalin, 
fluorides and saccharins. As these sub- 
stances are generally regarded as adulter- 
ants and injurious, their use is not recom- 
mended. 

2. — Mechanical means are sometimes 
employed. The germs are either removed 
by filtering or a centrifugal apparatus, or 
they are destroyed by heat, electricity, 
etc. Of these, heat has so far been found 
the most practical. 

Practical tests so far made indicate 
that grape juice car be safely sterilized at 
from 165 to 176° F. At this temperature 
the flavor is hardly changed, while at a 
temperature much above 200° F. it is. 
This is an important point, as the flavor 
and quality of the product depend on it. 

This information is intended for the 
farmer or the housewife only. Readers 
who desire to go into the manufacture of 
grape juice in a systematic manner for 
commercial purposes are referred to Bul- 
letin 24, Bureau of Plant Industry, De- 
partment of Agriculture, on the same sub- 
ject. 

Home Manufacture. — Use only clean, 
sound, well-ripened but not over-ripe 
grapes. If an ordinary cider mill is at 
hand, it may be used for crushing and 
pressing, or the grapes may be crushed 

[200] 



(Grape Juice) 



and pressed with the hands. If a light- 
colored juice is desired, put the crushed 
grapes in a cleanly washed cloth sack and 
tie up. Then either hang up securely and 
twist it or let two persons take hold, one 
on each end of the sack (Fig. 1) and 
twist until the greater part of the juice is 




Fig. 1.— Cloth Hand Press 

expressed. Then gradually heat the juice 
in a double boiler or a large stone jar in 
a pan of hot water, so that the juice does 
not come in direct contact with the fire, 
at a temperature of 180 to 200° F. ; never 
above 200° F. It is best to use a ther- 
mometer, but if there be none at hand 
heat the juice until it steams, but do not 
allow it to boil. Put it in a glass or 
enameled vessel to settle for 24 hours. 
Carefully drain the juice from the sedi- 
ment and run it through several thick- 
nesses of clean flannel, or a conic filter 
made from woolen cloth or felt may be 
used. This filter is fixed to a hoop of 
iron, which can be suspended wherever 
necessary (Fig. 2). After this fill into 
©lean bottles. Do not fill entirely, but 
leave room for the liquid to expand when 
again heated. Fit a thin board over the 




Fig. 2.— Cloth or Felt Filter 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Grape Juice) 



bottom of an ordinary wash boiler (Fig. 
3), set the filled bottles (ordinary glass 
fruit jars are just as good) in it, fill in 




Fig. 4. — Drip Bag 

with water around the bottles to within 
about an inch of the tops and gradually 
heat until it is about to simmer. Then 
take the bottles out and cork or seal im- 
mediately. It is a good idea to take the 



(Grape Juice) 



even go to the trouble of letting the juice 
settle after straining it, but reheat and 
seal it up immediately, simply setting the 
vessels away in a cool place in an upright 
position where they will be undisturbed. 
The juice is thus allowed to settle, and 
when wanted for use the clear juice is 
simply taken ofE the sediment. Any per- 
son familiar with the process of canning 
fruit can also preserve grape juice, for the 
principles involved are identical. 

One of the leading defects so far found 
in unfermented juice is that much of it is 
not clear, a condition which very much 
detracts from its otherwise attractive ap- 
pearance and due to two causes already 
alluded to. Either the final sterilization 
in bottles has been at a higher tempera- 
ture than the preceding one or the juice 
has not been properly filtered or has not 
been filtered at all. In other cases the 
juice has been sterilized at such a high 
temperature that it has a disagreeable, 
scorched taste. It should be remembered 
that attempts to sterilize at a temperature 
above 195° F. are dangerous, so far as 
the flavor of the finished product is con- 
cerned. 

Another serious mistake is sometimes 




FIG. 3.— PASTEURIZER FOR JUICE IN BOTTLES 

DB, double bottom. ST, steam pipe. W, water bath. T, thermometer. (Bottle 
shows method of adjusting a cord holder of sheet metal.) 



further precaution of sealing the corks 
over with sealing wax or parafiin to pre- 
vent mold germs from entering through 
the corks. Should it be desired to make 
a red juice, heat the crushed grapes to not 
above 200° F., strain through a clean 
cloth or drip bag, as shown in Fig. 4 (no 
pressure should be used), set away to cool 
and settle and proceed the same as with 
light-colored juice. Many people do not 

[ 



made by putting the juice into bottles so 
large that much of it becomes spoiled be- 
fore it is used after the bottles are 
opened. Unfermented grape juice prop- 
erly made and bottled will keep indefi- 
nitely, if it is not exposed to the atmos- 
phere or mold germs ; but when a bottle 
is once opened it should, like canned 
goods, be used as soon as possible, to keep 
it from spoiling. 
201] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Grape Juice) 



A description of the manufacture of 
grape juice in larger quantities may be 
found in the Scientific Ameeican Sup- 
plement, No. 1441. 

Formulas. 

1. — The juice as it comes, being too 
sweet to drinlf, should be prepared by the 
following formula and kept on ice ready 
to serve : Bottled grape juice, 2 pt, ; 
water, 2 pt. A small amount of cracked 
ice should be added. 

2. — Make a plain soda lemonade and 
only fill the glass within 1 inch of the 
top. Over this pour carefully % inch of 
the pure grape juice. This is a delicious 
drink. 

3. — Put in the bottom of a wineglass 2 
tablespoonfuls of grape juice ; add to this 
the beaten white of 1 egg and a little 
chopped ice ; sprinkle sugar over the top 
and serve. This is often served in sani- 
tariums. 

Bohemian Cream. — One pt. thick 
cream, 1 pt. grape-juice jelly ; stir to- 
gether ; put in cups and set on ice. Serve 
with lady fingers. 

Besides the recipes just given many 
more are enumerated, such as grape ice, 
grape lemonade, grape water ice, grape 
juice and egg, baked bananas, snow pud- 
ding, grape gelatine, junket and grape 
jelly, tutti-frutti jelly, grape float, grape 
jelly, grape juice plain, grape soda water 
and scores of others. 

Cocktail. — Don't Care syrup, 1% oz. ; 
grape juice, 3 oz ; half 12-oz. glass of 
shaved ice and soda water to fill. Finish 
with maraschino cherries and serve with 
straws and spoon. Ap. 

Egg Phosphate. — Grape syrup, 1 oz. ; 
egg, one ; phosphate, 3 dashes ; 1 tea- 
spoonful of ice. Shake and proceed in 
making an egg phosphate. 

Grape Cup. — Grape juice, 1 pt. ; Eng- 
lish breakfast tea (concentrated), 1 oz. ; 
prepared lime juice, 4 oz. ; acid solution 
phosphate, % oz. ; 1 pt. water. Add a 
lump of ice and let stand until cold. Fill 
glass three-quarters full and fill with plain 
soda as it is served. 

Lemonade.— F'lW glass two-thirds full of 
fine ice ; juice of 1 lemon ; grape syrup, 
1% oz. ; shake and fill with soda. Deco- 
rate with slice of lemon. 

Malted Grape. — Make a malted syrup, 
using 12 oz. of extract of malt and 6 oz. 
of simple syrup. To serve, use 1^/4 oz. of 
this syrup, % oz. of pure Concord grape 
juice and fill the glass with soda. 

Nectar. — Take the juice of 2 lemons 
and 1 orange, 1 pt. of grape juice, 1 small 
cup of sugar and 1 pt. of water. Serve 



(Grape Juice) 



ice cold. If served from punch bowl, 
iced lemon and orange add to the appear- 
ance. 

Pineapple. — Into a 12-oz. glass draw 
IVa oz. of pineapple syrup and add 2 oz. 
of Concord grape juice, 1 oz. of sweet 
cream and a little finely shaved ice. 
Shake thoroughly and add enough carbo- 
nated water to fill the glass, using the 
fine stream mostly. Strain into a clean 
glass and serve. 

Punch. — 1. — Boil together 1 lb. of 
sugar and V2 pt. of water until it spins 
a thread ; take from the fire and when 
cold add the juice of 6 lemons and 1 qt. 
of grape juice. Stand aside over night. 
Serve with plain water, apollinaris or 
soda water. 

2. — Into a 12-oz. glass, 2 oz. plain 
syrup, fill glass half full fine shaved ice, 
3 oz. grape juice, fill glass with carbo- 
nated water, stir and top off with slice 
pineapple or orange. 

3. — Fill glass two-thirds full of shaved 
ice; grape juice, 1 oz. ; orange syrup, 1 
oz. ; lemon juice, 1 dash ; Jamaica ginger, 
1 dash. Fill with soda, mix and decorate 
with a slice of pineapple and cherry. 

4. — Pineapple syrup, 1 oz. ; pure grape 
juice, 1 oz. ; lime juice, 3 dashes. Two- 
thirds glass of ice. Fill with soda and 
decorate with a slice of pineapple. 

5. — Lemon syrup, 1 oz. ; grape juice, 1 
oz. ; orange water ice, 1 scoop. Shake 
and fill glass with soda. Serve still and 
decorate with a slice of lemon and orange. 

6. — Into a 12-oz. glass draw 1% oz. of 
grape syrup, 1 oz. of grape juice. Add 3 
dashes of lemon juice. Fill one-third full 
of orange water ice and balance with car- 
bonated water. Mix and decorate. 

7. — Into a 12-oz. glass draw 1% oz. of 
orange syrup. Into this squeeze the juice 
of % lemon and add 1 oz. of grape juice. 
Fill one-third full of ice and balance with 
carbonated water. Mix and decorate. 

Sherbet. — Orange syrup, 2 fl.oz, ; grape 
juice, 2 fl,oz. Draw into a 12-oz. glass, 
half fill the latter with shaved ice, then 
fill it with plain water, stir with a spoon 
and serve with straws. 

For 8 persons mix 1 pt. of grape juice 
(unfermented), juice of lemon and 1 
heaping tablespoonful of gelatine, dis- 
solved in boiling water ; freeze quickly ; 
add beaten white of 1 egg just before 
finish. 

Syllahul). — Fresh cream, 1 qt. ; whites 
of 4 eggs ; grape juice, 1 glass ; powdered 
sugar, 2 small cups ; whip half the sugar 
with the cream, the balance with the 
eggs ; mix well ; add grape juice and pour 



[202] 



Beverages — Non-A IcohoUc 



(Ice Cream Drinks) 



over sweetened strawberries and pineap- 
ples or oranges and bananas. Serve cold. 

ICE CREAM BEVERAGES 

Banana. — 1. — Slice a banana in two. 
Place a spoonful of vanilla ice cream in 
the center and top off with maraschino 
cherries and pour cherry syrup over it. 

2. — Into a 12-oz. glass draw 1 oz. of 
sweet cream and 1 oz. of vanilla syrup ; 
into this slice half a banana ; add a por- 
tion of ice cream ; shake thoroughly, then 
fill the glass with soda, using the fine 
stream only. Pour without straining into 
a clean glass and top off with whipped 
cream. Serve with a spoon. 

3. — Peel and split a banana, lay both 
halves together on the bottom of a large 
saucer. On the top of the banana put a 
cone-shaped measure of ice cream and 
over this pour a little crushed pineapple, 
a few powdered nuts, a spoonful of 
whipped cream. Top with a cherry. 

4. — Split a banana lengthwise and 
cover with a portion of 3 kinds of ice 
cream and 1 water ice, so arranging the 
ice cream as to make the colors contrast 
nicely. 

Cantaloupe. — 1. — Take % cantaloupe, 
cut off a piece of bottom so it will stand, 
add a No. 12 scoop of vanilla cream, apd, 
if possible, watermelon ice. If this is im- 
possible, substitute what water ice you 
may have on hand. Over this pour 1 
ladle of crushed raspberries, top with 
nuts, whipped cream and a cherry and 
place mint leaves on the side. 

2. — Cut a cantaloupe in halves, take 
out the seeds and fill in with ice cream, 
grate nutmeg over it. Serve on thin china 
dish with soda spoon. The cantaloupe 
should be kept ready ice cold. 

Celery Cocoa Cream. — One oz. choco- 
late paste, 1 oz. cream, 4 dashes essence 
of celery. Stir while filling up with hot 
soda. Top off with whipped cream and 
serve with celery salt. 

Cherry Cream. — Spoonful ice cream in 
8-oz. stem glass. Almost fill with shaved 
ice. Add 2 oz. cherry syrup, top with 
layer of ice cream and add a maraschino 
cherry. 

Chocolate. — Put the proper amount of 
chocolate syrup into the glass. Then run 
in enough carbonated water to half fill 
the glass. Next put in a lump of vanilla 
ice cream the size of an egg. Then draw 
on the fine stream of carbonated water 
and top off the whole with a tall, foaming 
billow of whipped cream. 

Cream Puff. — Break a fresh egg into a 
shaker, draw an ounce of orange syrup, 



(Ice Cream Drinks) 



add a good-sized spoonful of ice cream 
and shake very thoroughly. Then with- 
out straining fill the shaker with fine 
stream. Pour from shaker to glass, top 
with grated nutmeg and serve with a 
straw. Chocolate Cream Puff and Coffee 
Cream Puff may be made by using the 
syrups named instead of orange. 

Creamade. — Juice from % lime ; or- 
ange syrup, 1 oz. ; pineapple syrup, 1 oz. ; 
cream, 2 oz. ; ice cream, Y2 oz. Shake, 
fill the glass with the fine stream and top 
with a slice of pineapple. 

Cucumber a la Surprise. — Line the 
halves of a long cucumber mold with a 
good-colored (not over-colored) green 
gage or other green water ice and fill in 
with lemon ice cream. Close the mold 
and freeze in the usual manner. Serve 
plain on a white china dish. In the sea- 
son 1 or 2 natural leaves may be used on 
the dish under the cucumber. 

Fig Souffle. — Cut a large fig into quar- 
ters, mix with vanilla ice cream and serve 
in a stem ice cream glass. 

Fruit. — 1. — Shaved ice, % tumbler ; 
ice cream, 1 tablespoonful ; pure milk, 1 
oz. ; extract of vanilla, 1 dash ; crushed 
strawberry, 1 teaspoonful ; crushed pine- 
apple, 1 teaspoonful ; crushed raspberry, 
1 teaspoonful ; catawba syrup, 1^ oz. 
Shake well, then add plain soda. Ap. 

2. — Crushed strawberries, % oz. ; 
crushed peaches, ^ oz. ; ice cream to fill 
small glass. 

Ice Cream Shake. — One egg, 1 oz. 
marshmallow syrup, small quantity of ice 
cream. 

Maple. — In a large shaking glass put 4 
oz. ice cream, 2 oz. maple syrup and 1 oz. 
plain cream. Shake and when thoroughly 
shaken fill with fine stream. 

Marshmallow. — Orange flower water, 4 
oz. ; gum arable, 12 dr. ; extract vanilla, 
% oz. ; syrup, q. s, 8 pt. Mix. Serve 
with ice cream. 

Nut Bamboo Souffle. — Ladle ice cream 
on fancy plate ; add 1% oz. coffee syrup 
and shredded cocoanut mixed ; dress with 
whipped cream, whole dates, seeded and 
fancy whole cherries. 

Orange. — Shaved ice, % tumblerful ; 1 
egg ; vanilla syrup, 1 oz. ; orange syrup, 

1 oz. ; ice cream, 1 tablespoonful. Fill 
the glass nearly full of cream, shake well 
and add a little soda water. 

Peach. — 1. — Two oz. raspberry syrup, 

2 tablespoonfuls peach ice cream. Serve 
as ice-cream soda. 

2. — Peel about 1 doz. ripe, yellow, good- 
flavored peaches ; slice fine into a dish 
and cover with about as much sugar as 
you have of fruit. Mash together thor- 



[203] 



Beverages — Non- Alcoholic 



(Lemon, Lime, etc.) 



oughly until the sugar is dissolved, then 
add an equal amount of simple syrup. 
This mixture will not keep fresh for more 
than 2 days. Serve as ice-cream soda. 

3. — Shaved ice, % tumblerful ; ice 
cream, 1 tablespoonful ; fresh cream, 1 
oz. ; extract of peach, 1 dash ; crushed 
peach, 1 tablespoonful ; peach syrup, 1 
oz. ; plain soda (fine stream), 1 tumbler- 
ful. 

Pineapple — Pineapple syrup, 2 oz. ; 
cream, 2 oz. ; 1 Qgg ; ice cream, 1 large 
ladle. Cinnamon may be added if de- 
sired. Shake and serve -with, slice of pine- 
apple. 

Sandwiches. — Take lady fingers, sepa- 
rate and spread ice cream, either vanilla, 
lemon or strawberry, between each slice ; 
place together and serve on plate. 

LEMON, LIME, MINT, ETC. 

t. — Take a little cracked ice and 
squeeze the juice of 2 limes. Add pow- 
dered sugar q. s. and 1 egg. Shake well 
together and strain into a glass and fill up 
with carbonic water. Cover top with, 
cracked ice and insert 2 or 3 stalks of 
mint. Add a touch of nutmeg and 1 or 
2 strawberries. 

2. — Juice of half an orange, juice of 
half a lemon, 2 tablespoonfuls pineapple 
juice, 2 tablespoonfuls powdered sugar, 
y2 glass crushed ice. Fill glass with 
water, shake well and serve with straws. 

Lemon. 

1. — Peel off the yellow rinds from 1 
doz. fresh lemons, taking care that none 
of the rind is detached, but the yellow 
zest — that portion in which the cells are 
placed containing the essential oil of the 
fruit. Put these rinds into an earthen 
vessel, pour over them 1 pt. of boiling 
water and set aside in a warm situation 
to infuse. Express the juice from 2 doz. 
lemons, strain it into a porcelain bowl 
and add 2 lb. of fine white sugar, 3 qt. 
water and the infusion from the peels. 
Stir all well together until the sugar is 
completely dissolved. Now sample and 
if required add more acid or more sugar ; 
take care not to have it too watery ; make 
it rich with plenty of fruit juice and 
sugar. 

2. — To the juice of 6 lemons and the 
yellow rind of 2 lemons add % lb. of 
sugar and 1 qt. of water. Ice the lemo- 
nade. Water may be added according to 
taste afterward. 

3. — Peel off the rind, cut the lemon in 
two and squeeze the juice into a glass, 
add 2 tablespoonfuls powdered sugar. 



(Lemon, Lime, etc.) 



chipped ice and water; shake well and 
strain into a thin glass in which a little 
shaved ice has been placed ; decorate with 
fruits and serve with straws. Soda lemo- 
nade may be made by adding soda water 
in place of plain water. 

4. — Strain the juice of 1 lemon into i/^ 
pt. of cold water, sweeten to taste, then 
stir in ^4 teaspoonful carbonate of soda, 
a'^d drink while the mixture is in an 
effervescing state. 

Apollinaris. — Juice of 1 lemon ; pow- 
dered sugar, 1 spoonful ; cracked ice, % 
glass. Shake, strain and fill with apol- 
linaris water, add 2 cherries and slice of 
lemon. 

Artificial. — 1. — Loaf sugar, 2 lb. ; tar- 
taric acid, % oz. ; essence of lemon, 30 
drops ; essence of almonds, 20 drops. 
Dissolve the tartaric acid in 2 pt. hot 
water, add the sugar and lastly the lemon 
and almond ; stir well, cover with a cloth 
and leave until cold ; put 2 tablespoonfuls 
into a tumbler and fill up with cold 
water. This drink, it is said, will be 
found much more refreshing and more 
palatable than either ginger beer or lemo- 
nade and costs only 30 cents for 10 pt. 
The addition of a very little bicarbonate 
of potash to each tumblerful just before 
drinking will give a wholesome effer- 
vescing drink. 

2. — Succus Limonium Factitius. — Cit- 
ric or tartaric acid, 2% oz. ; gum, ^ 
oz. ; pieces of fresh lemon peel, % oz. ; 
loaf sugar, 2 oz, ; boiling water, 1 qt. ; 
macerate with occasional agitation till 
cold and strain. Excellent. 

3. — Water, 1 pt. ; sugar, 1 oz. ; essence 
of lemon, 30 drops ; pure acetic acid to 
acidulate. Inferior. Both are used to 
make lemonade. 

Boiled Lemonade. — 1. — The juice of 3 
lemons, 5 tablespoonfuls of sugar and 1 
cupful boiling water added to the lemons 
and sugar. Set aside to cool. When 
ready for use, put in lemonade glasses 
with cracked ice and dilute with water. 

2. — Allow 3 lemons to each qt. of 
water and about % lb. of sugar. Have 
the lemons perfectly clean, cut 2 thin 
slices from the center of each and lay 
aside. Chip off some of the thin yellow 
rind from several of the lemons and 
squeeze out the juice, pressing hard enough 
to extract some of the flavor of the skin. 
Put the juice, the clipped rind and the 
sugar in a large bowl ; then pour on the 
desired amount of boiling water. Let it 
stand until cold, put away in the ice chest 
and when ready to serve fill the glasses 
one-third full of cold water or chipped 
ice ; add the lemon water and a slice of 



[204] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Lemonades) 



the cut lemon. A maraschino cherry may 
be added. 

Claret. — One-third glass cracked ice, 1 
lemon, 2 oz. claret syrup. Shake well and 
add a glassful of plain soda. Stir, strain 
and add 1 slice lemon. Serve with 2 
straws. 

IJiabetio Lemonade. — Citric acid, 5 
grams ; glycerine, 20 to 30 grams ; water, 
1,000 c.c. 

Egg. — 1. — Break 1 egg into a glass, 
beat it slightly, then add 1 dessertspoon- 
ful of lemon-juice sugar to taste, 1 table- 
spoonful of crushed ice and a little cold 
water. Shake well until suflSciently 
cooled, then strain into another glass, fill 
up with iced water, sprinkle a little nut- 
meg on the top and serve. 

2. — Break 1 egg in mixing glass, use 1 
or 2 lemons, simple syrup to taste. Shake 
well with ice. Use fine stream of soda 
and serve in bell glass with nutmeg^ or 
cinnamon. 

3. — Beat the white of an egg light and 
add to plain lemonade. 

4. — Pour a pint of boiling water over 
a cup of sugar, the juice of 4 lemons and 
the thin, yellow rind of 2 ; cool, then chill. 
Beat the yolks of 4 eggs until lemon-col- 
ored and thick, and then the whites until 
stiff. Mix them thoroughly ; add the 
lemon water and a pint of fine chipped 
ice or ice-cold water and serve. 

Frtti^.— Crush 6 fine strawberries or 
raspberries well, add 1 teaspoonful of cas- 
tor sugar, small or otherwise according to 
taste, the juice of 1 lemon, a little cold 
water and strain into a tumbler. Add a 
little crushed ice, fill up with cold water 
and serve. 

Lemon Squash. — This is made in the 
same manner as lemonade, only leaving in 
the crushed halves of the lemon. 

Blillc. — 1. — Dissolve % lb. loaf sugar 
in 1 pt. boiling water and mix with 1 gill 
lemon juice and 1 gill sherry ; then add 
3 gills cold milk. Stir the whole well to- 
gether and then strain it. 

2. — Take 4 lemons, pare the rind as 
thin as possible ; squeeze them into 1 qt. 
water, add % lb. fine sugar ; let it stand 
2 or 3 hours and pass it through a jelly 
bag. 

3. — Effervescing (without a machine). 
— Put into each bottle 2 dr. sugar, 2 
drops essence of lemon, V2 dr. bicarbonate 
potash, and water to fill the bottle; then 
drop in 35 or 40 gr. of citric or tartaric 
acid in crystals and cork immediately, 
placing the bottles in a cool place or pref- 
erably in iced water. 

4. — Sesquicarbonate of soda, 2 scru- 
ples ; sugar, 2 dr. ; essence of lemon, 4 

[ 



(Lemonades) 



drops ; water, % pt. ; lastly, 8 dr. tartaric 
acid in crystals. Care must be taken to 
avoid accidents from the bursting of the 
bottles. 

5. — Into a soda-water bottle nearly 
filled with water put 1 oz. sugar ; essence 
of lemon (dropped on the sugar), 2 
drops ; bicarbonate of potash in crystals, 
20 gr., and, lastly, 30 to 40 gr. of citric 
acid, also in crystals. Cork immediately. 

Pineapple. — 1. — Carefully boil 1 lb. of 
sugar in 1 qt. of water until it forms- a 
thin syrup, removing all scum as it rises. 
Set it to cool. Meantime squeeze the 
juice of 4 lemons into a dish. Peel a 
large, ripe pineapple, remove the eyes and 
grate it into a large punch bowl. Add the 
lemon juice and stir it well through the 
pineapple. Then stir in the syrup. Let 
the mixture stand a couple of hours and 
then add 1 qt. of ice water. Put a big 
lump of ice in a punch bowl, strain the 
mixture through a fine sieve into the 
bowl, ornament the top with cut fruits 
and serve in glass cups. 

2. — For pineapple lemonade use the 
juice of 4 small lemons, a can of shredded 
pineapple, a cupful of sugar and 4 cup- 
fuls of water. Make a syrup of the sugar 
and water and cool it before adding the 
lemon juice. 

Preservation of Lemon Juice. — Agitate 
a prolonged time with finest powdered tal- 
cum, filter, add sugar, boil and then fill 
hot into bottles and seal while still hot. 

Powder. — 1. — Take 1 oz. crystallized 
citric acid, rub it fine and mix thoroughly 
with 1 lb. dry pulverized white sugar. 
Put in a single drop of oil of lemon peel 
to flavor it and mix well ; preserve in 
bottles for future use. In place of citric 
acid you may take tartaric acid. 

2. — Tartaric acid, 1 oz. ; castor sugar, 
4 oz. ; essence of lemon, fine 1 dram. Mix 
these ingredients well together, spread 
them on a plate, stir and turn over re- 
peatedly until thoroughly dry. Divide 
into 20 equal portions, wrap them care- 
fully in separate papers and store for use 
in an air-tight tin. Each portion is suffi- 
cient for 1 glass of lemonade. 

Seltzer. — Take the juice of 1 lemon 
with ^2 glass of chipped ice, 1 oz. of 
lemon syrup made from the fruit and 1 
teaspoonful powdered sugar. Draw on 
about 2 oz. of soda and stir well until the 
sugar is dissolved. Strain into a tall 
mineral glass and fill with soda, using the 
fine stream to stir. Serve while foaming. 
If you have no freshly made lemon syrup 
cut 2 or 3 slices of the lemon rind into 
the glass when mixing. The powdered 
205] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Lime and Orange Drinks) 

sugar must be used to give "life" to the 
drink. 

Lime. 

1. — Lime fruit syrup, ^ oz. ; lemon 
syrup, % oz. ; solution acid phosphate, 

1 dram ; shaved ice, 2 oz. Mix with soda, 
stir thoroughly, strain into 8-oz. glass, 
fill slowly with coarse stream and stir 
again. 

2. — Pure lemon syrup, 1 oz. ; lime juice, 
% oz. Pour over fine ice in mineral 
glass, fill up with soda and stir. 

3. — Into a 13-oz. glass, tall and slender, 
draw 1% oz. of grape juice, squeeze the 
juice of "l lime and add 3 dashes of An- 
gostura bitters, 2 dashes of phosphate and 
1^2 oz. of simple syrup. Fill the glass 
one-third full of fine ice and the balance 
with carbonated water. Mix and deco- 
rate. 

Cordial. — Boric acid, ^4 oz. ; citric acid, 

2 oz. : sugar, 3 lb. ; water, 2 pt. Dissolve 
by heat. When cold add lime juice, 30 
oz. ; tincture of lemon, 2 oz. ; Avater to 1 
gal. Mix and color with caramel. 

Pepsin. — ^Pure pepsin, 260 gr. ; distilled 
water, 3 oz. ; glycerine, 3 oz. ; alcohol, IV2 
oz. ; purified talcum, % oz. ; lime juice 
enough to make 1 pt. Dissolve the pep- 
sin in the water mixed with 8 fl.oz. of 
lime juice, add the glycerine and alcohol 
and then the remainder of the lime juice ; 
incorporate the talcum and set aside for 
several days, agitating occasionally, and 
then filter, adding through the filter 
enough lime juice to make 1 pt. of fin- 
ished product. To make a syrup of this 
add enough simple syrup to make 3 qt. 
and mix thoroughly. 

Vichy. — Into an 8-oz. glass of vichy 
shake a few dashes of lime juice from 
your spirit bottle, or squeeze into it the 
fresh juice of half a lime. 

Orange. 

1. — The juice of 15 oranges, the rind 
of 3 oranges, 2 qt. of water, % lb. of loaf 
sugar, crushed ice. Remove the peel of 

3 oranges as thinly as possible, add it and 
the sugar to 1 pt. of water, then simmer 
gently for 20 minutes. Strain the orange 
juice into a glass jug, and add the re- 
maining 3 pt. of water. As soon as the 
syrup is quite cold strain it into the jug, 
add a handful of crushed ice and serve at 
once. 

2. — Slice crosswise 4 oranges and 1 
lemon ; put them into an earthen jug with 

4 oz. of lump sugar; pour upon these 1 
qt. of boiling water and allow to stand 
covered for 1 hour. Decant and ice. 

3. — Simple syrup, y^ fl.oz. ; tincture of 



(Malt Beverages) 



orange peel, ^ dr. ; citric acid, 1 scruple ; 
fill the bottle with aerated water. 

4. — Lemon juice, 1 oz. ; orange juice, 2 
oz. ; granulated sugar, 4 teaspoonfuls ; 
shaved ice, % glass. Mix in some soda 
by stirring, strain into 12-oz. glass and 
fill with coarse stream of carbonated 
water. 

Effervescing, or Aerated, or Sherhet. — 
a. — Mix 1 lb. of syrup of orange peel, 1 
gal. water and 1 oz. citric acid, charge 
strongly with carbonic-acid gas with a 
machine. 

b. — Syrup orange juice, % oz. ; aerated 
water, i^ pt. 

c. — Mix 1 lb. syrup of orange peel, 1 
gal. water and 1 oz. citric acid and charge 
it strongly with carbonic-acid gas with a 
machine. 

d. — Syrup of orange juice, % fl.oz. ; 
aerated water, ^ pt. 

Raspberry. 

1. — Add to 1 qt. fresh ripe berries the 
juice of 1 lemon and 1 tart orange. 
Bruise with a wooden spoon, add 1 pt. 
of water and let it stand an hour ; mean- 
while boil % lb. of sugar with 1 qt. of 
boiling water and let this become cold. 
Rub the fruit through a fine sieve ; add to 
the syrup and serve with shaved ice in 
glasses or simply chilled. Currants may 
be used in the same way. 

2. — Raspberry vinegar, 2 oz. ; sugar, 1 
tablespoonful. Fill 8-oz. glass with coarse 
stream. 

MALT BEVERAGES 

Cherry. — Malt extract, 8 oz. ; tincture 
celery seed, 2 dr. ; orange syrup, 4 oz. ; 
comp. tincture gentian, 1 dr. ; lemon 
syrup, to make 2 pt. Mix and serve 1 
oz. in an 8-oz. mineral glass, with or with- 
out phosphate. 

Coca. — 1. — Fluid extract coca, 1 oz. ; 
alcohol, 1 oz. ; extract malt, to make 4 pt. 

2. — Extract malt, 4 oz. ; coca cordial, 
1 oz. ; cherry syrup, 10 oz. Mix. Trim 
with fresh cherry. 

3. — Extract malt, 4 oz. ; coca cordial, 
1 oz. ; syrupy phosphoric acid, % dr. ; 
lemon syrup, 10 oz. Mix. Trim with 
sliced lemon. 

4. — Draw 1 oz. of coca wine syrup into 
an 8-oz. glass, add 1 oz. of malt extract, 
a couple of dashes of phosphate and fill 
with soda. If desired, the phosphate may 
be omitted. 

C— Z— .— 1.— Malt extract, 8 oz. ; 
vanilla extract, 1 dr. ; orange syrup, 2 
oz. ; cinnamon syrup, 2 oz. ; coca-kola, 2 
oz. ; simple syrup, 18 oz. This can be 
served with foam in 12-oz. glass or in 
8-oz. glass. 



[206] 



Beverages — Non -Alcoholic 



(Malted Milk) 



2.-— Extract of malt, 2 lb. ; kola wine 
syrup, 3 pt. ; coca wine syrup, 1 pt. ; cin- 
chona wine syrup, 1 pt. ; pure orange 
wine, 1 pt. ; spirit of rose, % fl-oz. ; acid 
solution of phosphate, 8 fl.oz. The kola 
wine syrup is made by adding 2 pt. of 
kola wine to 3 pt. of simple syrup. The 
coca wine syrup is made by adding 2 pt. 
of coca wine to 3 pt. of simple syrup. 

3. — Malt extract, 8 oz. ; coca-kola 
syrup, 24 oz. Serve still in 8-oz. glass 
with or without phosphate. Coca-kola 
syrup for the above is composed as fol- 
lows : Fluid extract of kola, 2 oz. ; elixir 
of calisaya, 3 oz. ; wine of coca, 6 oz. ; 
extract of vanilla, 4 dr. ; fruit acid, 1 oz. ; 
syrup enough to make 1 gal. 

Fruit. — Malt extract, 12 oz. ; raspberry 
syrup, 2 oz. ; cinnamon syrup, 2 oz. ; rose 
syrup, 2 oz. ; orange flower water, 2 dr. ; 
orange syrup, 12 oz. Serve with or with- 
out phosphate. 

Iron Malt. — Extract of malt, 8 oz. ; 
elixir of beef, iron and wine, 8 oz, ; pine- 
apple syrup, 8 oz. ; simple syrup, 1 pt. 
Mix and serve still in an 8-oz. mineral 
glass. 

Kola. — 1. — Malt extract, 6 oz. ; pine- 
apple juice, 4 dr. ; fluid extract kola, 2 
dr. ; extract vanilla, 2 dr. ; fruit acid, 2 
dr. ; lemon syrup, 25 oz. May be served 
still or foamed, with or without phos- 
phate. 

2. — Make same as the cocoa malt, using 
any tonic syrup containing the fluid ex- 
tract of kola nuts. 

Malt Wine Cordial. — Malt wine, 8 oz. ; 
orange syrup, 24 oz. Serve solid in 8-oz. 
glass. 

MALTED MILK 

How to Prepare Malted Milk. 

The following method is recommended 
by the editor of Modern Medicine: To a 
pint of milk add 1 tablespoonful of malt. 
The milk may be heated to a temperature 
of 60° F. After that it should be brought 
to a boiling point and boiled for 20 to 30 
minutes. This will check the further ac- 
tion of the malt. Milk thus treated does 
not form large, hard curds in the stom- 
ach and agrees perfectly with many per- 
sons who cannot digest milk in its ordi- 
nary form. This method of peptonizing 
milk is much preferable to the old way, in 
which various preparations of pancreatin 
were employed; these animal substances 
not infrequently imparted a very unpleas- 
ant flavor and odor and sometimes poi- 
sonous substances. Prepared in the way 
above described it is always fresh, besides 
being cheap and convenient. 

[ 



(Malted Milk) 



1. — Put a tablespoonful in a shaker, 
fill half full with cold water, shake thor- 
oughly, strain into a 12-oz. glass and fill 
witli fine stream. Cracked ice may be 
used if desired. 

2. — Malted milk, 1 tablespoonful ; pep- 
per and salt or sugar ; water, 8 oz. 

3. — Vanilla syrup, 2 teaspoonf uls ; un- 
charged water or milk, 2 tablespoonfuls ; 
cream, plain, 2 tablespoonfuls ; cracked 
ice, sufiicient ; malted milk, 1 tablespoon- 
ful. Put in a shaker, shake thoroughly, 
strain and fill glass with plain soda, fine 
scream. 

4. — Malted milk, 2 oz. ; plain cream, 1 
oz. ; plain water, ice cold, to fill 10-oz. 
glass. Shake well and top off with 
whipped cream and grated nutmeg if de- 
sired, or serve plain. Cracked ice may be 
used, but the cold water makes a better, 
creamier drink. 

Cocoa. — Chocolate syrup, 1 oz. ; plain 
cream, 1 oz. ; shaved ice, sufficient ; plain 
water, 2 oz. ; malted milk, 2 tablespoon- 
fuls. Put in a shaker, shake thoroughly, 
strain and fill glass with fine stream. 

Coffee Syrup. — Prepare a syrup of 8 
oz. malted milk, 16 oz. sugar, 2i/^ oz. 
coffee extract, 24 oz. water. Dissolve 
malted milk and coffee in water. Strain, 
cool, add coffee extract and color with 
caramel. 

Coffee Punch. — Malted milk coffee 
syrup, 2 oz. ; shaved ice, ^ glass ; milk, 
1/^ oz. Fill 12-oz. glass with soda and 
sprinkle on nutmeg. 

Egg. — 1. — Vanilla syrup, 1 oz. ; plain 
cream, 1 oz. ; 1 egg ; shaved ice, sufficient ; 
plain water, 2 oz. ; malted milk, 2 table- 
spoonfuls. Put in shaker, shake thor- 
oughly, strain and fill glass with fine 
stream and sprinkle with nutmeg. 

2, — Put 1 egg in mixing glass ; vanilla 
syrup, 1 to 2 oz. ; plain cream, 3 oz. ; 
malted milk, 2^2 teaspoonfuls. Shake well 
with ice. Use fine stream only and serve 
in bell glass. 

3. — Coffee or chocolate syrup, ly^ oz. ; 

1 Qgg ; sweet cream, 1 oz. ; malted milk, 

2 teaspoonfuls ; shaved ice. Shake thor- 
oughly and fill with soda, using fine 
stream mostly. 

4. — Plain syrup, % oz. ; sherry wine, 1 
tablespoonful ; 1 egg ; cream, % oz. ; suffi- 
cient ice ; malted milk, 1 tablespoonful. 
Put in shaker, shake thoroughly, fill glass 
with heavy and fine stream ; strain into 
12-oz. thin glass. 

5. — One egg ; malted milk, 1 teaspoon- 
ful ; clam bouillon, % oz. ; hock syrup, 1 
oz, ; cracked ice, % tumblerful. Shake 
well, strain and add 1 dash of liquid 
phosphate, filling with plain soda. Pour 
207] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Mead) 



from shaker to tumbler and serve with 
nutmeg and straw. 

Hot Malted Milk. — Malted milk, 1 des- 
sertspoonful ; hot soda, 1 cupful. Season 
with pepper and salt. 

Ice Cream. — Vanilla syrup, 2 teaspoon- 
fuls ; uncharged water or milk, 4 oz. or 
1-3 glass ; ice cream, 2 tablespoonfuls ; 
Horlick's malted milk, 1 tablespoonful. 
Put in a shaker, shake thoroughly, strain 
and fill glass with plain soda, fine stream. 

Milk Orange. — Orange syrup, 2 tea- 
spoonfuls ; uncharged Avater or milk, 4 
oz. or 1-.3 glass ; cracked ice, sufficient ; 
eggs, 1 or 2 ; Horlick's malted milk, 1 
tablespoonful. Put in shaker, shake thor- 
oughly, strain and fill glass with plain 
soda. 

Syrup. — Malted milk, 8 oz. ; hot water, 
8 oz. ; simple syrup, 4 pt. 

MEAD 

Mead is an old-fashioned beverage, but 
a very pleasant one, if care is taken in 
making it. It is generally made over- 
strong, too much honey being used to the 
proportion of water. 

1. — On 30 lb. honey (clarified) pour 13 
gal. soft water, boiling hot. Clarify with 
the whites of eggs, well beaten ; boil 
again, remove all scum as it rises, add 1 
oz. of best hops and boil for 10 minutes, 
then pour the liquor into a tub to cool, 
spreading a slice of toast on both sides 
with yeast, and putting it into the tub 
when the liquor is nearly cold. The tub 
should stand in a Avarm room. When 
fei-mentation has thoroughly begun, pour 
the mixture into a cask, and as it works 
off, fill up the cask, keeping back some 
of the liquor for this purpose. Bung 
down closely when fermentation has 
ceased, leaving a peg hole, which can be 
closed up in a few days. Let it remain 
a year in the cask before bottling off. 

2. — Water, 10 gal. ; strained honey, 2 
gal. ; burned white ginger, 3 oz. troy ; 
lemons, sliced, 2. Mix all together and 
boil for half an hour, carefully skim- 
ming all the time. Five minutes after the 
boiling commences add 2 oz. troy of hops ; 
when partially cold put it into a cask to 
work off. In about 3 weeks it will be fit 
to bottle. 

3. — Cherry juice, 1 pt. ; rose syrup, 4 
oz. ; cinnamon water syrup, 8 oz. ; mead 
extract, 4 oz. ; fruit acid, % oz. Mix 
thoroughly with 6 pt. of simple syrup. 

4. — Mead extract, 8 oz. ; Angostura 
bitters, 12 oz. ; honey, % gal. ; rock candy 
syrup, 11/^ gal. ; tartaric (or citric) acid, 
1 oz. ; water, 4 oz. 

5. — Tonka beans, 2 dr. ; mace, 2 dr. ; 



(Phosphates) 



cloves, 1 oz. ; cinnamon, 1 oz. ; ginger, 1 
oz. ; nutmeg, 1 oz. ; pimento, i/^ oz. ; sas- 
safras bark, 3 oz. : lemon gratings, 1 oz. ; 
orange gratings, 1 oz. Bruise the drugs 
in a mortar or grind them very coarse and 
tie them loosely in a cheese cloth or mus- 
lin bag. Suspend them in 2 gal. of sim- 
ple syrup and heat to 80° C. for a few 
hours, the longer the better providing the 
temperature is not too high. The sassa- 
fras and pimento should be boiled in 2^-2 
pt. of water until it has boiled down to 
about 11/2 pt. Filter and add 2 pt. of 
honey and then mix with the other syrup. 
Add syrup enough to make 2^2, gal. and 
filter through a felt filter bag. 

6. — Coloring Mead. — Mead syrups may 
all be colored with caramel ; when served 
they should look like a dark root beer. 

7. — Extract. — Sarsaparilla, 2 lb. ; lig- 
num vitse wood, 1 lb. ; licorice root, 1 lb. ; 
ginger root, 12 oz. ; cinnamon bark, 12 
oz. ; coriander seed, 6 oz. ; aniseed, 2 oz. ; 
mace, 4 oz. Contuse or cut very finely 
and put up in 2 or 4 oz. packages. 

8. — Serving Mead. — Into a 12-oz. glass 
draw 1% to 2 oz. and fill within about an 
inch of the top with carbonated water. 
Mix by pouring and then foam by the use 
of a fine stream as in serving root beer. 

PHOSPHATES 

Phosphates for the soda fountain are a 
solution of acid phosphate with any of the 
fruit or flavored syrups, omitting the soda 
foam, as phosphates are served solid. To 
each gallon of flavored syrup 8 fl.oz. of 
acid phosphate is added. 

Acid Phosphates. — 1. — ^Bone ash, 32 
av.oz. ; sulphuric acid, 24 av.oz. ; water, 
sufficient to make 1 gal. Mix the bone 
ash with 2 pt. of Avater in a glass or 
earthenware or other container which is 
not acted upon by the acid ; add the acid 
previously diluted with the remainder of 
the water and mix thoroughly. Set the 
mixture aside for 24 hours with occa- 
sional stirring, then transfer the same 
upon a strong muslin strainer and subject 
to pressure, avoiding contact with metals ; 
add to the magma some water and let 
drain until 1 gal. of liquid has been ob- 
tained, then filter through paper. 

2. — Phosphoric acid, 50 per cent., 64 
parts ; precipitated chalk, 12 parts ; cal- 
cined magnesia, 1 part ; potassium carbo- 
nate, 1 part ; distilled water, 178 parts. 
Add the chalk to the acid gradually and 
then add the magnesia and stir well. Dis- 
soh^e the potassium carbonate in 9 fl.oz. 
of the water, add the solution gradually 
to the acid liquor, admix the remainder 



[208] 



Beverages — Non-A Icoholic 



( Phosphates ) 



of the water, set aside for 1 or 2 hours 
and filter. 

3. — Phosphoric acid, 8 oz. ; potassium 
phosphate, 80 gr. ; magnesium phosphate, 
160 gr. ; sodium phosphate, 80 gr. ; cal- 
cium phosphate, 240 gr. ; water, to make 
8 pt. 

Apricot. — Apricot syrup, 96 fl.oz. ; 
peach syrup, 16 fl.oz. ; orgeat syrup, 8 
fl.oz. ; solution acid phosphate, 8 fl.oz. 
Mix. 

Calisaya. — Elixir of calisaya, 16 fl.oz. ; 
solution of acid phosphate, 8 fl.oz. ; or- 
ange syrup, sufiicient to make 1 gal. Mix. 

Celery. — 1. — Celery essence (4 oz. to 
pirt), 16 fl.oz.; solution acid phosphate, 
8 fl.oz. ; lemon syrup, sufficient to make 
1 gal. Mix. 

2. — Fluid extract of celery seed, 4 
fl.oz. ; solution acid phosphate, 8 fl.oz. ; 
orange syrup, 32 fl.oz. ; lemon syrup, 
sufficient to make 1 gal. Add the fluid 
extract of celery to the acid solution, let 
stand for several hours, pass through a 
wetted paper filter and mix with the 
syrups. 

3. — Tincture celery seed, 1 oz. ; pine- 
apple juice, 8 oz. ; juice of 1 lemon ; sim- 
ple syrup, q. s. 4 pt. 

Cherry. — 1. — Solution of acid phos- 
phate, 8 fl.oz. ; cherry juice, red, 16 fl.oz. ; 
raspberry juice, 8 fl.oz. ; syrup, sufficient 
to make 1 gal. Mix. 

2. — Solution of acid phosphate, 8 fl.oz. ; 
wild cherry syrup, 32 fl.oz. ; orange syrup, 
sufficient to make 1 gal. Mix. 

3. — AVild Cherry. — a. — Solution of acid 
phosphate, 8 fl.oz. ; cherry juice, German 
black, 8 fl.oz. ; syrup of wild cherry, 
U. S. P., 16 fl.oz. ; oil of bitter almond, 10 
drops ; syrup, sufficient to make 1 gal. 
Mix. 

b. — Essence bitter almond, 10 dr. ; acid 
phosphate, 12 oz. ; fruit acid, 1 oz. ; sim- 
ple syrup, 3 qt. ; caramel coloring, 1 dr. ; 
cochineal coloring, ^4 dr. 

c. — Oil bitter almond, 6 drops ; acid 
phosphate, 2i^ oz. ; caramel, 6 dr. ; rock 
candy syrup, enough to make 2 pt. Dis- 
solve the oil of bitter almond in % oz. 
of alcohol and mix with the other ingre- 
dients. 

Chocolate. — Chocolate syrup, 1 oz., and 
cracked ice ; add a little solution acid 
phosphate and fill with plain soda. 

Coca. — Fluid extract of coca, 1 fl.oz. ; 
solution of acid phosphate, 8 fl.oz. ; va- 
nilla syrup, sufficient to make 1 gal. Add 
the fluid extract of coca to the acid solu- 
tion, let stand for several hours, pass 
through a wetted paper filter and mix 
with syrup. 

Cranberry. — Cranberry syrup, 1 fl.oz. ; 

[ 



( Phosphates ) 



solution acid phosphate, a teaspoonful ; 
plain soda, 7 oz. Mix and serve. 

Egg. — 1. — Draw into a thin 9-oz. tum- 
bler 2 oz. of Maltese (red) orange syrup 
and add an egg, a few squirts of acid 
phosphate and a small piece of ice ; shake 
well, fill shaker with soda water — using 
the large stream only — and strain. 

2. — Syrup lemon, i/^ oz. ; 1 fresh egg ; 
solution acid phosphate, 1 dr. Serve the 
phosphate from an essence bottle. 

Frozen Phosphate. — Fill 8 or 9-oz. 
glass with finely shaved ice, add 3 dashes 
of solution of acid phosphate and nearly 
cover the ice with, the desired syrup ; 
serve with a spoon. 

Fruit. — 1. — Solution of acid phosphate, 
8 fl.oz. ; cherry syrup, 16 fl.oz. ; pineapple 
syrup, 16 fl.oz. ; raspberry syrup, 16 fl.oz. ; 
strawberry syrup, 16 fl.oz. ; orange syrup, 
16 fl.oz. ; lemon syrup, sufficient to make 

1 gal. Mix. 
2. — Into a mineral water (7 or 8 oz.) 

glass draw 1 to 1% oz. of the specified 
fruit syrup, add 1 dr. dilute phosphoric 
acid or phosphate solution ; in another 
glass draw plain carbonic-acid water and 
pour into the first tumbler or glass to fill 
it, avoiding foam. This is preferable to 
making a long line of varying fruit phos- 
phate syrups. 

Grape. — 1. — Solution of acid phos- 
phate, 8 fl.oz. ; grape juice, 16 fl.oz. ; rasp- 
berry syrup, sufficient to make 1 gal. 

2. — Grape juice, 1 oz. ; orange syrup, 

2 oz. ; acid phosphate, 20 drops. Serve in 
a mineral glass. 

Ginger. — 1. — Solut. ess. ginger, 2 oz. ; 
solut. ess. lemon, % oz. ; solut. acid phos- 
phate, 8 oz. ; syrup, 8 pt. 

2. — Solution of acid phosphate, 8 fl.oz. , 
tincture of ginger, 4 fl.oz. ; lemon syrup, 
sufficient to make 1 gal. Add the tincture 
of ginger to the acid solution, let stand 
for several hours and pass through a wet- 
ted paper filter and mix with the lemon 
syrup. 

Kola. — 1. — Solution of acid phosphate, 
8 fl.oz. ; fluid extract of kola, 4 fl.oz. ; 
vanilla syrup, sufficient to make 1 gal. 
Add the fluid extract of kola to the acid 
solution, let stand several hours, pass 
through a wetted paper filter and mix 
with the vanilla syrup. 

2. — Fluid extract of kola, 1 oz.; soluble 
essence of lemon, i/^ oz. ; compound tine, 
of vanillin, 6 dr. ; acid solution of phos- 
phate, 2 oz. ; rock candy syrup, to 32 oz. 

Lemon. — 1. — Lemon syrup, 7 pt. ; pine- 
apple syrup, 1 pt. ; solut. acid phosphate, 
8 fl.oz. 

2. — Solution of acid phosphate, 8 fl.oz. ; 
209] 



Beverages — -Non- Alcoholic 



(Phosphates) 



lemon syrup, sufficient to make 1 gal. 
Mix. 

3. — Ext. lemon, 1 fl.oz. ; tine, celery 
seed, 2 fl.oz. ; pineapple juice, 8 fl.oz. ; 
acid phosphate, 6 fl.oz. ; syrup, to make 
8 pt. 

Mint. — Spirit of spearmint, 2 fl.dr. ; so- 
lution of acid phosphate, 2 fl.dr. ; simple 
syrup, enough to make 32 fl.oz. Tlie 
syrup may be colored a pale green by add- 
ing a tincture made by macerating spin- 
ach in alcohol. 

Orange. — 1. — Solution of acid phos- 
phate, 8 fl.oz. ; orange syrup, sufficient to 
make 1 gal. Mix. Blood orange phos- 
phate syrup may be prepared in the same 
manner by using blood orange syrup. 

2. — Essence of orange (1-8) , 1 to 4 
fl.dr. ; solution acid phosphate, 12 oz. ; 
solution citric acid (50 per cent), 1 oz. ; 
caramel coloring, 1 dr. ; cochineal color- 
ing, 1.5 m. The quantities given are suffi- 
cient to flavor 1 gal. of syrup. 

3. — Blood Orange. — Raspberry juice, 6 
oz. ; extract orange, l^/^ oz. ; fruit orange, 
% oz. : syrup, 1 gal. ; red coloring, enough. 
The addition of raspberry juice improves 
the orange flavor. The acid phosphate (1 
dr.) is added when the drink is served. 

4.— Cider. — A so-called orange cider 
phosphate may be made by adding to each 
gallon of finished product from the fol- 
lowing formula about 4 oz. of dilute phos- 
phoric acid or an equal quantity of solu- 
tion of acid phosphates of the National 
Formulary. 

Express the juice from sweet oranges, 
add water equal to the volume of juice 
obtained and macerate the expressed or- 
anges with the juice and water for about 
12 hours. For each gal. of juice add 1 
lb. of granulated sugar, grape sugar or 
glucose, put the whole into a suitable 
vessel, covering to exclude the dust, place 
in a warm location until fermentation is 
completed, draw off the clear liquid and 
preserve in well-stoppered stout bottles in 
a cool place. 

Pepsin. — 1. — Essence of pepsin, 8 oz. ; 
tincture of celery seed, 1 oz. ; lemon syrup, 
enough to make 4 pt. 

2. — Solution of pepsin, N. F., 8 oz. ; 
raspberry syrup, 16 oz. ; solution of acid 
phosphate, 4 oz. ; syrup, enough to make 
4 pt. Lime juice, orange, grape and other 
phosphates are similarly made. 

Pineapple. — 1. — Take a large glass 
with the fruit and shaved ice about half 
full, add a little phosphate and draw on 
soda, stirring with the fine stream. It 
may be served as it is with straws or 
strain into a thin mineral glass. 

2. — Solution of acid phosphate, 8 fl.oz. : 



(Punches) 



[210] 



orange syrup, 16 fl.oz. ; vanilla syrup, 8 
fl.oz. ; pineapple syrup, sufficient to make 
1 gal. Mix. 

Raspherry. — 1. — Raspberry syrup, 1 
gal. ; solut. acid phosphate, 8 oz. ; solut. 
ess. rose, % oz. 

Strawberry. — 1. — Strawberry syrup, 7 
pt. ; vanilla syrup, 8 oz. ; pineapple syrup, 
8 oz. ; solut. acid phosphate, 8 oz. 

2. — Solution of acid phosphate, 8 fl.oz. ; 
pineapple syrup, 16 fl.oz. ; strawberry 
syrup, sufficient to make 1 gal. Mix. 

3. — Wild Strawberry. — a. — Strawberry 
syrup (from juice), 6 pt. ; lemon syrup, 
1 pt. ; infusion wild cherry (fresh), 1 pt. ; 
tartaric acid, 2% dr. Dissolve the acid 
in the infusion and add, with the lemon 
syrup, to the syrup of strawberry. Serve 
without foam in thin mineral glasses.. 

b. — Strawberry syrup, 6 pt. ; lemon 
syrup, 1 pt. ; fresh infusion wild cherry, 1 
pt. ; tartaric acid, 2i^ dr. Dissolve the 
acid in the infusion and add with the 
lemon syrup to the syrup of strawberry. 
Serve without foam in thin mineral 
glasses. 

Tangerine. — Tangerine syrup, 7 pt. ; 
pineapple syrup, 8 fl.oz. ; muscatel wine, 
8 fl.oz. ; solut. acid phosphate, 8 fl.oz. 

PUNCHES 

1. — Into a 12-oz. glass draw 1^2 oz. 
of simple syrup. Into this squeeze the 
juice of 1 lemon and 1 orange. Fill one- 
third full of lemon ice and balance with 
carbonated water. 

2. — Into a 12-oz. glass draw 1% oz. of 
tonic syrup and break into it an egg. Add 
the juice of a small orange, an ounce of 
grape juice and a little fine shaved ice. 
Shake thoroughly and fill with carbonated 
water, the same as when making an egg 
phosphate. Strain into a clean glass and 
serve. 

3. — Into a 14-oz. glass draw 2 oz. of 
pineapple syrup, 1 oz. of grape juice and 
14 oz. ■ of claret wine. Into this squeeze 
the juice of % of an orange and fill 1-3 
full of fine ice. Fill with soda and mix 
with spoon, decorate with slice of an or- 
ange and 2 cherries on picks. Serve with 
straws. 

4. — Into a 12-oz. glass draw % oz. of 
raspberry syrup, 1 oz. of lemon syrup 
and 1 oz. of claret wine (the wine can 
be replaced by grape juice). Into this 
squeeze the juice of ^^ a lemon, fill glass 
1-3 full of fine ice and the balance with 
carbonated water. Mix by stirring, deco- 
rate with a slice of lemon and serve with 
straws. 

5. — Yolk of 1 egg ; grape juice, 1 oz. ; 
lemon juice, 2 dr. ; powdered sugar, 2 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Punches) 



teaspoonfuls. Mix well together ; add the 
hot water, top off with whipped cream 
and serve with nutmeg and cinnamon. 

6. — Into a 12-oz. glass draw % oz. of 
raspberry, % oz. of orange syrup and 1 
oz, of grape juice. Into this squeeze the 
juice of 1^ a lemon and fill 1-3 full of 
ice, then fill with soda water and mix. 
Into this put 2 cherries and 2 pineapple 
cubes on toothpicks. Serve with straws. 

Cider. — Chip the thin yellow rind from 
a lemon, bruise it slightly and add a cup 
of sherry wine. Let it stand an hour. 
Squeeze the juice of 1 lemon and 2 or- 
anges over 1 % cups of granulated sugar, 
add a quart of cider that has a slight 
"nip," then pour over the lemon rind and 
sherry. Turn into a freezer and freeze 
same as water ice. Serve in glasses and 
over each pour a teaspoonful of brandy. 

Claret. — Claret syrup, % oz. ; orange, 
1 slice ; lemon, 1 slice ; shaved ice, ^4 
glass. Fill 12-oz. glass with coarse 
stream, stir, decorate with fruit and serve 
with straws. 

Coffee. — Malted milk coffee syrup, 2 
oz. ; shaved ice, 2-3 glass ; milk, 4 oz. 
Fill with plain soda, stir rapidly, serve 
spices to please. 

Fruit. — 1. — The Pure Fruit Punches, 
without the addition of any kind of _ li- 
quor, are made the same as any water ice, 
only keep the composition at 15° instead 
of 20°, and freeze only about half, in 
order to have the punch in a semi-liquid 
state. You may add 2 to 3 whites of 
eggs for every 12 quarts of water ice. 

2. — Into a 14-oz. glass draw 1 oz. of 
pineapple syrup, % oz. of raspberry syrup 
and 1/^ oz. of lemon syrup. Into this 
squeeze the juice of % a small grape 
fruit. Fill the glass 1-3 full of orange 
ice and the balance with carbonated 
water, mix and decorate with a slice of 
orange. 

3. — In 3 pt. of water dissolve 1 lb. of 
sugar. Run through a felt filter bag and 
add % pt. of orange juice, % pt. of 
lemon juice, 4 oz. of either strawberry or 
raspberry concentrated syrup. Place in 
a punch bowl and ice. Add % pt. of 
fresh cut pineapple cubes and % pt. of 
preserved fruits. 

4. — Strawberry syrup, 2% pt. ; orange 
syrup, 2^2, pt. ; pineapple syrup, 2l^ pt. ; 
lemon juice, y^ pt. Mix well and strain. 
To 1% oz. of this syrup add % tumbler- 
ful of shaved ice, 3 strawberries, 1 slice 
of pineapple, 1 slice of orange and suflB- 
cient carbonated water to fill the glass. 

5. — Strawberry syrup, orange syrup, 
pineapple syrup, raspberry syrup, of each 

[ 



(Punches) 



1 pt. ; grape juice, 4 pt. Serve in mineral 
glass same as any syrup. 

6. — Lemon syrup, 1 pt. ; strawberry 
syrup, 1 pt. ; orange syrup, 1 pt. ; acid 
phosphate, y^ oz. ; 1 sliced orange. Serve 
1% oz. in mineral water, add shaved ice. 
Fill glass with solid soda, top with mara- 
schino cherries and serve with a straw. 

7. — Into a 14-oz. glass draw % oz. each 
of strawberry, orange and raspberry 
syrup. Into this squeeze the juice of y^ 
lemon. Fill 1-3 full of fine ice, add a 
spoonful of fruit salad and fill with car- 
bonated water and mix. 

8. — Lemons, 1 doz. ; oranges, % doz. ; 
grated pineapple, 1-3 ; sugar to taste ; 
strain through sieve ; add water enough 
to make 1 gal. Garnish with strawber- 
ries, raspberries or maraschino cherries. 

Grape. — 1. — Grape juice, 2 oz. ; sweet 
cream, 2 oz. ; ice cream, 1 spoonful ; bit- 
ters, 3 dashes. Shake thoroughly, strain, 
pour back into shaker and add soda to 
fill glass. Throw as for mixing egg 
drinks. Nutmeg may be added if desired. 

2. — In an 8-oz. stem glass place 1 oz. 
of orange syrup, add i/^ oz. of grape juice, 
a slice of lemon and cracked ice. Fill 
with soda and serve. 

Mint. — Put into a punch bowl 1 cup of 
granulated sugar and the juice of 6 lem- 
ons. Peel 3 lemons and slice them very 
thin. When the sugar has dissolved add 
the sliced lemon, 1 doz. sprays of mint 
and an abundance of crushed ice. Now 
stir in 3 bottles of imported ginger ale 
and enough green vegetable coloring mat- 
ter to make the punch of the desired green 
shade. 

Orange. — Grate the yellow rind from 2 
oranges and add 1 lb. of white sugar and 
1 pt. of water. Stir together until the 
sugar is entirely dissolved and boil 5 
minutes after it comes to a boil. When 
cold add the juice of 1 lemon and the 
juice of 4 oranges. Pour over cracked ice 
and add about 1 qt. of clear water. 

Pineapple. — 1. — Cut a peeled pineapple 
into small pieces and cover with a cup of 
sugar ; stand until syrup is drawn out ; 
then strain, squeezing hard, and set in 
ice. Serve in tiny glasses of crushed ice, 
adding a dash of maraschino to each glass 
Rs you pour in the pineapple syrup. 

2. — To the juice of 6 lemons and 6 or- 
anges add sugar to taste, with sliced pine- 
apple and a few bits of lemon peel, 2 qt. 
of water and chopped ice to cool. 

Pistachio. — 1. — Pistachio syrup, l^/^ 
oz. ; cream, 1 oz. ; Jamaica rum, 3 dashes ; 
crushed ice. Fill with soda, shake well, 
grate a little nutmeg on the top. 

2. — Pistachio syrup, % oz. ; lime juice 
211] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Sundaes) 



syrup, ^2 oz. ; raspberry syrup, ^^ oz. ; 
ice cream, 3 oz. ; ice, % glass. Shake, 
strain, toss and serve. 

Raspherry. — Raspberry syrup, 1% oz. ; 
juice of % lemon ; blackberry brandy, % 
oz.. Fill 10-oz. glass half full shaved ice 
and fill with soda, adding small piece of 
lemon peel. Strav^s. 

2. — Raspberry wine (unfermented) , 2 
oz. ; lemon juice, 1 dash, drawn in 8-oz. 
mineral glass half full of shaved ice. Fill 
glass with plain soda, squeeze piece of 
lemon or orange rind into the punch and 
serve with cut straws. 

StratvTjerry. — Crush 1 qt. of ripe straw- 
berries with % pt. of raspberries and 
strain the juice through a hair sieve. 
Make a syrup with 2 large cupfuls of 
sugar and 1^^ cups of water. Mix with 
the juice and syrup a large glass of sweet 
port wine and keep on ice for several 
hours. Serve in small glasses with maca- 
roons or lady fingers. 

Tutti Frutti Punch. — Boil for 5 min- 
utes 1 qt. of water and 1 lb. of sugar. 
Add grated rinds of 2 lemons and 4 or- 
anges and continue boiling for 5 minutes. 
Strain and add 1 qt. cold water. Extract 
the juice from the lemons and oranges, 
strain and mix with 1 lb. of seeded 
malaga grapes, 2 sliced tangerine oranges, 
4 slices pineapple, contents of 1 pt. bottle 
of maraschino cherries. Serve from a 
punch bowl in which a cube of ice has 
been placed. 

SUNDAES 

1. — Ladle of ice cream ; circle center 
with 6 peppermint wafers on toothpicks, 
lay on top cube of pineapple, small piece 
of sliced orange and a whole cherry. 

2. — Ginger cordial syrup, mix with gin- 
ger fruit, pour over vanilla ice cream, 
sprinkle with cinnamon. Serve in sundae 
cup and top off with maraschino cherries. 

3. — Place 5 macaroons around edge of 
saucer. Place a cone of vanilla ice cream 
(measured out with a 12-to-the-quart ice 
disher) in the center of the saucer. Over 
the ice cream pour % ladleful of pine- 
apple fruit and 1 oz. of maple syrup. Top 
off with a small measure of maple sugar. 

4. — In a 9-oz. stem glass place vanilla 
cream, 1 scoop ; strawberry cream, 1 
scoop ; crushed pineapple, 1 oz. ; crushed 
raspberries, 1 oz. Place a lady finger at 
each side in top of glass. Top with 
whipped cream and a cherry. 

Cherry. — Turn a measure of ice cream 
in a saucer champagne glass, pour over 
this several maraschino cherries and 1 oz. 
of cherry phosphate syrup. Serve with 



(Sundaes) 



[212] 



a spoon. Can be improved by adding a 
little whipped cream. 

Chocolate. — Strawberry syrup, 10 oz. : 
vanilla syrup, 10 oz. ; raspberry syrup, 8 
oz. ; chocolate syrup, 4 oz. Pour a ladle 
of this sauce over plain ice cream. 

Chop Suey for Sundaes. — 1. — Seeded 
raisins, I/2 lb. ; shrtidded cocoanut, 2 oz. ; 
green cherries, 4 oz. ; red cherries, 4 oz. : 
sliced pineapple, 4 oz. ; dates, 4 oz. Chop 
and mix ; add maple and cherry syrup, 
equal parts, to thin enough to serve ; 2 
oz. port v/ine and 2 oz. sherry wine adds 
to the flavor. 

2. — Half lb, of figs chopped into small 
pieces, % lb. of seeded dates cut up, 1 lb. 
of English walnuts broken, but not too 
fine. Add syrup enough to make 2 qt., 
color dark red. Fill a sundae glass two- 
thirds full of ice cream, pour over it a 
large ladle of chop suey, a little whipped 
cream and a cherry on top. 

Dates, Stuffed. — Use souffle dish ; put 5 
stuffed dates around ice cream ; flavor 
with maraschino juice ; top with whipped 
cream and cherries. 

Nut Sundae. — 1. — Ice cream ; sliced or- 
ange, cut in diamond-shaped pieces ; sliced 
pineapple, cut in triangular shape ; Eng- 
lish walnuts ; maraschino cherries. The 
nuts and fruit are to be arranged artisti- 
cally and no syrup used. 

2. — In a saucer place a No. 8 cone of 
vanilla ice cream. Around the ice cream 
place a ring of marshmallows, above this 
a ring of 6 walnut halves. Add 2 red 
and 2 green or white cherries and over all 
pour 1 oz. of grape juice. Serve nabisco 
wafers. 

3. — Small spoonful ice cream in sundae 
cup, then pour over some grated walnuts, 
then some more ice cream, then top off 
with sliced bananas and whipped cream. 

4. — Ladle of ice cream ; top with usual 
amount of fruits mixed, raspberries, sliced 
peaches and claret syrup ; a teaspoonful 
of nut sundae ; dress with whipped cream 
if desired, fancy whole cherries and cubed 
pineapple. 

5. — Chop 1 lb. of mixed nuts and add 
10 oz. of crushed strawberry and 10 oz. 
of crushed pineapple sauce. Pour over 
plain ice cream. 

6. — Into a sundae cup turn a cone- 
shaped measure of ice cream, over this 
pour a ladleful of walnut bisque, or wal- 
nut flakes, made according to directions 
on package, or sprinkle broken nuts over 
the top of the cream and pour on it an 
ounce of maple syrup. This can also be 
served topped with whipped cream and a 
cherry. 

Pineapple. — ^The use of pineapple in 



Beverages — Non-A IcohoUc 



(Hot Beverages) 



larger pieces, rather than the fine crushed, 
is recommended, as it makes a better ap- 
pearance and it is nicer to eat with ice 
cream. The pineapple as it comes from 
the jars should be diluted with 2 parts 
of plain syrup in bowl on counter. Turn 
a cone-shaped measure of ice cream into 
sundae glass. Over this pour a ladleful 
of the fruit from the bowl and serve with 
a spoon. 

Straivherry. — For this purpose it is bet- 
ter to use the whole fruit rather than the 
crushed strawberry. The whole straw- 
berries as they come from the jars should 
be diluted with 2 parts plain syrup in 
bowl on counter. Turn a cone-shaped 
measure of ice cream into a sundae glass, 
over this pour a ladleful of fruit from the 
bowl and serve with a spoon. 

Tutu Frutti. — Mix the following in a 
porcelain container : Crushed pineapple, 
V2 pt. ; crushed strawberry, % pt. ; 
crushed cherries, i/^ pt. ; crushed peach, 
Vo pt. ; crushed blackberry, i/^ pt. ; prune 
juice, V2 pt., and a sufficient amount of 
simple syrup to give it the desired work- 
ing consistency, Serve same as all sun- 
daes. 

Watermelon. — Take a long glass dish 
and lay on it a neat slice of the heart of 
a ripe watermelon, avoiding the seeds. On 
one end of the dish put a small ladleful 
of pineapple water ice, at the other end 
place a similar quantity of orange water 
ice. Pour over all a little strawberry 
syrup and put a maraschino cherry on 
the water ice at each end of the dish. 

HOT BEVERAGES 
Beef. 

1. — Add 1 oz. of sweet cream to a cup 
of beef bouillon and top with whipped 
cream and you have a delicious drink. 

2. — About 5 gr. crystal pepsin, % oz. 
boiling water. Dissolve, then add 1 tea- 
spoonful beef bouillon, 1 cupful hot soda. 
Serve with pepper and salt. 

3. — First make an extract by taking 6 
oz. extract of beef, 16 oz. hot water, 5 
dr. tincture of black pepper. Dissolve the 
beef extract in the hot water and add the 
tincture of black pepper. To make the 
tincture of black pepper take 2 oz. of 
whole black pepper, crush it, add 10 oz. 
alcohol. Steep and filter. To dispense, 
take 1 oz. of the beef extract, dash of 
cream, dash of salt and dash of celery 
salt. Fill up with hot water, stirring 
with spoon while filling. 

4. — Beef jelly, 8 oz. ; hot water, 1 pt. ; 
extract of celery, 1 dr. ; caramel, 1 dr. 
Dissolve the beef jelly in the hot water 



(Hot Beverages) 



and add the celery and caramel. Use a 
shaker top in the bottle, as there is likely 
to be a sediment which necessitates shak- 
ing. In a 6 or 7-oz. cup place about 2 
teaspoonfuls of this extract, draw on a 
sufficiency of hot water, add salt to suit 
the taste and stir with a spoon. 

Calisaya Tonic. 

Fluid extract cinchona, 1 oz. ; lemon 
syrup, 1 oz. ; lemon juice, 1 oz. ; hot 
water, 7 oz. 

Checkerberry. 

Draw % oz. of wintergreen spray and 
1 oz. of red orange syrup into a mug and 
fill with hot water. Top with whipped 
cream. It may also be served by using 
1 oz. wintergreen syrup and omitting the 
orange, but the first is to be preferred. 
The two syrups may be kept mixed and 
ready for dispensing. 

Chicken Cream. 

Two oz. of concentrated chicken and % 
oz. of sweet cream. Stir while adding hot 
water, after seasoning with a little spice. 

Chocolate. 

1. — Soluble powdered extract of choco- 
late, about 1 teaspoonful ; hot soda, suflB- 
cient quantity to dissolve. Stir well and 
add loaf sugar, 4 cubes ; prepared milk, 
1 dessertspoonful ; hot soda, 1 cupful ; 
whipped cream, 1 tablespoonful. 

2. — Chocolate syrup, 2 oz. ; sweet 
cream, % oz. ; fill with hot water, 6 oz. 
Serve with whipped cream. It is essen- 
tial that the best grade of chocolate, such 
as Phillips', be used, and the flavor plenty 
strong to have the drink good, 

3. — Add to 1 lb. of cocoa an equal 
amount of pulverized sugar ; put a heap- 
ing teaspoonful of this powder in a mug 
and make into paste with a little water, 
then fill with hot soda, stirring briskly. 
Finish with ice cream or whipped cream. 

4. — Chocolate syrup, 1 to 1^ oz. ; 1 
egg ; cream, ^2 oz. ; hot water, enough to 
fill an 8-oz. mug. Prepare as with hot 
egg checkerberry. 

5. — One egg ; chocolate syrup, 1^ oz. ; 
sweet cream, 1 teaspoonful. Shake well, 
strain and add 1 cupful hot soda and 1 
tablespoonful whipped cream. 

6. — Place a full V2 oz. of cream choco- 
late in cup and fill with hot water, or, 
better, with hot milk and hot water 
mixed. Top with a spoonful of whipped 
cream. 

7. — To be served from a hot soda appa- 
ratus having large cans : 2 qt. water, 2 lb. 
sugar, 1 qt. milk, 1 lb. powdered choco- 



[213] 



Beverages — Non-A Icoholic 



(Hot Drinks) 



late or 1 qt. cream chocolate. Put water 
into can over slow fire, let it come almost 
to a boil, add chocolate, milk and sugar, 
simmer for 5 minutes, pour into urn and 
keep it hot. Draw this chocolate into 
cup, add more sugar if desired and top 
with whipped cream. 

Syrups. — 1. — Chocolate, 8 oz. ; granu- 
lated sugar, 4 oz. ; boiling water, 28 oz. ; 
chocolate syrup, enough to make 1 gal. 
Select a rich brand of chocolate. Grate 
or scrape fine and triturate with the 
sugar ; then in a large warm mortar form 
a paste by trituration, gradually adding 
18 oz. of boiling water ; transfer to a 
porcelain vessel, heat slowly, stirring 
well ; gradually add the remainder of the 
water, bring to a boil and boil for 5 or 6 
minutes, stirring constantly ; stir for some 
time after removing from the fire, then 
bring to a boil again and boil for 1 min- 
ute. By this means separation of cocoa 
butter is prevented, and the mixture does 
not require straining, but simple skim- 
ming. Add the syrup and the mixture 
may be flavored with vanilla extract or 
other flavors. Care must be exercised to 
make a smooth paste in the beginning 
and to avoid scorching at the last. A 
quantity of the chocolate may be kept on 
hand in a grated or scraped form, mixed 
with the proper amount of sugar. In 
serving use 1% oz. of the syrup, add an 
ounce of cream, fill the mug with hot 
water, top with whipped cream and serve 
with crackers and a spoon. 

2. — Good soluble cocoa, S^/^ oz. ; water, 
2 pt. ; granulated sugar, 40 oz. ; vanilla 
extract, 4 dr. Heat the water to boiling, 
stir in the cocoa, gradually added ; add 
the sugar ; when latter is dissolved, strain 
and add the extract. Serve like the pre- 
ceding. 

3. — Powdered chocolate, 4 oz. ; starch, 
1/^ oz. ; water, 2% pt. ; sugar, 2% lb. ; 
vanilla extract, 2 dr. Mix the chocolate 
and starch by trituration, mix intimately 
with part of the water, pour on the re- 
mainder of the water in a boiling condi- 
tion, stir well and heat to boiling until 
the starch is cooked, stirring constantly ; 
add the sugar, stir until dissolved, add 
the vanilla extract. Serve like preced- 
ing. 

4. — Powdered cocoa, 3 lb. ; water, Vq 
gal. ; cream, 2 pt. ; tincture of vanilla, 5 
oz. ; salt, 1 teaspoonful ; simple syrup, 
enough to make 1 gal. 

5. — Take li/^ lb. good sweet chocolate; 
grate fine ; add 1 gal. milk while stirring ; 
then beat a few minutes with egg beater 
to make it light and serve with whipped 
cream. This should be made in porcelain- 

[ 



(Clam Drinks) 



lined urn of even temperature and stir 
occasionally. 

6. — Chocolate, 1 lb. ; sugar, 6 oz. ; boil- 
ing water, q. s. to make 1 gal. Grate or 
scrape the chocolate fine and triturate it 
with 2 oz. of the sugar (this may be done 
preliminarily, and in larger quantities, if 
necessary), then in a large warmed mor- 
tar form a paste under the pestle by the 
gradual addition of boiling water up to 
40 fl.oz. Transfer to a porcelain dish, 
slowly heat, and stirring in well gradu- 
ally add the remaining 4 oz. of sugar and 
20 oz. of boiling water and bring the 
whole to the boiling point for 5 or 6 min- 
utes, then remove and stir until ebullition 
ceases ; return to fire and boil for 1 min- 
ute. By this means the cocao butter will 
not separate, and the product will not 
need straining, but skimming only. The 
attention is devoted to obtaining a smooth 
paste at the first step and in not over- 
heating at the last. 

7. — Chocolate, 3 cakes ; gelatine, 1 
small package ; sugar, 9 lb. ; hot water, 8 
pt. Boil for 5 minutes and strain. 

8. — Make the syrup by taking 4 oz. of 
light soluble cocoa ; granulated sugar, 2 
lb. ; boiling hot water, 1 qt. ; vanilla ex- 
tract, 1 oz. Dissolve the cocoa in the 
hot water by stirring, then add the sugar 
and dissolve. Strain and when cold add 
the vanilla extract. To dispense, take 2 
oz. of cocoa syrup and 1 oz. of cream. 
Turn on the hot water stream and stir 
while filling. Top with whipped cream. 

Clams. 

Clam juice, like beef tea, must always 
be served hot. It spoils very readily and 
must be kept on ice. 

Clam juice may be served in the propor- 
tion of y2 to 1 oz. to an 8-oz. mug, filling 
the latter with hot water and serving with 
a spoon ; also giving the patron celery 
salt, salt and pepper cellars and soda 
crackers. The clam juice is served more 
acceptably by adding an ounce of milk, 
better yet by using half water and half 
milk and still better by using all hot 
milk. A small amount of butter causes a 
marked improvement. 

1. — Extract clam bouillon, about 2 
tablespoonfuls ; prepared milk, about 1 
dessertspoonful ; extract aromatic soup 
herbs, about 5 drops ; extract celery and 
pepper, about 5 drops ; hot soda, sufficient 
to fill cup. 

2. — Blend. Use 1 oz. clam bouillon, % 
oz. tomato catsup or bouillon ; fill cup 
with boiling water ; season with salt, pep- 
per and celery salt. A dash of sherry 
214] 



Beverages — Non-A Icoholic 



(Clam Drinks) 



wine in clam bouillon makes a very fine 
clam punch. 

3. — Extract clam bouillon, 2 table- 
spoonfuls ; prepared milk, 1 dessertspoon- 
ful ; extract aromatic herbs, 5 drops ; ex- 
tract white pepper, 5 drops ; hot water, 1 
cupful. 

4. — Clam juice, % oz. ; beef extract, 
% oz. ; cream, 1 oz. ; essence of celery, 4 
dashes. Stir while adding hot water. 
Serve with spices. 

5. — Clam juice, 2 oz. ; lemon juice, 3 
dashes : pepper and salt ; water, 6 oz. 

6. — Powdered Jamaica ginger, 1 tea- 
spoonful ; cream, 1 oz. ; clam juice, 1 oz. ; 
butter, 1 teaspoonful. Fill with hot 
water and season with celery salt. 

7. — Clam juice, 1 oz. ; tomato catsup, 
1/4 oz. ; butter, ^4: oz. ; dash of cream. 
Add hot water, stirring well, and serve 
with spices. 

8. — Clam juice, 1 oz. ; cream, ^^ oz. 
Fill with hot soda, serve pepper and salt 
and celery salt. 

9. — Clam juice, 2 dr. ; beef extract, 1 
dr. ; cream, 1 oz. ; essence of celery, 5 
drops ; hot water, to make 8 oz. 

10. — Clam juice, ^4 oz. ; beef extract, 
14 oz. ; cream, 1 oz. ; essence of celery, 4 
dashes. Stir while adding hot soda. 
Serve with spices. 

Coffee Extract. 

1. — Select a good brand of coffee. It 
should be freshly ground each time you 
prepare your extract. 

Moisten 1 lb. of fine ground, but not 
powdered, coffee with 4 oz. of cold water. 
Pack in a glass percolator. Add 1 pt. of 
boiling water, cover lightly and let stand 
for 1 hour ; draw the cork and add sufii- 
cient boiling water to percolate 1 pt. 
Heat to the boiling point and allow it to 
pass through the coffee a couple of times. 
The strength should now be exhausted 
and you should have a pint of good coffee 
extract. 

2. — Moisten 10 oz. of Mocha and Java 
or other good coffee with a little water. 
Pack in a glass percolator. Add 1 oz. of 
good French brandy with sufficient boiling 
water to percolate 30 oz. Cover tightly 
and let macerate for about an hour ; then 
percolate. 

3. — Moisten 20 oz. of good freshly 
roasted and ground coffee in a mixture of 
2 Oi. of glycerine and 4 oz. of cold water. 
Pack in a glass percolator. Add 2 oz. of 
glycerine and let stand for half an hour. 
Then add 14 oz. of boiling water and 
macerate for an hour. Then percolate 
until about a pint of good strong extract 
^ obtained. 

Some formulas call for dilute alcohol as 

[ 



(Hot Egg Drinks) 



a menstruum, but the above is prefer- 
able for hot soda purposes, since alcoholic 
extracts of coffee do not retain either the 
flavor or the aroma that the others do. ' 

Burnt Coffee. — Allow 3 teaspoonfuls of 
good coffee to each V2 Pt. of water. 
Sweeten it rather more than ordinarily, 
and strain it into small cups. Pour a 
little brandy into each over a spoon, set 
fire to it, and when the spirit is partly 
consumed, the flame should be blown out, 
and the coffee drunk immediately. 

Roasting Coffee (a French recipe). — 
Add, before roasting, to every 3 lb. of 
coffee a piece of butter the size of a nut 
and a dessertspoonful of powdered sugar. 
It is then roasted in the usual manner, 
and a tin in a slack oven, or a frying pan 
over the fire, will serve, with care. A 
rotating coffee roaster is of course much 
better. The addition of the butter and 
sugar develops the flavor and aroma of 
the berry ; the butter employed must, of 
course, be of the very best quality and 
must be used only in very small quan- 
tities. 

Serving. — 1. — In using from % to 1 oz. 
of extract, depending upon the strength of 
the extract and how strong a cup of coffee 
you desire, coffee may be served black or 
with half-hot milk or with a little sweet 
cream, allowing the customer to sweeten 
to taste. 

2. — One egg ; extract of Mocha, 1 des- 
sertspoonful ; sweet cream, 1 teaspoonful ; 
syrup, 1 oz. Shake well, strain and add 
1 cupful hot soda and 1 teaspoonful 
whipped cream. 

Egg. 

1. — Break fresh egg into mixing glass 
and shake well without ice. Pour into 
bouillon cup i/^ oz. of beef tea ex- 
tract. Draw hot water to fill cup and 
serve with 2 Graham crackers. 

2. — One-half to 1 oz. liquid extract of 
beef, 1 egg, salt and pepper to season, hot 
water to fill an 8-oz. mug. Stir the ex- 
tract, egg and seasoning together with a 
spoon to get well mixed ; add the water, 
stirring briskly meanwhile. Then strain 
and serve. Or shake the egg and extract 
in a shaker, add the water and mix by 
pouring back and forth several times from 
shaker to mug. 

3. — One egg, 1 oz. beef tea extract, % 
spoonful dairy butter. Add several ounces 
hot soda and stir until the butter is dis- 
solved. Fill up with hot soda. 

4. — One egg, % oz. lime juice, 1 oz. 
lemon syrup, hot water enough to fill an 
8-oz. glass. Prepare like hot egg check- 
erberry. 

5. — Into a 10-oz. glass squeeze the juice 
215] 



Beverages — Non-A Icoholic 



(Hot Drinks) 



of V2 of an orange, add 2 teaspoonfuls of 
powdered sugar and 1 egg. Shake thor- 
oughly, strain into a clean glass and fill 
with hot water as directed. 

6. — One oz, orangeade, 1 egg, Vz oz. 
cream, hot water to fill cup. Mix syrup, 
egg and cream in egg shaker; mix well 
and add the hot water. 

7. — One egg ; lemon juice, about 3 tea- 
spoonfuls ; soluble extract lemon, about 
10 drops ; confectioner's sugar, 3 large 
teaspoonfuls ; prepai-ed spice, small quan- 
tity ; extract cognac, about 15 drops. 
Place these ingredients in a combination 
shaker and thoroughly shake ; then strain 
through julep strainer into hot soda cup ; 
to this add 2 large tablespoonfuls of 
whipped cream. Draw hot water into 
side of cup and stir bottom only. 

8. — Break a fresh egg into a tumbler; 
add 3 dashes solution of acid phosphate, 
1% oz. of orange syrup, and shake thor- 
oughly ; then add hot water slowly into 
the shaker, stirring briskly meanwhile. 
Strain carefully into mug and serve. 
Checkerberry may be used instead of or- 
ange syrup. 

Ginger. 

1. — Loaf sugar, 4 cubes ; soluble extract 
ginger ale, 10 drops ; soluble extract 
lemon, 10 drops ; fruit acid, 10 drops ; 1 
cupful hot soda. 

2. — Use 1 oz. ginger punch to a cup and 
fill with hot water, adding small piece 
crystallized ginger. 

Grape. 

1. — Grape juice, 1 oz. ; lemon syrup, l^ 
oz. ; few drops sherry ; hot water. 

2. — Grape juice, hot, is preferred by 
many and is very beneficial. It may be 
taken before meals and often in the place 
of a regular meal. Heat in porcelain, 
agate or glass — never in tin — using one- 
third water if desired. 

Kola. 

Take 1 oz. kola punch in 8-oz. cup and 
draw 6 oz. hot water into another mug ; 
poar a little alcohol over the hot water 
and ignite. Mix by pouring from one cup 
to the other a few times. 

Lemonade. 

1. — One of the original drinks so often 
made but served poorly is hot lemonade. 
There are numerous ways of preparing 
hot lemonade — and if you are as particu- 
lar about making it good as you certainly 
are about your hot chocolate, there is no 
good reason why it won't profit you for 
your trouble. To make it from the juice 

[ 



(Hot Drinks) 



of ^ a lemon : 1 teaspoonf ul powdered 
sugar ; twist a small portion of lemon 
peel over the cup so as to get a flavor of 
the lemon ; then fill cup with hot water 
and stir. 

Lime. 

1. — Lime juice, V2 oz. ; lemon or ginger 
syrup, 1 oz. ; hot water to fill. Lime juice 
with lemon or plain syrup or with sugar 
and hot water may be dispensed as "hot 
limeade." 

2. — Lime juice, 1 oz. ; strawberry juice, 
% oz. ; sugar, 1 spoonful. Fill up with 
hot water, stirring well. 

Malted Milk. 

1. — Malted milk, 1 tablespoonful ; pep- 
per and salt or iugar ; water, 8 oz. 

2. — Malted milk (in powder), 2 spoon- 
fuls ; cream, 3 spoonfuls. Mix to a paste, 
fill with soda, serve celery salt. 

.3. — Two tablespoonfuls of malted milk, 
hot water to fill. While adding the water 
stir the mixture with a spoon so as to 
make it smooth. Season with salt and 
pepper, or with celery salt, and serve with 
soda crackers. Some dispensers add a 
couple teaspoonfuls of cream. 

Egg. — Into a mixing glass draw 1% oz. 
of chocolate syrup ; into this break an egg 
and add 1 oz. of sweet cream and 2 tea- 
spoonfuls of malted milk. Shake thor- 
oughly and strain into a clean 10-oz. glass 
and fill with hot water. 

CJiocolate. — Pour 1 oz. of hot chocolate 
syrup into a mug and 2 teaspoonfuls of 
malted milk ; reduce to a smooth paste 
and fill with hot milk or hot water and a 
little cream. Top with whipped cream if 
desired. This can be prepared by pouring 
finished cocoa over the powdered milk, 
but it is not the best way and it does not 
mix as well. Where powdered cocoa is 
used mix the two powders together dry, 
before adding your hot water. It is a 
good plan, if you use this method, to have 
the two already mixed for use. Use 1 
part cocoa to 4 parts of malted milk and 
mix thoroughly. 

Coffee. — Pour % oz. of coffee extract 
into a cup in which you have previously 
prepared a plain malted milk wiL^iOut salt. 
If you use finished coffee then' put the 
powder in the mug and fill with hot coffee 
instead of hot water and add a little 
sweet cream, topping with whipped cream 
if you desire. 

Mock Turtle Bouillon. 

Make an extract of mock turtle by tak- 
ing 2 oz. extract of beef, 2 oz. concen- 
trated chicken, 8 oz. of clam juice, 3 pt. 
216] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Hot Phosphates) 



of hot water, 1 oz. tincture black pepper, 
3 dr. essence of celery, 1 dr. essence of 
orange peel. Mix and dissolve thoroughly. 
To dispense, take 2 oz. of the mock turtle 
extract and % oz. sweet cream. Stir 
while adding hot soda. Serve spices. 

Orange. 

Orange syrup, 1^ oz. ; hot water to 
fill. Make the syrup stronger than for 
cold soda. 

Oyster Broth. 

To 1 oz. oyster juice add a teaspoonful 
of cream, a little butter and season to 
taste. 

Phosphate. 

CTierry. — Prepare a syrup with 12 oz. 
of cherry juice, 1% lb. of suga'r and 6 oz. 
water. Dissolve the sugar in the juice 
and water. In serving put 1% oz. of the 
mixture in the mug and add 1 dr. of acid 
phosphate solution, filling the mug with 
hot water. If desired, the phosphate may 
be kept mixed with the syrup. 

Pepsin. — Liquid pepsin, 1 teaspoonful ; 
liquid phosphate, 2 dashes ; lemon syrup, 
1 oz. ; hot water, 1 cupful. 

Pistachio. 

Pistachio or almond syrup, 1 oz. ; 
cream syrup, 1 oz. ; cream, % oz. ; rum 
or bitters, a dash. Fill with hot soda, 
stirring well. Serve cinnamon. 

Raspberryade. 

Raspberry vinegar syrup, ^ oz. ; rasp- 
berry juice, 1/4 oz. ; lime juice, y^ oz. Add 
hot water, stirring well. 

Sundaes. 

Cherry. — Over pineapple ice cream 
pour a ladleful of hot cherry syrup. 

Chocolate. — Rich hot chocolate syrup 
poured over a ladleful of plain or nut ice 
cream is very delicious. A few chopped 
nuts may be sprinkled over the top. 

Chocolate Sauce. — Chocolate or cocoa, 
114 lb.; granulated sugar, 6 lb.; water 
(distilled or pure), 3 pt. ; extract vanilla, 
1% oz. ; brandy, 2 oz. ; extract almond, 
V-i. oz. Dissolve cocoa and sugar in water, 
strain while iiot through cheese cloth ; 
add vanilla and brandy. Keep in a chaf- 
ing dish or water bath, not too hot a fire, 
as it solidifies or gets too thick ; add a 
little water. Serve hot over ice cream in 
sundae cup. 

Maple. — Pour a ladleful of hot maple 
syrup over vanilla ice cream, sprinkle 
ground hickory nuts over top. Serve with 
nabisco wafers. 



(Hot Tea) 



Mint. — Over a ladleful of vanilla ice 
cream pour a heavy hot menthe syrup and 
place 3 creme de menthe cherries on top. 

Straicherry. — Over a service of vanilla 
ice cream a ladleful of hot crushed straw- 
berry. Do not let the strawberry reach a 
boiling degree, as it destroys the flavor. 

Tea. 

1. — Hoio to Prepare Tea. — a. — In the 
best restaurants of the Chinese quarter 
in San Francisco tea is never made in a 
teapot, but each cup is brewed separately. 
The cup itself is different ; it is a small 
bowl covered with a strainer and a lid. 
A tiny bundle of long tea leaves is placed 
in the strainer and the boiling water is 
poured over it. This first infusion is in- 
variably thrown away as being unfit to 
drink. This procedure has caused the 
leaves to swell, and when next the boil- 
ing water is poured on it filters through 
slowly and is allowed to steep for a few 
moments. When the strainer is removed 
the golden liquid that remains in the bowl 
ready for drinking, without milk or sugar, 
is as different from the tea ordinarily 
served as champagne is from ginger pop. 

b. — In order to make good tea it is nec- 
essary that the water should be quite 
boiling, but it must on no account be 
water that has boiled for some time or 
been previously boiled, cooled and then re- 
boiled. It is a good plan to empty the 
kettle and refill it with fresh cold water, 
and make the tea the moment it reaches 
boiling point. Soft water makes the best 
tea, and boiling softens the water, but 
after it has boiled for some time it again 
becomes hard. When water is very hard a 
tiny pinch of carbonate of soda may be 
put into the teapot with the tea, but it 
must be used very sparingly, otherwise it 
may impart a very unpleasant taste to 
the beverage. Tea is better made in an 
earthen than a metal pot. One good tea- 
spoonful of tea will be found sufiicient for 
two small cups, if made with boiling 
water and allowed to stand 3 or 4 min- 
utes ; longer than this it should never be 
allowed to stand. The delicate flavor of 
the tea may be preserved and injurious 
effects avoided by pouring the tea, after 
it has stood 3 or 4 minutes, into a clean 
teapot which has been previously heated. 

2. — By a new process the delicate 
aroma and flavor of the bloom tip orange 
Pekoe blend has been retained. To serve 
— Add a dessertspoonful and fill with 
boiling water, add lump of sugar and 
whipped cream. 

3.- — Tea extract, 2 dr. ; sugar, 2 tea- 
spoonfuls, or rock candy syrup, 1 oz. ; add 



[217] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Sick, Drinks for) 



cream if desired. Fill mug with hot soda 
and syrup. 

4. — Loaf sugar, 4 cubes ; extract Oolong 
tea, 1 dessertspoonful ; prepared milk, 1 
dessertspoonful ; hot soda, 1 cupful ; 
whipped cream, 1 tablespoonful. Hot 
water may be used instead of the hot 
soda. 

Tomato. 

1. — Usual amount of tomato extract, 
spoonful malted milk, little cream, hot 
water. 

2. — Take % to 1 teaspoonful of beef 
extract, or about 1 oz. of good liquid beef 
extract and ^2 oz. of tomato catsup, with 
enough hot water to fill an 8-oz. mug. 
Season to taste. Another tomato beef 
bouillon is made by taking ^2 oz. of beef 
extract, % oz. of tomato catsup and % 
oz. of cream. Stir while filling with hot 
water and serve with spices. 

3. — Pour 2 oz. of tomato soup into a 
cup, add 1/^ oz. of sweet cream, fill with 
boiling water and season with salt, pep- 
per and celery salt. 

4. — Beef extract, % oz. ; tomato bouil- 
lon extract, 1 oz. Fill cup with hot milk 
and serve with Graham wafers, salt and 
pepper. 

BEVERAGES FOR THE SICK 

Arrowroot. — Arrowroot, 1 dessertspoon- 
ful ; castor sugar, 1 teaspoonful ; milk or 
water, % pt. Mix the arrowroot smooth- 
ly with a little cold milk, boil the re- 
mainder and pour it on, stirring briskly 
meanwhile. Return to the stewpan and 
boil for 5 minutes, stirring all the time. 
Add the sugar and serve. If preferred, 
an equal quantity of water may be sub- 
stituted for the milk. 

Barley Water. — 1. — Barley, 2 table- 
spoonfuls ; water, 2 qt. ; sugar, 1 table- 
spoonful. Wash the barley well ; put the 
barley and water into a saucepan and 
bring it to a boil ; then boil very slowly 
for 2 hours, strain it, add sugar and let it 
cool. Barley water is very cooling and 
nourishing. The barley may afterward 
be used for a pudding or put into soup. 

2. — One tablespoonful of patent barley 
(flour), a pinch of salt, a little cold 
water, % pt. of boiling water (or milk), 
sugar or port to taste. Mix the barley 
well with cold water until a smooth paste, 
about the thickness of cream, is formed ; 
then add % pt. of boiling water (or milk, 
which is preferable) ; put into an enam- 
eled saucepan, add sugar or wine to taste, 
simmer for 10 minutes, stirring all the 
time with a silver or wooden spoon. 



(Sick, Drinks for) 



Bran Tea. — Bran, 2 tablespoonfuls ; 
honey, 1 tablespoonful ; gum arable, ^4 
oz. ; water, 1 pt. Boil the bran in the 
water for 20 minutes. Add the gum ara- 
ble and honey, stir from time to time 
until dissolved and strain through muslin. 
A useful remedy for hoarseness and sore 
throat. 

Lemonade Preparation. — For the pro- 
duction of lemonade preparations for the 
sick the Pharmaceutische Rundschau 
gives the following recipes : 

1. — Strawberry Lemonade : Citric acid, 
6 ; water, 100 ; sugar, 450 ; strawberry 
syrup, 600 ; cherry syrup, 300 ; claret, 
450 ; aromatic tincture, 15 drops. 

2. — Lemonade Powder : Sodium bicar- 
bonate, 65 ; tartaric acid, 60 ; sugar, 125 ; 
lemon oil, 12 drops. 

3. — Lemonade Juice : Sugar syrup, 
200 ; tartaric acid, 15 ; distilled water, 
100 ; lemon oil, 3 ; tincture of vanilla, 6 
drops. 

4. — Lemonade Lozenges : Tartaric acid, 
10 ; sugar, 30 ; gum arable, 2 ; powdered 
starch, 0.5; lemon oil, 6 drops ; tincture 
of vanilla, 25 drops, and sufficient diluted 
spirit of wine so that 30 lozenges can be 
made with it. 

Linseed Tea. — Whole linseed, 1 oz. ; 
licorice, ^ oz. ; sugar candy, % oz. ; the 
juice of y2 lemon ; the finely cut rind of 
^ lemon ; 1 pt. cold water. Wash and 
drain the linseed and simmer it with the 
water, licorice and lemon rind for about 
half an hour. Add the sugar candy, and 
when dissolved strain and stir in the 
lemon juice. 

Oatmeal. — Fine oatmeal, 1 tablespoon- 
ful ; water, 1 pt., or milk and water 
mixed ; sugar to taste ; a pinch of salt. 
Mix the oatmeal with a little cold water, 
boil the remainder, pour in the blended 
oatmeal and stir until boiling. Simmer 
gently for half an "hour, stirring fre- 
quently. Strain, add a pinch of salt and 
sweeten to taste. Nutmeg, ginger, butter 
or cream are frequently added when the 
gruel is intended as a remedy for a cold. 

Rice Water. — 1. (Dr. Pavy). — Wash 
well 1 oz, of Carolina rice with cold 
water. Then macerate for 3 hours in 1 
qt. of water kept at tepid heat, and after- 
ward boil slowly for 1 hour and strain. 
May be flavored with lemon peel, cloves or 
other spice. This preparation is useful 
in dysentery, diarrhea, etc. 

2. — Take of rice 2 oz., let it be well 
washed and add to it 2 qt. water. Boil 
it for 1% hours and then add sugar and 
nutmeg as much as may be required. To 
be taken ad Uhitum. Rice, when boiled 
for a considerable time, assumes a gelati- 



[218 J 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Ciders) 



(Ciders) 



nous form, and, mixed with milk, is a 
^ery excellent diet for children. It pos- 
sesses, in some measure, a constipating 
property which may be increased by boil- 
ing the milk. , , 

Sago.— Fine sago, 1 dessertspoonful; 
castor sugar, 1 dessertspoonfu ; boiling 
water 1/2 Pt- ; Port wme, 1 glass, l^et 
the water be quite boiling in a sfewpan 
then sprinkle in the sago and boil gently 
until it is quite clear, stirring from time 
to time. Add the sugar and wme and 
serve 

Toast Water.— Toast 1 crust of bread 
very brown and hard, but do not burn it, 
or it will impart a disagreeable flavor to 
the water. Put it into a jug, PO«r over 
it 1 pt. of cold water; let it soak for 1 
hour, then strain and use. 
CIDERS 
HoiD to Make Good Cider and to Keep 
It— In localities where the apple crop is 
abundant the preparation of cider tor 
market is a profitable industry when in- 
telligently undertaken, and there are tew 
beverages more palatable and less harm- 
ful than cider when properly prepared. 
Unfortunately there are few farmers who 
really know how to make good cider or 
how to care for and keep it when made 

In the first place, apples not perfectly 
sound and well ripened are not fit tor 
making cider. The russet is one of the 
best of apples for this purpose, but othei 
and more commonly available varieties 
need not be slighted. ^ .^ • ^ ^^^ 

To prevent bruising the fruit intended 
for the cider press should always be hand- 
picked. After sweating each apple should 
be wiped dry, examined, and any dam- 
aged or decayed fruit thrown out and 
used for making vinegar cider. 

In the grinding or pulping operation 
the seed is often crushed and is apt to 
taint the juice, so that despite the loss 
and extra time required it is always bet- 
ter to core the apples before grinding 
them, as the cider will not only taste and 
look better, but keep better. A cheap and 
handy coring machine is shown m l^lg. l. 
In this the coring tube, which may be oi 
tin free from iron rust, projects through 
a common bench or table, and is sur- 
rounded by an ordinary furniture spring, 
P, which supports a piece of wood, A. 
This has a hole in the center of it, over 
and partly into which the apple is placed. 
The lever, D, on which the piece of wood, 
B, similar to A, but having an aperture 
only large enough to admit the coring 
tube, is loosely hung by side pins, is held 
in position by the spring, S. The opera- 



tion of the machine will be readily un- 
derstood by referring to Fig. 2, in which 
it is shown in section. 

All ironwork about the mill or press 
(rings, rivets, etc.) should be tinned or 




Coring Machine and Filter 

CIDER MAKING 

coated with good asphaltum varnish, as 
the color and sometimes taste of the cider 
are apt to be affected by contact with the 
rusty metal. 

In pressing the pomace many ot the 
best cider makers prefer to use hair cloth 
in place of straw between the layers, as it 
is more cleanly and does not affect the 
taste of or add anything to the expressed 
iuice. 

As the cider runs from the press it 
should be filtered through a hair sieve 
into a clean wooden vessel capable of 
holding as much juice as can be extracted 
in one day. _ . ,, ^ 

Under favorable conditions the tine 
pomace will rise to the surface m about 
24 hours — sometimes less — and in a short 
time groAV very thick. Then it should be 
watched, and, when white bubbles begin 
to appear at the surface, the liquid should 
be drawn off slowly from a faucet placed 
about 3 inches from the bottom of th'^ 
tank, so as not to disturb the lees. The 
liquid drawn off should be received in 
clean, sweet casks and must be watched. 
As soon as white bubbles of gas appear at 
219] 



BeverageS'-^N on- Alcoholic 



(Ciders) 



the bunghole, it must be drawn off 
(racked) into clean casks as before, and 
this racking repeated as often as neces- 
sary until the first fermentation is com- 
pletely at an end. Then the casks should 
be filled up with cider in every respect 
like that already contained in it and 
bunged up tight. Many cider makers add 
a gobletful of pure olive oil to the cider 
before finally putting in the bung and 
storing. 

If it is desired to keep cider perfectly 
sweet — and this is rarely the case — it 
should be filtered on coming from the 
press and then sulphured by the addition 
of about % oz. of calcium sulphite (sul- 
phite of lime) per gallon of cider and 
should be kept in small, tight, full bar- 
rels. The addition of a little sugar — say, 
14 lb. per gal. — improves the keeping 
qualities of tart cider. 

An easily constructed cider filter is 
shown in Fig. 3 and consists in a barrel 
provided with a tap near the bottom. The 
lower part is filled with dry wood chips 
covered with a piece of flannel. Over this 
a layer of clean rye straw is packed 
down, and then the barrel is filled with 
clean quartz sand, not too fine. 

When the first fermentation of cider 
has been checked and the liquid barreled 
it should be allowed to stand until it ac- 
quires the proper flavor. 

Much of the excellency of cider depends 
upon the temperature at which the fer- 
mentation is conducted. The casks con- 
taining the juice should be kept in a 
cellar, if possible, where the temperature 
does not exceed 50° F. When left ex- 
posed to the air, or kept in a warm place, 
much of the sugar is converted into vine- 
gar and the liquor becomes hard and 
rough. On the contrary, when the fer- 
mentation is conducted at a low tempera- 
ture, nearly the whole of the sugar is con- 
verted into alcohol and remains in the 
liquid instead of undergoing acetification. 
The change from alcohol to vinegar 
(acetous fermentation) goes on most rap- 
idly at a temperature of about 95° F., 
and at a lower temperature the action 
becomes slower, until at 46° F. no such 
change takes place. Independently of the 
difference in quality of fruit used, the 
respect of temperature is one of the chief 
causes of the superiority of the cider 
made by one person over that made by 
another in the same neighborhood. 

The more malic acid and less sugar 
present, the less the tendency to acetous 
fermentation ; hence it often happens that 
tart apples produce the best cider. But 
cider made from such apples can never 



(Ciders) 



[220] 



equal in quality that prepared at a low 
temperature from fruit rich in sugar, 
which, if properly cared for, will keep 
good 20 years. 

When the first fermentation has sub- 
sided, and the liquor has developed the 
desired flavor in storage, it is drawn off 
into other barrels which have been thor- 
oughly cleansed and sulphured, either by 
burning in the bunghole a clean rag 
dipped in sulphur or, what is better, by 
thoroughly rinsing the inside with a solu- 
tion of bisulphite of calcium prepared by 
dissolving about % lb. of the sulphite in 
1 gal. of water. 

The isinglass — 6 oz. or more (in solu- 
tion) to the barrel — should be stirred in 
as soon as transferred, and then a suffi- 
cient quantity of preserving powder of 
bisulphite of lime (not sulphate or sul- 
phide), previously dissolved in a little of 
the cider, to entirely check fermentation. 
The quantity of this substance required 
rarely exceeds % oz. to the gallon of 
cider. A large excess must be avoided, as 
it is apt to injuriously affect the taste. 

Some makers sweeten their cider by 
additions, before fining, of sugar or glu- 
cose, the quantity of the former varying 
from % lb. to 1^ lb., while as a substi- 
tute about 3 times this quantity of glu- 
cose is required. Sweetened cider, when 
properly cared for, develops by aging a 
flavor and sparkle resembling some cham- 
pagnes. Such ciders are best bottled when 
fined. 

Artificial. — The following, when prop- 
erly prepared, makes a passable substi- 
tute for cider and a very pleasant drink : 

Catechu, powdered, 3 parts ; alum, pow- 
dered, 5 parts ; honey, 640 parts ; water, 
12,800 parts ; yeast, 32 parts. 

Dissolve the catechu, alum and honey 
in the water, add the yeast and put in 
some warm place to ferment. Fermenta- 
tion should be carried on in the manner 
and under the precautions so frequently 
described in a drug paper (i.e., the con- 
tainer should be filled to the square open- 
ing, made by sawing out 5 or 6 inches of 
the center of a stave, and the spume 
skimmed off daily as it arises). In cooler 
weather from 2 weeks to 18 days will be 
required for thorough fermentation. In 
warmer weather from 12 to 13 days will 
be sufficient. When fermentation is com- 
plete add the following solution : 

Oil of bitter almond, 1 part ; oil of 
clover, 1 part ; caramel, 32 parts ; alcohol, 
192 parts. 

The alcohol may be replaced by twice 
its volume of Club House or other good 
Bourbon whisky. A much cheaper but 



Beverages- 



-N on- Alcoholic 



(Ciders) 



correspondingly poor substitute for the 
above may be made as follows : 

1. — Twenty-five gal. of soft water, 2 lb. 
tartaric acid, 25 lb. brown sugar and 1 
pt. of yeast are allowed to stand in a 
warm place, in a clean cask with the bung 
out, for 24 hours. Then bung up the 
cask, after adding 3 gal. of whisky, and 
let stand for 48 hours, after which the 
liquor is ready for use. 

2. — Tartaric acid, 2 parts ; common 
brown sugar ("New Orleans"), 25 parts; 
rain water, 200 parts ; yeast, 1 part. Put 
into a clean keg or cask, with the bung 
out, and let stand in a warm place 24 
hours. Add 25 parts of rectified spirit of 
wine, bung tightly and let stand 48 hours, 
when it will be ready for use. The above 
is improved by adding to each gallon of 
spirit from 1 to 2 fl.dr. of apple essence 
(obtainable from dealers in bar supplies, 
or probably from any wholesaler). This 
gives it the apple aroma and flavor. 

3.— Artificial Cider. — Filtered water, 20 
gal. ; moist sugar, 12 lb. ; tartaric acid, 
^2 lb. ; rectified alcohol, 3 pt. ; elder and 
melilot flowers, of each 4 oz. 

When the fermentation is finished, it 
should be placed in a cool cellar and left 
to repose for 10 days, then fined with 
isinglass and bottle ; the bottles should be 
kept lying down. 

Bottling Cider. — To have good bottled 
cider, it is necessary first that care should 
be taken in its manufacture. Apples 
picked by hand and perfectly ripe and 
sound are essential to the best quality. 
They should lie some time after picking. 
They should then be sorted, their surface 
wiped dry, and all the rotten fruit re- 
jected. The cider may then be made in 
the usual manner by grinding and press- 
ing. The cider should then be stored in 
a cool place to mature. After 3 or 4 
months it should be racked off carefully, 
and then fined by adding to each hogshead 
1 lb. of isinglass finings. In 2 weeks 
from the time that the finings are added 
it should be again racked off, and if found 
sufficiently clear and sparkling it is ready 
for bottling ; if not, it should be again 
fined and allowed to stand 2 weeks. Be- 
fore bottling, the bung should be left out 
of the casks for 10 or 12 hours to permit 
the escape of carbonic-acid gas. The cider 
may then be placed in bottles and the 
corks loosely placed in. The bottles 
should then be allowed to stand 24 hours. 
The corks may then be driven in and 
wired down. If the corks are driven in 
and wired when the cider is first put into 
the bottles there will be great danger of 
breaking the bottles by the accumulating 

[ 



(Ciders) 



pressure of the gas. All additions of 
flavoring materials are a decided damage 
to cider made from a fine quality of fruit, 
though they may impiove juice of a poor 
quality. If the directions here given be 
strictly followed, a delicious cider will be 
produced. 

Canning Cider. — Cider may be pre- 
served sweet for years by putting it up 
in air-tight cans, after the manner of 
preserving fruit. The liquor should be 
first settled and racked off from the 
dregs, but fermentation should not be al- 
lowed to commence before canning. 

Champagne Cider. — The following are 
some of the beverages found in the mar- 
ket under the name of "champagne cider" 
are made : 

1. — Cider (pure apple), 3 bbl. ; glu- 
cose syrup (A), 4 gal. ; wine spirit, 4 gal. 

The glucose is added to the cider, and 
after 12 days' storage in a cool place the 
liquid is clarified with ^2 gal. of fresh 
skimmed milk and 8 oz. of dissolved isin- 
glass. The spirit is then added and the 
liquor bottled on the fourth day after- 
ward. 

2. — Pale vinous cider, 1 hhd, ; wine 
spirit, 3 gal. ; glucose, about 30 lb. 

The liquid is stored in casks in a cool 
place for about 1 month, when it is fined 
down with 2 qt. of skimmed milk and 
bottled. Much of this and similar prepa- 
rations are doubtless sold for genuine 
champagne. 

3.— Pineapple cider, 20 gal. ; wine 
spirit, 1 gal. ; sugar 6 lb. 

Fine with 1 gal. of skimmed milk after 

2 weeks' storage in wood and bottle. 
4. — Another Formula. — Good pale vin- 
ous cider, 1 hhd. ; proof spirit, 3 gal. ; 
honey or sugar, 14 lb. Mix well, and let 
them remain together in a moderately cool 
place for 1 month, then add orange flower 
water, 3 pt.. and in a few days fine it 
down with skimmed milk, % gal. A simi- 
lar article, bottled in^ champagne bottles, 
silvered and labeled, is said to be some- 
times sold for champagne. 

5. — Another Formula. — To every 8 gal. 
of sweet, still cider add 2 pt. of strained 
honey, or, in its absence, 2 lb. of sugar. 
Stir well, bung the cask and let stand for 
8 days. Add 5 fl.oz. of skimmed milk or 
1-3 oz. of dissolved isinglass and imme- 
diately thereafter 2% pt. of diluted alco- 
hol. Let stand for 4 days, bunging up the 
cask tightly. 

6. — Good pale cider, 100 gal. ; alcohol, 

3 gal. ; sugar or honey, 24 lb. Mix them. 
If sugar be employed, dissolve it in a part 
of the cider and add the solution to the 
remainder. Let the mixture stand during 

221] 



Beverages — N on- Alcoholic 



(Ciders) 



2 weeks in a moderately cool place, tak- 
ing care that fermentation does not begin. 
Finally take out a few gallons, mix them 
intimately with a fe >/ gallons of skimmed 
milk and incorporate the mixture thor- 
oughly with the contents of the cask. Af- 
ter clarification bottle the clear liquid and 
secure the corks. Keep the bottles on 
their sides or standing top down in a mod- 
erately cool place. 

Cheap Cider. — Mix well together 10 
gal. cold water, ly^ lb. brown sugar, % 
lb. tartaric acid, add the juice expressed 
from 2 or 3 lb. dried sour apples, boiled. 

Working Formula for Cherry and 
Pineapple Cider or Wine. — A general 
working formula for making fruit wines 
is about as follows : Ripe selected fruit, 
2 parts ; granulated sugar, 1 part ; water, 
1% parts; alcohol, pure (cologne spirit), 
sufficient. 

The fruit, perfectly ripe and sound, 
free from decayed parts and extraneous 
matter, is crushed and placed in an 
earthen or wooden open vessel or tub, the 
water added and Avell beaten together, 
then allowed to stand for 48 hours, with 
occasional stirring, after which, by 
means of a press or a coarsely meshed 
cloth strainer, the liquid portion is sep- 
arated from the mass or pulp. To the 
expressed liquid is added the sugar, and, 
when dissolved, place in a container of 
such capacity as nearly to fill the same. 
An old wine, brandy or whisky package, 
when free from mustiness, is preferable to 
a new one or one that has never been 
used, as these frequently impart an ob- 
jectionable woody taste to the finished 
product. However, when such wine or 
liquor packages are not obtainable, the 
new containers should be first filled with 
water, allowed to soak for a day or two, 
then emptied and well sulphured by burn- 
ing sulphur in the same. The expressed 
juice is then placed in the barrel and al- 
lowed to ferment, the rapidity of the fer- 
mentation depending largely upon the 
maintenance of the proper temperature 
(which is from 78 to 80° F.) and, if 
favorable, 4 or 5 days will sufiice. It is 
then racked off into a clean barrel, filling 
nearly up to the bung-hole, leaving the 
same open and from day to day adding 
small portions of the alcohol, so that 1 
gal. of the spirit is used to 50 gal. of 
finished product. When the last of the 
spirit has been added, drive in the bung 
and allow to mature, and when it has 
become clear and bright it may be drawn 
off in bottles. 

In making cherry wine some of the 
seeds should be crushed, as they aid in 



(Ciders) 



imparting the delicacy of taste and flavor 
of the fruit. 

To Clear Cider. — Ground horseradish, 
4 pts. ; nearly 1 lb. of thick gray filter- 
ing paper to the barrel ; shake or stir 
until the paper has separated into small 
shreds. Let it stand 24 hours, then draw 
off the cider by means of a siphon or 
stopcock. 

To Improve Cider. — Cider, 1 hhd. ; 
rum, weak flavored, 2 gal. ; alum, dis- 
solved, 1 lb. ; honey or coarse sugar, 15 
lb. ; sugar coloring, q. s. ; bitter almonds, 
% lb. ; cloves, % lb. ; mix, and after 3 or 
4 days fine down with isinglass. For 
champagne cider omit the coloring and 
fine with 2 qt. milk ; this will render it 
very pale. 

Orange Cider {Orange Wine). — Many 
of the preparations sold under this name 
are not really orange ciders, but are vary- 
ing mixtures of uncertain composition, 
possibly flavored with orange. The fol- 
lowing are made by the use of oranges : 

1. — Sugar, 8 av.lb. ; water, 2% gal. ; 
oranges, 15. Dissolve the sugar in the 
water by the aid of a gentle heat, ex- 
press the oranges, add the juice and rinds 
to the syrup, put the mixture into a cask, 
keep the whole in a warm place for 3 or 
4 days, stirring frequently, then close the 
cask, set aside in a cool cellar and draw 
off the clear liquid. 

2. — Express the juice from sweet or- 
anges, add water equal to the volume of 
juice obtained and macerate the expressed 
oranges with the juice and water for 
about 12 hours. For each gal. of juice 
add 1 lb. of granulated sugar, grape sugar 
or glucose ; put the whole into a suitable 
vessel, covering to exclude the dust, place 
in a warm location until fermentation is 
completed, draw off the clear liquid and 
preserve in well-stoppered stout bottles in 
a cool place. 

3. — Orange wine suitable for "soda" 
purposes may be prepared by mixing 3 
fl.oz. of orange essence with 13 fl.oz. of 
sweet catawba or other mild wine. Some 
syrup may be added to this if desired. 

How to Preserve Cider. — A pure, sweet 
cider is only obtainable from clean, sound 
fruit, and the fruit should therefore be 
carefully examined and wiped before 
grinding. 

In the press, use hair cloth or gunny in 
place of straw. As the cider runs from 
the press, let it pass through a hair sieve 
into a large open vessel that will hold as 
much juice as can be expressed in one 
day. In one day, or sometimes less, the 
pomace will rise to the top and in a short 
time grow very thick. When little white 



[222] 



Beverages — Non-A Icoholic 



(Ciders) 



bubbles break through it, draw off the 
liquid through a very small spigot placed 
about 3 in. from the bottom, so that the 
lees may be left behind. The cider must 
be drawn off into very clean, sweet casks, 
preferably fresh liquor casks, and closely 
watched. The moment the white bubbles, 
before mentioned, are perceived rising at 
the bunghole, rack it again. It is usually 
necessary to repeat this three times. 
Then fill up the cask with cider in every 
respect like that originally contained in it, 
add a tumbler of warm, sweet oil, and 
bung up tight. For very fine cider it is 
customary to add at this stage of the 
process about % lb. of glucose (starch 
sugar) or a smaller portion of white 
sugar. The cask should then be allowed 
to remain in a cool place until the cider 
has acquired the desired flavor. In the 
meantime clean barrels for its reception 
should be prepared as follows : Some 
clean strips of rags are dipped in melted 
sulphur, lighted and burned in the bung- 
hole and the bung laid loosely on the end 
of the rag so as to retain the sulphur 
vapor within the barrel. Then tie up % 
lb. of mustard seed in a coarse muslin 
bag and put it in the barrel, fill the barrel 
with cider, add about i/4 lb. of isinglass 
or fine gelatine dissolved in hot water. 

This is the old-fashioned way, and will 
keep cider in the same condition as when 
it went into the barrel, if kept in a cool 
place, for a year. 

Professional cider makers are now 
using calcium sulphite (sulphite of lime) 
instead of mustard and sulphur vapor. It 
is much more convenient and effectual. 
To use it, it is simply requisite to add % 
to 1/4 oz. of the sulphite to each gallon of 
cider in the cask, first mixing the powder 
in about a quart of the cider, then pour- 
ing it back into the cask and giving the 
latter a thorough shaking or rolling. 
After standing bunged several days to al- 
low the sulphite to exert its full action, it 
may be bottled off. 

The sulphite of lime (which should not 
be mistaken for the sulphate of lime) is 
a commercial article, costing about 40 
cents a lb. by the barrel. It will preserve 
the sweetness of the cider perfectly, but 
unless care is taken not to add too much 
of it, it will impart a slight sulphurous 
taste to the cider. The bottles and corks 
used should be perfectly clean, and the 
corks wired down. 

A little cinnamon, wintergreen or sas- 
safras, etc., is often added to sweet cider 
in the bottle, together with a dram or so 
of bicai-bonate of soda at the moment of 
driving the stopper. This helps to neu- 

[ 



(Ciders) 



tralize the acids and renders the liquid 
effervescent when unstoppered, but if used 
in excess it may prejudicially affect the 
taste. 

To Keep Cider. — 1. — Place in each bar- 
rel immediately on making, mustard, 4 
oz. ; salt, 1 oz. ; ground chalk, 1 oz. Shake 
well. 

2. — Mustard seed, 1 oz. ; allspice, 1 oz. ; 
olive oil, 1/4 pt. ; alcohol, % pt. 

Cider Preservative, Bismuth as a. — L. 
Defour and Daniel find that the addition 
of 10 grams of bismuth subnitrate to each 
hectoliter of cider prevents, or materially 
retards, the hardening of the beverage on 
exposure to air during use from casks ; 
not only so, but the presence of the bis- 
muth salt renders alcoholic fermentation 
more complete. 

To Keep Cider Sweet. — When the cider 
has reached the flavor required add 1 to 2 
tumblerfuls of grated horseradish to each 
barrel of cider. 

Quince Cider. — Take a quantity of ripe 
quinces, cut into quarters, and with the 
pips, etc., removed. Boil these in a cop- 
per with double their weight of water; 
when boiled to perfect softness pour the 
must into a vat. To this add, for every 
50 pt. of must, 2 lb. of sugar and % lb. 
of yeast, diluted in a sufficiency of hot 
water. Mix the whole well together and 
allow to ferment. Then strain and bottle. 

Raisin Cider — This is made in a similar 
way to raisin wine, but without employ- 
ing sugar, and with only 2 lb. of raisins 
to the gallon, or even more, of water. It 
is usually fit for bottling in 10 days and 
in a week longer is ready for use. 

SparJding Cider. — Sparkling cider is a 
brilliant, refreshing and very agreeable 
beverage, which will keep for a long time, 
and, by some connoisseurs, is preferred to 
champagne. Pure ciders are very rich in 
sugar, and they often yield a great deal 
of alcohol which quickly flies to the head 
of the consumer, as grape champagne 
does. Those who require a good, health- 
ful, refreshing drink should always use 
the milder ciders. 

In making Normandy cider, which is 
the most sparkling, the cider is allowed to 
stand for 3, 4, 5 or 6 weeks, during 
which fermentation proceeds. The time 
varies, according to the nature of the 
apples and also to the temperature of the 
store. When it is very warm the first 
fermentation is usually completed in 7 
days. Before bottling, the liquid must be 
fined, and this is best performed with 
catechu dissolved in cold cider ; 60 grams 
catechu per hectoliter of cider is sufficient. 
This is well rummaged up in the vats 
223] 



Beverages — A Icoholic 



(Alcohol Dilution) 



with a stick and then the cider is left to 
settle for a few days. The cider at this 
stage is still sweet, and it is a point of 
considerable nicety not to carry the first 
fermentation too far. Very strong bottles 
should obviously be employed, such, for 
example, as champagne bottles, and the 
corks should be wired down. The bottles 
should not be quite filled, so as to allow 
more freedom for the carbonic-acid gas 
which forms. 

When the bottles have been filled, 
corked and wired down, they should be 
placed in a good cellar, which should be 
dry, or else the cider will taste of the 
cork. The bottles should not be laid for 4 
or 5 weeks, or breakage will ensue. When 
they are being laid they should be placed 
on laths of wood or on dry sand ; they 
should never be stowed on cold or damp 
floors. 

Some makers of Normandy "cham- 
pagne" have recourse to various dodges 
in order to increase the "gasiness" of 
their wares, especially if these latter are 
of poor quality ; but these can generally 
be recognized. A fine bouquet is given to 
the best ciders by pouring into each bottle, 
before filling it with cider, a small liquor 
glass of good cognac, but some bottlers 
content themselves with adding a little 
cider brandy to the liquor about a week 
before bottling off. Should the cider be 
relatively poor in sugar, or should it have 
been fermented too far, then about 10 to 
12 grams of powdered loaf sugar is added 
to each little bottle, or else a measure of 
sugar candy syrup, before pouring in the 
cider. 

ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES 

Alcohol Dilution. 

To make the below mentioned strengths 
of alcohol, the ordinary strong alcohol 
should be mixed with water, as follows : 
85% alcohol equals 17 vol. of alcohol plus 
2 of water ; 80% alcohol equals 16 vol. of 
alcohol plus 3 of water; 75% alcohol 
equals 15 vol. of alcohol plus 4 of water ; 
70% alcohol equals 14 vol. of alcohol plus 
5 of water ; 65% alcohol equals 13 vol. 
of alcohol plus 6 of water ; 60% alcohol 
equals 12 vol. of alcohol plus 7 of water ; 
55% alcohol equals 11 vol. of alcohol 
plus 8 of water ; 50% alcohol equals 10 
vol. of alcohol plus 9 of water ; 45% alco- 
hol equals 9 vol. of alcohol plus 10 of 
water ; 40% alcohol equals 8 vol. of alco- 
hol plus 11 of water; 35% alcohol equals 
7 vol. of alcohol plus 12 of water; 30% 
alcohol equals 6 vol. of alcohol plus 13 
of water; 25% alcohol equals 5 vol. of 



(Bead for Liquors) 



alcohol plus 14 of water ; 20% alcohol 
equals 4 vol. of alcohol plus 15 of water ; 
15% alcohol equals 3 vol. of alcohol plus 
16 of water; 10% alcohol equals 2 vol. 
of alcohol plus 17 of water ; 5% alcohol 
equals 1 vol. of alcohol plus 18 of water. 
Alcoholic Percentage of Liquors. 

From a contribution to "Tlie Liquor 
Problem" by Dr. John S. Billings the 
following figures are taken : 



Alcohol. 

. Range. 

1-7 

3-5 

3-5 

3-7 

4-8 

6-10 

6-12 

7-12 

6-12 

8-11 

9-12 

10-15 

15-10 

16-20 

20-40 

25-43 
36-43 
41-48 
40-50 



40-80 



Per cent. 
Average, 

American lager beer 3.8 

Vienna lager beer 4,7 

Munich lager beer 4.8 

English ale and porter. . . . 5.0 

Hard cider 5.0 

American champagne 8.0 

French claret 8.0 

German Rhine wines, Mo- 
selle, etc 8.7 

American red wine 9.0 

Champagne 10.0 

French white wine 10.3 

Sweet catawba 12.0 

Madeira 15.4 

Sherry 17.5 

Gin 30.0 

Chartreuse 32.0 

Whisky, American common 35.0 

Whisky, Scotch, Irish 40.0 

Whisky, American best... 43.0 

Brandy 47.0 

Absinthe 51.0 

Rum 60.0 

These percentages are by weight ; by 
volume they would, of course, be consid- 
erably larger. For instance, a whisky 
whose alcoholic strength in the above 
table would be represented by 37 would, 
in a table by volume, be represented by 
44. 

Bead for Liquors. 

1. — Oil of vitriol, 2 oz. ; sweet oil, 1 
oz. ; mixed in a glass bottle. One drop 
for 1 qt. of liquor. 

2. — Sweet almond oil, 1 fl.oz. ; sulphu- 
ric acid, concentrated, 1 fl.oz. ; lump 
sugar, crushed, 1 oz. ; alcohol, sufficient. 

Triturate the oil and acid very care- 
fully together in a glass, Wedgwood or 
porcelain mortar, or other suitable vessel ; 
add by degrees the sugar, continue trit- 
uration until the mixture becomes pasty, 
and then gradually add enough alcohol 
to render the whole perfectly fluid. Trans- 
fer to a quart bottle and wash out the 
mortar twice, or oftener, with strong 
alcohol, until about 20 fl.oz. in all of the 
latter have been used, the washings to 
be added to the mixture in the bottle. 



[ 224 ] 



Beverages— Alcoholic 



(Essences) 



Cautiously agitate the bottle, loosely 
corked, until admixture appears coni- 
plete, and set aside in a cool place. This 
quantity of "oil" is supposed to be suffi- 
cient for 100 gal. of liquor, but is more 
commonly used for about 80 or 85 gal. 
The liquor treated with this "oil" is usu- 
ally allowed to become clearer by simple 
repose. 

3. — Soapwort, coarsely ground, 13 oz. ; 
diluted alcohol, enough to make 1 gal. 

Extract the soapwort by maceration 
or percolation. 

This is also intended for 80 gal. of 
liquor, preferably adding to the latter i/^ 
gal. of simple syrup. 

The ingredients of the above formu- 
las, according to the "Manual of Bev- 
erages," are not injurious — not, at least, 
in the quantities required for "beading." 
It is said that beyond a certain degree 
of dilution of the liquor with water,. these 
preparations fail to produce the intended 
effect. The addition of sugar or syrup 
increases their efficacy. 

4. — Sulphuric acid, 2 vol. ; sweet oil, 

1 vol. Mix carefully in a glass bottle ; 
use 1 drop for 1 qt. of liquor. 

ESSENCES FOR ALCOHOLIC 
BEVERAGES 

Bishop. — To be prepared from : Fresh 
green peel of unripe oranges, 60 grams ; 
Curagoa orange peel, 180 grams ; Malaga 
orange peel, 90 grams ; Ceylon cinnamon, 

2 grams ; cloves, 7.5 grams ; vanilla, 11 
grams ; orange flowers oil, 4 drops ; spirit 
of wine, 1,500 grams ; Hungarian wine, 720 
grams. A dark brown tincture of pleas- 
ant taste and smell. 

Bourhon. — St. John's bread, 5 grams ; 
bruised licorice root, 5 grams ; bruised 
orris root, 1 gram ; sodium chloride, 2 
grams ; spirit nitrous ether, 2 grams ; 
spirit juniper, 10 grams ; alcohol, 400 
grams ; hot water, 600 grams ; acetic 
ether, 3 drops. Mix the ingredients and 
allow them to remain in a well covei-ed 
vessel for twenty-four hours ; then filter. 

Brandy. — Oil of prunes, 2 oz. ; butyric 
ether, 1 dr. ; oil of cognac, 4 dr. ; wine 
ether, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 4 oz. 

Cherry Wine. — Essence cherry, 8 oz. ; 
essence almonds, 2 dr. ; vanillin, 4 gr. ; 
salicylic acid, 20 gr. ; tartaric acid, 2 oz, ; 
cochineal coloring, 1 oz. ; caramel, 1 oz. ; 
water, 1 oz. ; syrup, enough to make, 16 
oz. Prepare as above directed. 

Claret Wine. — Enanthic ether, 4 oz. ; 
nitrous ether, 1 oz. ; acetic ether, 5 oz. ; 
wine ether, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 4 oz. 

Cognac. — Cognac oil, 1 part ; ethyl ace- 

[ 



(Essences) 



tate, 10 parts ; extract raisins, 10 parts ; 
alcohol, 100 parts. 

Currant Wine, Black. — Essence black 
currant, 8 oz. ; vanillin, 4 gr. ; gingerin, 
5 gr. ; tartaric acid, 2^^ oz. ; caramel, 2 
oz ; salicylic acid, 10 gr. ; water, 3 oz. ; 
syrup, enough to make, 16 oz. Triturate 
the salicylic acid, vanillin and gingerin 
with the essence gradually added. Dis- 
solve the tartaric acid in the water, add 
the caramel and the essence mixture and 
then, add the syrup. 

Oin. — Oil juniper, 1 oz. ; oil nutmeg, 

1 dr. ; oil caraway, 6 minims ; fusel oil, 
10 minims ; rectified spirit, 16 oz. 

Cabinet Punch. — 1. — Arrack, 3 pt. ; al- 
cohol, iy2 pt. ; peel of three apples ; juice 
of three apples ; rum, 1 pt. ; simple syrup, 

2 pt. Burnt sugar coloring, a sufficient 
quantity. Digest the apple peel in the 
arrack, and for three days express and 
filter, and to this add the remaining in- 
gredients. 

2. — Arrack, 48 fl.oz. ; cologne spirit, 24 
fl.oz. ; rum (West India), 16 fl.oz.; syrup, 
32 fl.oz. ; caramel, to color ; peel and juice 
of three apples. Digest the apple peel 
for three days in the arrack ; express, 
then add the other ingredients. 

Madeira Wine. — Nitrous ether, 1 oz. ; 
enanthic ether, 4 oz. ; cocinic ether, 2 oz. ; 
wine ether, 1 oz. ; tincture vanilla, 4 oz. ; 
rectified spirit to 1 pt. 

Blap Wine. — 1. — Cumarin, 1 gram; 
tannic acid, 50 grams ; oil bitter orange, 
5 grams ; oil sweet orange, 5 grams ; 68% 
alcohol, 940 grams. 

2. — Galium verun, fresh, 1,000 grams ; 
orange peel, fresh (using the yellow part 
only), 15 grams; Tonka beans, 10; 90% 
alcohol, 1,200 grams. Macerate for 24 
hours, then express and filter. 

Port Wine. — 1. — Acetic ether, 6 fl.dr. ; 
grape essence, 3 fl.oz. ; vanilla extract, 3 
fl.oz. ; raspberry essence, 6 fl.oz. ; tincture 
kino, 3 fl.oz. The grape essence may be 
made as follows : Enanthic ether, 1 
fl.oz. ; formic ether, 1 fl.dr. ; acetic alde- 
hyde, 1 fl.dr. ; grape juice, 4 fl.oz. ; glycer- 
ine, 2 fl.oz. ; alcohol, deodorized, to make 
1 pt. 

2. — Acetic ether, 1 oz. ; essence of 
grape, 4 oz. ; essence of vanilla, 4 oz. ; 
tincture of kino, 4 oz. ; essence raspberry, 
8 oz. 

3. — Butyric ether, 2 oz. ; acetic ether, 
1 oz. ; amyl acetate, 1^^ dr. ; essence va- 
nilla, 1% oz. ; tincture orris, 2 oz. ; rec- 
tified spirit to 1 pt. \ 

Punch Essence. — 1. — Rum, 2 qt. ; citric 

acid solution, 1 fl.oz. ; essence of lemon, 

soluble, 1% oz. ; tincture vanilla, 1 fl.oz. ; 

tincture cinnamon, iy2 dr. ; 95° alcohol, 

225] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Liquors and Cordials) 



1 to 2 pt, ; add 2 qt. syrup ; the alcohol- 
may be left out. 

2. — Rum, 1 pt. ; cognac, % pt. ; citric 
acid solution, V2 to 1 oz. ; essence of 
lemon, soluble, 15 gv. ; syrup, 1 pt. ; mix. 

Royal Punch. — Arrack, 20 fl.oz. ; rum 
(West India), 20 fl.oz.; cologne spirit, 40 
fl.oz. ; claret, 16 fl.oz. ; black cherry juice, 
16 fl.oz. ; raspberry juice, 3 fl.oz. ; syrup, 
80 fl.oz. ; citric acid, 195 gr. ; tincture 
vanilla, 8 gtt. ; oil lemon, 6 gtt. ; oil rose, 
1 gtt. Caramel may be added to enhance 
the color. Some will prefer to substi- 
tute arrack for the Jamaica rum. Grated 
lemon rind is preferable to the oil. 

Raspherry. — Amyl butyrate, l^/^ fl.dr. ; 
amyl acetate, 12 fl.dr. ; acetic ether, 1% 
fl.dr. ; tartaric acid, 180 gr. ; glycerine, 
6 fl.dr. ; tincture orris, 2 fl.oz. ; deodorized 
alcohol, to make 16 fl.oz. ; solution car- 
mine, sufficient. 

Rum. — 1. — Ethyl butyrate, 16 parts ; 
ethyl acetate, 3 parts ; tincture vanilla, 
1 part ; tincture orris, 3 parts ; oil birch, 
sufficient ; alcohol, 200 parts. Two pints 
or more are used to 25 gallons of diluted 
alcohol, together with some sugar color- 
ing. It is said that the addition of some 
prune juice improves the product. 

2. — Acetic ether, 220 grams ; nitrous 
ether, 70 grams ; oil birch tar, 10 grams ; 
lampblack, 200 grams ; nut galls, pow- 
dered, 1,000 grams; caramel, 1,000-1,500 
grams; add to 95% alcohol, 100 qt. Al- 
low to stand for three months, then fill 
clear into casks. 

Sherry. — 1. — Spirit nitrous ether, 15 
oz. ; enanthic ether, 1 oz. ; tincture orange, 
1 oz. 

2. — Enanthic ether, 1 oz. ; nitrous 
ether, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit to 1 pt. 

Whisky. — Ethyl acetate, 250 parts; 
ethyl nitrate, 200 parts ; oil caraway, 1 
part ; oil anise, 1 part ; oil juniper, 2 
parts ; alcohol, 1,000 parts ; sugar color- 
ings^ sufficient. 

Caution. — Liquors made artificially 
must not be misbranded. The Depart- 
ment of Agriculture should be consulted 
as to products made artificially. The 
penalties against misbranding are very 
severe, and are strictly enforced. 

LIQUORS (LIQUEURS) AND CORD- 
IALS 

Many of the following receipts for li- 
queurs and cordials come from the Brew- 
er and Distiller, by J. Gardner, F.C.S., 
but the majority of the receipts were 
specially translated from the French, and 
are copyrighted by Munn & Co. 

Liquors and cordials are stimulating 



(Liquors and Cordials) 



beverages, formed of weak spirit, aro- 
matized and sweetened. The manufac- 
ture of liqueurs constitutes the trade of 
the compounder, rectifier or liqueurist. 

The materials employed in the prepa- 
ration of liquors or cordials are rain or 
distilled water, Avhite sugar, clean flavor- 
less spirit, and flavoring ingredients. To 
these may be added the substances em- 
ployed as finings, when artificial clarifica- 
tion is had recourse to. 

The utensils and apparatus required 
in the business are those ordinarily found 
in the wine and spirit cellar, together 
with a copper still, furnished with a pew- 
ter head and a pewter worm or con- 
denser, when the method by distillation 
is pursued. A barrel, hogshead, or rum 
puncheon, sawn in two, or simply un- 
headed, as the case may demand, forms 
an excellent vessel for the solution of 
the sugar; and two or three fluted fun- 
nels, with some good white flannel, will 
occasionally be found useful for filtering 
the aromatic essences used for flavoring. 
Great care is taken to insure the whole 
of the utensils, etc., being perfectly clean, 
sweet, and well seasoned, in order that 
they may neither stain nor flavor the sub- 
stances placed in contact with them. 

French liqueurists distinguish their li- 
queurs as "eaux" and "extraits," or li- 
queurs which, though sweetened, are en- 
tirely devoid of viscidity ; and- "baumes," 
"crimes," and "huiles," which contain 
suflScient sugar to impart to them a syr- 
upy consistency ; usually "cremes" contain 
less alcohol than "huiles." 

The French names are retained in the 
receipts. Where it is not possible to 
make the liquors by distillation, the re- 
ceipts which say by essences should be 
chosen. O.p. means over proof, u.p. 
means under proof. (See Alcohol.) The 
abbreviations of the metric system should 
not be forgotten : 1. £= liter, gr. = gram, 
k. = kilogram. It should be remem- 
bered the art of the liquorist can only be 
obtained by long practice ; still, with or- 
dinary care, very good results can be ob- 
tained. Do not get the liquors too aro- 
matic. This is the fault of most ama- 
teurs. All liquors should be bottled, and 
labeled with neat labels, and tixQ top 
sealed with wax or tinfoil. 

Absinthe. 

1. — From the tops of Ahsinihium ma- 
jus, 4 lb. ; tops of Absinthium minus, 
2 lb. ; angelica root, Calamus aro- 
maticus, Chinese aniseed, and leaves 
of dittany of Crete, of each 15 gr. ; bran- 
dy or spirit at 12 u.p., 4 gal. ; macerate 



[226] 



Beverages — A IcohoUc 



(Liquors and Cordials) 



for ten days, then add water, 1 gal. ; dis- 
til 4 gal. by a gentle heat, and dissolve 
in the distilled spirit crushed white sugar, 

2 lb. 

2. — Spirit of wormwood, 172 parts; 
best sugar, 125 parts; orange flower 
water, 13% parts; water, 125 parts. Dis- 
solve the sugar in the water, and then 
add the orange flower water; thoroughly 
mix in the syrup the white of one egg. 
Next add the wormwood spirit, and heat 
the mixture very gently over a water 
bath, so as just to coagulate the albumen ; 
immediately remove the liquid from the 
fire and filter. 

Absinthe, Creme de (by Essences). 

Essence absinthe, 0.60 gram ; essence of 
English mint, 0.60 gram ; essence of anise, 

3 grams; essence of fennel, 0.80 gram; 
alcohol, etc., same as Chartreuse. 

Ananas, Creme de. 

Bananas, 800 grams ; alcohol, 4 1. Crust 
and infuse the bananas for a week in 
alcohol, then pass the liqueur through 
a silk strainer, pour melted sugar into 
2.20 1. of water, add 0.050 1. of an infu- 
sion of vanilla. Color yellow with cara- 
mel. 

Aniseed Cordial. 

1. — From aniseed, 2 oz., or essential oil, 
1% dr., and sugar. 3 lb. per gal. It 
should not be weaker than about 45 u.p., 
as at lower strengths it is impossible 
to produce a full-flavored article with- 
out its being milky, or liable to become 
so. 

Anisette (by Essences). 

1. — Ess. Chinese (star) anise, 7 grams; 
ess. anise, 2 grams ; ess. of fennel, 0.80 
gram ; ess. of coriander, 0.10 gram ; ess. 
of sassafras, 0.60 gram ; extract of orris, 

6 grams ; extract of ambergris, 0.80 
gram ; alcohol, etc., same as Chartreuse. 

2. — Chinese anise, 5 grams ; essence 
anise, 2 grams ; essence of fennel, 0.60 
gram ; essence of coriander, 0.10 gram ; 
essence of sassafras, 0.40 gram ; extract 
of orris, 4 grams ; extract of ambergris, 
0.60 gram; alcohol, 85°, 3.20 1.; water, 
3.90 1. ; sugar, 4.375 k. 
_ 3. — Anisette de Bordeaux. — a. — For- 
eign. — Aniseed, 4 oz. ; coriander and sweet 
fennel seeds, bruised, of each 1 oz. ; rec- 
tified spirit, V2 gal. ; water, 3 qt. ; macer- 
ate for five or six days, then draw over 

7 pt., and add of lump sugar 2i/4 lb. 

b. — English. — Oil of aniseed, 15 drops ; 
oil of cassia and caraway, of each 6 
drops;. rub them with a little sugar, and 

[ 



(Liquors and Cordials) 



then dissolve in spirit 45 u.p., 3 qt., by 
well shaking them together ; filter, if 
necessary, and dissolve in the clear liquid 
iy2 lb. of sugar. 

Arrack. 

A spirituous liquor procured by distil- 
lation from palm wine, or a fermented 
infusion of rice. It is imported from the 
East Indies, and much used to make 
punch. When sliced pineapples are placed 
in arrack, and the spirit kept for some 
time, it acquires a most delicious flavor, 
and is thought to be unrivaled for mak- 
ing nectarial punch. 

Benedictine. 

Cloves, 2 grams ; nutmegs, 2 grams ; 
cinnamon, 3 grams ; balm, peppermint, 
freshly gathered angelica and genepi of 
the Alps, 25 grams ; calamus, 15 grams ; 
cardamom (small > , 50 grams ; arnica flow- 
ers, 8 grams. Break and crush the ma- 
terials, and macerate for 2 days in 4 1. of 
alcohol at 85°. Distil after having add- 
ed 3 1. of water and draw out 4 1., after 
which add a cold syrup made with 4 k. 
of sugar and 2 1. of water. Bring up 
to 10 1., color, and filter. 

Bitters. 

Bitters are considered as tonic and 
stomachic, and to improve the appetite 
when taken in moderation. The best time 
is early in the morning, or an hour be- 
fore meals. An excessive use of bitters 
tends to weaken the stomach. They 
should not be taken for a longer period 
than a fortnight at one time, allowing a 
similar period to elapse before again hav- 
ing recourse to them. 

Angostura. — 1. — Gentian root, 4 oz. ; 
calisaya bark,, Canada snake root, Vir- 
ginia snake root, licorice root, yellow 
bark, allspice, dandelion root and Angos- 
tura bark, of each 10 oz. ; cardamom 
seeds, 6 oz. ; balsam of tolu, orangetis, 
Turkey rhubarb and galangal, of each, 4 
oz. ; orange peel, 1 lb. ; alkanet root, 1 lb. ; 
caraway seed, 1% oz. ; cinnamon, 1% oz. ; 
cloves, % oz. ; nutmegs, coriander seed, 
catechu and wormwood, of each, 2 oz. ; 
mace, 1 oz. ; red sanders wood, ly^ lb. ; 
turmeric, 8 oz. Pound these ingredients 
and steep them for fifteen days in 50 gal. 
proof spirit ; before filtering add 30 lb. 
honey. 

2. — Angostura bark, 16 parts ; bitter 
orange peel, 8 parts ; Canada snake root, 
8 parts ; cinchona, 8 parts ; serpentaria, 
8 parts ; galangal, 4 parts ; gentian, 4 
parts ; calamus, 4 parts ; cardamom, 2 
parts ; cinnamon, 1 part ; cloves, 1 part ; 
227] 



Beverages — A IcohoUc 



(Liquors and Cordials) 



coriander, 1 part; mace, 1 part; alkanet 
root, 2 parts; alcohol, 100 parts; water, 
60 parts. 

Phosphate. — Acid phosphate, ^ tea- 
spoonful ; Angostura bitters, 1 teaspoon- 
ful ; lemon syrup, 2 tablespoonf uls, or 
juice of half a lemon, well sweetened. Fill 
glass with carbonic water. 

Aromatic. — Macerate 2% lb. ground 
dried small orange apples ; ^ lb. ground 
dried orange peel ; 2 oz. ground dried 
calamus root ; 2 oz. ground dried pimpi- 
nella root ; 1 oz. ground dried cut hops, 
for fourteen days, with 10 gal. of spirit 
at 45% ; press, and add 2^2 Pt. brown 
sugar syrup. Filter. Color dark brown. 

Berlin Bitters. — Dissolve in 3 qt. 80% 
alcohol Tr., 40 drops oil of juniper, 40 
drops oil of coriander, 20 drops oil of 
angelica, 20 drops badian seed oil, 22 
drops oil of ginger; add 3 qt. of water 
and y2 lb. of sugar to this solution. Fil- 
ter, and color brown. 

Boker's. — Quassia, 1^/^ oz, ; calamus, 
1% oz. ; powdered catechu, 1^ oz. ; car- 
damom, 1 oz. ; dried orange peel, 2 oz. 
Macerate for 10 days in % gal. strong 
whisky, and then filter and add 2 gal. 
water. Color with mallow or malva flow- 
ers. 

Brandy. — Grind to coarse powder 3 lb. 
gentian root, 2 lb. dry orange peel, 1 lb. 
cardamom seeds, 2 oz. cinnamon, 2 oz. 
cochineal. Infuse 10 days in 1 gal. bran- 
dy, 8 gal. water, and filter. 

Hamburg. — Grind to a coarse powder 
2 oz. agaric, 5 oz. cinnamon, 4 oz. cassia 
buds, % oz. grains of paradise, 3 oz. quas- 
sia wood, % oz. cardamom seeds, 3 oz. 
gentian root, 3 oz. dried orange apples, ll^ 
oz. orange peel. Macerate with 4% gal. 
95% alcohol, mixed with 5% gal. water; 
add 2% oz. acetic ether. Color brown. 

Orange. — Macerate 6 lb. orange peel for 
twenty-four hours with 1 gal. water, cut 
the yellow part of the peel from off the 
white, and chop it fine ; macerate with 
4% gal. 95% alcohol for two weeks, or 
displace ; then add a syrup made of 4^4 
gal. water and 16 lb. sugar. Filter 
through Canton flannel. 

Peruvian. — Red Peruvian bark, 8 oz. ; 
orange peel, 8 oz. ; cinnamon, cloves and 
nutmeg, 1^ dr. each ; Cayenne pepper 
seeds, 75. Infuse them, well bruised, in 
8 gal. proof spirit for 15 to 20 days, 
stirring every day. Draw off and filter. 

Spanish. — Grind to coarse powder 5 oz. 
polypody, 6 oz. calamus root, 8 oz. orris 
root, 2% oz. coriander seed, 1 oz. cen- 
taurium, 3 oz. orange peel, 2 oz. German 
chamomile flowers ; then macerate with 
4% gal. 95% alcohol, and add 5i/4 gal. 

[ 



(Brandy) 



water and iy2 oz. sugar. Filter, and 
color brown. 

Stomach. — Grind to a coarse powder 
% lb. cardamom seeds, % lb. nutmegs, i/4 
lb. grains of paradise, % lb. cinnamon, 
% lb. cloves, % lb. ginger, % lb. galangal, 
% lb. orange peel, % lb. lemon peel ; then 
macerate with 4% gal. 95% alcohol, and 
add a syrup made of 4^^ gal. water and 
12 lb. sugar ; filter. 

Wild Cherry. — Wild cherry bark, 4 lb. ; 
squaw vine (partridge berry), 1 lb.; juni- 
per berries, 8 oz. Pour boiling water 
over, and let stand for 24 hours ; strain, 
and again pour boiling water on the in- 
gredients ; let macerate for 12 hours, then 
express and filter through paper, so that 
the whole will make 5 gal., to which add 
3l^ lb. of sugar, ll^ gal. molasses, 6 oz. 
tincture of peach kernels, 3 oz. tincture 
of prickly ash berries, 2 qt. alcohol. 

Wine. — Bruised gentian root, fresh or- 
ange and lemon peel, of each 1% oz. ; 
white wine, 1 qt. ; digest for a week, and 
strain. 

Brandy. 

Barrels, To Give the Appearance of 
Age to. — Dissolve in 3 gal. water 3 lb. 
sulphuric acid and 1 lb. sulphate of iron. 
Wash the barrels with it on the outside. 

Apple, Imitation. — Cologne spirit, 40 
gal. ; apple brandy oil, 4 oz., cut in 1 pt. 
88% alcohol ; D. R. glycerine, 6 oz. ; 
sugar syrup, % gal. No coloring. 

Blackberry. — 1. — Cologne spirit, 40 
gal. ; blackberry oil, 6 oz. ; blackberry or 
cherry juice, 2 gal. ; ext. blackberry, % 
pt. ; sugar coloring, 4 oz., to color. 

2. — To 10 gal. blackberry juice and 25 
gal. spirit, 40 above proof, add 1 dr. each 
of oil of cloves and oil of cinnamon, dis- 
solved in 95% alcohol, and 12 lb. white 
sugar dissolved in 6 gal. water. Dissolve 
the oils separately in % pt. 95% alcohol; 
mix both together, and use half the quan- 
tity. 

3.— Cinnamon, cloves and mace, each, 
% oz. ; cardamom, 1 dr. ; grind to a coarse 
powder ; add to 16 lb. of blackberries, 
mashed, and 5 gal. of 95% alcohol. Macer- 
ate for two weeks ; press ; then add 10 lb. 
sugar, dissolved in 3% gal. of water. Fil- 
ter. This product is sometimes diluted 
with water, or a mixture of alcohol and 
water, to lessen the cost. 

4. — Crushed blackberries, 4 pt. ; bran- 
dy, 4 pt. ; sugar, 1 lb. Macerate the ber- 
ries in the brandy for 5 or 6 days, ex- 
press the liquor, add the sugar, and after 
a fortnight decant or filter. 

5. — Blackberry root, 1 lb. ; cloves, 1 
oz. ; cinnamon, 1 oz. ; syrup, 8 fl.oz. ; 
228] 



Be'verages — Alcoholic 



(Brandy) 



brandy, to make 1 gal. Exhaust the drugs 
by percolation or maceration with enough 
brandy to make ly^ pt., and add the 
syrup. 

6. — Blackberry ether, 1 fl.dr. ; black- 
berry juice, 16 fl.oz. ; syrup, 8 to 16 fl.oz. ; 
deodorized alcohol, to make 1 gal. ; cara- 
mel, to color. 

7. — Cinnamon, 2 parts ; clove, 2 parts ; 
mace, 2 parts ; nutmeg, 1 part. Mix, and 
powder coarsely, and add to 2,000 parts 
crushed blackberries, freshy picked and 
fully ripe. Add 5,000 parts of alcohol of 
95%, and let macerate together for two 
weeks. At end of this period strain off 
through woolen, press out, and to the 
colate add 1,300 parts of sugar, dissolved 
in 4,200 parts of rain or soft water. Fi- 
nally, add sufficient water to bring the 
whole up to 12,000 parts. 

8. — Mix together equal parts of mashed 
blackberries, raspberries and brandy, or 
deodorized alcohol ; cover closely, and al- 
low to stand for 48 hours ; strain and 
press ; sweeten to taste. Flavor with 
stick cinnamon and whole cloves ; let 
stand, closely covered, for another 24 
hours. Filter through a flannel bag, and 
bottle. 

9. — Blackberry juice, 4 pt. ; catechu, 4 
oz. ; cinnamon, 1 oz. ; nutmeg, 1 oz. ; cori- 
ander seed, 1 oz. ; powdered opium, % oz. ; 
sugar, 2 lb.; alcohol, 2i/4 pt. ; water (q. 
s. ) , 1 gal. Grind the drugs to a .coarse 
powder, and having mixed the blackberry 
juice with the alcohol, macerate them 
for a week or 10 days in a warm place, 
then filter, add the sugar, dissolve by 
agitation, and having passed enough 
water through the filter, add it to the 
mixture to make 1 gal. of the finished 
product. 

10. — Blackberries, 4 gal. ; pimento, 
bruised, 4 oz. ; cinnamon, bruised, 3 oz. ; 
cloves, bruised, 2 oz. ; brandy, 64 oz. ; 
sugar, enough. Crush the fresh, cleaned 
fruit, transfer the pulp to a kettle, add 
the spices, and gradually raise the tem- 
perature to the boiling point, allowing 
to ebullesce for a few minutes. Then 
strain through flannel, and add sugar in 
the proportion of 1 lb. for each pint of 
the juice. Dissolve the sugar by the aid 
of heat, and again raise to the boiling 
point, removing the scum with a ladle, 
or clarify by straining. When cold add 
the brandy. The dose is given' at from 
1/2 -to 2 fl.oz. 

11. — Blackberries, ripe, 16 fl.oz. ; black- 
berry root, 1 av.oz. ; mace, 1 dr. ; cloves, 

1 dr. ; allspice, 1 dr. ; cassia, 1 dr. ; gin- 
ger, 1 dr. ; port wine, 4 fl.oz. ; alcohol, 

2 fl.oz. ; water, enough. Express the juice 



(Brandy) 



from the berries and add sufficient water 
through the residue to make the expressed 
liquid measure 12 fl.oz. ; add the alcohol 
and wine. Mix the drugs and reduce to 
medium fine powder, moisten with the 
expressed liquid, pack lightly in a per- 
colator, macerate for 24 hours, percolate, 
and if the percolate is less than 16 fl.oz., 
add enough menstruum, consisting of 1 
part alcohol and 4 parts water, to make 
up the measure. 

British Brandy. — 8yn. Malt Brandy. — 
For a long time this liquor was distilled 
from spoiled wine and the dregs of wine, 
both British and foreign, mixed with beer 
bottoms, spoiled raisins, and similar sub- 
stances. At the present day, spirit made 
from malt, potatoes, beet root and car- 
rots is employed. Malt spirit is the best 
adapted for the manufacture of British 
brandy. We annex formulas : 

1. — To 12 gal. of malt spirit at proof 
add of water 5 gal. ; crude red tartar or 
winestone, previously dissolved in 1 gal. 
of boiling water, % lb. ; acetic ether, 6 
fl.oz. ; French wine vinegar, 2 qt. ; French 
plums, bruised, 5 lb. ; sherry bottoms, % 
gal. ; mix these ingredients in a sherry 
or French brandy cask, and let them 
stand for about a month, frequently stir- 
ring the liquid with a stick ; next draw 
over 15 gal. of the mixture from a still 
furnished with an agitator. Put the dis- 
tilled spirit into a clean, fresh emptied 
cognac brandy cask, and add of tincture 
of catechu, 1 pt. ; oak shavings, 1 lb. ; 
spirit coloring, % pt. ; agitate occasion- 
ally for a few days, and then let it repose 
for a week, when it will be flt for use. 
This produces 15 gal. of brandy, 17 u. p. 
Age greatly improves it. 

2. — Malt spirit, 99 gal. ; red tartar, dis- 
solved in water, 7 lb. ; acetic ether, % 
gal. ; wine vinegar, 5 gal. ; bruised raisins 
or French plums, 14 lb. ; bitter almond 
cake, bruised, and steeped for 24 hours 
in twice its weight of water, which must 
be used with it, % lb. ; water, q. s. ; 
macerate as before, and draw over, with 
a quick fire, 120 gal. To the distilled 
spirit add a few pounds of oak shavings, 
2 lb. of powdered catechu made into a 
paste with hot water, and spirit coloring, 
q. s., and finish as in the last. Produces 
320 gal. of spirit, fully 17 u. p. Equal 
in quality to the last. 

Caraway Brandy. — 1. — A species of 
cordial, commonly prepared as follows : 
Bruised caraway seeds, 4 oz. ; lump sugar, 
2 lb. ; British brandy, 1 gal. ; macerate 
a fortnight, occasionally shaking the bot- 
tle. 

2. — Sugar, 1 lb. ; bruised caraways. 1 



[229] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Brandy) 



oz. ; bitter almonds, grated, 3 ; spirit col- 
oring, 1 oz. ; plain spirit or gin, 22 u. p., 
^2 gal. Infuse, etc., as balm of Molucca. 
The coloring is sometimes left out. 

Gatawha. — Cologne spirit, 40 gal. ; Ca- 
tawba brandy oil, 6 oz. ; wine syrup, 2 
lb., cut in 1 qt. 88% alcohol. Color with 
French brandy coloring. 

Cherry. — 1. — Cologne spirit, 40 gal. ; 
cherry brandy oil, 6 oz., cut in 1 pt. 88% 
alcohol ; cherry juice, 2 gal. ; sugar 
syrup, 1 qt. ; cherry extract, 1 pt. ; sugar 
coloring, to color, 4 oz. 

2. — Brandy and cherries, crushed, of 
each 1 gal. ; let them lie together for 3 
days, then express the liquid and add 2 
lb. lump sugar ; in a week or two decant 
the clear portion for use. 

3. — To the last add 1 qt. raspberry 
juice and % pt. orange-flower water. Both 
the above are excellent. 

4. — Molasses, 1 cwt. ; spirit, 45 u. p., 41 
gal. ; bitter almonds, bruised, 1 lb., more 
or less, to taste ; cloves, 1 oz. ; cassia, 2 
oz. ; macerate a month, frequently stir- 
ring. An article frequently sold as cherry 
brandy. 

5. — German cherry juice, 15 gal. ; pure 
rectified spirit, 20 gal. ; syrup, 5 gal. ; oil 
of bitter almonds, 1 dr. 

6. — Black cherries, mashed, without be- 
ing stoned, 8 lb. ; 95% alcohol, 10 qt. 
Macerate for 2 weeks ; press ; add 5 lb. 
sugar, dissolved in 2 gal. brandy. 

7. — Sound black cherries. To each 
lb. allow 3 oz. of brown sugar candy, 
12 apricot, peach or plum kernels, % oz. 
shredded bitter almond, ^ inch of cin- 
namon, and good French brandy to cover. 
Cut off the stalks, leaving them about 
half an inch in length, wipe the cherries 
with a soft cloth, and prick them well 
with a coarse darning needle. Half fill 
some wide-necked bottles with the pre- 
pared fruit ; to each one add sugar candy, 
etc., in the above stated proportions, and 
fill the bottles with brandy. Cork closely, 
cover the top with melted wax, or blad- 
der, and keep for at least 3 months be- 
fore using. 

Dantzic Brandy. — From rye, ground 
with the root of Calamus aromaticus. It 
has a mixed flavor of orris and cinnamon. 

1. — The Miinchener Apotheher Verein 
has adopted the following formula for the 
same thing : Acetic acid, dilute, 90%, 4 
parts ; acetic ether, 4 parts ; tincture aro- 
matic, 40 parts ; cognac essence, 40 parts ; 
spirit of nitrous ether, 20 parts ; 90% 
alcohol, 5,000 parts ; distilled water, 2,500 
parts. Add the acids, ethers, etc., to the 
alcohol, and finally add the water. Let 



(Brandy) 



stand several days, and, if necessary, 
filter. 

2. — Berlin apothecaries have adopted 
the following as a magistral formula : 
Aromatic tincture, 4 parts ; spirit of ni- 
trous ether, 5 parts; 90% alcohol, 1,000 
parts; distilled water, q. s. to make 2,000 
parts. Mix the tincture and ether with 
the alcohol, add the water, and for every 
ounce add one drop of tincture of rhat- 
any. Of these formulae, the first is to 
be preferred, as a close imitation of the 
taste of the genuine article. To imitate 
color use burnt sugar. 

Ginger. — 1. — The following is a Ger- 
man formula, and it makes a first-rate 
article : Sugar, 200 parts ; tincture of 
orange peel, 20 parts ; spirit of nitrous 
ether, 20 parts. Mix, and add 4,500 parts 
of good whisky or dilute alcohol. Stir 
in 5,500 parts of boiling rain or soft 
water, adding at the same time 200 parts 
of ginger, in powder, and 20 parts of 
galangal root, powdered. If desired, add 
enough burnt sugar to color. Cover the 
vessel, and let stand a day or two ; then 
filter. By adding the ginger after the 
water we avoid dissolving the resinous 
parts of the former, which would other- 
wise make the preparation turbid. The 
galangal may be omitted, if desired, and 
about a drop of oil of bitter almond add- 
ed in its place, for every 2% gal. of li- 
quor. It should be dissolved in the alco- 
hol before adding. 

2. — Jamaica ginger, 2 oz. ; brandy, 1 
qt. ; water, % pt. ; sugar, 1 lb. ; juniper 
berries (mixed black and white), 2 oz. 
Crush finely the ginger and juniper ber- 
ries, put them into a wide-necked bot- 
tle, and pour in the brandy. Cork se- 
curely, let the bottle stand in a warm 
place for 3 days, shaking it 3 or 4 times 
daily. On the third day boil the sugar 
and water to a thick syrup, and when 
cool add to it the brandy, which must 
previously be strained through fine mus- 
lin or filtering paper until quite clear. 
When quite cold, bottle, cork securely, 
and store for use. 

3. — Cologne spirits, 40 gal. ; ginger 
brandy oil, 1% lb. ; sugar syrup, ^ gal. ; 
sugar coloring, 6 oz. 

Lemon. — 1. — Fresh lemons, sliced, 1 
doz. ; brandy, 1 gal. ; macerate for a week, 
press out the liquid, and add 1 lb. lump 
sugar. 

2, — Proof . spirit, 7 gal. ; essence of 
lemon, 3 dr. ; sugar, 5 lb. ; tartaric acid, 
1 oz. ; dissolved in water ; turmeric pow- 
der, 2 gal. ; spirit coloring, 1 dessertspoon- 
ful ; macerate, etc., as No. 1. Sometimes 



[230 J 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Brandy) 



boiling milk is added to the above, in the 
proportion of 1 qt. to every gal. 

Malt. — Malt spirit, flavored with sweet 
spirits of niter and terra japonica, and 
colored with molasses, or spirit colouring. 
(See British Brandy.) 

New York Brandy. — Cologne spirit, or 
good rectified spirits, 40 gal. ; New York 
brandy essence, 2 oz. ; prussic ether, 1 oz., 
dissolved in 1 pt. 88% alcohol. To im- 
prove, add 1% pt. sugar syrup. Color 
with sugar coloring. 

Orange Brandy. — 1. — To every ^2 Ssd. 
of brandy a-llow % pt. of Seville orange 
juice, 1% lb. loaf sugar. To bring out 
the full flavor of the orange peel, rub 
a few lumps of the sugar on 2 or 3 un- 
pared oranges, and put these lumps to the 
rest. Mix the brandy with the orange 
juice, strained, the rinds of six of the 
oranges, pared very thin, and the sugar. 
Let all stand in a closely covered jar 
for about three days, stirring it three 
o-r four times a day. When clear it should 
be bottled and closely corked for a year ; 
it will then be ready for use, but will 
keep any length of time. This is a most 
excellent stomachic when taken pure, in 
small quantities ; or, as the strength, of 
the brandy is very little deteriorated by 
the other ingredients, it may be diluted 
with water. To be stirred every day for 
three days. Sufficient to make 2 qts. ; 
make this in March. 

2. — As lemon brandy, but substituting 
oranges. 

Patent Brandy. — This is merely very 
clean malt spirit mixed with about one- 
seventh or less of its bulk of strongly 
flavored cognac and a little coloring. 

Peach. — 1. — Mash 18 lb. of peaches 
with their stones ; macerate them for 24 
hours, with 4% gal. of 95% alcohol and 
4 gal. of water. Strain, press, and filter; 
add 5 pt. plain white syrup. Color dark 
yellow with burnt-sugar coloring. 

2.— (Good.) Take l^ gal. of honey, 
dissolved in water; 3% gal. of 95% alco- 
hol ; 1/2 gal. Jamaica rum ; 1 oz. catechu, 
bruised to a paste ; 1 oz. acetic ether. 
Add water to make 10 gal., flavored with 

4 oz. of bitter almonds. No coloring re- 
quired. 

3. — From peaches, by fermentation and 
distillation. Much used in the United 
States. A cordial spirit under the same 
name is prepared as follows : 

4. — From peaches, sliced, and steeped in 
twice their weight of British brandy or 
malt spirit, as in making cherry brandy. 

5. — Bitter almonds, bruised, 3 oz. ; 
proof spirit, 10 gal. ; water, 3 gal. ; sugar, 

5 or 6 lb. ; orange-flower water, Yz pt. ; 



( Brandy ) 



macerate for 14 days ; add brandy color- 
ing, if required darker. 

6. — Dissolve 1 gal. of honey in water ; 
add 7 gal. of alcohol, 1 gal. of rum, 2 oz. 
of catechu, bruised, 2 oz. acetic ether ; 
add y2 lb. of bitter almonds ; dissolved, 
20 gal. water. 

7. — Cologne spirit, 40 gal. ; peach bran- 
dy oil, 34 lb. ; glycerine, 6 oz. ; sugar 
syrup, ^2 giU- No coloring. 

Raspberry Brandy. — 1. — Put 1 pt. of 
ripe raspberries into a wide-necked bot- 
tle, pour 1 qt. of French brandy over 
them, cork the bottle tightly, and let it 
stand in a moderately warm place for 
14 days. Have ready a thick syrup, made 
by boiling together i/4 lb. of loaf sugar 
and 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water until 
the right consistency is obtained. Strain 
the liquor from the bottle repeatedly un- 
til quite clear, then mix it with the syrup, 
and pour the whole into small bottles. 
Cork them securely, and store for use. 

2. — Pour as much brandy over rasp- 
berries as will just cover them ; let it 
stand for 24 hours, then drain it off and 
replace with a like quantity of fresh 
spirit ; after 24 hours more drain this 
off and replace it with water ; lastly, 
drain well and press the raspberries quite 
dry. Next add sugar to the mixed li- 
quors, in the proportion of 2 lb. to every 
gal., along with ^4 Pt. of orange-flower 
water. 

3. — Mix equal parts of mashed rasp- 
berries and brandy together, let them 
stand 24 hours, then press out the liquor. 
Sweeten as above, and add a little cin- 
namon and cloves, -if agreeable ; lastly, 
strain. 

4. — From raspberries, using the pro- 
portion given under cherry brandy. 
Sometimes a little cinnamon and cloves 
are added. The only addition, however, 
that really improves the flavor or bou- 
quet is a little orange-flower water, a 
very little essence of vanilla, or a single 
drop of essence of ambergris. 

5. — Shrub. — Brandy, 1 gal. ; orange 
and lemon juice, of each, 1 pt. ; the peel 
of 2 oranges ; ditto of 1 lemon ; digest for 
24 hours, strain, and add 4 lb. of white 
sugar dissolved in 5 pt. water. After 
a fortnight decant the clear liquid for 
use. 



Cacao, Creme de. 

Infuse 1 lb. roasted Cacao nuts cut 
small and ^^ oz. vanilla, in 1 gal. brandy, 
for 8 days ; strain, and add 3 qt. of thick 
syrup. 



[231] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Chartreuse) 



Caraway Cordial. 

This is generally made from the essen- 
tial oil of caraway, with 2i^ lb. of sugar 
per gal. ; 1 fl.dr. of the oil is commonly 
reckoned equal to i/4 lb. of the seed. The 
addition of a very little oil of cassia and 
about half as much of essence of lemon 
or of orange improves it. 

Cassis, Creme de. 

Infusion of currants, 4.20 1.; spirit of 
raspberries, 0.50 1. ; 85% alcohol, 0.60 1. ; 
white sugar, 5 k. ; water, 1.60 1. 

Celeri, Creme de. 

Essence of celery, 2 grams ; alcohol, 
3.10 1. ; water, 3.90 1. ; sugar, 4.375 k. 
Chartreuse. 



Ingredients. 


Green. 


Yellow. 


White. 


China cinnamon 


1.50 gr. 


1.50 gr. 


12.50 gr. 


Mace 


1.50 gr. 


1.50 gr. 


3gr 


Lemon balm, dried.. 


50 gr. 


25 gr. 


25 gr 


Hyssop in flow, tops 


25 gr. 


12.50 gr. 


13.50 gr 


Peppermint, dried... 


25 gr. 






Thyme 


3gr. 






Balsime (bal. maj.), 


12.50 gr. 






Genepi 


25 gr. 


12.50 gr. 


12.50 gr 


Arnica, flowers of. . 


Igr. 


1.50 gr. 




Balsam poplar, buds 


1.50 gr. 






Angelica, seeds 


12.50 gr. 


12.50 gr. 


i2.5CI gr 


Angelica, roots 


6.25 gr. 


3gr. 


3gr 


Coriander 




1.50 gr. 




Cloves 




1.50 gr. 


3gr 


Aloes, socotrine 




3gr. 




Cardamom, small... 




5gr. 


3gr 


Nutmegs 






1.50 gr 


Calamus 






30 gr 


Tonka beans 






1.50 gr 


Alcohol, at 85° 


6.25 1. 


4.25 1. 


5.25 1. 


White sugar 


2.50 k. 


2.50 k. 


3.75 k. 



Digest in alcohol for 24 hours ; distil 
so as to obtain nearly all the spirit ; re- 
peat the operation, if necessary, or add 
water to make 10 1. ; color, and, after re- 
posing, filter. 

2. — Chartreuse, by Essences. — Essence 
of lemon balm, 0.20 gram ; essence of hys- 
sop, 0.20 gram ; essence of angelica, 1 
gram ; essence of English mint, 2 grams ; 
essence of Chinese cinnamon, 0.20 gram ; 
essence of cloves, 0.20 gram ; essence of 
nutmegs, 0.20 gram. Color yellow or 
green. Alcohol (85%), 3 1.; sugar, 5.6 
k. ; water, 2.6 1. ; for 10 1. 

3. — Grande Chartreuse. — This renowned 
liqueur, formerly made by the monks 
of the Grande Chartreuse, near Gre- 
noble, is said to have the following 
composition: Essence of balm (flavored 
with lemon), 31 gr. ; essence of hyssop, 
31 gr. ; essence of angelica, 2% dr. ; es- 
sence of English peppermint, 5 dr. ; es- 
sence of nutmeg, 36 gr. ; essence of cloves, 
31 gr. ; rectified alcohol, 3% pt. ; sugar, 

[ 



(Coloring Liquors) 



q. s. ; the whole being colored yellow or 
green, according to taste. 



Cherry Cordial. 

Mix 21/4 lb. cherry juice with l^^ qt. 
80% alcohol ; add 8 drops oil of cloves, 
^2 lb. sugar, 1% qt. water; filter. 

Coffee Liqueur. 

Ground roasted coffee, 112 parts ; dilu- 
ted spirit, 450 parts. Digest, express, 
and filter. To 300 parts of the filtered 
liquid add : Tincture of vanilla, 5 parts ; 
diluted spirit, 150 parts; simple syrup, 
225 parts. 

Cognac. 

Good spirits, distilled or rectified, 40 
gal. ; enanthic ether, 6 oz. ; cognac brandy 
oil (dissolved in 1 qt. 88% alcjohol), 1 oz. ; 
wine syrup, 1% lb. ; color with sugar col- 
oring. 

Coloring of Liqueurs. 

Amber, Fawn and Brandy Color. — 1. — 
Burnt-sugar or spirit coloring. 

2. — Best white crushed or lump sugar, 
6 lb. ; water, % pt. Boil until black ; 
remove from the fire, cool with water, 
stirring as the water is added. Used to 
color liquors from a light amber to a 
dark brown. For brandy, whisky, old rye, 
etc. 

Blue. — Sulphate of indigo, nearly neu- 
tralized with chalk and the juice of blue 
flowers and berries. 

Green. — Spinach or parsley leaves di- 
gested in spirit and mixtures of blue and 
yellow. 

Port Wine Color. — Extract of rhatany. 

Purple. — The same as violet, only 
deeper. 

72erf.—l.— Cudbear, 400 grams ; 85° al- 
cohol, 1 1. Macerate for five days, stir- 
ring frequently. Decant the liquid, treat 
the residue in the same manner, unite 
the two liquids, and filter. 

2. — Powdered cochineal or Brazil wood, 
either alone or mixed with a little alum. 

3. — Beet root, red saunders, or cochi- 
neal. 

Violet. — Blue violet petals, litmus, or 
extract of logwood. 

Yellow. — 1. — An aqueous infusion of 
saffiower or French berries and the tinc- 
tures of saffron and turmeric. 

2.— Saffron, 100 gr. ; water, 1.5 1. Boil 
half the water and pour on the saffron. 
Cover tightly, and macerate until the in- 
fusion is cold. Repeat the operation on 
the residue, and mix the two liquids ; add 
750 c. c. of 85% alcohol, and filter. 
232] 



Beverages — A Icoholic 



(Gin) 



Cordial. 

Aromatized and sweetened spirit, em- 
ployed as a beverage. Cordials are pre- 
pared by either infusing the aromatics 
in the spirit and drawing off the essence 
by distillation, which is then sweetened, 
or without distillation, by flavoring the 
spirit with essential oils, or simple di- 
gestion on the ingredients, adding sugar or 
syrup as before. Malt or molasses spirit 
is the kind usually employed, and for 
this purpose should be perfectly flavorless, 
as if this be not the case the quality 
of the cordial will be inferior. Rectified 
spirit of wine is generally the most free 
from flavor, and when reduced to a proper 
strength with water forms the best and 
purest spirit for cordial liquors. 

Curagoa (by Essences). 

Essence of curagoa, distilled, 7 grams; 
essence of Portugal, 2.50 grams ; essence 
of cloves, 5 grams. Bitter infusion of 
curacoa, q. s. ; alcohol, 3.10 1. ; water, 
3.90 1 ; sugar, 4.375 k. 

Dantzich, Eau de Vie de (by Essences). 

1. — Essence Ceylon cinnamon, 40 gr. ; 
essence China cinnamon, 1.20 gr. ; essence 
of coriander, 0.20 gr. ; essence of lemon 
(distilled), 0.80 gr. ; alcohol, etc., the 
same as curagoa. 

2. — Ceylon cinnamon, 25 gr. ; cloves, 
1.5 gr. ; green anise, 12.5 gr. ; celery 
seeds, 12..5 gr. ; caraway seeds, 12.5 gr. ; 
cumin seeds, 3 gr. ; 85% alcohol, 5 1. ; 
white sugar, 2.5 k. General method with- 
out rectification. Product, 10 1. 

Dubonnet. 

A very popular French preparation. 
Its composition has not been disclosed. 
Makes excellent cocktails when added to 
equal parts of gin or whisky. Use no 
bitters. 

Fining for Cordials (Eggs). 

Take the white of an egg with each 5 
gal. of the cordial, beat up with alcohol, 
and add gradually to the cordial. 

Fining with Potash. 

For each 10 gal. of the cordial add 
1 oz. of potassium carbonate dissolved in 
1 pt. of water; add gradually. 

Gin. 

1. — Clean corn spirit, at proof, 80 gal. ; 
newly rectified oil of turpentine, 1 pt. ; 
mix well by violent agitation; add 7 or 8 

[ 



(Gin) 



lb. culinary salt dissolved in 30 or 40 gal. 
of water; again well agitate, and distil 
over 100 gal., or until che feints begin 
to rise. Product, 100 gal., 22 u. p., be- 
sides 2 gal. contained in the feints. If 
100 gal., 17 u. p., be required, 85 gal. of 
proof spirit, or its equivalent at any 
other strength, should be employed. 

2. — Proof spirit, as above, 8 gal. ; oil 
of turpentine, 1 to 1% oz. ; salt (dissolved 
in 3 or 4 gal. of water), 1 lb.; draw 10 
gal. as before, 22 u. p. 

3. — Clean corn spirit, 80 gal.; oil of 
turpentine, % to 1 pt. ; pure oil of juni- 
per, 1 to 3 oz. ; salt, 7 lb. ; water, 35 
gal. ; draw 100 gal., as above, 22 u. p. 

4. — To the last add oil of caraway, % 
oz. ; oil of sweet fennel, ^4 oz. ; distil as 
before. 

5, — To No. 3 add essential oil of al- 
monds, 1 dr., or less ; essence of lemon, 
3 or 4 dr. ; distil as before. 

6. — To No. 1 add creosote, 1 to 2 dr., 
before distillation. 

7. — To No. 3 add creosote, 1 to 2 dr., 
before distillation. 

8. — Proof spirit, 80 gal. ; oil of turpen- 
tine, % pt. ; oil of juniper, 3 oz. ; creo- 
sote, 2 dr. ; oranges and lemons, sliced, 
of each 9 in number ; macerate for a 
week, and distil 100 gal., 22 u. p. 

The oil of turpentine for this purpose 
should be of the best quality, and not that 
usually vended for painting, which con- 
tains rosin and fixed oil. Juniper berries, 
bitter almonds and the aromatic seeds 
may be used instead of the essential oils, 
but the latter are most convenient. Tur- 
pentine conveys a plain gin flavor, creo- 
sote imparts a certain degree of smoki- 
ness, lemon and other aromatics a creami- 
ness, fullness and richness. Gin may also 
be prepared by simple solution of the 
flavoring in the spirit, but is, of course, 
better for distillation. 

Sweetened gin is made from unsweet- 
ened gin, 22 u. p., 95 gal. ; lump sugar, 40 
to 45 lb., dissolved in 3 gal. of clear 
water; mix well, and fine it down as 
above. Produces 100 gal., at 26 u. p. 
This, as well as the last, is usually per- 
mitted at 22 or 24 u. p., which is also 
done when the gin has been further low- 
ered with water so to be even 30 or 35 
u. p. 

9. — Raspherrp. — Break 1 lb. of sugar 
candy in small pieces, put it into a jar 
with 1 qt. of ripe raspberries and 1 qt. 
of good gin, cover closely, and let it re- 
main thus for 12 months, shaking it daily 
for 3 or 4 weeks. At the end of the time 
strain or filter until clear, and bottle 
for use. 
233] 



Beverages — A Icoholic 



(Gin) 



Gold Cordial. 

From angelica root, sliced, 1 lb. ; rai- 
sins, y^ lb. ; coriander seeds, 2 oz. ; cara- 
way seeds and cassia, of each 1^ oz. ; 
cloves, ^ oz. ; figs and sliced licorice root, 
of each 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 3 gal. ; water, 
1 gal. ; digest 2 days, and distil 3 gal. 
by a gentle heat ; to this add, of sugar, 
9 lb., dissolved in rose water and clean 
soft water, of each 1 qt. ; lastly, color 
the liquid by steeping in it 1^ oz. of 
hay saffron. This cordial was once held 
in much esteem for its supposed medici- 
nal virtues, the formula being mentioned 
by Arnold de Villeneuve. It derives its 
name from a small quantity of gold leaf 
formerly being added to it, which was 
supposed to add greatly to its remedial 
value. Until comparatively recent years 
gold was credited with extraordinary 
remedial powers. 

Hollands. 

1.— Geneva, Dutch Gin (Dutch Meth- 
od). — The materials employed in the 
distilleries of Schiedam, in the prepara- 
tion of this excellent spirit, are 2 parts of 
the best unmalted rye and 1 part of malt- 
ed barley, reduced to the state of coarse 
meal by grinding. About a barrel (36 
gal.) of water, at a temperature of from 
162 to 168° Fah., is put into the mash 
tun for every 1^^ cwt. of meal, after 
which the malt is introduced and stirred ; 
and lastly, the rye is added. Powerful 
agitation is next given to the magma till 
it becomes quite uniform, when the mash 
tun is covered over with canvas and left 
in this state for 2 hours. Agitation is 
then again had recourse to, and the trans- 
parent spent wash of a preceding mash- 
ing is added, followed by as much cold 
water as will reduce the temperature of 
the whole to about 85° Fah. The gravity 
of the wort at this point varies from 33 
to 38 lb. A quantity of the best pressed 
Flanders yeast, equal to 1 lb. for every 
100 gal. of the mashed materials, is next 
stirred in, and the whole is fermented 
in the mash tun for about 3 days, or until 
the attenuation is from 7 to 4 lb. (sp. 
gr., 1.007 to 1.004). During this time 
the yeast is occasionally skimmed off the 
fermenting wort. The wash, with the 
grains, is then transferred to the still, 
and converted into low wines. To every 
100 gal. of this liquid 2 lb. of juniper 
berries (3 to 5 years old) and about 1 
lb. of salt are added, and the whole is 
put into the low wine still, and the fine 
spirit drawn off by a gentle heat, one re- 
ceiver only being employed. The product 



(Maraschino) 



per quarter varies from 18 to 21 gal. of 
spirit, 2 to 3 o. p. 

2. — Best Hollands. — Hollands rectified 
to the strength of 24° Baume (sp. gr., 
0.9125, or about 6 o. p.).. 

3. — Dr. Thompson gives the following 
formula for preparing gin, Geneva or 
Hollands. He states it is one used by 
the Dutch manufacturers : 112 lb. of 
barley malt and 228 lb. of rye meal are 
mashed with 460 gal. of water at 162° 
Fah. After infusing a sufficient time, 
cold water is added until the gravity of 
the wort is reduced to 45 lb. per barrel. 
The whole is let into a fermenting bath 
at 80° Fah., % gal. yeast is added, the 
temperature rises to 90°, and the fermen- 
tation is over in 48 hours. Both the 
wash and grains are then put into the 
still, the low wines are distilled off, these 
are redistilled, and the production is rec- 
tified. A few juniper berries and some 
hops are used to communicate a peculiar 
flavor to the spirit. 

4. — English-made. — From juniper ber- 
ries (at least a year old, and crushed 
in the hands), 3 lb.; rectified spirit, li/4 
gal. (or proof spirit, 2% gal.); digest, 
with agitation, for a week, and then ex- 
press the liquid ; after 24 hours' repose 
decant the clear portion, add it to good 
corn spirit at 2 or 3 o. p., 90 or 100 gal., 
and mix them well together. 

5. — From juniper berries, 2% lb. ; sweet 
fennel seed, 5 oz. ; caraway seeds, 3^/^ 
oz. ; proof spirit, 2 gal. ; corn spirit, 90 
or 100 gal. 

Kirschwasser. 

A spirituous liquor, distilled in Ger- 
many and Switzerland from bruised cher- 
ries. From the rude manner in which it 
is obtained, and from the distillation of 
the cherry stones (which contain prussic 
acid) with the liquid, it has often a nau- 
seous taste, and is frequently poisonous. 
When properly made and sweetened it re- 
sembles noyeau. 

Maraschino (Marasequin) . 

1. — A delicate liqueur spirit distilled 
from a peculiar cherry growing in Dal- 
matia, and afterward sweetened with 
sugar. The best is from Zara, and is 
obtained from the marasca cherry only. 
In the middle of the last century the 
profits arising from the sale of this com- 
pound were so considerable that the Sen- 
ate of Venice, where it was principally 
manufactured, monopolized the trade in 
it. An inferior quality is distilled from 
a mixture of cherries and the juice of 
licorice root. 



[234] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Noyeau) 



2. — ( ara.) — Essence of noyeau, 3.5 
grams ; essence of neroli, 0.5 gram ; ex- 
tract of jasmine, 1 gram ; extract of va- 
nilla, 1.5 grams ; alcohol, etc., same as 
for chartreuse. 

Mint. 

1. — Cordial. — a. — Oil of peppermint, i/4 
oz, ; syrup, 2% pt. ; rectified spirits, 5 pt. ; 
alcohol, 1/^ pt. Color light green. 

b. — Best Holland gin, 26 oz. ; fresh pep- 
permint water, 26 oz. ; sugar, 20 oz. Mix, 
and agitate until the sugar is dissolved ; 
then filter clear. 

2. — Creme de Menthe. — a. — Put 2 oz. 
of green mint into a jar, pour over 1 qt. 
of 90% alcohol, registering 50° by Gay 
Lussac's alcoholometer, and let it steep 
for 8 days ; add 3 gills of syrup register- 
ing 30° on the saccharometer, mix it with 
some filtering paper, and pour the whole 
into a filtering bag. When the liqueur 
is thus strained it should be perfectly 
clear and limpid ; bottle it, and keep the 
bottles in a dry place. 

b. — Oil of peppermint, ^ fl.oz. ; alco- 
hol, 5 pt. ; syrup, 2^/^ pt. ; mint leaves, 
2 oz. ; alcohol, 1 qt. Digest for a week, 
and then add 1 pt. of heavy syrup. Mix, 
add some filter paper, cut up in small 
pieces, shake well, and filter clear. 

c. — Oil of peppermint, 10 parts ; oil of 
lemon, 1 part ; chloroform, 5 parts ; acetic 
ether, 5 parts ; sugar, 4,000 parts ; alco- 
hol, 10.250 parts ; distilled water, 10.250 
parts. Macerate, shake frequently, and 
filter. 

Nectar. 

The fabled drink of the mythological 
deities. The name was formerly given 
to wine dulcified with honey ; it is now 
occasionally applied to other sweet and 
pleasant beverages of a stimulating char- 
acter. The following liqueur is so called : 
Chopped raisins, 2 lb. ; loaf sugar, 4 lb. ; 
boiling water, 2 gal. ; mix, and stir fre- 
quently until cold ; then add 2 lemons, 
sliced ; proof spirit, brandy or rum, 3 pt. ; 
macerate in a covered vessel for 6 or 7 
days, occasionally shaking; next strain 
with pressure, and let the strained liquid 
stand in a cold place for a week to clear ; 
lastly, decant the clear portion and bot- 
tle it. 

Noyeau. 

Creme de 'Noyeau. — This is a pleasant, 
nutty-tasted liquor, but from the large 
proportion of prussic acid which it con- 
tains it should be partaken of very mod- 
erately. 

1. — Bitter almonds, bruised, 3 oz. ; 

[ 



(Pineapple) 



spirit, 22 u. p., 1 qt. ; sugar (dissolved 
in % pt. of water), 1 lb.; macerate for 
10 days, frequently shaking the vessel, 
then allow it to repose for a few days, 
and decant the clear portion. 

2. — As the last, but substituting apricot 
or peach kernels, with the bruised shells, 
for the almonds. 

3. — To either of the above add cori- 
ander seed and ginger, of each, bruised, 
1 dr. ; mace and cinnamon, of each, % dr. 

4. — Creme de Noyeau de Martinique. — 
Loaf sugar, 24 lb. ; water, 2% gal. ; dis- 
solve ; add of proof spirit, 5 gal. ; orange- 
flower water, 3 pt. ; bitter almonds, 
bruised, 1 lb. ; essence of lemons, 2 dr. 

Orange, Creme de. 

From sliced oranges, 3 doz. ; rectified 
spirit, 2 gal. ; digest for 14 days ; add of 
lump sugar, 28 lb., previously dissolved 
in 41/4 gal. of water ; tincture of saffron, 
1^ fl.oz. ; orange-flower water, 2 qt. 

Parfait Amour. 

Perfect Love. — Flavored with the yel- 
low rind of 4 lemons and a teaspoonful 
of essence of vanilla to the gal., with 3 
lb. sugar, a suflficient quantity of pow- 
dered cochineal to color. 

Peach Cordial. 

Pour 3l^ gal. of 90% alcohol, Tr., 
over 2 lb. sliced peaches ; digest from 8 
to 10 days ; filter, and add 3 gal. white 
wine, 151/4 lb. of sugar dissolved in 3% 
qt. of water. 

Peppermint. 

1. — Peppermint Cordial, Sportsman^s 
Cordial, Eau de Chasseurs. — This well- 
known compound is perhaps in greater 
demand in every part of the country 
than all the other cordials put together. 
From peppermint water and gin or plain 
spirit, 22 u. p., of each 1 pt. ; lump sugar, 
% lb. 

2. — Peppermint Water. — Peppermint 
flowers, 1 k. ; water, 4 1. ; salt, 250 grams ; 
macerate, and draw off 2 1. 

Pineapple. 

1. — Cordial. — Pineapple extract, 3 oz. ; 
extract of lemon, % oz. ; syrup, 1^4 gal. ; 
rectified spirits, 2^/4 gal. 

2. — Liqueur. — Take Yz lb. of peeled 
pineapple, and cut it into slices ; boil 3 
qt. of syrup until it registers 38° on the 
saccharometer; add the slices of pine- 
apple, the juice of 4 oranges and the yel- 
low peel of 2 oranges ; let it boil up, and 
pour the whole into a jar. Close the jar 
carefully, and let the pineapple infuse 
235] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Ratafia) 



thus for 2 days. Strain the syrup through 
a hair sieve, mix with 1 qt. of 90% alco- 
hol registering 35° by Gay Lussae's al- 
coholometer, and filter the whole through 
a felt filtering bag. Bottle the liqueur, 
and keep in a dry place. 

Prunelle Cordial. 

Prunes, 3 oz. ; milk, 3 oz, ; alcohol, 24 
oz, ; sugar, 24 oz. ; distilled water, 24 oz. 
Cut up the fruit fine and crush the stones 
so as to bruise the kernels, and 
macerate with the alcohol for a week or 
ten days, agitating frequently. Decant 
the liquid ; to the marc add the milk 
(boiling hot), and macerate for one day. 
Then mix with the decanted liquid, strain, 
and add the sugar, previously dissolved 
in the water ; then filter clear. 

Quince Liqueur. 

Grate a sufficient quantity of quinces 
over a basin to obtain 2 lb. of pulp ; add 
1 qt. of syrup registering 30° on the sac- 
charometer ; cover the basin, and let it 
remain thus for one day ; pour the con- 
tents of the basin into a filtering bag, 
add 1 pt. of 90% alcohol registering 35° 
by Gay Lussae's alcoholometer, to the 
strained syrup ; mix, and pour the whole 
again through a filtering bag, and bottle 
the liqueur. 

Raspberry Cordial. 

.1. — From raspberry brandy, syrup and 
water, equal parts. A similar article is 
prepared by flavoring sweetened spirit 
with the artificial raspberry essence. 

2. — Raspberry juice, 24 ounces : alco- 
hol, 15 ounces ; distilled water, 18 oz. ; 
sugar, 14 oz. Mix the juice and the alco- 
hol (and if desired, add 3 drops of oil 
of bitter almonds), and dissolve the sugar 
in the water ; mix the two solutions, tint 
with a little red coloring, and filter clear. 

Ratafia. 

Originally a liqueur drunk at the rati- 
fication of an agreement or treaty. It is 
now the common generic name in France 
of liqueurs compounded of spirit, sugar, 
and the odoriferous and flavoring prin- 
ciples of vegetables, more particularly of 
those containing the juices of recent 
fruits, or the kernels of apricots, cherries 
or peaches. In its restricted sense this 
name is commonly understood as referring 
to cherry brandy or peach brandy. 

The following list includes those rata- 
fias which are commonly prepared by the 
French liqueurists : 

1. — Ratafia de Cacao. — Ratafia de 
Chocolat. — From Caracca cacao nuts, 1 



(Rose Cordial) 



lb. ; West Indian cacao nuts, ^ lb., both 
roasted and bruised ; proof spirit, 1 gal. : 
digest for 14 days, filter, and add, of 
white sugar, 2% lb. ; tincture of vanilla, 
V2 dr. (or a shred of vanilla may be in- 
fused with the nuts in the spirit instead) ; 
lastly, decant in a month, and bottle it. 

2. — Ratafia de Cafe. — From coffee, 
ground and roasted, 1 lb. ; brandy or 
proof spirit, 1 gal. ; sugar, 2 lb., dissolved 
in 1 qt. water, as last. 

3. — Ratafia de Creme. — From cr§me de 
noyeau and sherry, of each ^ pt. ; syrup. 
y2 pt. ; fresh cream, 1 pt. ; beaten to- 
gether. 

4. — Ratafia de Framhoises. — Raspberry 
Cordial. — To 1^4 lb. of raspberry juice 
add % lb. of cherry juice ; boil this with 
2 lb. of sugar ; add 4 pt. of brandy, and 
let it macerate for a fortnight ; filter. 

5. — Ratafia de Noyeau. — From peach 
or apricot kernels, bruised, 120 in num- 
ber ; proof spirit or brandy, 2 qt. ; white 
sugar, 1 lb. ; digest for a week, press and 
filter. 

6. — Ratafia de Fleurs d'Orange. — From 
fresh orange petals, 2 lb. ; proof spirit, 
1 gal. ; white sugar, 2^/^ lb., as last. In- 
stead of orange flowers 1 dr. oil of neroli 
may be used. 

7. — Ratafia a la Violette. — From orris 
powder, 3 oz. ; litmus, 4 oz. ; rectified 
spirit, 2 gal. ; digest for 10 days, strain, 
and add of white sugar, 12 lb., dissolved 
in 1 gal. soft water. 

Rhubarb Cordial. 

Rinse gently 40 lb. best quality of rhu- 
barb stalks in a 15 or 20.-gal. tub ; add 
4 gal. water, stir, and squeeze the pulp 
with the hands so as to separate the juice. 
Let it rest for a few hours, strain, and 
press through a coarse cloth. The resi- 
due may have 1 gal. more of water 
pressed through it. Add 30 lb. loaf sugar, 
and, after its solution, water to make 
it up to 10% gal. Put in a tub covered 
with a blanket and some boards, at 55 
to 60° F., until it begins to ferment. 
Then put into a cask a portion of the 
time, as its working decreases until all 
is in. Let the scum as it works run 
out of the bung hole. When nearly 
through fermenting drive the bung, put 
in a spile, which is to be removed every 
few days until the barrel is safe from 
bursting. Use more or less sugar ac- 
cording to the strength and sweetness de- 
sired. 

Rose. 

1. — Extract of rose, 1 oz. ; syrup, 2 qt. ; 



rectified spirit, 3 qt. 



[236] 



Beverages — A Icoholic 



(Usquebaugh) 



2, — Rose leaves, 8% oz. ; orange-flower 
water, 4 pt. ; Ceylon cinnamon, 124 
grams ; cloves, 1 oz. ; macerate the rose 
leaves, cinnamon and cloves in 17% pt. 
spirit, and distil ; and to the distillate 
add 15 oz. of sugar dissolved in 4 pt. of 
orange-flower water. 

3. — Essence of anise, 2.50 grams ; es- 
sence of fennel, 0.30 gram ; essence of 
bitter almonds, 3 grams ; essence of roses, 
0.60 gram ; essence of ambergris, 0.40 
gram ; color with cochineal. 

4. — Oil of rose, very best, 3 drops ; pal- 
marosa oil, 3 drops ; sugar, 28 oz. ; alco- 
hol, 52 oz. ; distilled water, q. s., 8 pt. 
Dissolve the sugar in the water and the 
oils in the alcohol, mix the solutions, 
and color a rosy tint, and filter. 

Strawberry Cordial. 

1. — Proof spirit, 6^/4 gal. ; strawberries, 
10 qt. ; digest for 10 days, and draw off ; 
add soft water, 3% gal. ; simple syrup, 
21/2 gal. ; agitate, and color if desired. 

2. — Juice of fresh strawberries, 1% pt. ; 
syrup, 3 qt. ; rectified spirit, 3 qt. ; color 
with liquid carmine, q. s. 

Trappistine. 

Large absinthe, 40 grams ; angelica, 40 
grams ; mint, 80 grams ; cardamom, 40 
grams ; balm, 30 grams ; myrrh, 20 grams ; 
calamus, 20 grams ; cinnamon, 4 grams ; 
cloves, 4 grams ; mace, 2 grams ; alcohol 
at 85°, 4.5 1. ; white sugar, 3.750 k. Fol- 
low the method given for chartreuse. 
After two days of maceration, distil and 
rectify. Add syrup, and color green or 
yellow. 

Usquebaugh. 

Escubac. Literally, mad water, the 
Irish name of which whiskey is a corrup- 
tion. It is applied to a strong cordial 
spirit, much drank in Ireland, and made 
in the greatest perfection at Drogheda. 

1. — Brandy or proof spirit, 3 gal. ; 
dates without their kernels, and raisins, 
of each, bruised, ^4 lb. ; juniper berries, 
bruised, 1 oz. ; mace and cloves, of each 
% oz. ; coriander and aniseed, of each 
% oz. ; cinnamon, ^4 oz. ; macerate, with 
frequent agitation, for 14 days, then fil- 
ter, and add 1 gal. simple syrup. 

2. — Pimento and caraways, of each 3 
oz. ; mace, cloves and nutmegs, of each 
2 oz. ; aniseed, coriander and angelica 
root, of each 8 oz. ; raisins, stoned and 
bruised, 14 lb. ; proof spirit, 9 gal. ; di- 
gest as before, then press, filter or clarify, 
and add of simple syrup, q. s. Should 
it turn milky, add a little strong spirit. 



(Vermouth) 



or clarify it with alum, or filter through 
magnesia. 

Usquebaugh is either colored yellow 
with saffron (about ^4 oz. per gal.), or 
green with sap green (about % oz. per 
gal. ) ; either being added to the other 
ingredients before maceration in the 
spirit. 

Vanilla Cordial. 

Put 1^4 oz. of vanilla beans in 3 qt. 
alcohol and 1% gal. water. Macerate 
for a few days, then distil. Add to this 
11 lb. of sugar. After it is dissolved 
color with cochineal, and filter. 

Vanilla Liqueur. — Two sticks of va- 
nilla, 3 pt. of brandy or proof gin, 1 lb. 
of sugar. Break up the vanilla into the 
spirit, cork, and let it infuse a fort- 
night. Boil the sugar in a quart of water 
to a clear syrup, then pour in the spirit 
and vanilla, and simmer 10 minutes. Fil- 
ter, and bottle. 

Vermouth. 

1. — As the celebrated Vermouth de 
Turin cannot be made in this country to 
advantage, the receipt of Ollivero is 
given. Coriander, 500 grams ; rinds of 
bitter oranges, 250 grams ; powdered orris 
root, 250 grams ; elder flowers, 200 
grams ; red cinchona, 150 grams ; cala- 
mus, 150 grams ; large absinthe, 125 
grams; holy thistle (Centaurea hene- 
dicto\, 125 grams; elecampane (roots), 
125 grams ; little centuary, 125 grams ; 
germander, 125 grams ; Chinese cinna- 
mon, 100 grams; angelica (roots)," 65 
grams ; nutmegs, 50 grams ; galangal, 50 
grams ; cloves, 50 grams ; cassise, 30 
grams; white wine of Picardy, 100 1. 
Digest for 5 or 6 days, draw off the liquor, 
size with fish glue, and allow to stand for 
fifteen days. 

2. — Vermouth au Madere. — Large ab- 
sinthe, 125 grams ; angelica roots, 60 
grams ; holy thistle, 125 grams ; burg- 
wort, 125 grams ; veronica, 125 grams ; 
rosemary, 125 grams ; rhubarb, 30 grams ; 
red cinchona, 200 grams ; orris root, pow- 
dered, 250 grams ; infusion of curagoa, 25 
cl. ; common Madeira wine, 92 1. ; raisin 
syrup, 3 1. ; cognac at 40°, 5 1. Digest 
for 3 days, draw off the clear, size with 
fish sounds ; after 8 days of rest, rock, 
and size again before bottling. 

Vespetro (by Essences). 

Essence of anise, 3 grams ; essence of 
caraway, 2 grams ; essence of fennel, 0.60 
gram ; essence of coriander, 0.80 gram ; 
essence of lemon, distilled, 1 gram ; alco- 



[237] 



Beverages — A IcohoUc 



(Mixed Drinks) 



hoi at 85°, 2.80 1. ; water, 6.60 1. ; sugar, 
2.50 k. 

Whisky. 

1. — Bourhon, Imitation of. — a. — Proof 
spirit, 9 gal. ; Bourbon, highly flavored, 
1 gal. ; malt whisky, 1 qt. ; white vinegar, 
1 gill ; syrup, 1 gill ; cognac oil, dissolved 
in alcohol, 10 to 20 minims ; color with 
the aid of caramel. 

b. — Rectified whisky, 40 gal. ; Bourbon 
oil, dissolved in 1 pt. 86% alcohol, l^^ 
oz. ; white sugar syrup, 1 pt. 

2. — Irish. — Rectified whisky, 40 gal. ; 
Irish whisky oil, dissolved in 1 pt. 88% 
alcohol, 4 to 6 oz. ; double refined glycer- 
ine, 1 lb. 

3. — Monongahela. — Rectified whisky, 40 
gal. ; Monongahela oil, dissolved in 1 pt. 
88% alcohol, 1% oz. ; white sugar, 1 pt. 

4. — Rye. — Rectified whisky, 40 gal. ; 
rye oil, dissolved in 1 pt. 88% alcohol, 
1% oz. ; white sugar syrup, 1 pt. 

5. — Scotch. — Rectified whisky, 40 gal. ; 
Scotch whisky oil, dissolved in 1 pt. 88% 
alcohol, 4 to 6 oz. ; double refined glycer- 
ine, 1 lb. 

6. — Wheat. — Rectified whisky, 40 gal.; 
wheat whisky oil, dissolved in 1 pt. 88% 
alcohol, 1% oz. ; malt oil, ^ oz. ; double 
refined glycerine, 1 lb. 

MIXED DRINKS 
Apple Champagne Syrup. 

Apple syrup, 3 pt. ; pear syrup, 3 pt. ; 
Johannisberger wine, 20 oz. ; cognac bran- 
dy, 8 oz. ; citric acid solution (10%), 1 
oz. ; ginger essence, soluble, 1 oz. ; saflBiow- 
er tincture, 6% dr. ; mucilage of acacia, 
5 dr. ; apple ether essence, 1 dr. 

Apple Toddy. 

Hot soda mug. Sugar, % tablespoonful ; 
baked apple, ^ ; applejack, 1 wineglass ; 
fill balance with hot water ; mix well, 
using a spoon ; grate nutmeg on top. 

Bishop. 

1. — Port or sherry, 1 bottle ; lemons, 
2 ; loaf sugar, 2 oz. ; water, 1 tumbler ; 
spice to taste. Stick 1 lemon with cloves, 
and roast or bake it ; boil the spice in 
the water, boil up the wine, take off 
some of the spirit with a lighted paper, 
add the water and the roasted lemon, and 
let the preparation stand near the fire 
for a few minutes. Rub the sugar on 
the rind of the other lemon, put it into 
a bowl, strain, and add half the juice 
of the lemon ; pour in th€ wine, and serve 
as hot as possible. 

2.— To 2 bottles of claret add ^ lb. 



(Mixed Drinks) 



[ 238 ] 



of loaf sugar, the thin yellow rind of an 
orange, and 6 cloves ; make all hot, but 
do not allow it to boil ; then strain it 
through a hair sieve into a bowl and ice. 

Blackberry Beverage. 

To each lb. of fruit allow 1 lb. of loaf 
or preserving sugar and 1 tablespoonful 
of cold water ; brandy. Place the fruit, 
sugar and water in a large jar with a 
close-fitting cover, stand the jar in a 
saucepan of boiling water, and cook gently 
for 2 hours. Strain the juice, measure 
it, put it into a preserving pan or stew- 
pan (preferably an enameled one), and 
boil gently for 20 minutes, skimming 
carefully meanwhile. To each pint of 
syrup add a small glass of brandy ; let 
the whole become quite cold, then bottle 
for use. 

Brandy Mint Julep. 

Brandy, 1 wineglass ; sugar, 1 lump ; 
fresh mint, 1 or 2 small sprigs ; orange, 
1 thin slice ; pineapple, 1 thin slice ; 
crushed ice. Put the lump of sugar into 
a glass, and dissolve it in a few drops 
of cold water ; add the brandy, mint, 
and a little crushed ice. On the top place 
a small piece of orange and a small piece 
of pineapple, and serve. 

Note. — Gin or whisky mint julep may 
be made by substituting these spirits for 
the brandy. 

Brandy Smash. 

Water, 1 tablespoon ; white sugar, 
% tablespoon ; brandy, 1 wineglass ; fill 
the tumbler two-thirds full of shaved 
ice, put in 2 sprigs of mint ; put 2 small 
pieces of orange on top. 

Catawba Syrup. 
1. — Simple syrup, 1 pt. ; catawba wine, 

1 pt. 

2. — Catawba wine, 2 qt. ; citric acid, 

2 oz. ; simple syrup, 2 gal. 

Champagne. 

1. — Rhine wine, 2 pt. ; brandy, 2 oz. ; 
sherry, 1 oz. ; granulated sugar, 3 lb. Dis- 
solve the sugar without heat. 

2. — Rhine wine (Bodenheimer or Lau- 
benheimer), 2 qt. ; cognac, 4 oz. ; sherry, 
2 oz. ; granulated sugar, 6 lb. Dissolve 
the sugar in the wine without heat. 

3. — Phosphate. — Champagne syrup, 1 
oz. ; phosphate, three dashes ; orange ci- 
der, 2 oz. ; add a dash of cream, and stir 
while filling with hot soda. 

Cherry Bounce. 

1. — To 6 gal. cherry juice add : 80% 
spirit, 15 gal. ; Catalonia or Marseilles 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Mixed Drinks) 



wine, 15 gal.; essence noyeau, 1% oz. ; 
cinnamon, ground, and infused in ^4 gal. 
of water, % lb. ; cloves, ground, and in- 
fused in 1/4 gal. of water, % lb. ; mace, 
infused in 1/2 pt. 95% alcohol, % oz. 
Mix all the above ingredients in a clean 
barrel, and add 30 gal. sugar syrup, 13° 
Reaumur. Stir up all the ingredients 
well together, and filter after 4 or 5 
days. Make the color a little darker 
with sugar coloring, and to give a good 
shade add a little archil. 

2. — Cherries, 12 lb. ; to each gal. of 
juice obtained from them allow 4 lb. of 
sugar ; ground mace, y^ teaspoonful ; 
ground allspice, i/4 teaspoonful ; brandy, 
1 qt. ; rum, 1 qt. Remove the stones, 
place the fruit in a large jar, and stand 
the jar in a saucepan containing boiling 
water. Cook gently until all the juice 
is extracted, strain it, and measure it 
into a preserving pan. Add sugar, mace 
and allspice in the proportions stated 
above, and simmer the ingredients until 
the scum ceases to rise. When cold add 
the spirits, and bottle for use. 

Claret. 

1. — To 1 qt. of orangeade add a bottle 
of claret, and freeze as for iced coffee. 

2. — Make same as Qgg phosphate, only 
use claret syrup. One ounce of the wine 
may be added if desired. 

3. — Make an egg phosphate in the usual 
manner, and add 1 tablespoonful of claret 
before serving. 

4. — Use claret concentrated syrup, di- 
luting 1 qt. concentrated syrup with 3 
qt. plain syrup. Put into a phosphate 
glass 1% oz. fountain syrup, add a dash 
of phosphate, draw soda of sufficient quan- 
tity into another glass, pour into glass 
that contains the syrup, and serve. Claret 
is a flavor that lends itself specially well 
to blends and mixtures, like claret mint, 
claret lemonade, claret pineapple, etc. 

Coca. 

1. — Coca wine, 1 oz. ; calisaya elixir, 1 
oz. ; orange syrup, 6 oz. 

2. — Coca wine, 1 oz. ; orange syrup, 
3 oz. 

3. — Fluid extract coca, 2 oz. ; fuller's 
earth, % oz. Mix, then add : Claret 
wine, 24 oz. ; port wine, 4 oz. ; simple 
syrup, 3 oz. Mix, and filter. 

4. — Cognac. — Wine of coca, 1 pt. ; pure 
cognac brandy, 8 oz. ; strong extract of 
vanilla, 2 oz. ; strong extract of rose, 1 
oz. ; cane sugar or rock candy syrup, 
enough to make 1 gal. 

5. — Hoch. — Wine of coca, 1 pt. ; old 



(Mixed Drinks) 



hock wine, 2'pt. ; cane sugar or rock candy 
syrup, 5 pt. 



Coffee. 

Coffee syrup, 2 oz. ; brandy, 4 dr. ; 
cream, 2 oz. ; 1 egg. 

Cups. 

Apple. — Slice 3 or 4 large apples, with- 
out paring, barely cover them with boil- 
ing water, and let the water stand cov- 
ered until cold. Strain, add 1 pt. of 
cider, sweeten to taste, pour over crushed 
ice, and serve. 

Bacchus. — Champagne, % bottle ; sher- 
ry, V2 pt. ; brandy, % pt, ; noyeau, 1 
liqueur glass ; castor sugar, 1 tablespoon- 
ful ; seltzer or soda water, 1 bottle ; a few 
balm leaves ; ice. Put the champagne, 
sherry, brandy, noyeau, sugar and balm 
leaves into a jug, let it stand for a few 
minutes, then add a few pieces of ice and 
the mineral water, and serve at once. 

Burgundy. — Burgundy, 1 bottle ; port, 
% bottle ; soda water, 2 bottles ; char- 
treuse, 1 liqueur glass ; juice of 2 oranges ; 
juice of 1 lemon ; a few thin slices of 
cucumber; 1 or 2 sprigs of fresh lemon 
thyme ; 1 tablespoonful of castor sugar. 
Put all the ingredients, except the port 
wine, into a large glass jug, surround it 
with rough pieces of ice, cover closely, 
and let it remain thus for 1 hour. Just 
before serving add the port wine. 

Champagne. — Champagne, 1 bottle ; 
brandy, 1 liqueur glass ; seltzer or soda 
water, 2 bottles ; Maraschino, % tea- 
spoonful ; a few fine strips of lemon peel. 
When the time permits, it is much bet- 
ter to ice the liquor which forms the 
basis of a "cooling cup" than to reduce 
the temperature by adding crushed ice. 
Place the champagne and seltzer water 
in a deep vessel, surround them with ice, 
cover them with a wet woolen cloth, and 
let them remain for 1 hour. When ready 
to serve, put the strips of lemon rind into 
a large glass jug, add the Maraschino and 
liqueur brandy, pour in the soda water, 
and serve at once. 

2. — Parisian. — Champagne, 1 bottle ; 
seltzer water, 2 bottles ; Swiss absinthe, 
1 tablespoonful ; lump sugar, 1 dessert- 
spoonful ; cucumber, a few thin slices ; 
verbena, 2 or 3 sprigs, when procurable. 
Cool the champagne and seltzer water as 
directed in the preceding recipe. Place 
the rest of the ingredients in a large glass 
jug, and when ready to serve add the iced 
champagne and seltzer water. 

Cider. — Cider, 1 bottle ; soda water, 1 
bottle ; brandy, 1 liqueur glass ; cucumber 
and lemon rind, a few thin strips ; lemon 
239] 



Beverages — A Icoholic 



(Mixed Drinks) 



juice, a dessertspoonful; castor sugar, 1 
dessertspoonful, or to taste. Surround 
the cider and soda water with rough ice, 
and let them cool for half an hour. Put 
the brandy, cucumber and lemon rind, 
lemon juice and sugar into a large jug, 
add the iced cider and soda water, and 
serve at once. 

Claret. — 1. — Claret, 1 bottle; sherry, 1 
wineglassful ; brandy, noyeau and Mara- 
schino, each, 1 wineglassful ; thin rind 
of 1 lemon ; 2 or 3 sprigs of mint ; castor 
sugar, to taste ; seltzer or soda water, 1 
large bottle. Put the claret, lemon rind, 
and 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls of castor sugar 
into a large jug, cover, and let' it stand 
imbedded in ice for 1 hour. Add the rest 
of the ingredients, and serve. A few 
strips of cucumber peel may be used in- 
stead of mint. 

2. — Put 1 bottle of claret into a glass 
jug, add a few thin strips of lemon and 
cucumber rind, cover, and let the jug 
stand imbedded in ice for 1 hour. Before 
serving, add 2 glasses of Curagoa and 1 
bottle of soda water, and sweeten to 
taste. 

3. — Claret, 1 bottle ; soda water, 1 bot- 
tle ; iced water, l^ tumblerful ; % lemon, 
sliced ; put in small lumps of ice, and 
sweeten with sugar. Or claret and cham- 
pagne cup : claret or champagne, 1 bot- 
tle ; sherry, 1 large wineglassful ; seltzer 
water, i/^ tumblerful ; balm and borage ; 
peel of lemon, very thin; 1 slice of cu- 
cumber, to be sweetened to taste and 
highly iced. 

Hock. — 1. — Hock, 1 bottle ; old brandy, 
1 liqueur-glassful ; Curagoa or Benedic- 
tine, % liqueur-glassful ; seltzer or soda 
water, 2 bottles ; few strips of lemon peel ; 
a little borage. Stand the wine, seltzer or 
soda water in a deep vessel, surround 
them with rough ice, and let them remain 
for an hour. Have the rest of the in- 
gredients ready, in a glass jug, pour in 
the wine, add the mineral water, and 
serve at once. 

2. — Hock, 1 bottle ; seltzer or soda 
water, 1 bottle ; Curacoa, 1 glassful ; 
lemon juice, 1 tablespoonful ; lemon rind, 
a few fine strips ; cucumber rind, a few 
fine strips ; castor sugar, a teaspoonful, 
or to taste. Put all these ingredients, ex- 
cept the mineral water, into a glass jug, 
surround it with ice, cover closely, and 
let it remain for half an hour. Just be- 
fore serving add the mineral water, which 
must previously be iced. 

Loving Cup. — Champagne, 1 bottle ; 
Madeira, % bottle ; French brandy, % 
pt. ; water, l^/^ pt. ; loaf sugar, % lb. ; 
lemons, 2 ; balm, a few leaves ; borage. 



(Mixed Drinks) 



[240] 



2 or 8 sprigs. Rub the peel off one lemon 
with some lumps of sugar, then remove 
every particle of pith, also the rind and 
pith of the other lemon, and slice them 
thinly. Put the balm, borage, the sliced 
lemons and all the sugar into a jug, add 
the water, Madeira and brandy, cover, 
surround with ice, and let the mixture 
remain thus for about 1 hour. Also sur- 
round the champagne with ice, and add 
it to the rest of the ingredients when 
ready to serve.* 

Moselle. — Moselle, 1 bottle ; Curacoa, 2 
glassfuls ; seltzer or soda water, 1 bottle ; 
the juice and thin rind of 1 lemon ; a 
few thin slices of cucumber ; castor sugar, 
1 tablespoonful, or to taste ; crushed ice. 
Put the lemon rind and lemon juice, the 
sugar, cucumber, Curacoa and wine into 
a jug, let it stand, covered, for 15 or 20 
minutes, then add the mineral water and 
a little crushed ice, and serve at once. 

Sauterne. — Sauterne, 1 qt. bottle ; apol- 
linaris, 1 pt. bottle ; brandy, 1 wineglass- 
ful ; Curacoa, 1 wineglassful ; juice of 1 
lemon ; 1 lemon, thinly sliced ; 1 orange, 
thinly sliced ; cucumber rind, 2 pieces ; 
mint, a few small sprigs ; crushed ice. 
Put all the above mentioned ingredients, 
except the mint and ice, into a large glass 
jug, surround it with ice, and let it stand 
for 1 hour. Serve with small sprigs of 
mint floating on the top. If liked, a lit- 
tle castor sugar may be added, and, if 
more convenient, the cup may be cooled 
by adding 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of crushed 
ice, instead of surrounding it with ice. 

Wine. — Champagne (iced), 1 pt. ; good 
claret, 1 pt. ; apollinaris, 1 pt. ; brandy, 
1 wineglassful ; Curacoa, 1 wineglassful ; 
orange, sliced, 1 ; lemon, sliced, 1 ; cu- 
cumber rind, 2 pieces ; green mint ; ice. 
Put all these ingredients into a large 
glass jug, adding 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls 
of crushed ice. If liked, a little castor 
sugar may be added. The cup is served 
with small sprigs of mint floating on its 
surface. 

Zeltlinger Cup. — Zeltlinger, 1 bottle ; 
sherry or brandy, 1 glassful ; soda or 
seltzer water, 1 bottle ; fresh or preserved 
pineapple, cut into sections, 3 or 4 slices ; 
lemon (the juice and thin rind), 1; cas- 
tor sugar, 1 dessertspoonful, or to taste ; 
ice. Strain the lemon juice into a large 
glass jug, add the sugar, lemon rind, 
pineapple, wine, a few lumps of ice, and 
lastly the soda water. Serve at once. 

Egg Flip. 

Beer, 1 pt. ; eggs, 5 ; sugar, 2 oz. ; nut- 
meg and ginger, sufficient. Break the 
eggs into half of the beer, add the sugar, 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Mixed Drinks) 



and beat well together ; then place it in 
a clean warmer and heat it over the fire 
to nearly the boiling point, stirring it 
all the time ; but do not let it boil. Next 
add the other portion of the beer and 
the spices, and mix well together. Some 
persons add a glassful of spirits. Care 
must be taken not to let it boil, as if it 
does the eggs will separate. 

Egg Nog. 

1. — Take the yolks of 8 eggs, and beat 
with them 6 large spoonfuls of pulver- 
ized loaf sugar ; when this is a cream add 
the third part of a nutmeg, grated ; into 
this stir 1 tumblerful of good brandy 
and a wineglassful of good Madeira wine ; 
mix them well together ; have ready the 
whites of the eggs, beaten to a stiff froth, 
and beat them into the mixture ; when 
all are well mixed add 3 pt. of rich milk. 

2. — Put 1 tablespoonful of sherry or 
brandy into a tumbler, add 1 tablespoon- 
ful of cream and a little sugar, and mix 
well. Whisk the white of 1 egg to a 
stiff froth, stir it lightly into the con- 
tents of the tumbler, and serve. 

3. — Beat 1 egg in a cup, add 1 table- 
spoonful of brandy and 1 small teaspoon- 
ful of castor sugar, and mix well. Strain 
into a tumbler, stir in 1-3 pt. of milk, 
and serve. 

4. — Hot. — a. — Beat the yolk of 1 egg 
and 1 tablespoonful of castor sugar well 
together, then stir in 1 tablespoonful of 
brandy or whisky. Bring 1 pt. of milk to 
boiling point, then pour it over the mixed 
ingredients, stir well, and serve. 

b. — Plain syrup, % oz. ; brandy, % 
oz. ; whisky, % oz. ; Angostura bitters, 
3 drops ; 1 egg. Put in shaker and beat 
well. Strain in 10-oz. mug and fill with 
hot milk ; finish with whipped cream and 
nutmeg. 

c. — Break fresh egg into shaker. Shake 
well, and pour into 5-oz. bouillon cup. 
Add dashes of whisky and sherry and 1 
teaspoonful of sugar. Sprinkle a little 
cinnamon before drawing hot milk. Serve 
with two 5 o'clock tea cakes. 

d. — Plain syrup, % oz. ; brandy, ^ oz. ; 
Angostura bitters, 3 drops ; 1 egg. Put 
in shaker and beat well. Strain in 10- 
oz. mug and fill with hot milk ; finish 
with whipped cream and nutmeg. 

Gin. 

Cochtail.—Goodi unsweetened gin, 1 
wineglassful ; rock-candy syrup, 10 drops ; 
orange bitters, 10 drops ; lemon peel, small 
piece ; crushed ice. Half fill a tumbler 
with small pieces of ice, pour over it the 
gin, add the syrup and bitters, then cover 



(Mixed Drinks) 



and shake well. Strain into a small glass, 
place a smaif piece of lemon peel on the 
top, and serve. 

Rickey. — Gin, 1 wineglassful ; lemon 
or lime juice, 1 dessertspoonful ; seltzer 
water ; ice. Place a small block of ice 
at the bottom of a deep champagne 
glass, strain over it the lemon juice, add 
the gin, fill up with seltzer water, and 
serve. 

Note. — Any other spirit may be used 
instead of gin, and would, of course, give 
its name to the compound. Use fresh 
limes in season. 

Golden Fizz. 

Claret syrup, 2 oz. ; Holland gin, % 
oz. ; lemon juice, 8 dashes ; yolk of 1 
egg. 

John Collins. 

Gin, 1 glassful ; soda water, iced, 1 bot- 
tle ; sugar, 1 level teaspoonful ; lemon 
juice, 1 tablespoonful ; lemon, 2 or 3 thin 
slices ; crushed ice. Half fill a tumbler 
with ice, pour over it the gin and lemon 
juice, add the sugar, cover with a small 
plate, and shake well. Strain into an- 
other tumbler, add the^ soda water, 1 
tablespoonful of crushed ice, and the 
sliced lemon, then serve. 

Kola. 

1. — Fluid extract kola, 1 fl.oz. ; elixir 
coca, 2 fl.oz. ; extract vanilla, 2 fl.dr. ; 
essence rose, 2 fl.dr. ; essence cinnamon, 
2 fl.dr. ; syrup, to make 2 pt. 

2. — Powdered kola, 2 oz. ; glycerine, 14 
fl.dr. ; alcohol, 10 fl.dr. ; cinnamon water, 
6 fl.oz. ; essence vanilla, 1 fl.dr. ; tincture 
orange, 1 fl.oz. ; syrup, 5 fl.oz. Macerate 
for a week, and then filter. 

3. — Kola nuts, roasted, 1 oz. ; essence 
vanilla, 1 dr. ; syrup, 2 oz. ; sherry wine, 
to make 1 pt. 

4. — Roasted kola, No. 20, powdered, 1 
part ; sherry wine, 50 parts. Macerate 
for a week, express, and after allowing 
the product to stand several days, filter. 
If a sweet wine is desired, replace 2 
parts of the sherry wine by the same 
quantity of sugar. It is preferable to 
employ detannated sherry wine, for the 
reason that the tannin contained in ordi- 
nary sherry wine is apt to gradually pre- 
cipitate the proximate principles of the 
kola in the finished wine ; and thus the 
latter is likely to become progressively 
weaker with age. 

5. — Shaved ice, % glassful ; kola wine, 
calisaya elixir, ginger ale syrup, of each 
1/4 oz. ; liquid phosphate, three dashes ; 



[ 241 ] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Mixed Drinks) 



plain soda, 1 glassful, using both streams. 
Stir, and serve. 

Manhattan Cocktail. 

Vermouth, ^ wineglassful ; whisky, % 
wineglassful ; simple syrup, 30 drops ; An- 
gostura bitters, 10 drops ; Curagoa, 6 
drops ; a little shaved ice ; lemon peel, 1 
small strip. Put all the ingredients, ex- 
cept the lemon rind, into a large tumbler, 
cover the top closely, shake vs^ell, and 
strain into a wineglass. Place the strip 
of lemon peel on the top, and serve. 

Martini Cocktail. 

Good, unsweetened gin, % wineglassful ; 
Italian vermouth, % wineglassful ; rock- 
candy syrup, 6 drops ; orange bitters, 12 
drops ; lemon peel, 1 small piece ; crushed 
ice. Half fill a tumbler with crushed ice, 
pour over it all the liquids, shake 
well, then strain into a glass, and serve 
with a small piece of lemon peel float- 
ing on the surface. 

Note. — For dry cocktails use French 
vermouth, and be sparing of bitters. 

May Drink. 

Hock, or other white wine, 1 bottle ; 
water, i/^ pt. ; castor sugar, 1 or 2 table- 
spoonfuls ; lemon (the juice and thin 
rind), 1; black currant leaves, a small 
handful ; woodruff, a few sprigs ; crushed 
ice. Put the sugar, lemon rind and lemon 
juice, black currant leaves and woodruff 
into a jug, add the water and wine, and 
let it stand, covered, and surrounded with 
ice, for at least ^ hour. Strain into 
a glass jug, add a few sprigs of mint, 
then serve. 

Metheglin. 

From honey, 1 cwt. ; warm water, 24 
gal. ; stir well until dissolved ; the next 
day add of yeast, 1 pt., and hops, 1 lb., 
previously boiled in 1 gal. of water, along 
with water, q. s. to make the whole meas- 
ure 1 bbl. ; mix well, and ferment the 
whole with the usual precautions adopted 
for other liquors. It contains, on the 
average, from 7 to 8% alcohol. 

Mint Julep. 

1. — This is made precisely in the same 
manner as sherry cobbler, except that 
you use brandy instead of wine, and you 
add to your fruits 3 or 4 sprigs of fresh 
spearmint. Decorate the top with sprigs 
of mint instead of flowers. 

2. — Loaf sugar, 4 cubes ; extract mint, 
10 drops ; prepared milk, 1 dessertspoon- 
ful ; hot soda, suflicient to fill cup ; 



(Mixed Drinks) 



whipped cream, 1 tablespoonful ; grated 
nutmeg, q. s. 

3. — Make a syrup of 1 qt. of water 
and 1 lb. of sugar. Break up 1 doz. sprigs 
of mint and soak them in 1% cupfuls of 
boiling water, in a covered bowl, for .5 
minutes. Then strain, and add the fla- 
vored water to the syrup. Turn in the 
juice of 8 oranges, 8 lemons, y^ pt. of 
strawberry juice and 1 pt. of claret. 
Serve with ice in the punch bowl, adding 
enough ice-water to dilute properly. Fresh 
mint leaves and berries should float on 
top of the bowl and in the individual 
cups. 

Mulled Ale. 

Good ale, 1 qt. ; rum or brandy, 1 glass- 
ful ; castor sugar, 1 tablespoonful ; ground 
cloves, a pinch ; grated nutmeg, a pinch ; 
ground ginger, a good pinch. Put the 
ale, sugar, cloves, nutmeg and ginger into 
an ale warmer or stewpan, and bring 
nearly to boiling point. Add the brandy, 
and more sugar and flavoring, if neces- 
sary, and serve at once. 

Mulled Claret. 

Heat 1 pt. of claret nearly to boiling 
point, add ^2 pt. of boiling water, sugar, 
nutmeg and cinnamon to taste, and serve 
hot. Any kind of wine may be mulled, 
but port and claret are those usually 
selected for the purpose. 

Negus. 

Port wine, % pt. ; boiling water, % pt. ; 
lemon, 2 or 3 thin slices ; sugar and nut- 
meg to taste. Heat the wine in a stew- 
pan, but do not allow it to boil. Put 
the slices of lemon, a pinch of nutmeg, 
and 4 or 5 lumps of sugar, into a jug, 
pour in the boiling water, stir gently 
until the sugar is dissolved, then add the 
hot wine, and serve at once. 

Perry. 

A fermented liquid, prepared from 
pears, in the same way as cider is from 
apples. The reduced pulp must not be 
allowed to remain long without being 
pressed. In the cask, perry does not 
bear changes of temperature so well as 
cider. It is, therefore, advisable, if at 
the end of the succeeding summer it be 
in sound condition, to bottle it, when it 
will keep perfectly well. The red, rough- 
tasted sorts of pears are principally used 
for making perry. They should be quite 
ripe, without, however, approaching to 
mellowness or decay. The best perry con- 
tains about 9% of absolute alcohol ; or- 
dinary perry, from 5 to 7%. Perry is 



[242] 



Beverages — A Icoholic 



(Mixed Drinks) 



a very pleasant-tasted and wholesome 
liquid. When bottled, champagne fashion, 
it is said to frequently pass for cham- 
pagne without the fraud being suspected. 

Pineapple Julep. 

Pineapple, either fresh or preserved, 1 ; 
sparkling Moselle, 1 bottle ; gin, 1 gill ; 
raspberry syrup, 1 gill ; Maraschino, % 
gill; oranges (juice of), 2; crushed ice, 
1 lb. Slice the pineapple rather thinly, 
and divide each slice into 8 sections. Put 
all the liquids into a glass jug or bowl, 
add the ice and prepared pineapple, and 
serve. 

Purl. 

Prep. To warm ale or beer add bit- 
ters, 1 glassful, or q. s. Some add spirit. 

Sangaree. 

One-third of wine in water, with sugar 
and nutmeg to the taste. 

Frozen. — Nothing can be more refresh- 
ing at the dinner table in hot weather 
than claret or port wine made into san- 
garee, with proportions of water, sugar 
and nutmeg as taste shall direct," then 
frozen, with the addition of a few whites 
of egg, beaten to a froth. Send to table 
exactly as you would Roman punch. 

Shandy Gaff. 

Equal quantities of cold ale or beer 
and imported ginger ale. Empty the bot- 
tles into a jug in which some lumps of 
ice have been broken, and serve when 
quite cold. 

Sherry Cobbler. 

1. — Sherry, ^^ pt. ; orange juice, 1 tea- 
spoonful ; fine white sugar, 1 teaspoonful ; 
crushed ice. Half fill a large tumbler 
with ice, pour over it the sherry and or- 
ange juice, cover, and shake well. Strain 
into another tumbler containing the sugar, 
stir well, and serve with straws. 

2. — Sherry, % pt. ; soda water, 1 bot- 
tle ; Curagoa, 1 glassful ; castor sugar, 1 
tablespoonful ; crushed ice. Dissolve the 
sugar in the sherry, and add the liqueur 
and soda. Put the preparation into tum- 
blers ; to each add a few small pieces of 
ice, and serve. Beverages of this descrip- 
tion _ are usually drunk through straws, 
but it is merely a matter of taste. 

3. — Take sugar, 1 tablespoonful ; or- 
ange, 2 or 3 slices ; sherry, 2 wineglass- 
fuls. Fill the tumbler with shaved ice, 
and shake well. 

4. — To 1 pt. good sherry add an equal 
measure of heavy simple syrup and one 
lemon cut in very thin slices. Allow 



(Mixed Drinks) 



the syrup to stand a few hours ; strain 
through a sieve, and bottle for use. 

5. — White syrup, 3 pt. ; sherry, 1 qt. 
Add 1 lemon, cut in thin slices. Macer- 
ate for 12 hours, and strain. 

6. — Egg Flip. — Sherry, 1 glassful ; 1 
egg ; castor sugar, 1 teaspoonful, or to 
taste ; nutmeg ; crushed ice. Beat the 
egg well, add the sugar, sherry, and a lit- 
tle crushed ice, shake well until suffi- 
ciently cooled, then strain into a small 
glass, and serve. 

Note. — Port wine, or any spirit, may 
replace the sherry, and the liquor used 
would, of course, give its name to the 
'^flip." 

7. — Frappe. — 'Add 1 pt. of sherry wine 
to every qt. of lemon water-ice. 

Shrub. 

Rum, % gal. ; orange juice, % pt. ; 
lemon juice, Vq pt. ; lemons, peel of 2 ; 
loaf sugar, 2 lb. ; water, 2i/^ pt. Slice 
the lemon peel very thinly and put it, 
with the fruit juice and spirit, in a large 
covered jar. Let it stand for 2 days, 
then pour over it the water in which the 
sugar has been dissolved, take out the 
lemon peel, and leave it for 12 days be- 
fore using. 

Silver Fizz. 

Gin, 1 wineglassful ; juice of i/^ lemon ; 
white of 1 egg ; icing sugar, 1 teaspoon- 
ful ; carbonate of soda, a pinch ; pounded 
ice. Fill a tumbler 3 parts full with 
pounded ice, pour over this the gin and 
lemon juice, then add the white of egg, 
beaten to a stiff froth. Shake well, then 
strain into another tumbler containing 
the icing sugar and carbonate of soda, and 
serve at once. 

Silver Sour. 

Lemon juice, 1 dessertspoonful ; un- 
sweetened gin, 1 wineglassful ; egg, white 
of 1 ; castor sugar, 1 teaspoonful ; crushed 
ice. Put the white of an egg into a tum- 
bler, beat it slightly, then add the lemon 
juice, gin, sugar, and a heaped table- 
spoonful of crushed ice. Cover, and shake 
well until sufficiently cooled, then strain 
into a small glass, and serve. 

Sloe Gin. 

1. — Half fill clean, dry wine bottles 
with sloes. Add to each 1 oz. of crushed 
barley sugar, a little noyeau, or 2 or 3 
drops of essence of almonds. Fill the 
bottles with good unsweetened gin, cork 
them securely, and allow them to remain 
in a moderately warm place for 3 months. 
At the end of this time strain the liqueur 



[243] 



Beverages — A IcohoUc 



(Punch) 



through fine muslin or filtering paper un- 
til quite clear, then bottle it, cork se- 
curely, and store for use. 

2. — Cocktail. — Half fill a tumbler with 
broken ice, pour over it i/^ wineglassful 
each of sloe gin and unsweetened gin and 
10 drops of orange bitters, cover the top 
of the glass, and shake it well. When 
suflSciently cooled, strain it into a small 
glass, and serve with a small piece of 
lemon peel floating on the top. 

Solferino. 

Brandy, 1 pt. ; simple syrup, 2 pt. 
Whisky Cocktail. 

Half fill a tumbler with crushed ice, 
pour over it 1 wineglassful of whisky, 15 
drops of rock-candy syrup and 10 drops 
of Angostura bitters, cover, and shake 
well, then strain into a small glass. Place 
a very small piece of lemon peel on the 
top, and serve. 

Note. — Brandy cocktail may be made 
by substituting a wineglassful of good 
French brandy for the whisky. 

Whisky Sour. 

Rock-candy syrup, 1 dessertspoonful ; 
whisky, 1 wineglassful ; lemon juice, 
and pineapple, 1 thin, small piece ; 
crushed ice. Strain 1 dessertspoonful of 
lemon juice into a tumbler, add 1 dessert- 
spoonful of rock-candy syrup and 1 wine- 
glassful of whisky, and a heaped table- 
spoonful of crushed ice, and shake well. 
Strain into a small glass, and serve with 
thin slices of orange and pineapple float- 
ing on the top. 

Note. — Brandy or any other spirit may 
be substituted for the whisky, the name 
being changed accordingly. 

PUNCH 

Punch is a beverage made of various 
spirituous liquors or wine, hot water, the 
acid juice of fruits, and sugar. It is con- 
sidered to be very intoxicating, but this 
is probably because the spirit, being part- 
ly sheathed by the mucilaginous juice and 
the sugar, its strength does not appear 
to the taste so great as it really is. Punch, 
which was almost universally drunk 
among the middle classes about 50 or 60 
years ago, has almost disappeared from 
our domestic tables, being superseded by 
wine. There are many different varie- 
ties of punch. It is sometimes kept cold 
in bottles, and makes a most agreeable 
summer drink. 

1. — Lemons, juice of 3 or 4; lemons, 
yellow peel of 1 or 2 ; lump sugar, % lb. ; 
boiling water, 3% pt. ; infuse % hour, 
strain, add porter, % pt. ; rum and bran- 

[ 



(Punch) 



dy, of each % to 1 pt. (or either, alone, 
IVz to 2 pt.) ; and add more warm water 
and sugar, if desired weaker or sweeter. 

2. — Water, 3 pt. ; sugar, 1^ lb. ; rasp- 
berry juice, 1 pt. ; lemons, juice of 2 ; 
1 orange ; mace, 1 blade ; cinnamon, 1 
small stick ; cloves, 8 ; claret, 1 pt. ; bran- 
dy, 1 pt. ; French cherries, 3 oz. Put 
the cherries to soak in a little of the 
brandy, and afterward cut them in quar- 
ters. Crush the spices, and add them and 
the grated rind of 1 lemon and 1 orange 
to the sugar and water; boil up once and 
set aside to cool. Strain the syrup and 
add the lemon, orange and raspberry 
juices, then freeze. When partly frozen 
add the claret and brandy ; freeze a few 
minutes longer, then mix in the cut cher- 
ries, and finish. The well whisked whites 
of 2 eggs may be worked in when the 
cherries are added, if desired. Color pink 
or very light red. 

3. — Brandy, i/^ pt. ; rum, i^ pt. ; boil- 
ing water, 1 pt. ; loaf sugar, 2 or 3 oz. ; 
1 large lemon ; ground cinnamon, a pinch ; 
grated nutmeg, a pinch. Remove the rind 
of the lemon by rubbing it with some of 
the sugar. Put the whole of the sugar, 
cinnamon, cloves, brandy, rum and boil- 
ing water into a stewpan, heat gently 
by the side of the fire, but do not let it 
approach boiling point. Strain the lemon 
juice into a punch bowl, add the hot li- 
quid, and serve at once. 

4.— Very old ale, 1 qt. ; boiling water, 
1 pt. ; rum, i/4 Pt- ; whisky, % Pt. ; gin, 
1/4 pt. ; 1 lemon, thinly sliced ; sugar to 
taste ; ground cinnamon, a pinch ; ground 
cloves, a pinch ; grated nutmeg, a pinch. 
Put all these ingredients into a large 
stewpan and bring nearly to boiling point. 
Strain into a punch bowl, add a few 
fresh thin slices of lemon, and serve. 

Arrack Punch, Imitation. 

Two or three preserved tamariwds, dis- 
solved in a bowl of any kind of punch, 
will impart to it a flavor closely resem- 
bling arrack. 

Brandy. 

1. — To 1 pt. cognac brandy, % pt. of 
Jamaica rum, ^^ pt. of peach brandy, 
add 2 lb. white sugar, 1 gill of lemon and 
1 gill of lime juice ; mix all well to- 
gether, and add ice equal to 2 qt. of 
water ; cut 2 lemons into thin slices, peel 
and slice thin 1 pineapple ; add these to 
the punch, and let stand, to ripen and 
blend, for 1 hour before using. 

2. — To 1 teaspoonful of raspberry 
syrup add 1 tablespoonful of white sugar, 
1 wineglassful of brandy, the same quan- 
tity of water, a small piece of lemon, 2 
244 ] 



Beverages— A IcohoUc 



(Punch) 



slices of orange, 1 piece of pineapple. Fill 
the tumbler with S'haved ice, shake well, 
and dress the top with berries in season ; 
sip through a straw. 

3.— Take 3 doz. lemons, chip off the yel- 
low rinds, taking care that none of the 
white underlying pith is taken, as that 
would make the punch bitter, whereas 
the yellow portion of the rinds is that 
in which the flavor resides, and in which 
the cells are placed containing the essen- 
tial oil. Put this yellow rind into a 
punch bowl, add to it 2 lb. of lump sugar, 
stir the sugar and peel together with a 
wooden spoon or spatula for nearly half an 
hour, thereby extracting a greater quan- 
tity of the essential oil. Now add boil- 
ing water, and stir until the sugar is 
completely dissolved. Squeeze and strain 
the juice from the lemons and add it to 
the mixture ; stir together and taste it ; 
add more acid or more sugar, as re- 
quired, and take care not to render it 
too watery. "Rich of the fruit and plenty 
of sweetness," is the maxim. Now meas- 
ure the sherbet, and to every 8 qt. add 
1 pt. of cognac brandy and 1 pt. of old 
Jamaica rum, the spirit being well stirred 
as poured in. This punch may be bot- 
tled, and kept in a cold cellar ; it will 
be found to improve with age. 

Burgundy. 

Burgundy wine, 2 oz. ; orange syrup, 
1 oz. Fill a 12-oz. glass with crushed 
ice, draw coarse stream to fill glass. Dec- 
orate with slice each of pineapple and 
orange. Serve with straws. 

Catawba. 

Lemon syrup, 1 oz. ; juice of half a 
lemon ; Catawba wine, 2 oz. ; shaved ice, 
1/4 glassful. Mix in 14-oz. straight lem- 
onade glass. Decorate with pineapple 
and cherries. 

Chatham Artillery Punch. 

Catawba wine, 1 gal. ; New England 
rum, 1 qt. ; whisky, 1 qt. Gut up and 
add 6 pineapples, 12 oranges, and straw- 
berries q. s., and allow to stand or draw 
one night. When ready to use, 1 doz. 
qt. bottles of champagne are 2ieeded to 
give tone and bead. A Southern drink, 
which is very wtoxicating, and should be 
avoided. 

Cider. 

Cider, iced, 1 qt. ; seltzer or soda water, 
iced, 1 bottle ; brandy, 1 wineglassful ; 
sugar, 2 oz., or to taste ; 1 lemon, thinly 
sliced. Mix all the ingredients together 
in a glass jug, and serve in small glasses. 

[ 



(Punch) 



Claret. 

1. — To a large punch bowl half filled 
with broken ice, add 2 lb. of pulverized 
sugar, 6 oranges cut crosswise into thin 
slices, 6 bottles of claret, and 1 bottle 
of champagne ; mix well together and let 
stand for 1 hour before using. 

2. — Take 1 tablespoonful of sugar, a 
small slice of lemon, 2 or 3 slices of or- 
ange. Fill the tumbler with shaved ice, 
and then pour in the claret, shake well, 
and ornament with berries in season. 
Place a straw in the glass. 

3. — Take 1^2 tablespoonfuls of sugar, 1 
slice of lemon, 2 or 3 slices of orange. 
Fill the tumbler with shaved ice, pour 
in the claret, and shake well. 

4. — Claret syrup, y2 oz. ; orange, 1 
slice ; lemon, 1 slice ; shaved ice, ^ glass- 
ful. Fill 12-oz. glass with coarse stream, 
stir, decorate with fruit, and serve with 
straws. 

Cold Punch. 

1. — Rum, 1 bottle ; Curacoa, 2 small 
glassfuls ; white wine, 1 bottle ; powdered 
sugar, l^ lb. ; 1 large lemon ; water, % 
pt. ; ice. Put the sugar and lemon rind 
into a bowl with the water ; when dis- 
solved, add the spirits, the wine, and the 
juice of the lemon. Break some ice into 
the bowl before serving. 

2. — Arrack, port wine, water, of each 
1 pt. ; lemons, juice of 4 ; sugar, 1 lb. ; 
mix. 

Cream Punch. 

Pare off the rind of four large lemons, 
and steep it for 24 hours in 1 qt. brandy 
or rum ; then mix it with the juice of 
the lemons, 1^/^ lbs. of sugar, 3% pt. of 
boiled water, and about 2-3 of a can of 
evaporated cream ; mix well, and strain 
the whole through a jelly bag. You may 
either use it at once, or make a large 
quantity and bottle it. 

East India Punch. 

Brandy, % pt. ; port wine, 1 pt. ; 
syrup. No. 2599, 1 pt. ', lime-juice syrup, 
% pt. ; seltzer water, iced, 1 bottle ; ar- 
rack, % gill ; lemons, the thinly pared 
rinds of 2 ; syringa, 2 or 3 sprigs ; crushed 
ice, 1 breakfast-cupful ; sugar to taste. 
Soak the lemon rind in the brandy for 
3 hours, then strain, add the rest of the 
ingredients, and serve. 

Gin Punch. 

1.— To Va pt. of old Holland gin add 
1 gill of Maraschino, the juice of 2 lem- 
ons, and the yellow rind of 1, previously 
245] 



Beverages — A Icoholic 



(Punch) 



infused in the gin, 2 gills of simple syrup 
or 4 oz. of pulverized sugar, and 1 qt. of 
seltzer water. Mix well, and freeze to 
a semi-solid. 

2. — Lemon, yellow peel and juice of 1 ; 
gin, % pt. ; water, 1% pt. ; sherry, 1 
glassful. 

Hot Punch. 

Rum, % pt. ; brandy, % pt. ; sugar, 
% lb. ; 1 large lemon ; nutmeg, % tea- 
spoonful ; boiling water, 1 pt. Rub the 
sugar over the lemon until it has absorbed 
all the yellow part of the skin ; then put 
the sugar into a punch bowl ; add the 
lemon juice (free from pips), and mix 
these two ingredients well together. Pour 
over them the boiling water, stir well 
together, add the rum, brandy and nut- 
meg, mix thoroughly, and the punch will 
be ready to serve. It is very important 
in making good punch that all the in- 
gredients are thoroughly incorporated ; 
and to insure success, the process of mix- 
ing must be diligently attended to. 

Iced. 

Champagne or Rhenish wine, 1 qt. ; ar- 
rack, 1 pt. ; lemons, juice and yellow peel 
of 6 ; white sugar, 1 lb. ; soda water, 1 
or 2 bottles ; ice as cream. 

Manhattan. 

Powdered sugar, 1 tablespoonful ; sweet 
milk, 2 oz. ; 1 egg ; vermouth, % oz. ; 
whisky, % oz. ; Angostura bitters, 1 dash. 
Cracked ice to fill glass. Shake well, and 
strain in 7-oz. goblet. Grate nutmeg on 
top. Serve with straws. 

Maraschino Fruit Punch. 

Whole cherries, 1 qt. ; Maraschino cor- 
dial, 2 oz. ; sliced oranges, 8 ; sliced lem- 
ons, 4 ; pineapple cubes, 8 oz. ; brandy, 
4 oz. ; juice of 6 lemons ; juice of 6 or- 
anges ; water, 1% gal. Sweeten and 
color to suit taste. Mix all ingredients ; 
serve from punch bowl, with the addition 
of cracked ice. 

Milk Punch. 

1. — Fill a tumbler about i/4 full of 
evaporated cream, put in a tablespoonful 
of powdered sugar, about as much liquor 
(or sherry, if preferred) as cream, then 
fill the tumbler with cracked ice and shake 
well. 

2. — Take sugar, 1 tablespoonful ; water, 
2 tablespoonfuls ; brandy, 1 wineglassful ; 
Santa Cruz rum, % wineglassful ; shaved 
ice, 1-3 tumblerful. Fill with milk and 
shake well ; grate a little nutmeg on top. 

3. — Yellow rinds of 2 doz, lemons ; steep 



(Punch) 



for 2 days in rum or brandy, 2 qt. ; then 
add spirit, 3 qt. more ; hot water, 3 qt. ; 
lemon juice, 1 qt. ; loaf sugar, 4 lb. ; 2 
nutmegs, grated ; boiling milk, 2 qt. Mix 
and in 2 hours strain through a jelly bag. 

4. — Syrup. — a. — Simple syrup, 1 pt. ; 
brandy, 8 oz. ; Jamaica rum, 8 oz. ; cream, 
1 pt. 

b. — To 1 pt. heavy syrup add % Pt. 
each of brandy and Jamaica rum ; flavor 
with 2 teaspoonfuls of an extract pre- 
pared by macerating 2 oz. of ground nut- 
megs in 8 oz. of alcohol. The syrup is 
first to be poured into the glass in the 
proper quantity and ordinary cream syrup 
added before drawing the soda water. 

c. — Brandy, 4 vol. ; Jamaica rum, 4 
vol. ; condensed milk, 1 vol. ; syrup, 8 vol. 

d. — Rock-candy syrup, 2 pt. ; brandy, 
8 oz. ; Jamaica rum, 6 oz. ; cream, iy2 pt. 

Norfolk. 

French brandy, 20 qt. ; yellow peels of 
30 oranges and 30 lemons ; infuse for 12 
hours ; add cold water, 30 qt. ; lump sugar, 
15 lb., and the juice of the oranges and 
lemons ; mix well, strain through a hair 
sieve, add new milk, 2 qt., and in 6 weeks 
bottle. Keeps well. 

Orgeat Punch. 

Orgeat syrup, 12 dr. ; brandy, 1 oz. ; 
juice of 1 lemon. 

Princes'. 

Put into a freezing can a bottle of 
sparkling champagne, 1 gill of mara- 
schino, % pt. of strawberry syrup, the 
juice of 6 oranges, the yellow rind of 1 
rubbed on sugar. 

Raspberry. 

As Norfolk, but using raspberry juice 
or vinegar for oranges or lemons. 

Regent's. 

Pare off the thin yellow rinds from_ 4 
oranges and 4 lemons ; express the juice 
from the same fruit and strain it; add to 
it the yellow rinds, with 2 sticks of cin- 
namon broken up, % doz. cloves and a 
dessertspoonful of vanilla sugar. Simmer 
these ingredients very slowly for % hour 
in 1 qt. of simple syrup. Express the 
juice from 1% doz. of lemons and add it 
to the decoction. Then make a strong in- 
fusion of the finest green tea and add it to 
the mixture. After which add equal por- 
tions of old Jamaica rum and cognac 
brandy, according to the strength re- 
quired. Mix all well together, strain 
through a hair sieve, put it into a freezer 
and make very cold. 



[246] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Wine) 



Roman. 

French brandy, 4 oz. ; best Jamaica 
rum, 4 oz. ; extract vanilla, % oz. ; fruit 
acid, y^ oz. ; syrup, 1 gal. 

Tea. 

1. — Strong hot green tea. lemon juice 
and capillaire, of each 1^2 pt. : rum, 
brandy, arrack and Curagoa, of each 1 
pt. ; champagne, 1 bottle. Mix and slice a 
pineapple into it. 

2. — Hot tea, 1 qt. ; arrack, y^ bottle ; 
white sugar, 6 oz. ; juice of 8 lemons ; 
yellow rinds of 4 lemons. 

Wine. 

Sugar, 1 lb. ; yellow peel of 3 lemons ; 
juice of 9 lemons ; arrack, 1 pt. ; port or 
sherry wine, hot, 1 gal. ; cinnamon, i/4 
oz. ; nutmeg, 1 dr. 

Whisky. 

1. — To 1 wineglassful of whisky add 2 
wineglassfuls of hot water and then sugar 
to taste. Dissolve the sugar well with 1 
wineglassful of the water, then pour in 
the whisky and add the balance of the 
water ; sweeten to taste and put in a 
small piece of lemon rind or a thin slice 
of lemon. 

2. — Scotch whisky, 1 bottle ; boiling 
water, 1 qt. ; loaf sugar, % lb. ; the juice 
and finely pared rinds of 3 lemons. Pour 
the boiling water over the sugar, ^ lemon 
rinds and juice. Let it remain until cold, 
then strain into a punch bowl. Add the 
whisky, place the bowl in a large vessel, 
surround it with ice, cover and let it stand 
thus for at least 1 hour before serving. 

3. — Whisky, 1 wineglassful ; lemon 
juice, 1 dessertspoonful ; castor sugar, 1 
teaspoonful ; orange, 1 thin slice ; pine- 
apple, 1 thin small piece ; crushed ice. 
Put a heaped tablespoonful of crushed ice 
into a glass, pour over it the whisky and 
lemon juice, add the sugar and shake well 
until sufficiently cooled. Strain into a 
small glass and serve with the orange and 
pineapple floating on the surface. 

WINES AND WINE MAKING 
Wine Making. 

The grapes are not removed from the 
vine until they are quite ripe. As the 
maturation not only of different varieties, 
but of the same kind, is dependent upon 
the season, no stated period can be fixed 
for the commencement of the vintage. 
The grapes are ready to be gathered when 
the white kind becomes of a brownish 
yellow color and the red or blue very 

[ 



(Wine) 



dark purple or nearly black. Shears, 
pruning knives or scissors are used for 
the removal of the fruit from the vine. 

In making the finer wines, previous to 
being pressed, the bunches are carefully 
examined, and any unripe or damaged 
grapes are picked off and used to make 
inferior wine, or in the gathering the un- 
ripe specimens are left on the branch to 
ripen. The blue and dark varieties, when 
intended for the best wines, are, with few 
exceptions, removed from the stalks before 
being pressed ; the white grapes are 
pressed with the stalks. 

Except with those grapes which produce 
wines that are likely to become viscous or 
ropy, the stalks are not left for any length 
of time in contact with the grape juice or 
must. There are various modes of sepa- 
rating the grapes from the stalks. One 
method consists in the employment of a 
wooden fork or trident % yd. or more in 
length. By turning this round in a 
w^ooden pail filled with the fruit the 
grapes become detached from the stalks, 
which are thus brought to the surface and 
removed. 

In another contrivance the separation is 
effected by inclosing the bunches in cages 
made of parallel wires. Inside the cage 
there is a stirrer. When this is turned 
by an external handle the grapes alone 
drop through the wires, leaving the stalks 
in the cage. Sometimes the separation is 
accomplished by means of hurdles, which 
are so manipulated that the fruit only 
shall pass through the meshes. 

Previous to their being pressed the 
grapes have to undergo the preliminary 
process of bruising or crushing. This is 
sometimes done by their being trodden un- 
der the naked feet of men on a large 
wooden stage or platform ; at other times 
the men wear heavy boots, while in some 
cases the grapes are placed in a vat and 
bruised with" a kind of wooden pestle. 
Sometimes they are crushed between 
wooden grooved rollers. Of all these 
processes, the first, although the least 
cleanly, possesses the advantage of not 
crushing the pips or stalks, and is thus 
free from the risk of imparting an un- 
pleasant flavor to the wine. 

There is considerable divergence in the 
statements of different writers as to the 
yield of must or juice from ripe grapes. 
Payen says it amounts to from 94 to 96% 
of the total weight of the grape. Dupre 
and Thudichum obtained from three sam- 
ples of grapes, respectively, 78.75%. 
76.75% and 72.25%. Wagner averages it 
from about 60 or 70%. 

When a white wine is required, the 
247] 



Beverages — A IcohoUc 



(Wine) 



bruised grape, whether of the white or red 
variety, is at once pressed, except when, 
as happens with some kinds of fruit, it is 
kept to allow of the development of the 
bouquet. The mode of procedure is differ- 
ent when a red wine is to be prepared. 
The crushed grapes must then be kept in 
a tub or vat, loosely covered over, until an 
examination of a small quantity of the 
juice shows it has acquired the necessary 
color. For it to do this sometimes takes 
from 3 to 4 days to a month. 

During this period alcohol has been 
formed in the pulp, and this, with the tar- 
taric acid of the fruit, has dissolved out 
the coloring principle of the grape. Great 
care is necessary at this stage to prevent 
the too long exposure of the crushed and 
fermenting fruit to the air. 

Wine presses are of various patterns. 

In many wine-making establishments 
iron presses have supplanted wooden ones, 
over which they possess the advantages of 
greater cleanHness and non-absorption of 
the must. The wine press in general use 
in the Gironde consists of a tall, round 
basket, made of perpendicular laths. The 
fruit is placed in this basket, and upon 
the fruit a wooden block, to which a screw 
is attached ; a nut works upon the screw 
from above downward and presses the 
wooden block upon the fruit, the liquid 
from which is forced out through the laths 
and collected. 

In the manufacture of champagne and 
some red wines, very powerful presses are 
employed, but these possess the objection 
of pressing the fixed oil from the pips and 
an unpleasantly tasting juice from the 
stalks, and thereby damaging the product. 
In some establishments centrifugal ma- 
chines have been used, not only with the 
result of yielding a better wine, but of 
effecting a considerable gain in time and 
labor. 

The must, being received into proper 
receptacles, next undergoes the vinous fer- 
mentation. In the case of white wines the 
must is kept separate from that subse- 
quently procured by submitting the husks, 
pips and stalks to additional pressure, 
and is sold as the first or superior wine. 

But with red wines the husks (and in 
some cases the marc) are thrown into the 
fermenting vat, by which means the wine 
acquires an additional amount of coloring 
matter. In this case, when the completed 
wine is drawn off, the husks are again 
pressed, and the wine so obtained added 
to the first instalment. As the tannic acid 
is derived from the skins and seeds of the 
grape, wines prepared in this manner usu- 



(Wine) 



ally contain a considerable amount of this 
substance^ 

The fermentation is conducted in differ- 
ent countries at different temperatures, 
and, of course, with different results. 
When must is fermented at 15 to 20° C. 
(59 to 68° F.) it yields a wine strong 
in alcohol, but wanting in bouquet ; while 
if the fermentation be carried on at 5 to 
15° C. (41 to 59° F.) the product will be 
a wine rich in bouquet, but poor in al- 
cohol. 

The wines of Spain, the south of 
France, Austria and Hungary are pro- 
duced at the higher temperature, and those 
of Germany, for the most part, at the 
lower one. The fermentation is carried 
on in large wooden vats. In some places 
vats of sandstone or brick are used for 
this purpose. The fermentation of white 
wines, such as those of the Rhine and 
Gironde, is effected in new and perfectly 
clean casks or hogsheads, the bungholes of 
which are left open to allow the escape of 
the carbonic acid. Opinions differ as to 
whether air should be admitted or not 
during fermentation. The process is un- 
doubtedly quickened if the must be 
aerated. The aeration is sometimes per- 
formed by a bellows fitted with a rose 
nozzle. During the operation of blowing 
in the must is to be kept at a low tem- 
perature to prevent the volatilization of 
the bouquet. When the opposite method 
is followed various devices are in use for 
excluding the air, or at any rate an excess 
of it. In some cases the vat, being pro- 
vided with a suitable lid, has a hole or is 
arranged with a tube for the escape of the 
carbonic acid. Koles and Bamberger ac- 
complish the same end, without letting in 
the external air, by means of a glass tube 
bent twice at right angles ; one limb of the 
tube passes through the bunghole into the 
wine, and the other or outer limb into a 
vessel of water. In another contrivance 
the lid of the vat is fitted with a valve, 
which, opening only outward, allows of 
the exit of the carbonic acid. 

Red wines are fermented in large and, 
in most cases, open vats, fitted in the in- 
side with perforated shelves, which, being 
below the surface of the liquid, prevent 
the husks rising to the top and setting up 
acetous fermentation. After the comple- 
tion of the fermentation of Burgundy 
wines, in some places it is the filthy cus- 
tom for men to enter the vat and by their 
vigorous movements to mix the contents. 

It is satisfactory to learn that this par- 
ticularly objectionable practice is getting 
somewhat into disuse. 

The length of time necessary for the 
248] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Wine) 



completion of the fermentation varies 
with the locality, the temperature of the 
apartment and with the quality of the 
wine required. In France, for the ordi- 
nary descriptions of wine, it generally 
takes from 3 days to 1 week, and in Ger- 
many from 1 to 2 weeks. With the finer 
kinds of wine it occupies 4, 5 or 6 weeks. 
The progress of the fermentation may be 
estimated from the specific gravity of the 
liquid, since as the fermentation proceeds 
and the sugar is undergoing conversion 
into alcohol, the wine of course becomes 
more attenuated and its specific gravity 
diminishes. It has been calculated that 
one-half per cent, of the alcohol present 
in the wine escapes during fermentation, 
as well as a considerable quantity of car- 
bonic acid. An apparatus has been in- 
vented for collecting these products by 
causing them to pass into water by means 
of a hydraulic bung. 

When the fermentation is over the wine 
is run into casks, any sediment, such as 
lees or yeast, being left behind in the fer- 
menting vessel. It is most important that 
the casks used for this purpose should be 
absolutely clean. Before a cask is used 
a second time it should be thoroughly sul- 
phured. 

Those wines which contain a large 
amount of alcohol are sometimes allowed 
to remain in the fermenting vat until they 
have cleared, but weak wines are imme- 
diately drawn off into the cask to prevent 
the setting in of the acetous fermentation. 
The casks must be filled to the bungholes. 
A second or minor fermentation takes 
place in the wine when in the cask, dur- 
ing which tartar or bitartrate of potash 
is deposited on the sides of the cask and 
yeast at the bottom. This second fermen- 
tation should be allowed to go on at a 
low temperature, 5 to 10° C. (41 to 
50° F.), and at a slow rate. In some 
cases it is made to extend to 3 or 6 
months. 

When the second fermentation is over 
the casks are filled to the bunghole and 
securely closed, or the wine is at once 
drawn into fresh casks to be stored. In 
these it remains closely bunged up until 
more tartar is deposited, after which it 
may be racked off into bottles or casks. 
When wine is to be stored for any length 
of time it is necessary to repeat the rack- 
ing off frequently. Racking is performed 
by means of a siphon inserted in the bung- 
hole or by a cock suitably fixed in the 
cask. If the racked wine is not perfectly 
clear, it is fined by the addition of isin- 
glass, previously softened by soaking in a 
small quantity of wine. After the addi- 



(Wine) 



tion of the isinglass the cask is then filled 
to the bunghole, closed and remains un- 
disturbed for about 6 weeks, and if, at the 
end of that time, it is not perfectly bright 
it is made to undergo a second racking. 
In wine-making countries blood and solu- 
tion of glue are sometimes used for fining 
red wines which contain much tannin. 
Milk is also occasionally employed for the 
same purpose. The racking should be per- 
formed in cool weather and preferably in 
the early spring. 

The manufacture of champagne differs 
in its details from that of the so-called 
still wine. The best wine is made from a 
black grape of very fine quality, known 
as the Noirien, or Pineau, and grown in 
the champagne district. None but the 
best selected grapes are used ; all those 
that are rotten, unripe or in any way un- 
sound being rejected. The grapes are 
gathered when they have attained their 
greatest size. The vintage commences 
early in October. To prevent the juice 
being colored by the skin of the grape, the 
fruit is submitted to pressure as quickly 
as possible after being gathered. Very 
powerful machines are employed for this 
purpose, since the champagne grape, un- 
like other varieties, is not previously 
crushed. Great care is taken to apply the 
pressure evenly and to conduct the opera- 
tion with all expedition, for if this ex- 
ceeds 2 hours the must will be colored. 
The grapes are sometimes pressed 4 times. 
In good seasons the must obtained from 
the different pressings is mixed together. 
In middling ones the first yield is kept 
for making the best wines, nor is the 
fourth mixed with the other two. The 
light-colored must is first conveyed into a 
large vat, where it remains for 6, 12 or 18 
hours, according to the temperature. 

At the end of this time certain vege- 
table matters that would damage the taste 
of the ensuing wine, as well as render it 
liable to a second fermentation, become 
deposited. Directly the must has cleared 
it is run into small barrels of 2,000 1, 
capacity, in which it undergoes fermenta- 
tion. Sometimes the clearing of the juice 
is accomplished by filtration ; at others, 
when the weather is warm and fermenta- 
tion sets in so rapidly as not to allow the 
impurities to subside, it is run into casks 
filled with the fumes from burning sul- 
phur. By this means the excessive fer- 
mentative action is arrested and sufficient 
time is given for the dregs to settle. The 
juice having been made clear by either of 
the above methods is drawn into barrels, 
which are arranged in rows in the cellars. 
The barrels are filled to the bung, the 



[249] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Wine) 



froth which is formed during the fermenta- 
tion flowing out at the bungholes. In some 
wine-making establishments the barrels 
are tightly bunged up, there being previ- 
ously added to the contents 1% of brandy. 
The casks are opened at the end of Decem- 
ber and the wine fined by means of isin- 
glass, this operation being conducted at the 
lowest possible temperature. It, at the end 
of a fortnight, it has not become bright, it 
is left for another fortnight, and then, if 
not clear, it undergoes a second fining. 
The fining process must be used with cau- 
tion ; when overdone it diminishes and 
frequently stops the activity of the subse- 
quent fermentation. To obviate this the 
wine should be judiciously exposed to the 
air and a minute quantity of yeast added 
to each hogshead before it is bottled. 

When the wine has cleared, before being 
bottled, cane sugar is added to it, since the 
quantity of undecomposed natural sugar 
in the wine is not sufficient to furnish the 
requisite amount of carbonic-acid gas, the 
ingredient to which champagne owes its 
effervescent properties. 

Champagne bottles constitute a very 
considerable item in the trade expenses of 
the wine maker. He pays the glass manu- 
facturer 28 francs a hundred for them, 
and some wine makers give orders for as 
many as from 50,000 to 250,000 at a time. 

The bottles as they arrive are examined 
by an experienced person, and those which 
contain flaws of any kind, or are not per- 
fectly new, symmetrical and strong, are re- 
jected. These average about 10%. The 
bottles are required to be as nearly as pos- 
sible of uniform weight and thickness. 
The inside of each bottle is scrubbed by 
means of a revolving hair brush and clean 
water. After being drained, the bottles 
are rinsed with 90% alcohol and closed 
with an old but clean cork. They are 
thus ready, when required, for filling. The 
wine maker also expends a large amount 
of money in the purchase of corks, which 
must be of the best and soundest descrip- 
tion. It has been found to be very false 
economy to use inferior kinds. The wine 
being drawn into bottles to a height of 2 
or 3 inches from the top of the neck, the 
bottles have next to be corked, the cork 
being secured in the bottle by a small iron 
band, called an agrafe. All these opera- 
tions have to be performed deftly and 
rapidly by experienced workmen. With 
what speed they are accomplished may be 
imagined from the fact that an atelier of 
5 workmen, who divide the labor, will 
bottle and cork from 1,200 to 1,500 bottles 
daily, 2 bottles passing through all hands 



(Wine) 



in 1 minute. The corking, etc., finished, 
the bottles are next placed on their sides 
and stacked in cellars or caves, each stack 
being supported by thin laths. 

As the summer approaches, the wine be- 
gins to show signs of fermentation, which 
increases with the hot weather. When 
the fermentation reaches such a stage as 
to cause the wine to occupy the previously 
unfilled space in the neck of the bottle, a 
large number of bottles begin to burst, 
as well as to leak ; and in some years as 
much as 30% of the wine is lost from 
these causes. Two courses, each of which 
requires to be promptly adopted, are open 
to the wine maker under these circum- 
stances. Either he must remove the wine 
to a cooler cellar or uncork the bottles. 
Sometimes, if the breakage, or casse, as it 
is termed, has not exceeded 7 or 8% by 
the time August is reached, he takes the 
chance of further loss and lets the wine 
remain, for with the fall in temperature, 
which usually occurs in September and 
October, the energetic action of the wine 
ceases and the breakage also. 

The leaky and broken bottles are then 
removed from the sound ones, which are 
restacked and left until a yeasty substance 
has discontinued depositing upon their 
lower sides. The bottles are kept in this 
condition until required for sale. Before, 
however, they are in a fit state for the 
purchaser, the yeasty matter has to be 
removed and the wine to be liqueured. 
The yeast is got rid of as follows : The 
bottles are placed necks downward, on 
perforated shelves arranged in rows. A 
workman then seizes a bottle, and holding 
it in the inverted position, by a dexterous 
movement discharges the yeast from the 
side and brings it down upon the cork. 
This operation, which extends over some 
weeks, has to be repeated from time to 
time, until the supernatant wine is quite 
clear. The bottles are then very cau- 
tiously removed from the cellars to the 
corking and tying-down rooms, when they 
come into the hands of a workman called 
a disgorger. The disgorger, holding the 
bottle still neck downward, proceeds to 
liberate the cork by slipping off the 
agrafe, and when the cork is 3 parts out 
he quickly inverts the bottle. The cork is 
then forcibly ejected with a loud report 
by the froth, which carries with it the 
greater part of the yeast and other solid 
naatters, what remains of these being got 
rid of by the workman working his finger 
round the neck of the bottle, whereby they 
are detached and forced out by the stiil 
rising froth. The workman then places 
his thumb over the mouth of the bottle, 



[250] 



Beverages — A Icoholic 



(Wine) 



which is afterward temporarily closed 
with an old cork. 

The liqueur, which is next to be added, 
is of very varied composition, as almost 
every champagne maker has his favorite 
and special preparation. 

The best liqueurs are made of some 
choice wine, mixed with the purest cane 
sugar. The inferior kinds consist of a 
mixture of 90% alcohol, sugar and some 
flavoring material. A certain measured 
quantity of the liqueur is added to each 
bottle of wine. The bottle is then corked, 
wired, tied down and washed and the cork 
covered with tinfoil and labeled. It is 
then ready for sale and export. It some- 
times happens that after the previous 
round of operations has been gone through 
the champagne becomes turbid and a mi- 
nor second fermentation sets in. In this 
case it is made to undergo a repetition of 
the processes already described. It is a 
desideratum with every champagne maker 
that when the bottle is opened for its con- 
tents to be drunk, the removal of the 
cork should be accompanied with a full, 
deep and distinct report. When, instead 
of this, the report is short and sharp and 
resembles a popping noise, this is owing to 
the space between the liquid and the cork. 



(Wine) 



filled with the gas, being too small. When 
the gas escapes with a hissing noise, it is 
because the cork fits the neck of the bottle 
unequally or has not been driven in in a 
perfectly straight direction. The good 
name of any maker would be seriously 
damaged were he to send out champagne 
liable to comport itself in this manner. 
He therefore spares no expense in provid- 
ing himself with the very best and sound- 
est corks. The best way to prevent the 
escape of the gas from the bottle is always 
to keep the bottles lying on their sides. 

All effervescing wines are manufactured 
in a similar manner to champagne. 

Since the alcohol in the wine is derived 
from the sugar contained in the must, it 
would seem that the sweetest and ripest 
grapes should yield the strongest product. 
When the decomposition of the sugar has 
been complete, this will be the result ; but 
it frequently happens that, owing to an 
insufficiency in the must of the protein 
compounds which nourish the yeast cells 
(the torula cerevisiae), by the agency of 
which the fermentation is accomplished, 
the whole of the sugar is not converted 
into alcohol, in which case a sweet wine 
will be produced, or the sweetness may be 
due to the alcohol formed stopping the 



Table Showing the Quantity of Alcohol in Wine. 

Alcohol of 
0.7937 per 
Names, etc. cent, by 

Port : weight. 

Weakest 14.97 

Mean of 7 samples 16.20 

Strongest 17.10 



White 14.97 

Sherry : 

Weakest 13, 

Mean of 13 wines, excluding those very long kept in cask 15. 

Strongest 16. 

Mean of 9 wines long kept in cask in the East Indies 14. 

Madre da Xeres 16. 

Madeira : 

Long kept in cask in the East Indies — strongest 16. 

Long kept in cask in the East Indies — weakest 14. 

TenerifEe ( long in cask at Calcutta ) 13 

Cercial 



15. 

Lisbon (dry) 16. 

Shiraz 12 

Amontillado 12. 

Claret (a first growth of 1811) . 7, 

Chateau-Latour (a first growth of 1825) 7 

Rosan (second growth of 1825) 7 

Ordinary Claret ( Vin Ordinaire) , 8. 

Rivesaltes , 9 

Malmsley 12 

Riidesheimer, first quality 8, 

Rtidesheimer, inferior 6 

Hambacher, superior quality 7. 

[251] 



Proof spirit 
per cent, 
by volume. 

31.31 

34.91 

37.27 

31.31 

30.84 
33.59 
35.12 
31.30 
37.06 

37.06 
30.86 
30.21 
33.65 
34.71 
28.30 
27.60 
16.95 
17.06 
16.74 
18.96 
22.35 
28.17 
18.44 
15.19 
16.15 



Beverages — A IcohoUc 



(Wine) 



fermentation before all the sugar had been 
decomposed or to an excess of glycerine. 
If, on the other hand, the grape juice is 
rich in albuminous matter, but poor in 
sugar, the consequent wine will be what 
is termed a dry one. Such are the red 
wines of France and the Rhine. 

According to Wagner, red French wines 
contain 9 to 14% by volume of alcohol ; 
Burgundy, 9, 10 and 11% ; Bordeaux, 10, 
11 and 12%. Other French wines con- 
tain 8 to 10% ; the wines of the Palati- 
nate, 7 to 9.5% ; Hungarian wines, 9 to 
11%. Champagne contains 9 to 12% ; 
Xeres, 17% ; Madeira, 17 to 23.7%. 

In addition to ethylic alcohol and 
water, which, as shown in the previous 
table, vary largely in the proportions in 
which they are present in different kinds 
of wine, most wines contain the following 
substances : Propylic, butylic, caprylic 
and caproic alcohols ; acetic and enanthic 
ether; grape sugar (dextrose and levu- 
lose) ; glycerine; gums; pectin; coloring 
and fatty substances ; protein bodies ; car- 
bonic acid, ordinary and levo-tartaric and 
racenic acids ; citric acid ; malic acid ; tan- 
nic acid ; acetic acid ; lactic acid ; succinic 
acid ; organic and inorganic salts. 

Of these the propylic and butylic, ca- 
prylic and caproic alcohols, the ethers, 
the glycerine, the carbonic, acetic, lactic 
and succinic acids are produced during 
fermentation, the remaining substances 
being original constituents of the grape 
juice, which also contains bitartrate of 
potash, but this being insoluble in weak 
spirit is thrown down or deposited as the 
conversion of sugar into alcohol proceeds. 
In its crude condition it is known as ar- 
gol and is the source of cream of tartar 
and tartaric acid. As a result of its for- 
mation in the grape a considerable amount 
of the free acid is removed from the fruit. 
This is why wine made from grapes is so 
much superior and keeps so much better 
than that manufactured from fruits that 
abound instead in citric and malic acids. 
These latter require the addition of large 
quantities of sugar to disguise their acid- 
ity, a proceeding which frequently gives 
rise in them to a second fermentation and 
often to the consequent formation of 
acetic acid. The acetic ether in wine is 
produced by the mutual reaction of acetic 
acid and ethylic alcohol. Neubauer, dis- 
senting from Dupre and Thudichum, says 
the enanthic ether is the constituent to 
which wines owe their bouquet. He re- 
gards this ether as a combination of vari- 
ous substances of which caprylic and ca- 
proic acid ethers are the most important. 
Their formation is believed to take place 



(Wine) 



partly during and partly after fermenta- 
tion. The rest of the non-volatile con- 
stituents, such as the sugar, the gum, the 
protein bodies, coloring matter, inorganic 
salts, etc., which remain behind when a 
wine is evaporated to dryness, constitute, 
with a certain quantity of substance the 
composition of which has not been defined, 
the extractive matter. 

The amount of extractive matter in 
wines varies as greatly as from 1 to 20%. 
This difference occurs even in wines of a 
similar character and from the same dis- 
trict. Thus in Rhine wines it ranges 
from 10.6 to 4.2%, in the Palatinate 
wines from 10.7 to 1.9%, in Bohemian 
wines the mean is 2.26%, in the wines of 
Austria 2.64% and in those of Hungary 
2.62%. It is highest in sweet wines. In 
many adulterated wines, as the extractive 
matter is either very small or sometimes 
altogether absent, it has been proposed to 
employ the estimation of its amount in a 
wine as a test of its genuineness or the 
reverse. 

Light wines owe their color, varying 
from pale yellow to brown, possibly to 
oxidized extractive matter or to the cask. 
The color of red wine is due to the action 
of its free tartaric acid on a blue sub- 
stance residing in the skin of the grape. 
This body, which is known to wine makers 
as wine blue, and which bears a great re- 
semblance to litmus, in turning red when 
acted upon by acids, was named oenocyan 
or oenocyamin by Mulder or MaumenS. 
It is insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, 
olive oil and oil of turpentine, but is dis- 
solved by alcohol containing small quan- 
tities of tartaric or acetic acid. Glycerine 
was found to be a normal constituent of 
wine by Pasteur in 1859. As the wine 
matures the glycerine disappears. In 
Austrian wines Pohl found 2.6% of glyc- 
erine. In some wines it reaches 3%, but 
in most it seldom exceeds 1%. In old 
wines it exists only in very small quan- 
tity. 

Imitation Wines. 

1. — From ripe saccharine fruits. — Take 
of the fruit, 4 to 6 lb. ; clear soft water, 
1 gal. ; sugar, 3 to 5 lb. ; cream of tartar 
(dissolved in boiling water), 1% oz. ; 
brandy, 2 to 3% ; flavoring as required. 
If the full proportions of fruit and sugar 
are used, the product will be good without 
the brandy, but better with it ; 1% lb. 
raisins may be substituted for each pound 
of sugar. 

In the above manner are made the fol- 
lowing wines : Gooseberry wine, currant 
wine (red, white or black), mixed fruit 



[252] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Wine) 



wine (currants and gooseberries or black, 
red ^d white currants ; ripe black heart 
cheifles and raspberries, equal parts), a 
good family wine ; cherry wine, colepress 
wine (from apples and mulberries, equal 
parts ) , elder wine, strawberry wine, rasp- 
berry wine, mulberry wine, whortleberry 
or bilberry wine ; blackberry wine, dam- 
son wine, morella wine, apricot wine, 
apple wine, grape wine, etc. 

2. — ^Fl-om dry saccharine fruit (such as 
raisins). — Take of the dried fruit, 4% to 
7% lb. ; clear soft water, 1 gal. ; cream 
of tartar (dissolved), 1 oz, ; brandy, 1% 
to 4%. Should the dried fruit employed 
be at all deficient in saccharine matter, 2 
to 3 lb. of it may be omitted, and half that 
quantity of sugar or two-thirds of raisins 
added. In the above manner are made 
date wine, fig wine, raisin wine, etc. 

3. — From acidulous, astringent or 
scarcely ripe fruits or those which are de- 
ficient in saccharine matter. — Take of the 
picked fruit 2% to 3% lb. ; sugar, 31/2 to 
5% lb.; cream of tartar (dissolved), ^ 
oz. ; water, 1 gal. ; brandy, 2 to 6%. 

In the above manner are made goose- 
berry wine, bullace wine, damson wine. 

4. — From footstalks, leaves^ cuttings, 
etc. — By infusing them in water, in the 
proportion of 3 to 6 lb. to the gal., or q. s. 
to give a proper flavor, or to form a good 
saccharine liquid, and adding 2% to 4 lb. 
of sugar to each gallon of strained liquor ; 
11/4 lb. of raisins may be substituted for 
each pound of sugar. 

In the above manner are made grape 
wine (from the pressed cake of grapes), 
English grape wine, rhubarb wine (from 
garden rhubarb), celery wine, etc. 

5. — From saccharine roots and stems of 
plants. — Take of the bruised, rasped or 
sliced vegetable 4 to 6 lb. ; boiling water, 

1 gal. ; infuse until cold, press out the 
liquid and to each gal. add of sugar 3 
to 4 lb. ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; brandy, 2 
to 5%. For some roots and stems the 
water must not be very hot, as they are 
thus rendered troublesome to press. 

In the above manner are made beet- 
root wine, parsnip wine, turnip wine, etc. 

6. — From flowers, spices, aromatics, etc. 
—These are prepared by infusing a suffi- 
cient quantity of the bruised ingredient 
for a few days in any simple wine (as' 
that from sugar, honey, raisins, etc.), 
after the active fermentation is complete, 
or, at all events, a few weeks before rack- 
ing them. 

In the above manner are made clary 
wine (muscatel) (from flowers, 1 qt. to 
the gallon) ; cowslip wine (from flowers, 

2 .qt. to the gallon) ; elder flower wine 

[ 



(Wine) 



(flowers of white-berried elder, % pt. ; 
and lemon juice, 3 fl.oz. to the gallon) ; 
ginger wine (1^ oz. ginger to the gal- 
lon) ; orange wine (1 doz. sliced oranges 
per gallon) ; lemon wine (juice of 12 and 
rinds of 6 lemons to the gallon) ; spruce 
wine (% oz. of essence of spruce per 
gallon) ; juniper wine (berries, % pt. per 
gallon) ; peach wine (4 or 5 sliced and 
the stones broken, to the gallon) ; apricot 
wine (as peach wine, but with more 
fruit) ; quince wine (12 to the gallon) ; 
rose clove gillyflower, carnation, lavender, 
violet, primrose and other flow^er wines 
(distilled water from the flowers, ly^ Pt.. 
or flowers 1 pt. to the gallon) ; mixed 
fruit wine ; pineapple wine ; cider wine ; 
elder wine ; birch wine ( from the sap, at 
the end of February or beginning of 
March) ; sycamore wine (from the sap) ; 
malt wine (from strong wort) ; and the 
wines of any of the saccharine juices of 
ripe fruit. 

7. — From saccharine matter. — Take of 
sugar 3 to 4 lb. ; cream of tartar, y^ oz. ; 
water, 1 gal. ; honey, 1 lb. ; brandy, 2 to 
4%. A handful of grape leaves or cut- 
tings, bruised, or 1 pt. of good malt wort 
or mild ale may be substituted for the 
honey. Chiefly used as the basis for 
other wines, as it has little flavor of its 
own. 

In all the preceding formulae lump 
sugar is intended when the wines are re- 
quired very pale, and good Muscovado 
sugar when this is not the case. Some 
of the preceding wines are improved by 
substituting good cider, perry or pale ale 
or malt wort for a whole or a portion of 
the water. Good porter may also be ad- 
vantageously used in this way for some 
of the deep-colored red wines. When ex- 
pense is no object, and very strong wines 
are wanted, the expressed juices of the 
ripe fruits, with the addition of 3 or 4 
lb. of sugar per gal., may be substi- 
tuted for the fruit in substance and the 
water. 

Management of Wine. 

The remarks arranged under this head- 
ing are more particularly intended for the 
use of the maker, the dealer and the pri- 
vate individual, as those which precede it 
are for the wine maker. 

Age, — The sparkling wines are in their 
prime in from 18 to 30 months after the 
vintage. Thin wines of inferior growths 
should be drank within 12 or 15 months 
and be preserved in a very cool cellar. 
Sound, well fermented, full-bodied still 
wines are improved by age, with reason- 
able limits, provided they be well pre- 
253] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Wine) 



served from the air and stored in a cool 
place having a pretty uniform tempera- 
ture. 

A^id Taste of Wines, To Remove. — 
Neutralize the excess of acid by pow- 
dered chalk. 

Ages of Different Wines When at 
Their Prime. — The age named below for 
each wine will be found to be that at 
which it possesses its fullest flavor and 
when it will be best to drink it : 
Port, 20 years ; Madeira, 10 years ; 
Sherry, 10 years ; Red Madeira, 6 years ; 
Madeira-Malmsey, 5 years ; Callavella, 

4 years ; Malaga, 3 years ; Muscatel, 
3 years ; Red Hermitage, 20 years ; 
White Hermitage, 20 years ; Rousillon, 20 
years ; Rivesaltes, 20 years ; Banyuls, 20 
years ; Collioure, 15 years ; Salces, 10 
years ; La Palme, 10 years ; Sigean, 8 
years ; Carcassone, 8 years ; Beziers, 8 
years ; Lunel, 8 years ; Champagne, 6 
years ; Montpellier, 5 years ; Frontignan, 

5 years. 

Alcoholizing. — Alcohol is frequently 
added to weak or vapid wines to increase 
their strength or to promote their preser- 
vation. In Portugal one-third of alcohol 
is commonly added to port before shipping 
it to England, as without this addition it 
generally passes into the acetous fermen- 
tation during the voyage. A little alcohol 
is also usually added to sherry before it 
leaves Spain. The addition of alcohol to 
wine injures its proper flavor, and hence 
it is chiefly made to port, sherry and other 
wines whose flavor is so strong as not to 
be easily injured. Even when alcohol is 
added to wines of the latter description 
they require to be kept for some time to 
recover their natural flavor. 

Bottling. — The- secret of bottling wine 
with success consists in the exercise of 
care and cleanliness. The bottles should 
be sound, clean and dry, and free from the 
least mustiness or other odor. The corks 
should be of the best quality, and imme- 
diately before being placed in the bottles 
should be compressed by means of a cork 
squeezer or of one of the numerous ma- 
chines made for this purpose. For su- 
perior or very delicate wines the corks 
are sometimes prepared by placing them 
in a copper or tub, covering them with 
weights to keep them down, and then 
pouring over them boiling water, holding 
a little pearlash in solution. In this li- 
quid they are allowed to remain for 24 
hours, when they are well stirred about in 
the liquid, drained and reimmersed for a 
second 24 hours in hot water, after which 
they are well washed and soaked in sev- 
eral successive portions of clean and 



(Wine) 



warm rain water, drained, dried out of 
contact with dust, put into paper bags 
and hung up in a dry place for use. Many 
wine merchants, however, disapprove of 
this course and merely dip the corks in 
clean cold water before inserting them in 
the bottles. The wine should be clear and 
brilliant, and if it be not so, it must un- 
dergo the process of fining before being 
bottled. The bottles, corks and wine being 
ready, a fine clear day should be prefer- 
ably chosen for the bottling, and the 
utmost cleanliness and care should be ex- 
ercised during the process. Great caution 
should also be observed to avoid shaking 
the cask, so as not to disturb the bot- 
toms. The remaining portion that cannot 
be drawn off clear should be passed 
through the wine bag, and, when bottled, 
should be set apart as inferior to the 
rest, or the lees are collected in a cask 
kept for the purpose, and the clear wine 
resulting from their subsidence is used 
for filling up cg^ks about to be fined. The 
coopers, to prevent breakage and loss, 
place each bottle, before corking it, in a 
small bucket or boot having a bottom 
made of soft cork or leather, which is 
strapped on the knee of the bottler. The 
bottlers seldom break a bottle, though they 
flog in the corks very hard. The bucket 
or boot is now very largely supplanted by 
Gervaise's corking machine, an apparatus 
which first submits the cork to great pres- 
sure and then immediately afterward 
drives it firmly into the neck of the bottle, 
in which, owing to its subsequent expan- 
sion, it fits very closely and perfectly. 
AVhen the process of bottling is complete 
the bottles of wine are stored in a cool 
cellar on their sides, but on no account in 
an upright position. Sometimes they are 
placed in damp straw or in sweet, dry 
sawdust or sand. 

Cellaring. — A wine cellar should be dry 
at bottom and either covered with good 
hard gravel or be paved with flags. Its 
gratings or windows should open toward 
the north, and it should be sunk suflS- 
ciently below the surface to insure an 
equable temperature. It should also be 
sufficiently removed from any public thor- 
oughfare so as not to suffer vibration from 
the passing of carriages. Should It not 
be in a position to maintain a regular 
temperature, arrangements should be made 
to apply artificial heat in winter and 
proper ventilation in summer. The tem- 
perature should range from 55 to 65° F. 
For Burgundies the former temperature is 
the more suitable ; for ports, sherries and 
strong wines the latter temperature. 

Clarification of Wines, — -If the wine is 



[254] 



Beverages — -Alcoholic 



(Wine) 



not clear and bright after racking it is 
necessary to clarify it. There are many 
causes which interfere with the proper 
brightness of wine, such as changes of 
temperature, in careless racking and 
others. Some wines clear themselves, so 
that clarification need not be resorted to. 
A great many different substances have 
been employed in clarification. Many of 
the so-called clarifying powders are noth- 
ing but dried blood albumin. Isinglass or 
fish glue is one of the best agents for clari- 
fication. It is dissolved in water until 
little more fluid than molasses. Gelatine 
prepared from bone is also used and may 
be obtained in sheets or in small pieces 
and sometimes in tablets. It is one of the 
best agents that can be used in clarifying 
and is especially valuable for clarifying 
white wine. After wine has been clarified 
with the gelatine it should be racked after 
standing a short time. Blood albumin 
affords a cheap and efiicient means of 
clarifying the wine in large quantities. A 
gallon of blood beaten up with a gallon of 
the same kind of wine which it is desired 
to clarify will clarify 200 gallons of wine. 
Great care should be taken to have the 
blood fresh, as otherwise it is sure to in- 
jure, if not entirely destroy, the wine. It 
is especially successful in clarifying new 
wine. In case the wine loses a portion of 
its color it can be readily restored by an 
addition of the usual coloring matters. 

Milk is used to some extent in place of 
the blood, but it is not as reliable. If the 
wine is of great value, the whites of eggs 
afford the best means of clarifying it, and 
should be used in all cases where expense 
is not an object. No pains should be 
spared to see that the eggs are entirely 
fresh, as otherwise the wines would be 
destroyed. The whites of the eggs are 
particularly efiicient for white wine. The 
proper proportion is 1 ^gg per 10 gal. 
They should be beaten up with a small 
portion of wine with an egg-beater before 
adding to the wine. Gum arabic is also 
used, but is not as good as the white of 
Qgg or blood. Salt, alcohol and tannin 
and many other substitutes have been 
used with varying success. The ones al- 
ready mentioned will give the best satis- 
faction. 

Yellow White Wines. — The yellow color 
of white wines frequently stands in the 
way of their ready sale. It is removed by 
the blood albumin receipt given under 
clarification above. The receipt given 
under clarification of wines can also be 
used to bring white wine which has 
turned yellow back to its normal color. 

Earthy Flavor of Wines. — This defect 



(Wine) 



in wines is apt to interfere seriously with 
their sale, as the taste is particularly dis- 
agreeable. It may be the result of several 
causes. The vineyards may not be prop- 
erly cared for or in low, wet land. The 
treatment of wines which have earthy 
flavor requires much judgment and experi- 
ence. Wines should be promptly clarified 
by the means already given and frequently 
racked. The white of egg receipt given 
under clarification is the best one to use 
for this defect. The addition of a small 
quantity of tannin dissolved in alcohol 
will also help to correct this defect. 

Greenness. — This defect gives a very 
sour, unpleasant taste to the wine, owing 
to the malic and tartaric acids, which 
are in excess. There is no ordinary defect 
of wine which is more noticeable and more 
disagreeable than greenness. As its name 
implies, it is frequently caused by the use 
of unripe grapes. The treatment of the 
wine must be varied according to the 
taste. One of the various methods is to 
add from 1 to 3 qt. of old brandy to every 
100 gal. of wine. Potassium tartrate af- 
fords a cheap and easy method of neutral- 
izing the tartaric acid, forming potassium 
bitartrate, which may be afterward re- 
moved when the wine is right. The 
amount of potassium tartrate which may 
be used varies with the sourness of the 
wine, but 18 oz. per 100 gal. would be 
considered an average amount. Various 
other substitutes have been tried, but 
none is as successful as potassium tar- 
trate. 

Coloring Matters. — Various matters are 
largely employed to artificially heighten 
the colors of wines. The different spuri- 
ous coloring matters can be detected by 
using a solution of lead acetate, and the 
precipitants formed give a good test by 
which the various colors can be deter- 
mined. 

1. — Malva flowers or hollyhock produce, 
when steeped in spirits for 24 hours, or 
even when boiled with water, a very beau- 
tiful purple. 

2. — The pokeberry (the dark berries 
from the plant growing all over the 
United States) has a very dark red color. 

3. — Whortleberry, huckleberry, elder- 
berry, blackberry and mulberry. 

4. — Cochineal gives a fine red color by 
boiling finely ground cochineal with cream 
of tartar. 

5. — Brazil wood, saunders wood and log- 
wood. These woods are boiled in water 
and the decoctions yield shades of color 
from red to blue. 

6. — Orchil produces a beautiful purple. 



[255] 



Beverages — A IcohoUc 



(Wine) 



7. — Red beets and carrots produce like- 
wise a good color. 

8. — Indigo solution, neutralized by pot- 
ash, produces a fine blue. 

9. — Annatto and extract of safflower 
produce a beautiful yellow. 

10. — Red cabbage produces a beautiful 
bluish red. 

ll.-^Turmeric is the most common 
color for yellow, as the spirit extracts all 
color immediately, as also quercitron 
bark. 

12. — Garacine (extract of madder) pro- 
duces various shades of red. 

13. — Tincture of saffron (Spanish saf- 
fron) for yellow. 

14. — Blue vitriol, or solution of indigo, 
produces blue. 

15. — Burnt sugar produces a fine and 
permanent brown color for wines. It is 
best to boil down common sugar or loaf 
sugar nearly to dryness. It is then dis- 
solved in hot water sufficient to make the 
consistency of syrup, and for the purpose 
of neutralizing it and making it a more 
permanent color, add to each gal. of sugar 
color about 1 oz. liquid ammonia. 

16. — Green color for absinthe is pre- 
pared from a solution of extract of indigo 
and turmeric, dissolved in spirits. 

17. — Violet is obtained by a solution of 
extract of logwood and alum. 

18. — Alkanet root produces a fine blue 
red by macerating in alcohol. 

19. — Barwood acquires a dark wine red 
color by digesting in alcohol. 

20. — Brazil wood, by being macerated 
in alcohol or by boiling for % hour, pro- 
duces a deep red. 

Spurious Coloring Matter. — The follow- 
ing coloring matters give, with lead ace- 
tate, the following precipitates : Pure red 
wine gives bluish gray, red poppy gives 
dirty gray, elderberry gives dirty green, 
bilberry gives grayish green, privetberry 
gives green, dwarf elderberry gives bluish 
gray to violet in the fresh berries and fine 
green in the fermented extract, mallow 
flower gives dark green, logwood gives 
feeble dark blue, Brazil wood gives wine 
red. 

The following colors, when present, give 
the following precipitates with alum and 
ammonium carbonate : Pure red wine 
gives dirty green, red poppy gives slate 
gray, elderberry gives bluish gray, bil- 
berry gives bright violet, privetberry 
gives bright green, dwarf elderberry gives 
bright violet, mallow flower gives bluish 
violet, logwood gives dark violet, Brazil 
wood gives carmine red. 

Decanting. — In decanting wine care 
must be taken not to shake or disturb the 

[ 



(Wine) 



crust when moving it about or drawing 
the cork, particularly of port wine. Never 
decant wine without a wine strainer, with 
some clean fine cambric in it, to prevent 
the crust and bits of cork going into the 
decanter. In decanting port wine do not 
drain it too close, as there are generally 
two-thirds of a wineglassful of thick dregs 
in each bottle which ought to be rejected. 
In white wine there is not much deposit, 
but it should nevertheless be poured off 
very slowly, the bottle being raised gradu- 
ally. 

Detannation of Wines. — 1. — The For- 
mulary recommends the following method 
for removing the tannin or astringent 
matter from sherry wine : Sherry, 7 pt. ; 
white of egg, 1 fl.oz. ; alcohol, 1 pt. Beat 
the white of egg to a froth and mix it 
with wine ; heat to about 170° F., or until 
the albumen is coagulated. Then cool, 
add the alcohol and after standing a few 
hours filter clear through paper. This 
wine is a much better menstruum and 
preservative medicine for organic sub- 
stances than sherry itself. 

2. — Gelatine, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 10 
oz. ; sherry wine, 7 gal. Dissolve the gela- 
tine in the water by heating, add the so- 
lution to the wine, stir well and allow it 
to remain 6 hours, then filter. Before 
using the wine in wine of coca, cin- 
chona or beef, wine and iron, to bring it 
up to the strength of stronger wine as 
recommended in the Pharmacopeia, add 6 
oz. alcohol to each gallon. Red or white 
wine may be detannated after the above 
formula. 

Detartarization. — Rhenish wines, even 
of the best growths, and in the finest con- 
dition, besides their tartar, contain a cer- 
tain quantity of free tartaric acid, on the 
presence of which many of their distinc- 
tive properties depend. The excess of tar- 
tar is gradually deposited during the first 
years of the vatting, the sides of the ves- 
sels becoming more and more encrusted 
with it, but owing to the continual addi- 
tion of new wine and other causes the 
liquid often gains such an excess of free 
tartaric acid as to acquire the faculty of 
redissolving the deposited tartar, which 
thus again disappears after a certain 
period. The taste and flavor of the wine 
are thus excited, but the excess of acid 
makes the wine less agreeable and prob- 
ably less wholesome. 

Under these circumstances the best cor- 
rective is pure neutral tartrate of potash. 
When this salt, in concentrated solution, 
is added to an acid wine the free acid 
combines with the neutral salt and sepa- 
rates from the liquid under the form of 
256] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Wine) 



the sparingly soluble bitartrate of potash. 
If to 100 parts of a wine which contains 
1 part of free tartaric acid we add 1% 
parts of neutral tartrate of potash there 
will separate on repose at 70 to 75° F. 2 
parts of crystallized tartar, and the wine 
will then contain only % part of tartar 
dissolved, in which there is only 0.2 part 
of the original free acid, 0.8 of the origi- 
nal free acid having been withdrawn from 
the wine. This method is particularly ap- 
plicable to recent must and to wines which 
contain little, if any, free acetic acid. 
When this last is present so much acetate 
of potash is formed as occasionally to 
vitiate the taste of the liquid. 

Fermentation. — Chemists divide fer- 
mentation into 5 kinds, viz. : 

1. — Saccharine fermentation, by which 
starch and gum are converted into sugar. 

2. — Alcoholic or vinous fermentation, by 
which sugar is converted into alcohol. 

3. — Viscous or mucilaginous fermenta- 
tion, which converts sugar into slime or 
mucilage instead of alcohol. 

4. — Acetous fermentation, by which al- 
cohol is converted into vinegar. 

5. — Putrid fermentation, or putrefac- 
tion, which is exhibited in its most marked 
form in the putrefaction of animal sub- 
stances. 

Preventing fermentation. — 1. — Accord- 
ing to the Technologiste, common resin 
prevents the formation of acetic acid in 
fermented liquids without having any dis- 
turbing effect on the process of alcoholic 
fermentation. The peculiar effect of the 
hop may be due, it is suggested, to its 
resinous matter rather than to its oils. 
Resin is added to sweet wines in Greece. 

2. — Silicate of soda has been discovered 
to exert a very decided chemical action in 
checking alcoholic fermentation, in this 
respect being somewhat similar to borax, 
although much more energetic. A small 
quantity of the silicate will entirely arrest 
the fermentation of wine and also of milk. 

Second fermentation, La-pousse. — Inor- 
dinate fermentation, either primary or 
secondary, in wine or any other fermented 
liquid, may be readily checked by sul- 
phuration, or by the addition of sulphur, 
mustard seed, or sulphite of lime. The 
latter must, however, be used with dis- 
cretion. 

Stopping fermentation. — Bottle the li- 
quor and immerse a number of the bottles, 
with the mouths only projecting, in a 
large vessel of water. Loosen the stoppers 
and heat the water until of a uniform 
temperature of 180° F., then remove the 
bottles, stopper and seal them tightly and 
place in an inverted position. 

[ 



(Wine) 



Filtration of Bottled Wines. — Filter 
siphon, with siphon-shaped bent glass tube 
which in the short leg, at about the height 
of the bottle, has an egg-shaped enlarge- 
ment that is filled with clean cotton wad- 
ding. According to the greater or lesser 
length of the long leg, the suction of the 
apparatus will be more or less vigorous, 
while at the same time the wadding will 
retain the particles causing turbidity. 
For repeated use the wadding is cleansed 
by boiling out in water and drying. 

Fining. — 1. — There are various modes 
of fining wine. Eggs, isinglass, gelatine 
and gum arable are all used for the pur- 
pose. Whichever of these articles is used, 
the process is always the same. Suppos- 
ing eggs (the cheapest) to be used: Draw 
a gal. or so of the wine and mix 1 qt. 
of it with the whites of 4 eggs by stirring 
it with a whisk ; afterward, when thor- 
oughly mixed, pour it back into the cask 
through the bunghole and stir up the 
whole cask in a rotary direction with a 
clean split stick inserted through the 
bunghole. Having stirred it sufficiently, 
pour in the remainder of the wine drawn 
off until the cask is full. Then stir again, 
skimming off the bubbles that rise to the 
surface. When thoroughly mixed by stir- 
ring close the bunghole and leave it to 
stand for 3 or 4 days. This quantity of 
clarified wine will fine 13 doz. of port or 
sherry. The other clearing ingredients are 
applied in the same manner, the material 
being cut into small pieces and dissolved 
in the quart of wine and the cask stirred 
in the same manner. 

White wines are usually fined by isin- 
glass. The quantity of isinglass varies 
with the quality and condition of the 
wine, and is regulated by the experience 
of the cellarman. Stout wines require a 
larger amount than thin ones. Even with 
stout ones it ought not to exceed ^^ oz. 
to the hogshead. The Rhenish wines do 
not require more than ^ oz. and the 
hocks still less. The choicest Russian 
isinglass only should be employed. It 
should be dissolved in cold water and 
thinned with wine. Red wines are gener- 
ally fined with the whites of eggs in the 
proportion of 15 to 20 to the pipe. Some- 
times, but rarely, hartshorn shavings or 
pale sweet glue is substituted for isin- 
glass. 

2. — Isinglass (ordinary), 1 lb.; stale 
beer, cider or vinegar, 3 or 4 pt. Mix and 
macerate until the former becomes gelati- 
nous, then reduce it to a proper consist- 
ency with weak, mild beer, cider or any 
other liquid that the finings are intended 
for. A pint or more is the usual dose 
257] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Wine) 



for a barrel of beer or porter and a quart 
for a hogshead of wine. 

3. — Red Wines. — The operation is car- 
ried on in the same manner. To lighten 
up a wine add 6 eggs and a handful of 
salt, use the whites, yolks and shells. 

4,— White Wine.— To fine 30 gal. white 
wine the whites of 3 eggs will be required 
with the addition of % an egg shell re- 
duced to powder and a tablespoonful of 
salt. Beat up all together with a little 
of the wine and then pour gradually into 
the wine, stirring constantly. 

Flatness. — -This is removed by the addi- 
tion of a little new brisk wine of the 
same kind or by rousing in 2 or 3 lb. of 
honey, or by adding 5 or 6 lb. of bruised 
sultana raisins and 3 or 4 qt. of good 
brandy per hogshead. By this treatment 
the wine will usually be recovered in 
about a fortnight, except in very cold 
weather. The process may be expedited 
if a tablespoonful or two of yeast be 
added and the cask removed to a warmer 
situation. 

To Lay Down Wine. — Having carefully 
counted the bottles, they are stored away 
in their respective bins, a layer of sand 
or sawdust being placed under the first 
tier and another over it ; a second tier is 
laid over this, protected by a lath, the 
head of the second being laid to the bot- 
tom of the first. Over this another bed 
of sawdust is laid, not too thick, then 
another lath, and so on till the bin is 
filled. Wine so laid in will be ready for 
use according to its quality and age. Port 
wine, old in the wood, will be ready to 
drink in 5 or 6 months, but if it is a 
fruity wine it will improve every year. 
Sherry, if of good quality, will be fit to 
drink as soon as the sickness (as its first 
condition after bottling is called) ceases, 
and will also improve, but the cellar must 
be kept at a perfectly steady temperature, 
neither too hot nor too cold, but about 55 
or 60°, and absolutely free from draughts 
of cold air. 

Insipidity. See Flatness. 

Maturation. — The natural maturation, 
or ripening of wine and beer by age, de- 
pends upon the slow conversion of the 
sugar which escaped decomposition in the 
gyle tun or fermenting vessel into alcohol. 
This conversion proceeds most perfectly 
in vessels which entirely exclude the air, 
as in the case of wine in bottles, as when 
air is present and the temperature sufii- 
ciently high it is accompanied by slow 
acetification. This is the case with wine 
in casks, the porosity of the wood allow- 
ing the very gradual permeation of the 
air. Hence the superiority of bottled over 



(Wine) 



draught wine or that which has matured 
in wood. Good wine, or well fermented 
beer, is vastly improved by age when 
properly preserved, but inferior liquor or 
even superior liquor, when preserved in 
improper vessels or situations, becomes 
acidulous from the conversion of its alco- 
hol into vinegar. Tartness or acidity 
is consequently very generally, though 
wrongly, regarded by the ignorant as a 
sign of age in liquor. The peculiar change 
by which fermented liquors become ma- 
ture or ripe by age is termed the insensible 
fermentation. It is the alcoholic fermen- 
tation impeded by the presence of the al- 
ready formed spirit in the liquor and by 
the lowness of the temperature. 

Mould or fungus is very frequently pro- 
duced by keeping the wine in too warm a 
cellar, or in a cask not filled to the bung- 
hole, or else in one from which the bung 
has been left out. As it forms mostly on 
weak wines its presence may be referred 
to a deficiency of alcohol. 

The best method for its removal is 
either burning sulphur in a partially filled 
cask or drawing off the wine into a fresh 
cask in which sulphur has been previously 
burnt. It is advisable that wines so 
treated should be drunk as soon as pos- 
sible. 

Wine sometimes has an unpleasant 
musty taste, which it has acquired from 
being put into a dirty cask or into' one 
that has been unused for some time. This 
bad flavor, which is known as caskiness, 
may generally be removed by vigorously 
agitating the wine for some time with a 
little sweet olive or almond oil. The 
cause of the bad taste is the presence of 
an essential oil, which the fixed oil com- 
bines with and carries to the surface, 
whence it may be skimmed off, or the wine 
lying under it may be drawn off. A little 
coarsely powdered and freshly burnt char- 
coal, or some slices of bread toasted until 
they become black, or a little bruised mus- 
tard seed sometimes effects the removal of 
the objectionable taste. 

Mellotving Wines. — Cover the orifices of 
the vessel containing it with bladder close- 
ly fastened, instead of the usual materials, 
and an aqueous exhalation will pass 
through the bladder, leaving some fine 
crystallizations on the surface of the wine, 
which, when skimmed off leaves the wine 
in a highly improved state of flavor. 
Remnants of wine covered in this man- 
ner, whether in bottles or in casks, will 
not turn mouldy as when stopped in the 
usual way, but will be improved instead 
of being deteriorated. 

Ripening. — To promote the maturation 



[258] 



Beverages — A Icoholic 



(Wine) 



or ripening of wine various plans are 
adopted by the growers and dealers. One 
of the safest ways of hastening this, espe- 
cially for strong wines, is not to rack 
them until they have stood 15 or 18 
months upon the lees, or, whether crude 
or racked, keeping them at a temperature 
ranging between 55 and 65° F, in a cellar 
free from draughts and not too dry. Full 
or heavy sherries or ports, when bottled 
and treated in this manner, ripen very 
quickly in a temperate situation. 

Racking. — Racking should be performed 
in cool weather and preferably early in 
the spring. A clean siphon, well managed, 
answers better for this purpose than a 
cock or faucet. The bottoms, or thick 
portion, may be strained through a wine 
bag and added to some other inferior 
wine. 

Ropiness, Viscidity. — This arises from 
the wine containing too little tannin 
or astringent matter to precipitate the 
gluten, albumen or other azotized sub- 
stance, occasioning the malady. Such 
wine cannot be clarified in the ordinary 
way because it is incapable of causing 
the coagulation or precipitation of the 
finings. The remedy is to supply the prin- 
ciple in which it is deficient. M. Fran- 
cois, of Nantes, prescribes for this pur- 
pose the bruised berries of the mountain 
ash in the proportion of 1 lb. to the bar- 
rel. A little catechu, kino, or, better still, 
rhatany, or the bruised footstalks of the 
grape, may also be conveniently and ad- 
vantageously used in the same way. For 
pale white wines, which are the ones 
chiefly attacked by the malady, nothing 
equals a little pure tannin or tannic acid 
dissolved in proof spirit. 

Sparkling, Creaming and Briskness. — 
These properties are conveyed to wine by 
racking it into closed vessels before the 
fermentation is complete and while there 
still remains a considerable portion of un- 
decomposed sugar. Wine which has lost 
its briskness may be restored by adding to 
each bottle a few grains of white lump 
sugar or sugar candy. The bottles are after- 
ward inverted, by which means any sedi- 
ment that forms falls into the necks, when 
the_ corks are partially withdrawn and the 
sediment is immediately expelled by the 
elastic force of the compressed carbonic 
acid. If the wine remains muddy a little 
solution of sugar and finings are added 
and the bottles are again placed in a ver- 
tical position, and, after two or three 
months, the sediment is discharged as 
before. 

To Sweeten Wine. — ^In 30 gal. of wine 
infuse a handful of the flowers of clary ; 



(Wine) 



then add 1 lb. of mustard seed, dry 
ground, put it into a bag and sink it to 
the bottom of the cask. 

Tartaric Acid in Wine, Detection of 
Free. — Professor Glaus evaporates to a 
syrup and agitates with ether. If free 
tartaric acid is present the ether leaves 
on evaporation a crystalline deposit, 
which, if dissolved in water, gives, on the 
addition of an alcoholic solution of potas- 
sic acetate, a precipitate of tartar. The 
author proves the solubility of tartaric 
acid in ether, which is denied in most text 
books. 

Sour Wine, To Restore. — 1. — Take cal- 
cined gypsum, in powder, 1 oz. ; cream of 
tartar, in powder, 2 oz. Mix them in a 
pint or more of brandy ; pour it into the 
cask ; put in also a few sticks of cinnamon 
and then stir the wine without disturbing 
the lees. Bung up the cask next day. 

2. — Boil 1 gal. of wine with some 
beaten oyster shells and crab's claws, 
burnt into powder, an ounce of each to 
every 10 gal. of wine ; then strain out the 
liquor through a sieve, and when cold, put 
it into wine of the same sort and it will 
give it a pleasant, lively taste. A lump of 
unslaked lime put into each cask will also 
keep the wine from turning sour. 

Sourness in Wine, to Correct a Bad 
Taste and Sourness. — Put in a bag the 
root of wild horseradish cut in bits. Let 
it down in the wine and leave it there 2 
days ; take this out and put in another, 
repeating the same till the wine is per- 
fectly restored. Or fill a bag with wheat ; 
it will have the same effect. 

Formulas. 

Apple Wine. — 1. — Finest cider, 60 gal. ; 
brown sugar, % cwt. ; bitter almonds, ^4 
oz. Mix the cider and sugar and ferment ; 
then rack the mixture and put into the 
cask the almonds, with 16 or 18 cloves 
and 3 or 4 pieces of bruised ginger. When 
fine bottle it and keep it in a cool place. 
The addition of a small piece of lump 
sugar to each bottle will make the cork 
fly out, as from champagne ; but do not 
add this unless you have a very cold 
cellar to keep it in. 

2.— Sugar, 40 lb.; cider, 15 gal. The 
cider must be pure and made only from 
really ripe, sound apples (this is impor- 
tant). If the wine is to be quite sweet, 
add another 10 lb. of sugar and put all 
into the cider, letting it stand till dis- 
solved. Put the liquor into a cask, but 
leave it unfilled to the extent of 2 gal. 
Put the cask into a cool position, with 
the bung out for 48 hours. After this 
bung it up, but let there he a small vent 



[259] 



Beverages — A IcohoUc 



(Wine) 



somewhere — in the bung would do — until 
the fermentation is over. Then bung up 
securely and the wine will be ready for 
consumption in 12 months. There is no 
racking required in the manufacture of 
this wine. To remain in the cask 12 
months. Make this in January or Febru- 
ary. 

3. — Put 5 gal. of good cider into a cask 
it will about % fill, add 10 lb. of loaf 
sugar and stir occasionally with a piece 
of wood or cane until the sugar is quite 
dissolved. At the end of 48 hours put in 
the bung and place a small vent peg near 
the top of the cask. Allow the cask to 
remain for 12 months in a cool, dry place, 
when the wine will be ready for use. 

Apricot Wine. — 1. — Ripe apricots, 12 
lb. ; loaf sugar, 6 oz. to each qt. liquor. 
Wipe the apricots, cut them in pieces and 
let them boil in 2 gal. water. After boil- 
ing let them simmer till the liquor is 
strongly impregnated with the flavor of 
the fruit. Strain through a hair sieve and 
put 6 oz. lump sugar to every quart li- 
quor. Boil again, skim very carefully and 
as soon as no more scum appears put it 
into an earthen pan. Bottle next day if 
it is quite clear and put 1 lump of sugar 
into each bottle. It should be fine wine in 
6 months. Two hours to boil. Make this 
in August or September. 

2. — Sound but not overripe apricots, 
12 lb. ; loaf sugar, 1 lb. ; white wine, 1 
pt. ; water, 3 gal. ; compressed yeast, 1 
tablespoonful, or good brewer's yeast, 1 
tablespoonful. Remove the stones of the 
fruit, take out the kernels and cut each 
apricot into 6 or 8 pieces. Put them into 
a preserving pan with the water, sugar 
and about half the kernels and simmer 
very gently for 1 hour. Turn the whole 
into an earthenware vessel, let it remain 
undisturbed until cool, then stir in the 
yeast. If compressed yeast is used it must 
previously be mixed smoothly with a little 
warm water. Cover the vessel with a 
cloth, let it remain undisturbed for 3 
days, then strain the liquid into a clean, 
dry cask, add the white wine and bung 
lightly. At the end of 6 months draw off 
the wine into bottles, cork them closely, 
store in a cool, dry place for about 12 
months and the wine will be then ready 
for use. 

3. — Firm, ripe apricots, 12 lb. ; loaf 
sugar; water, 2 gal. Prepare the fruit 
as directed in the preceding recipe, put it 
into a preserving pan with 2 gal. of cold 
water and half the kernels and boil gently 
for about 1 hour. Strain, return to the 
pan ; to each quart of liquid add 6 oz. of 
loaf Bugar, bring to the boil and remove 



(Wine) 



the scum as it rises. Let the whole sim- 
mer gently for 10 minutes, then turn into 
an earthenware vessel. Allow it to re- 
main covered until the following day, pour 
into dry bottles, to each one add a lump 
of sugar and cork closely. Store in a 
cool, dry place for about 6 months, when 
the wine should be ready for use. 

Blackherrp Wine.—l. — To 1 gal. of 
mashed blackberries add a quart of boil- 
ing water; let it stand for 24 hours, or 
nearly as long, then strain through a 
coarse bag or towel, adding 3 qt. of water 
and 2 lb. of brown sugar to each gallon of 
the mixture, making equal parts of water 
and juice ; mix well, then put in demi- 
johns, stone jugs or a tight, clean keg; 
close partially and put in a cool place ; 
if in a warm place or left entirely open 
it will sour; if stopped entirely tight it 
will burst the vessel — but cork left loosely 
in ; let it stand until fermentation ceases, 
which will be about October ; then bottle, 
and this makes excellent wine and a fine 
medicinal drink for summer affections. 

2. — The following is said to be an ex- 
cellent receipt for the manufacture of su- 
perior wine from blackberries : Measure 
your blackberries and bruise them ; to 
every gallon add 1 qt. of boiling water; 
let the mixture stand 24 hours, stirring 
occasionally ; then strain off the liquor 
into a cask ; to every gallon add 2 lb. of 
sugar ; cork tight and let stand about 1 
year, and you will have wine fit for use 
without any further straining or boiling. 
This wine is very highly recommended for 
household use. 

Gataiota Champagne. — Catawba, 20 
gal. ; cognac brandy, 1 qt. ; champagne 
syrup, 2 gal. 

Champagne, Imitation. — 1. — Prepared 
cider, 25 gal. ; citric acid, 5 dr. ; simple 
syrup, 1% pt. ; water, 1^ gal. ; spirits 
(10 under proof), 2% gal.; tartaric acid, 
1^4 oz. Let this stand 12 days, then fine 
and bottle, if it is frothing and sparkling ; 
if not, add more acid and fine again. Add 
to each bottle about 2 teaspoonfuls of 
syrup, made by dissolving % lb. rock 
candy in 1 pt. white wine. 

2. — Cider, pale, 1 hhd. ; spirit, 3 gal. ; 
honey or sugar, 20 lb. Mix and allow to 
remain 2 weeks ; then fine with skimmed 
milk, l^ gal. This will be very pale. 

3. — Cheap Champagne. — Bordeaux, 10 
gal. ; Bodenheimer or Hockheimer, 10 
gal. ; water, 10 gal. ; French spirit, 1 gal. ; 
syrup, 3 gal. Made of 18 lb. sugar and- 6 
qt. water. 

4. — Gooseberry. — Ferment together 5 
gal. white gooseberries, mashed, with 4i/^ 
gal. water. Add 6 lb. sugar, 4l^ lb. 



[260] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Wine) 



honey, 1 oz. finely powdered white tartar, 
1 oz. dry orange and lemon peel and ^2 
gal. white brandy. This will produce 9 
gal. Before the brandy is added the mix- 
ture must be strained and put into a cask. 

5. — Liqueur. — Fine loaf sugar, 13 lb. ; 
water, 1% gal. Boil together. While 
boiling add by degrees 3 qt. alcohol, 90%, 
filter. Add to the following compound : 

Cherry Wine. — Take of cold water 10 
gal. ; cherries, 10 gal. ; ferment. Mix raw 
sugar, 30 lb. ; red tartar, in fine powder, 
3 oz. ; add brandy, 2 or 3 qt. This will 
make 18 gal. Two days after the cherries 
have been in the vat we should take out 
about 3 qt. of the cherry stones, break 
them and the kernels and return them 
into the vat again. 

Cherry Wine, Black. — Small black 
cherries, 24 lb. ; sugar, 2 lb. to each gallon 
of liquor. Bruise the cherries, but leave 
the stones whole, stir well, and let the 
mixture stand 24 hours. Then strain 
through a sieve, add the sugar, mix again 
and stand another 24 hours. Pour away 
the clear liquor into a cask and when fer- 
mentation has ceased bung it closely. 
Bottle in 6 months' time. It will keep 
from 12 to 18 months. Time — To remain 
in the cask 6 months. Make this in July 
or August. 

Claret. — 1. — Prepared cider, 30 gal. ; 
good port wine, 6 gal. ; water, 1% gal. ; 
tartar, li/^ lb. ; syrup, 1% pt. ; citric acid, 
21/4 dr. ; raisins, 3 lb. Color if desired 
with red saunders or red beet juice. Let 
it stand 10 to 12 days, rack. 

2. — Good cider and port wine, equal 
parts. 

3. — To each gallon of the last add 
cream of tartar (genuine), 3 dr., and the 
juice of 1 lemon. 

4. — To either of the preceding add 
French brandy, 2 oz. 

5. — Instead of port, use red cape or 
British port. 

If the first three of the above are well 
mixed and fined down and not bottled for 
a month or 5 weeks, they can scarcely 
be distinguished from good Bordeaux. A 
mixture of 4 parts of raisin wine with 1 
part each of raspberry and barberry or 
damson wine also forms an excellent fac- 
titious claret. 

6. — Place 12 lb. of cherries, preferably 
small black ones, on a large dish and bruise 
them well with a large wooden spoon. 
Allow them to remain until the following 
day, then drain them well on a hair sieve 
and measure the juice into an earthen- 
ware vessel. To each quart of juice add 
% lb. of sugar, cover the vessel, let it 
stand for 24 hours and strain the liquor 

[ 



(Wine) 



into a clean, dry cask. Bung closely, but 
provide the upper part of the cask with a 
vent plug; let it remain undisturbed for 
about 6 months, then drain off into bot- 
tles. Cork closely, store in a cool, dry 
place and use as required. 

7. — ^Choose cherries as ripe as possible, 
without being overripe. They are mashed 
up or comminuted in some manner and 
the mass freed from pits is carefully 
measured. On account of a jelly-like sub- 
stance in the juice, which makes it hard 
to handle, a little water is now added to 
the crushed mass and it is set aside for 
24 hours. At the end of this time press 
off the mass, and to every quart of it add 
enough water, including that added at 
first, to make 2 qt. for every quart of 
cherries, first, however, dissolving in the 
said water, by the aid of heat, 2 lb. of 
refined sugar and ^^ dr. (30 gr.) of tar- 
taric acid. Put the mixture in a clean 
keg or barrel, add a little brewer's yeast 
and let it ferment at a temperature of 70 
to 75° F. for from 4 to 6 weeks. Draw 
the wine off, at the end of fermentation, 
into a clean container and let stand for 6 
to 8 weeks (best in a temperature as near 
that at which it fermented) to ripen. It 
is now ready for bottling off. The bottles 
should be well stoppered and kept in a 
cool cellar. 

Coca Wine. — This is a French prepara- 
tion. Its strength is about 1 in 30 and 
the dose a wineglassful. Coca wine is. 
roughly speaking, about one-sixth of the 
strength of the official liquid extract (Ex- 
tractum Cocae Liquidiim B. P., or Extrac- 
tum Erythroxyli Fluidum U. S.). To 
obtain the liquid extract, coca leaves are 
exhausted by percolation (which differs 
from either decoction or infusion) with 
proof spirit. At the termination of the 
process the strength should be adjusted so 
that 1 oz. = 1 of leaves. The process of 
percolation is as follows : The leaves are 
placed in a vessel very like an elongated 
funnel, closed at its base by a porous 
diaphragm. This funnel fits into a re- 
ceiver, and a small tube passes up its 
outer side and enters it near the top, 
forming a means of communication be- 
tween the two. Spirit is now poured on 
the leaves and the percolator closed. As 
the percolate filters slowly through into 
the reservoir the displaced air passes up 
the tube and so maintains an equilibrium 
in both vessels. The virtue of the coca 
leaves lies principally in the presence of 
the alkaloid cocaine. This, in the dried 
leaves, is supposed to exist as an inert 
salt, similar to many of the cinchona alka- 
loids in bark. 
261] 



Beverages — A Icoholic 



(Wine) 



Cowslip Wine. — To every gallon of 
water allow 3 lb. of lump sugar, the rind 
of 2 lemons, the juice of 1, the rind and 
juice of 1 Seville orange, 1 gal. of cowslip 
pips. To every 4% gal. of wine allow 1 
bottle of brandy. Boil the sugar and 
water together for % hour, carefully re- 
moving all the scum as it rises. Pour this 
boiling liquor on the orange and lemon 
rinds, and the juice, which should be 
strained ; when milk-warm add the cow- 
slip pips or flowers, picked from the stalks 
and seeds ; and to 9 gal. of wine 3 table- 
spoonfuls of good fresh brewer's yeast. 
Let it ferment 3 or 4 days, then put all 
together in a cask with the brandy and 
let it remain for 2 months, when bottle it 
off for use. To be boiled % hour ; to fer- 
ment 3 or 4 days ; to remain in the cask 

2 months. Make this in April or May. 
Currant Wine. — Squeeze the currants 

through a coarse bag ; have equal parts of 
water and juice or 1-3 water, as taste may 
direct, and add 3 lb. of loaf sugar to each 
gallon of the mixture ; mix well and bottle 
in stone jugs or demijohns ; treat same 
way as blackberry wine — partially corked 
and keep in a cool place. Some keep a 
bottle of the mixture to fill up the vessels 
as they effervesce, but it is not always 
necessary. Bottle in October, when fer- 
mentation ceases ; this makes a beautiful 
and delicious wine and improves with age. 
Red. — Ripe red currants. To each gal- 
lon of fruit allow 1^ gal. of cold water 
and 5 lb. either loaf sugar or good pre- 
serving sugar and % pt. of good brandy. 
Remove the stalks from the currants, put 
them into an earthenware bowl, bruise 
them well with a wooden spoon and drain 
off the juice. Put the juice aside, add the 
water to the berries, let it stand for 2 or 

3 hours, stirring occasionally meanwhile. 
At the end of this time strain the liquid 
from the berries into the juice, add % of 
the sugar, stir occasionally until dissolved, 
then pour the whole into a cask, filling it 
3 parts full. Bung closely, but place a 
vent peg near the top of the cask and let 
the cask remain for 1 month where a uni- 
form temperature of about 65° F, can be 
maintained. Dissolve the remainder of 
the sugar in the smallest possible quantity 
of warm water, mix it well with the con- 
tents of the cask, replace the bung and 
allow the cask to remain undisturbed for 
6 weeks longer. Now drain off the wine 
into a clean, dry cask, add the brandy, let 
the cask stand for about 6 months in a 
dry, warm place, then bottle and cork 
tightly. The wine may be used at once, 
but will be better if kept for 12 months at 
least. 



(Wine) 



Red Currant and Raspberry Wine. — 
Red currant juice, 5 gal. ; raspberry juice, 
1 pt. ; water, 10 gal. ; either loaf sugar or 
good preserving sugar, 10 lb. Extract the 
juice as directed in the two preceding 
recipes. Add to it the water and sugar, 
stir until the latter is dissolved, then turm 
the whole into a cask and bung closely, 
but provide the top of the cask with a 
vent peg. As soon as fermentation ceases 
tighten the vent peg and let the cask re- 
main undisturbed in a moderately warm 
place for 12 months. At the end of this 
time rack off into dry bottles, cork them 
closely and seal the top with melted wax. 
The wine should be ready for use in about 
3 months. 

Currie Wine. — Currie powder, 5 oz. ; 
white wine, 1 gal. Digest for 1 week and 
strain. 

Damson Wine. — 1. — Water, 12 gal. ; 
damsons (bruised), 8 gal.; raw sugar, 30 
lb. Ferment, then add red tartar (dis- 
solved), G oz. ; cloves (bruised), ^4 oz. 
Let it stand until fine, then bottle. 

2. — Crush 20 lb. ripe damson plums; 
boil in 3 gal. water ; press out the juice ; 
add 6 lb. sugar ; put in a barrel and let it 
ferment ; then add after 2 weeks a little 
good brandy ; bottle. 

3. — One gal. of boiling water to every 8 
lb. of bruised fruit, 2i/| lb. of sugar to 
each gallon of juice. Well bruise the 
fruit and pour the boiling water on it ; let 
it stand for 48 hours. Then strain the 
mixture into a cask and put in the sugar. 
When fermentation ceases fill up the cask 
and bung closely. Bottle in 10 months' 
time. It will be fit for use in a year, but 
improves with keeping. Time required, 
about 2 years. 

4, — To each gallon of damsons add 1 
gal. of boiling water. To each gallon of 
liquor obtained from these add 4 lb. of 
loaf sugar and % pt. of French brandy. 
Remove the stalks, put the fruit into an 
earthenware bowl, pour in the boiling 
water and cover with a cloth. Stir the 
liquid 3 or 4 times daily for 4 days, then 
add the sugar and brandy, and when the 
former is dissolved turn the whole into a 
clean dry cask. Cover the bunghole with 
a cloth, folded into several thicknesses, 
until fermentation ceases, then bung tight- 
ly and allow the cask to remain undis- 
turbed for 12 months in a moderately 
warm place. At the end of this time it 
should be racked off into bottles. The 
wine may be used at once, but if well 
corked and stored in a dry place it may 
be kept for years. 

Elder Wine. — 1. — Elderberries, 7 lb.; 
water, 3 gal. ; to each gallon of liquid thus 



[262] 



Beverages — A IcohoUc 



(Wine) 



obtained add : good loaf sugar, 3 lb. ; rais- 
ins, 1 lb. ; ground ginger, % oz. ; cloves, 6 ; 
brandy, % pt. ; brewer's yeast, % tea- 
spoonful. Strip the berries from the 
stalks, pour the water, quite boiling, over 
them, let them stand for 24 hours, then 
bruise well and drain through a hair 
sieve or jelly bag. Measure the juice 
obtained, put it into a preserving pan 
with sugar, raisins, ginger and cloves, in 
above stated proportions, boil gently for 
1 hour, and skim when necessary. Let 
the liquid stand until milk-warm. Then 
stir in the yeast, and turn. 

2.— Alcohol, 90%, 121/2 gal.; water, 
12l^ gal. ; elderberries, juice of, 6^4 gal. 
loaf sugar, 18% lb. ; port wine, 2% gal. 
orange-flower water, % pt. Allow it to 
stand 1 week ; draw off. 

Elderberry Wine. — 1. — Gather the ber- 
ries when quite ripe, on a dry day ; pick 
them off the. stems and bruise them with 
your hands. Strain the juice ; let the 
liquor rest in glazed earthenware pans 
for 12 hours to settle. Allow to every 
pint of juice IVz pt. of water, and to 
every gallon of the mixed water and juice 
3 lb. of good moist sugar. Put it over 
the fire in a large saucepan, and when 
it is ready to boil, clarify it with the 
whites of 4 eggs. Let it boil for an 
hour, and when nearly cold put in some 
yeast to work it ; pour it into the cask, 
reserving some of the liquor to fill up 
the cask with, as it sinks with working. 
If you have about 10 gal. or so, it should 
be fit to bottle off in 2 months' time after 
it has been closed down. Keep at least 
a year in bottle. 

2. — Gather the berries when quite ripe, 
and in dry weather. Pick them clean ; 
put them into a copper with l^ gal. of 
water, and keep up a slow fire until the 
berries sink ; then strain the juice through 
a hair sieve, and to every gallon of it al- 
low 3 gal. of soft water, and to every 
gallon of the mixed liquor 3 lb. of good 
moist sugar. Put back into the copper 
and boil for an hour, skimming thor- 
oughly ; draw off into a tube, and when 
it is about 70° put a toast, spread with 
yeast, into it, and let it work for 48 
hours, or longer, if necessary ; pour it, or 
draw it off, if you have a tap in your 
tub, as should be the case, into the cask 
which is to hold it ; and if you have 18 
gal. of liquor, add 1 oz. of cloves, 2 oz. 
of allspice, 2 oz. of Jamaica ginger, and 
1 oz. of sweet almonds, all bruised. Bung 
very slightly until fermentation is quite 
over ; then close down tightly and tap in 
3 months. 

3. — Old recipe : Put the ripe, picked- 



(Wine) 



over berries into an earthen pot ; put this 
into a copper with sufficient water to 
come up about two-thirds of the height 
of the pot, which is about as far as the 
berries should reach inside ; be careful 
that no water touches them. Make a gen- 
tle fire, and keep the pot in the water 
till it is quite hot, then take it out. Pour 
the berries into a coarse cloth, strain 
the juice, and put it into a large sauce- 
pan; to every quart of juice allow 1 lb. 
of good moist sugar ; let it boil, and skim 
well. It should boil until rather thick, 
then pour it into a jar. Put 60 lb. of 
raisins into a cask, and fill it up with 
water ; let it stand for a fortnight ; stir 
it well every day ; then pour off the li- 
quor into a clean cask that just holds 
it. It should stand until it has done 
hissing ; then bung it down close, and 
stand until fine. To every gallon of this 
liquor allow % pt. of the elder syrup ; 
mix well, and when it has fined down, 
rack off into another cask ; bottle off 
after 3 months. 

4. — Chop a quantity of Malaga raisins 
quite fine ; allow 1 qt. of water to every 
lb. of raisins, and put raisins and water 
into an open tub ; cover over with a 
double cloth and let it stand for 9 days, 
stirring up each day. Then draw off 
the liquor as long as it will run, and 
press the raisins to get out the remainder 
of the juice ; mix all together in a bar- 
rel. To every gal. of liquor allow 1 pt. 
of the juice of elderberries, prepared 
simply by mashing the berries with the 
hands and straining off the juice. Stop 
down close, and stand for 6 weeks ; then 
draw off the fine liquor, and to every gal. 
add % lb. of moist sugar. Stand again 
until quite fine, and then bottle off. Keep 
in a cool cellar for use. 

Elder Flower Wine is made from the 
flowers, in this manner: 1. — Gather the 
flowers on a dry day ; remove all stalks, 
and to every qt. of flowers allow 1 gal. 
of water and 3 lb. of loaf sugar; boil 
the sugar and water for 14 hour ; then 
pour it on the flowers, and let it work 
for 3 days ; then strain the wine care- 
fully through a hair sieve, and put it 
into a cask. To every 5 gal. of wine add 
y2 oz. of isinglass, dissolved in cider, and 
3 eggs (whites only), beaten up; close 
up the cask, and stand six months before 
bottling off. 

2. — Boil 18 lb. of powdered loaf sugar 
in 6 gal. of spring water ; beat up the 
whites of 2 eggs, and add ; skim very thor- 
oughly, and put in 14 peck of elder flow- 
ers, picked from their stems ; take off 
the fire, and stir until cool ; then add 



[263] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Wine) 



4 tablespoonfuls of yeast and 6 spoon- 
fuls of lemon juice, strained, and free 
from pips ; mix well with the liquor by 
stirring twice daily for 4 days. Stone 
6 lb. of Malaga raisins, and put them 
into a well cleaned out cask ; pour the 
wine upon them. Stop up the cask close- 
ly, and keep it in a rather warm place. 
If made in July or August, bottle off in 
February or March. This wine, when 
well made, very much resembles Frontig- 
nac. 

Fig Wine. — Figs are largely employed, 
especially in Algeria, for the production 
of fictitious wine. For this purpose, figs 
from Asia Minor are preferred, on ac- 
count of their relative cheapness, and 
richness in sugar. When the fruit is 
treated with a suitable quantity of tepid 
water, acidified with tartaric acid, fer- 
mentation rapidly commences, resulting in 
the production of a vinous liquid of 
about 8° alcoholic strength, and so inex- 
pensive that it defies all competition of 
genuine grape wine, Algerian or other- 
wise. Fig wine cannot be distinguished 
either by taste or the ordinary methods 
of analysis, from genuine grape wine, es- 
pecially when it is mixed with a propor- 
tion of the latter. The detection of fig 
wine, however, is rendered comparatively 
easy by the fact that it contains man- 
nitol. In order to separate the mannitol, 
100 c. c. of fig wine are evaporated to 
a syrup, which is allowed to stand in a 
cool place for 24 hours. At the end of 
this time the residue will have solidified, 
well defined groups of crystals being 
formed. The crystals are washed with 
cold alcohol of 85% strength, in order 
to remove impurities. The residue is 
mixed with animal charcoal, and extract- 
ed with boiling 85% alcohol, and filtered. 
The alcoholic solution yields on evapora- 
tion a crystalline mass of mannitol, which 
may be recognized by its physical and 
chemical properties. Certain white wines 
from the Gironde district, as well as 
raisin and some other wines, contain 
mannitol, but only to the extent of a few 
decigrams per liter ; while fig wine con- 
tains from 6 to 8 grams per liter. By 
a determination of the mannitol it is 
possible to detect an adulteration of nor- 
mal Algerian wine with % or even % 
of fig wine. 

Ginger Wine. — 1. — Cold water, 3 gal. ; 
loaf sugar, 9 lb. ; whole ginger, bruised, 
14 lb. ; raisins, % lb. ; lemons, strained 
juice and finely prepared rinds of 4; 
brewer's yeast, 1 good tablespoonful. 
Stone and halve the raisins, put them 
into a large preserving pan, or perfectly 



(Wine) 



clean copper, with the water, sugar and 
ginger, bruised ; boil for 1 hour, skim- 
ming frequently. Turn the whole into a 
large earthenware bowl or wooden tub, 
allow the liquid to stand until milk-warm, 
then stir in the yeast. On the following- 
day put the preparation into a clean, dry 
cask, add the lemon juice, and bung 
lightly. Stir the wine every day for a 
fortnight, then tighten the bung. Let 
the wine remain undisturbed for 3 or 4 
months, when it may be bottled for use. 

2. — Water, 6 gal. ; loaf sugar, 14 lb. ; 
whole ginger, bruised, 6 oz. ; Muscatel 
raisins, 2 lb. ; Valencia raisins, 4 lb. ; 
isinglass, i/^ oz. ; lemons, 6 ; brandy, 1 pt. 
Remove the peel of the lemons as thinly 
as possible, and boil it with the water, 
sugar and ginger for half an hour. Mean- 
while, stone and halve the raisins, put 
them into an earthenware bowl, pour the 
liquid over them when nearly cold, add 
the lemon juice and yeast. Stir it every 
day for a fortnight, then add the isin- 
glass, previously dissolved in a little warm 
water, and drain into a clean, dry cask. 
Let the wine remain closely bunged for 
about 3 months, then bottle for use. 

3. — This is an excellent stomachic, and 
is very popular in England as a cheap 
substitute for a grape wine : Sugar, 12 
lb. ; water, 3% gal. ; ginger, 4 oz. Boil 
them together for half an hour; when 
cooled to 75° add the rinds of 6 lemons 
and some good yeast ; let it ferment for 
10 or 14 days, then add 1 pt. of brandy 
and bottle it for use. 

4.— To 9 gal. of water allow 27 lb. of 
loaf sugar, 9 lemons, 12 oz. of bruised 
ginger, 3 tablespoonfuls of yeast, 2 lb. 
of raisins, stoned and chopped, and 1 pt. 
of brandy. Boil together for 1 hour in 
a copper ( let it previously be well scoured 
and beautifully clean) the water, sugar, 
lemon rinds and bruised ginger. Remove 
every particle of scum as it rises, and 
when the liquor is sufiiciently boiled put 
it into a large tub or pan, as it must not 
remain in the copper. When nearly cold, 
add the yeast, which must be thick and 
very fresh, and the next day put all in 
a dry cask with the strained lemon juice 
and chopped raisins. Stir the wine every 
day for a fortnight ; then add the brandy, 
stop the cask down by degrees, and in 
a few weeks it will be fit to bottle. SuflS- 
cient to make 9 gal. of wine. The best 
time for making this wine is either in 
March or September. 

Oooseherry. — 1. — Firm green gooseber- 
ries, 20 lbs. ; hot water, 3 gal. ; loaf sugar, 
15 lb. ; cream of tartar, 1% oz. Top 
and tail the gooseberries, put them into 



[264] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Wine) 



an earthenware bowl or wooden tub, and 
pour over them the hot water. Let them 
soak for 24 hours, then bruise them well 
with a heavy wooden mallet or potato 
masher, and drain the juice through a fine 
hair sieve or jelly bag. Replace the skins 
in the vessel in which they were soaked, 
cover them with boiling water, stir and 
bruise well, so as to completely extract 
the juice, then strain through the sieve 
or bag. Mix this preparation with the 
juice, add the sugar, and boiling water 
to increase the liquid to 5 gal. Replace 
in the bowl or tub, stir in the cream of 
tartar, cover with a heavy woolen cloth, 
and allow the vessel to stand in a mod- 
erately warm place for 2 days. Now 
strain the liquid into a small cask, cover 
the bunghole with a folded cloth until fer- 
mentation ceases — which may be known 
by the cessation of the hissing noise — 
then bung closely, but provide the top 
of the cask with a vent peg. Make this 
wine in the beginning of June, before the 
berries ripen ; let it remain undisturbed 
until December, then drain it off care- 
fully into a clean cask. In March or 
April, or when the goosebery bushes be- 
gin to blossom, the wine must be bottled, 
and tightly corked. To insure its being 
clear and effervescing, the wine must be 
bottled at the right time, and on a clear 
day. 

Grape Wine. — 1. — Ripe Grapes. — Mash 
sound, ripe grapes well with your hands, 
in an earthen pan, or if not with your 
hands, with a perfectly tasteless stick 
of wood. Do not crush the seeds ; strain 
the liquor into a cask, gently squeeze the 
pulp, pouring the remainder of the juice 
into the cask (strained). Let it stand 
aside for a fortnight, then draw it off 
into another cask, covering up the bung- 
hole with a piece of slate till all fer- 
mentation has ceased. Bottle in 6 months, 
cork, and seal, and it will be drinkable in 
12 months' time. 

2. — Grape Wine. — Ten lb. fresh grapes 
are put into a large jar or crock, 3 qt. 
boiling water poured over them, and when 
the water is cool enough to permit of it, 
squeeze the grapes well with the hand. 
After allowing the jar to remain 3 or 4 
days covered with a cloth, press out the 
grapes, then add 5 lb. of sugar. Allow 
it to remain for 1 week, skim and strain 
carefully, then bottle, corking loosely. 
After the fermentation is completed strain 
and seal tightly. 

3. — Put 20 lb. of ripe grapes into a 
stone jar, and pour on 6 qt. of boiling 
water ; when cooled sufficiently squeeze 
by hand. Cover jar with cloth, let stand 

[ 



(Wine) 



for 3 days, then press out the juice ; add 
10 lb. crushed sugar. After standing a 
week, scum, strain and bottle, corking 
loosely. When fermentation is complete 
strain again and bottle, corking tightly. 
Lay on side in cool place. 

4. — Sound, not overripe grapes ; to each 
lb. allow 1 qt. of cold water ; add to each 
gal. of liquid obtained from the grapes 
3 lb. of loaf sugar, % pt. of French 
brandy, and % oz. of isinglass. Strip 
the grapes from the stalks, put them into 
a wooden tub or earthenware bowl, and 
bruise them well. Pour over them the 
water, let them stand for 3 days, stirring 
frequently, then strain through a jelly 
bag or fine hair sieve. Dissolve the sugar 
in the liquid, then pour the whole into 
a cask. Bung lightly for a few days un- 
til fermentation subsides, then add the 
isinglass, dissolved in a little warm water, 
and the brandy, and tighten the bung. 
Let the cask remain undisturbed for 6 
months, then rack the wine off into bot- 
tles, cork and seal them securely, and keep 
for at least a year before using. 

5. — Hock, British Red. — From cream of 
tartar, 1^4 oz. ; tartaric acid, y^ oz. (both 
in very fine powder) ; juices of the pur- 
ple plum, ripe apples, and red beet, of 
each (warmed), 5 pt. ; lemon juice, 1 pt. ; 
with white sugar, 2i/^ lb. per gal. 

Honey Wine. — 1. — Honey, 20 lb. ; cider, 
12 gal. ; ferment, then add : Rum, i^ 
gal. ; brandy, V^ gal. ; red or white tar- 
tar, dissolved, 6 oz. ; bitter almonds, ^ 
oz. ; cloves, ^ oz. This is also called 
mead wine. 

2. — According to Dzierzon. — In a pol- 
ished copper kettle mix 12i/^ parts of 
honey with 55 parts of water, allow it 
to boil gently, and skim off the scum. 
After half an hour introduce gradually 
1^2 parts of finely crushed chalk, con- 
stantly stirring. The tough substance this 
forms on the surface is skimmed off, and 
when no more appears pour the fluid into 
a wooden vessel, so that' as it rests and 
cools the chalk will settle. The fluid is 
then carefully poured off, so that all the 
chalk is left behind, returned to the ket- 
tle, which has again been cleaned, where 
it receives an admixture of 3 parts of 
pulverized charcoal, well purified by heat- 
ing to redness. It is then poured for the 
second time into the cleansed wooden ves- 
sel, cooled, then filtered through a conical 
bag of felt or flannel. It is then returned 
to the kettle and heated to boiling. In 
the meantime the whites of 25 eggs are 
beaten, with water, to a foam, and gradu- 
ally added to the fluid. By this means 
it is completely fined, the egg-white tak- 
265] 



Beverages — Alcoholic 



(Wine) 



ing up any particles of charcoal or other 
impurities, to be removed as scum. The 
chalk takes away the acid, the charcoal 
the waxy flavor. The fluid having boiled 
for an hour after the addition of the egg- 
white, it is cooled, racked into a cask, 
which should not be quite full, a small 
space being left at the bunghole, which 
is covered with a piece of clean linen, 
and the fluid left to spontaneous fermen- 
tation. In other respects the process is 
the same as in making mead. Cleared 
in the cask, and racked into bottles, the 
wine will keep for more than 50 years. 
A cool cellar, at a temperature of 38 to 
40° F., is an important factor. The bot- 
tles are placed in damp sand, which is 
moistened from time to time with salt 
water. 

Kola. — Kola nuts, in coarse powder, 1 
oz. ; sherry wine, 30 oz. Macerate for 8 
days, and filter. This wine may also be 
made with roasted kola nuts, which give 
a better tasting preparation, and it is 
none the worse for the addition of a lit- 
tle sugar. 

Lemon Wine. — The fine-cut peel of 4 
to 5 lemons is treated with sherry, 1,000 
grams ; cognac, 300 grams ; and filtered 
after 24 hours. To the filtrate add or- 
ange-flower water, 50 grams. 

Madeira Wine. — 1. — To 10 gal. pre- 
pared cider add 1 gal. Madeira wine ; pure 
proof spirits, 3 qt. ; brandy, 1 qt. ; tar- 
taric acid, % to 1 oz. ; oil bitter almonds, 
^ dr., cut in % pt. alcohol ; loaf sugar, 
11^ lb. Allow it to stand for 2 weeks; 
rack, fine, and repeat if necessary. 

2. — Pale malt, ground, 4 bu. ; boiling 
water, 44 gal. ; infuse, strain off this while 
warm ; take 24 gal. and add : sugar candy, 
14 lb. ; cream of tartar, 8 oz. ; when dis- 
solved, add yeast, 2 lb. ; ferment, keep 
skimming off the yeast, and when the fer- 
mentation is nearly finished add raisin 
wine, 21^ gal. ; brandy and sherry wine, 
of each 2 gal. ; rum, 1 qt. ; bung it down 
for 6 or 9 months. A second infusion of 
the malt may be made for beer. 

3. — Purified honey, 15 oz. ; hop tops, 
% oz. ; alcohol, 90%, 19% oz. ; French 
wine, 4:^2 qt. ; add % oz. tincture burned 
sugar ; filter. 

Malmsey, British,. — From sliced or 
grated parsnips, 4 lb. ; boiling water, 1 
gal. ; when cold press out the liquid, and 
to each gal. add of cream of tartar, % 
oz., and good Muscovado sugar, 3 lb. ; 
ferment, rack, and add of brandy 3 to 
5%. Good Malaga raisins may be sub- 
stituted for the sugar. 

Mead, or Honey Wine. — Take 10 gal. 
of water, 2 gal. of strained honey, with 



(Wine) 



2 or 3 oz. of white Jamaica ginger root, 
bruised, and 2 lemons cut in slices. Mix 
all together, and boil for half an hour, 
carefully skimming all the time. Five 
minutes after the boiling commences add 

2 oz. of hops. When partially cold put 
it into a cask to work off. In about 

3 weeks after working it will be fit to 
bottle. This is a wholesome and pleas- 
ant beverage, particularly grateful in 
summer, when drunk mixed with water. 

Medicated Wines. — Dieterich, in a late 
issue of his Pharmaceutische Manual, 
gives a number of formulae for the prepa- 
ration of medicated wines. Few, if any, 
of these can be regarded as tipples, but 
all are peculiar for the fact that the 
wine from which they are made is detan- 
nated. We give a selection of the more 
important formulae for articles which 
should be salable if put up in attractive 
form and brought before customers in a 
nice way. 

1. — Cascara Sagrada Wine. — White gel- 
atine, in strips, 15 gr. ; distilled water, 2% 
dr. ; dissolve by the aid of heat, and add 
to sherry wine, 28 oz. Shake well, set 
aside for some time, then add : Tasteless 
fluid extract of cascara sagrada, 1% oz. ; 
sugar, iy2 oz. Set aside in a cool place 
for 8 days, and filter. A similar wine, 
not free from the bitter principle of the 
bark, may be made by macerating li/^ 
oz. of cascara sagrada and 1% oz. of 
sugar in 30 oz, of sherry for 8 days, and 
filtering. A Rhamnus frangula wine can 
be made in the same way, 

2. — Cinchona Wine. — a. — White gela- 
tine, 15 gr. ; distilled water, 2^^ dr. ; 
sherry wine, 18 oz. Detannate in the 
manner directed above, and then add : 
Simple syrup, 6 oz. ; tincture of cinchona, 
6 oz. After 8 days, filter. 

b. — May also be made with red wine, 
or direct from the bark, the quantities 
being : Gelatine, 15 gr. ; distilled water, 
2% dr. ; sherry wine, 30 oz, ; cinchona 
bark, in coarse powder, 10 dr. ; sugar, 
1% oz. Macerate for 8 days, and filter. 
In this case care must be taken to have 
the gelatine and wine reaction complete 
before adding the cinchona ; otherwise the 
alkaloid may be thrown out by the tannin 
of the wine. 

3. — Improved Quinine Wine. — Gelatine, 
15 gr. ; distilled water, 2% dr. ; dis- 
solve, and add to sherry wine, 29 1^ oz. 
Shake, and set aside to clear ; then add 
the following solution : Hydrochlorate of 
quinine, 30 gr. ; dilute hydrochloric acid, 
30 drops ; water, % oz. After a week 
filter. This is double the strength given 
by Dieterich. 



[266] 



Beverages — A Icoholic 



(Wine) 



Moselle. — 1. — British Red Moselle. — 
Malmsey, colored with clarified elderberry 
juice. 

2. — British Sparkling Moselle. — From 
rich cider apples (carefully peeled and 
garbled), pressed with 14 of their weight 
of white magnum bonum plums (previ- 
ously stoned), and the juice fermented 
with 2% lb. double refined sugar per gal., 
as champagne. 

Mulberry. — 1. — Juice of the fruit, 10 
gal. ; or of mulberries, bruised, 15 gal. ; 
water, 15 gal. ; sugar, 35 gal. ; boil and 
ferment, then add spirit, 2 or 3 gal. ; red 
tartar, 7 oz. ; cassia, i/^ oz. ; bitter al- 
monds, % oz. 

2. — Ripe mulberries, ripe apples, equal 
quantities ; sugar or honey, 1 lb. to the 
gal. Express the juice, put it into a cask, 
and add the sugar ; ferment with yeast, 
1 qt. to every hhd. ; catechu, y^ lb.; red 
argol, % lb. 

Mulled Wine. — Take % oz. bruised cin- 
namon, % nutmeg, grated, and 10 bruised 
cloves. Infuse them in % pt. boiling 
water for an hour, strain, and add % oz. 
white sugar. Pour the whole into 1 pt. 
hot port or sherry wine. This is a good 
cordial and restorative in low stages of 
fever, or in the debility of convalescence 
from fevers. 

Muscatel, British. — As British spark- 
ling Moselle, with some infusion of clary, 
or of the musk plant, to flavor it. 

Orange. — 1. — Two blood oranges are 
stuck with cloves, and the whole fruit is 
then covered with burgundy, 1,000 grams ; 
cognac, 300 grams; 90% alcohol, 200 
grams ; filtered after standing for 4 days. 

2. — The oranges must be perfectly ripe. 
Peel them and cut them into halves, cross- 
wise of the cells ; squeeze into a tub. The 
press used must be so close that the seeds 
cannot pass into the must. Add 2 lb. 
white sugar to each gal. sour orange 
juice, or 1 lb. to each gal. sweet orange 
juice, and 1 qt. water to each gal. of 
the mixed sugar and juice. Close fer- 
mentation is necessary. The resultant 
wine is amber-colored, and tastes like 
dry hock, with the orange aroma. Vine- 
gar can be made from the refuse, and ex- 
tract from the peels. 

Peach. — Take of cold soft water, 18 
gal. ; refined sugar, 25 lb. ; honey, 6 lb. ; 
white tartar, in fine powder, 2 oz. ; 
peaches, 60 or 80 in number. Ferment, 
then add 2 gal. brandy. This will make 
18 gal. The first division is to be put 
into the vat, and the day after, before 
the peaches are put in, take the stones 
from them, break them and the kernels, 
then put them and the pulp into the vat. 

[ 



(Wine) 



Pepsin Wine. — White gelatine, in strips, 
15 gr. ; distilled water, 2^2 dr. ; white 
wine, 25 oz. Detannate as described. At 
the same time mix together : Pepsin, 7 
dr. ; glycerine, 6 dr. ; distilled water, 6 
dr. Add to the wine, along with 40 
minims of hydrochloric acid ; macerate 
for 8 days, shaking occasionally ; then 
filter. 

Pineapple Wine. — A pineapple of about 
500 grams and % of a vanilla pod are 
cut up, and macerated with port wine, 
1,300 grams ; cognac, 200 grams ; allowed 
to stand 2 days ; filtered without strong 
pressure. 

Port. — 1. — Ripe fruit, 4 lb. ; clear soft 
water, 1 gal. ; sugar, 3 lb. ; cream of tar- 
tar, dissolved in boiling water, ll^ oz. ; 
brandy, 2 to 3% ; flavoring as required. 
The addition of an equal quantity of 
fruit and sugar increases the strength. 

2. — Add to 10 gal. prepared cider, 2 
gal. genuine port wine, 2 qt. best cognac 
brandy, 1 pt. simple syrup, 1 lb. bruised 
raisins, 1 oz. tincture kino, % oz. extract 
rhatany, 3 qt. proof spirits. Allow it 
to stand for 2 weeks, rack, fine, and re- 
peat, if necessary. Keep the wine cool. 

3. — British Port, London Port, South- 
ampton Port. — Red cape, 2 gal. ; damson 
or elder wine, 1 gal. ; brandy, ^2, pt. ; pow- 
dered kino, ^ oz. 

4. — Strong old cider, 6 gal. ; elderberry 
juice, 4 gal. ; sloe juice, 3 gal. ; sugar, 
28 lb. ; powdered extract of rhatany, 1 
lb. ; at time of racking add brandy, % 
gal. ; good port wine, 2 gal. 

5. — Good port, 12 gal. ; rectified alco- 
hol, 6 gal. ; French brandy, 3 gal. ; strong 
rough cider, 42 gal. ; mix in a well sul- 
phured cask. 

6. — Port wine, 8 gal. ; brandy, 6 gal.; 
sloe juice, 4 gal. ; strong rough cider, 45 
gal. ; as the last. 

7. — Cider, 24 gal. ; juice of elderberries, 
6 gal. ; sloe juice, 4 gal. ; rectified alcohol, 
3 gal. ; brandy, l^^ gal. ; powdered rhat- 
any, 7 lb. ; isinglass, 4 oz., dissolved in 
1 gal. cider ; bung it down ; in 3 months 
it will be fit to bottle, but should not be 
drunk until the next year ; if a rougher 
quality is required the quantity of rhatany 
may be increased, or 5 or 6 oz. of alum, 
dissolved in water, may be added. 

Quinine Wine. — Break into small pieces 
1 oz. of sulphate of quinine and put it 
into a glass jar with 2 oz. of 90% alco- 
hol ; let the quinine infuse for 24 hours ; 
add 1 qt. of claret, and let it remain thus 
for 12 days ; then filter the wine through 
a felt bag, and bottle for use. The above 
quantity of quinine may be dissolved, 
without the addition of alcohol, in any of 
267] 



Beverages — A Icoholic 



(Wine) 



the following wines : Madeira, Marsala, 
Malaga, Lunel, or Alicant. 

Raisin Wine. — 1. — To each lb. of raisins 
allow 1 gal. of cold water, 2 lb. of good 
preserving sugar, 1 tablespoonful of yeast. 
Strip the raisins from the stalk, put them 
into a large boiler or clean copper, with 
the water, simmer gently for about 1 
hour, then rub them through a sieve. Dis- 
solve the sugar in the liquid, and add 
the raisin pulp and the yeast, let the ves- 
sel stand covered for 3 days, then strain 
the liquid into a cask. Bung loosely un- 
til fermentation ceases, then tighten the 
bung, and allow the cask to stand for 
at least 12 months before racking the 
wine off into bottles. 

2.— With Cider.— Good cider, 8 gal.; 
Malaga raisins, 15 lb. ; French brandy, 1 
bottle ; sugar candy, 3 oz. ; the rind of 
3 lemons. Strip the raisins from the 
stalks, halve them, put them into a 9-gal. 
cask, and pour over them the cider. Bung 
lightly for 5 or 6 days, then tighten the 
bung and let the cask stand for 6 months. 

3. — Raspberries, 6 qt. ; red currants, 4 
qt. ; water, 10 qt. ; good preserving sugar, 
10 lb. ; French brandy, 1 pt. Strip the 
red currants from the stalks, put them 
into a large earthenware or wooden ves- 
sel, and pour over them the water (which 
must have been previously boiled, and al- 
lowed to become quite cold). On the fol- 
lowing day crush the red currants with 
a wooden mallet or potato masher, add 
the raspberries, and allow the whole to 
stand until the following day. Strain 
the liquid through a jelly bag or fine hair 
sieve, and drain the fruit thoroughly, but 
do not squeeze it. Stir in the sugar, 
and when quite dissolved turn the wine 
into a clean, dry cask. Bung loosely un- 
til fermentation has entirely subsided, 
then tighten the bung, and allow the cask 
to remain undisturbed for 3 months. At 
the end of this time rack the wine off 
carefully, straining that near the bottom 
of the cask repeatedly until quite clear. 
Scald and drain the cask, replace the 
wine, add the brandy, bung lightly, let 
it remain 2 months longer in the cask, 
and then bottle. 

Raspherrp Wine. — 1. — Ripe raspber- 
ries, 10 qt. ; boiling water, 10 qt. ; good 
preserving sugar, 6 lb. ; brewer's yeast, 2 
tablespoonf uls ; French brandy, 1 pt. ; isin- 
glass, 14 oz. Prepare the fruit in the 
usual vray, put it into an earthenware 
or wooden vessel, pour over it the boiling 
water, and let it remain covered until 
the following day. Pass both liquid and 
fruit through a fine hair sieve, let it 
stand for 24 hours, then strain it care- 



(Wine) 



[268] 



fully, without disturbing the sediment, 
into another vessel. Add the sugar, stir 
in the yeast, and as soon as the sugar 
is dissolved turn the whole into a clean, 
dry cask. Cover the bunghole with a 
folded cloth until fermentation subsides, 
then bung it closely. Let it stand for 
1 month, rack it off into a clean cask, 
add the brandy, and isinglass dissolved in 
a little warm water, bung tightly, and 
allow it to remain undisturbed for 12 
months. At the end of this time rack it 
off into bottles, cork them securely, store 
for 12 months longer, and the wine will 
be ready for use. 

2. — Put 6 qt. of ripe raspberries into 
an earthenware or wooden vessel, bruise 
them well with a heavy wooden spoon, 
and pour over them 6 qt. of cold water. 
Let them stand until the following day, 
stirring them frequently, then strain the 
liquid through a jelly bag or fine hair 
sieve, and drain the fruit thoroughly, but 
avoid squeezing it. Measure the liquid ; 
to each qt. add 1 lb. loaf sugar ; stir oc- 
casionally until dissolved, then turn the 
whole into a cask. Bung loosely for sev- 
eral days, until fermentation ceases, then 
tighten the bung ; let it remain thus for 
3 months, and bottle for use. 

Red Wine. — Cider, 16 gal.; honey, 27 
lb. ; tartar, red, 8 oz. ; raw sugar, 3 lb. ; 
sliced red beet, 6 lb. ; boil, ferment, and 
add : Cassia, % oz. ; ginger, % oz. ; 
spirit, 5 qt. 

Rhularl Wme.—l.— Rhubarb, 25 lb.; 
cold water, 5 gal. ; to each gal. of liquid 
thus obtained add 3 lb. of either loaf or 
good preserving sugar and the juice and 
very thinly pared rind of 1 lemon ; to the 
whole add 1 oz. of isinglass. Wipe the rhu- 
barb with a damp cloth and cut it into 
short lengths, leaving on the peel. Put it 
into an earthenware or wooden vessel, 
crush it thoroughly with a wooden mallet 
or heavy potato masher, and pour over it 
the water. Let it remain covered for 
10 days, stirring it daily ; then strain the 
liquor into another vessel, add the sugar, 
lemon juice and rind, and stir occasion- 
ally until the sugar is dissolved. Now 
put it into a cask, and add the isinglass, 
previously dissolved in a little warm 
water; cover the bunghole with a folded 
cloth for 10 days, then bung securely, 
and allow it to remain undisturbed for 
12 months. At the end of this time rack 
off into bottles, and use. 

2. — Rhubarb, 20 lb. ; cold water, 5 gal. ; 
loaf or good preserving sugar, 12 lb. ; 
French brandy, 1 pt. ; barley sugar, i/^ 
lb. ; isinglass, ^ oz. ; the rind of 2 or- 
anges ; the rind of 2 lemons. Wipe the 



Beverages — A IcohoUc 



(Wine) 



rhubarb with a damp cloth, slice it thinly, 
put it into a large earthenware or wooden 
vessel, pour over it the water, and let it 
stand, closely covered, for 4 days. Strain 
the liquid through a jelly bag or fine 
sieve, pressing the pulp as dry as possi- 
ble without allowing any of it to pass 
through the sieve. Add the sugar, stir 
occasionally until dissolved, then turn the 
preparation into a cask and cover the 
bunghole with a folded cloth. As soon 
as fermentation subsides add the brandy. 
Bung the cask securely, and allow it to 
remain undisturbed for 3 months. Rack 
the wine into a clean, dry cask, add the 
very finely pared rind of the oranges and 
lemons, the barley sugar, finely powdered, 
and the isinglass dissolved in a little 
warm water. Bung the cask securely, 
store in a cool, dry place for at least 
12 months, then bottle, cork securely, 
store for 6 months longer, when the wine 
will be ready for use. 

Senna Wine. — Leaves of Alexandrian 
senna, 1% oz. ; sherry wine, 27 oz. Mac- 
erate for 8 days, press and strain ; then 
add 5 gr. of gelatine, dissolved in 2^2 
dr. of distilled water, and then the 
following: Tincture of orange peel, 1 
oz. ; tincture of ginger, ^^ oz. ; aromatic 
tincture, 80 minims ; honey, 2 oz. Again 
allow to stand for 10 days, and filter. 
This wine is an excellent aperient for per- 
sons suffering from hemorrhoids. 

Sherry Wine. — 1. — To 8 gal. prepared 
cider add : Best sherry wine, 6 qt. ; na- 
tive wine, 1 gal. ; oil of bitter almonds, 
14 dr., cut in % pt. of alcohol ; proof 
spirits, 3 gal. ; sugar, 1 lb. ; saffron to 
color. Let the wine stand for 10 days ; 
rack, and fine. 

2. — Cape or raisin wine, slightly fla- 
vored with a very little bitter-almond 
cake, or, what is more convenient, a lit- 
tle of the essential oil, dissolved in alco- 
hol (essence of bitter almonds). 

3. — To the last add a minute quantity 
of sweet brier, eau de fleurs d'oranges, or 
orris, to give it a very slight bouquet. 

4. — To each gal. of strong raisin must 
add, when racking, 1 Seville orange and 
2 bitter almonds, both sliced. By omit- 
ting the almonds and adding 2 or 3 green 
citrons to each 10 gal., this forms British 
Madeira : 

5. — Loaf sugar, 32 lb. ; sugar candy, 10 
lb. ; water, 16 gal. Boil ; add pale ale 
wort (as for Madeira), 6 gal.; yeast, 1 
lb. ; on the third day add raisins, stoned, 
10 lb. ; and in another 2 or 3 days bran- 
dy, 1 gal. ; bitter almonds, grated, 1 dr. ; 
bung it down for 4 months, draw it off 
into another cask, add brandy, 1 gal., and 

[ 



(Wine) 



in 3 months bottle it. Tenerifife, slightly 
flavored with cherry laurel, or almonds, 
forms a most excellent British sherry, 
either alone, or diluted with an equal 
quantity of cape or raisin wine. 

6. — From Sour Grapes. — The way an 
imitation sherry is made in England is 
to mix equal quantities of new cider and 
honey, and evaporate to a density so that 
a fresh egg will float so as to be half 
immersed. The liquid is then cooled and 
kept in a stone vessel at a temperature 
of from 60 to 67° F., until in about 12 
or 14 days the peculiar smell of the fer- 
mentation is strongly established ; then 
the liquid is put into a barrel, closed up, 
and placed in a cool cellar to settle ; after 
3 or 4 days it will be cleared ; it is then 
bottled, and six weeks later is fit for 
drinking. We believe that grape juice 
may be used in place of cider, but if too 
acid, sugar and water would only make 
a kind of lemonade, and spoil the sherry 
taste, which is not acid. Sugar does not 
destroy this, but sulphite of lime is the 
proper material (not sulphate). 

Strawberry Wine. — 1. — Take of cold, 
soft water, 7 gal. ; cider, 6 gal. ; straw- 
berries, 6 gal. Ferment. Mix raw sugar, 
16 lb. ; red tartar, in fine powder, 3 oz. ; 
the peel and juice of 2 lemons ; then add 

2 or 3 qt. of brandy. This will make 18 
gal. 

2.— Take of cold, soft water, 10 gal.; 
strawberries, 9 gal. Ferment. Mix raw 
sugar, 25 lb. ; red tartar, in fine powder, 

3 oz. ; 2 lemons and 2 oranges, peel and 
juice ; then add 1 gal. of brandy. Tliis 
will make 18 gal. 

Tokay, British. — To good cider, 18 gal., 
add of elderberry juice, i/^ gal. ; honey, 
28 lb. ; sugar, 14 lb. ; red argol, in pow- 
der, % lb. ; crystallized tartaric acid, 3 
oz. ; mix, boil, ferment ; and when the 
active fermentation is complete add of 
brandy, 1 gal., and suspend in the liquid 
from the bunghole a mixture of cassia 
and ginger, of each % oz. ; cloves and 
capsicum, of each i/4 oz- ; the whole 
bruised, and loosely enclosed in a coarse 
muslin bag. It will be ripe in 12 months. 

White Wine. — Cider, 100 gal. ; honey, 
80 lb. ; sugar, 20 lb. ; mix, and ferment ; 
add spirit, 6 gal. ; white tartar, 1% lb. ; 
bitter almonds, bruised, 1 oz. 

Yeast Wine. — Pour 100 parts of water 
in which 12 to 14 parts of white loaf 
sugar have been dissolved on to 40 parts 
of fresh wine yeast, and allow the whole 
to ferment at 41° F. The fermented wine 
is drawn off from the yeast, and may be 
further fortified by the addition of spirits. 
269] 



CHAPTEE YI 



CEMEIS^TS, GLUES, PASTES, MUCILAGES AND 
ALL ADHESIYES 



GENERAL SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 



CEMENTS PROPER 

ACID-PROOF 

AQUARIUM 

BARRELS AND CASKS 

BUILDING 

CASEIN 

CELLULOID 

DENTAL 

GLASS, ETC. 

JEWELERS' 

LEATHER 

MECHANICS' 

METALS 

METALS TO GLASS, ETC. 

METALS TO LEATHER, ETC. 



CEMENTS PROPER— Continued 

MICROSCOPISTS' 
RUBBER 
WOOD TO WOOD 
MINOR USES 

OTHER ADHESIVES 

GLUE 

LUTES 

MUCILAGE 

PASTES 

PASTES FOR SPECIAL USES 

PUTTY 

SPECIAL ADHESIVES 



The importance of cements, both in the 
workshop and in the household, is uni- 
versally acknowledged, but the frequency 
of failures in the use of them shows that 
no matter how good the receipt, or how 
carefully compounded, if the cement is 
carelessly applied or allowed an insuffi- 
cient time for setting, bad results are sure 
to follow. By observing the following sim- 
ple rules much time and money can be 
saved : 

1. — See that the surfaces are clean. 
Dirt and grease are sure to breed trouble. 
Wash the article with lye (caustic pot- 
ash), or if from the nature of the sub- 
stance lye cannot be used, with carbon 
bisulphide. The hands are very liable to 
be greasy, and the edges to be joined 
should not be touched by them. If the 
substances to be united have been joined 
before, all traces of the former cement 
must be removed. 

2. — Bring the cement into intimate con- 
tact with the surfaces to be united. This 
is best done by heating the pieces to be 
joined in those cases where the cement 
is melted by heat, as in using rosin, shel- 
lac, marine glue, etc. This heating is of 
great importance and is usually neglected, 
to the detriment of the strength of the 
joint. This fact is understood by cement 
peddlers, and some of the really marvelous 



feats performed by them are entirely 
owing to this cause. Where solutions are 
u^ed the cement must be well rubbed into 
the surfaces, either with a soft brush (as 
in the case of porcelain or glass) or by 
rubbing the two surfaces together (as in 
making a glue joint between two pieces of 
wood). 

3. — As little cement as possible should 
be allowed to remain between the united 
surfaces. To secure this the cement 
should be as liquid as possible (thoroughly 
melted if used with heat), and the sur- 
faces should be pressed closely into con- 
tact (by screws, weights, wedges or cords) 
until the cement has hardened. These 
mechanical aids also help to displace the 
thin film of air which sticks closely to 
the substance. The ordinary carpenter's 
hand screw is recommended for use with 
cements. It is in use by all cabinet mak- 
ers and carpenters for gluing, A string 
tightly bound about the object answers the 
same purpose and is good if tight. All 
excess should be removed from the edges 
while the cement is still liquid. Plenty of 
time should be allowed for the cement to 
dry or harden, and this is particularly the 
case in oil cements, such as copal varnish, 
boiled oil, white lead, etc. When 2 sur- 
faces, each % in. across, are joined by 
means of a layer of white lead placed be- 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[271] 



Cements, Glues, Tastes, Etc. 



(Acid-proof Cements) 



tween them, 6 months may elapse before 
the cement in the middle of the joint has 
become hard. In such cases a few days or 
weeks are of no account ; at the end of 
a month the joint will be weak and easily 
separated, while at the end of 2 or 3 years 
it may be so firm that the material will 
part anywhere else than at the joint. 
Hence when the article is to be used im- 
mediately the only safe cements are those 
which are liquefied by heat and which 
become hard when cold. A joint made 
with marine glue is firm an hour after it 
has been made. Next to cements that are 
liquefied by heat are those which consist 
of substances dissolved in water or al- 
cohol. A glue joint sets firmly in 24 
hours ; a joint made with shellac varnish 
becomes dry in 2 or 3 days. Oil cements, 
which do not dry by evaporation, but 
harden by oxidation (boiled oil, white 
lead, red lead, etc.), are the slowest of all. 

4. — Coloring matters may be introduced 
into cements with good effect. But care 
should be used not to mix anything with 
the cement which will set up any chemical 
action and so weaken the joint. 

5. — Select the right recipe from the fol- 
lowing very full list of cements, which 
contains all which are of value and many 
which are published for the first time. A 
good rubber cement, shellac varnish and a 
good gutta percha cement as the following 
should be on every amateur's work table. 

A Strong and Handy Cement. — One of 
the strongest cements, and very readily 
made, is obtained when equal quantities of 
gutta percha and shellac are melted to- 
gether and well stirred. This is best done 
in an iron capsule placed on a sand bath 
and heated either over a gas furnace or 
on the top of a stove. It is a combination 
possessing both hardness and toughness — • 
qualities that make it particularly desir- 
able in mending crockery. When this 
cement is used, the articles to be mended 
should be warmed to about the melting 
point of the mixture, and then retained 
in proper position until cool, when they 
are ready for use. 

ACID-PROOF CEMENTS 

1. — Acid-proof cements are used for 
cementing troughs or other objects in- 
tended to hold acid. 

2. — For Galvanoplasty. — An oaken 
trough, close made, will last from 12 to 15 
years if coated with Burgundy pitch, 
1,500 grams; old gutta percha in shreds, 
250 grams; pounded pumice, 750 grams. 
Melt the gutta percha, mix with the 
pumice and add the pitch. A hot iron 
passed over the surface smooths it and as- 

[ 



(Acid-proof Cements) 



sists adhesion. The box resists sulphate 
of copper baths, but not cyanide. 

3. — Melt together pitch, 1 part ; rosin, 
1 part, and plaster of paris (perfectly 
dry), 1 part. 

4. — A good acid-proof cement is made 
by mixing a concentrated solution of sili- 
cate of soda with powdered glass to form 
a paste. This is useful for luting joints 
in vessels exposed to a^id fumes. 

5. — A mixture of china clay and boiled 
linseed oil, in the proportions needed to 
produce the right consistency. 

6. — Quicklime and linseed oil, mixed 
stiffly together, form a hard cement, re- 
sisting both heat and acids. 

7. — A stiffly mixed paste of pipeclay 
and coal tar. 

8. — A cement which, according to Dr. 
Wagner, is proof against even boiling 
acids, may be made by a composition of 
India rubber, tallow, lime and red lead. 
The India rubber must first be softened by 
a gentle heat and then 6 to 8% by weight 
of tallow is added to the mixture while it 
is kept well stirred ; next dry slaked lime 
is applied until the fluid mass assumes a 
consistency similar to that of soft paste; 
lastly 20% of red lead is added, in order 
to make it harden and dry. 

9. — Sulphur, 100 parts; tallow, 2 
parts; rosin, 2 parts. Melt, add sifted 
ground glass. 

10.— Rosin, 1 part ; sulphur, 1 part ; 
brick dust, 2 parts; the whole is melted 
after careful mixing. This lute is proof 
against the attacks of nitric and hydro- 
chloric acid vapors. 

11. — Melt 1 part of pure rubber in 2 
parts of linseed oil ; add 6 parts of pipe- 
clay. This mixture produces a plastic 
cement Which softens by heat, but does 
not melt. 

12. — Rosin, 3 lb. ; dried red ocher, % 
lb. ; calcined plaster of paris, ^4 lb. ; lin- 
seed oil, % lb. These must be incorpo- 
rated by stirring together when melted. 

13. — Have boxes perfectly dry ; smear 
them inside with a hot mixture of 4 parts 
rosin, 1 part gutta percha and a little 
boiled oil. The mixture must be thor- 
oughly melted and stirred before use. A 
hot rod of iron may be used to melt it 
into the crevices. They can be used for 
any ordinary type of battery. 

14. — Melt over a water bath 2 parts 
tallow and gradually add until all is dis- 
solved 30 parts pure rubber. When thor- 
oughly melted add 2 parts of slaked lime. 

15. — Asbestos. — Ground asbestos may 

be made into a cement which will stand a 

high degree of heat by simply mixing it 

with a solution of sodium silicate. By 

272] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Aquarium Cements) 



subsequent treatment with a solution of 
calcium chloride the mass may be made 
insoluble, silicate of calcium being formed. 

a. — Asbestos, 2 parts ; barium sulphate, 
3 parts ; sodium silicate, 2 parts ; mix. 
This cement will resist the strongest nitric 
acid. If hot acids are dealt with, the 
following will be found to possess still 
more resistant powers : b. — Sodium sili- 
cate, 2 parts ; fine sand, 1 part ; asbestos 
powder, 1 part. Both these cements take 
a few hours to set. If the cement is 
wanted to set at once, use potassium sili- 
cate instead of sodium silicate. 

b. — Mix 1 part each of asbestos and 
fine sprinkling sand and 3 to 4 parts of 
soda water glass (30° B6.). The mass is 
plastic, speedily dries in the air and is 
fireproof. After being exposed to the 
acids kept in these vessels, the mass is 
waterproof, although it could before this 
be softened in water. 

AQUARIUM CEMENTS 

1. — Whiting, 6 parts; plaster of pans, 
3 parts; white beach sand, 3 parts; 
litharge, 3 parts.; powdered rosin, 1 part. 
Mix thoroughly and make into a putty 
with the best coach varnish. Leave the 
glass a week before disturbing. 

2. — Linseed oil, 3 oz. ; tar, 4 oz. ; rosin, 
1 lb. ; melt together over a gentle fire. If 
too much oil is used, the cement will run 
down the angles of the aquarium ; to ob- 
viate this it should be tested before using 
by allowing a small quantity to cool under 
water ; if not found sufficiently firm, al- 
low it to simmer longef or add more tar 
and rosin. The cement should be poured 
in the corners of the aquarium while 
warm (not hot). This cement is pliable 
and is not poisonous. 

3. — Take litharge, 10 parts by measure ; 
plaster of paris, 10 parts ; dry white sand, 
10 parts ; finely powdered rosin, 1 part, 
and mix them when wanted for use into a 
pretty stiff putty with boiled linseed oil. 
This will stick to wood, stone, metal or 
glass and hardens under water. It is also 
good for marine aquaria, as it resists the 
action of salt water. It is better not to 
use the tank until 3 days after it has been 
cemented. 

4. — Gypsum, 2 parts ; chalk, 2 parts ; 
litharge, 2 parts; powdered rosin, 1 part. 
Mix with boiled linseed oil until a mass 
resembling glazier's putty results. An ex- 
cellent material for tightening aquaria 
has been found to be a mixture of Car- 
thage and glycerine, which turns as hard 
as stone within a few hours. 

5. — Gutta percha, in shreds, 4 oz. ; 
black pitch, 8 o::. ; shellac, 2 dr. Melt in 



(Bristles, Cement for) 



an iron ladle on a sand bath and stir to- 
gether. Pour out on a wet slab and roll 
into sticks. 

6. — The following is given by Dieter- 
ich : Litharge, 20 parts ; white sand, 
finest, 20 parts ; plaster of paris, 20 parts ; 
manganese borate, 1 part ; rosin, pow- 
dered, 70 parts ; boiled linseed oil, q. s. 
Mix the solids and make them into a 
paste with the oil. 

BARRELS AND CASKS 

1. — Brewers^ Cement for Coating. — The 
following compound is recommended as a 
good and cheap substitute for brewers' 
pitch : Coat twice the inside of a barrel 
with a solution of rosin, % lb. ; shellac, 2 
oz. ; turpentine, 2 lb., and yellow wax, % 
oz., in 1 qt. of strong alcohol. After the 
complete drying of the second coat give a 
last coat by applying a solution of 1 lb. 
shellac in 1 qt. of strong alcohol. This 
varnish will perfectly cover up the pores 
and does not crack off or impart a foreign 
taste to the beer. 

2. — Cement for Closing. — Tallow, 5 
parts ; wax, 4 parts ; lard, 8 parts ; wood 
ashes, sifted, 5 parts. Apply with heat. 

3. — Leaking Barrels. — Melt at a low 
heat a mixture of lard, 30 parts ; rock 
salt, 30 parts ; wax, 10 parts, and paraf- 
fine, 6 parts. To this add 25 parts finely 
sifted wood ashes. This cement is ap- 
plied warm over the leaky places. 

4. — Massiafs Cement for Covering 
Bungs. — Melt rubber with 10 to 20% tal- 
low or beeswax. Gradually add finely 
pounded quicklime. 

5. — Wax Putty for Leaky Casks, 
Bungs, etc. — Yellow wax, 4 lb. ; tallow, 
2 lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 lb. ; solid 
turpentine, 6 lb. Melt the wax and solid 
turpentine over a gentle fire ; add the tal- 
low. When melted take entirely away 
from the fire, add the spirits of turpen- 
tine, let it cool. 

BRISTLES IN HAIR BRUSHES, 
SETTING FOR 

1. — Pitch or shellac, 1 to 2 parts ; gutta 
percha, 1 part. Melt together, stirring 
until thoroughly incorporated, then pour 
into cold water. When cold this is a 
black elastic mass, softening with heat. 

2. — Rosin, 2 parts ; yellow wax, 2 parts ; 
burnt ocher, 2 parts. Melt the rosin with 
the wax and stir in the ocher which 
should be in a very fine state of division. 
Keep the mass heated -to a fluid until 
ready to pour into the form. 

3. — Slaked lime, powdered, 54 parts ; 
powdered alum, 6 parts ; fresh beef blood, 



[273] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Building Cements) 



strained, 40 parts. Mix the powders and 
stir them intimately into the blood. 

BUILDING CEMENTS 

1. — To 1 heaped bushel of mortar, made 
in the ordinary way, add Sy2 qt. (dry 
measure) of iron scale and l^/^ qt. of 
molasses. Use the same day. 

2. — Blood Cement, Pointing for Bricks. 
— a. — Slaked lime, 50 parts ; beaten bul- 
lock's blood, 40 parts ; alum, 1 part ; mix. 

b. — Slaked lime, 50 parts ; fine ashes, 
25 parts ; bullock's blood, 8 to 10 parts. 

3. — Building Stone, Cheap. — Plaster of 
paris, 20 parts ; hydraulic lime, 2 parts ; 
liquid glue, 1 part ; water, 100 parts ; pour 
into molds when hard ; dry in the air for 
2 weeks. 

4. — English Roman Cement. — Take a 
bushel of lime slaked with '6^2 lb. of green 
copperas, 15 gal. of water and % a bushel 
of fine gravel sand. The copperas should 
be dissolved in hot water ; it must be 
stirred with a stick and kept stirring con- 
tinually while in use. Care should be 
taken to mix at once, as much may be 
requisite for one entire front, and it is 
very difficult to match the color again. It 
ought to be mixed the same day it is used. 

5. — Facing Putty. — Mix whiting, some 
white lead and a small quantity of lith- 
arge. Then add a small quantity of dry- 
ing oil. This putty is especially good for 
stopping small flaws. 

6. — Floors. — a. — For cellar bottoms use 
5 parts of clean, coarse, sharp sand (plas- 
terers call it fine gravel) to 1 part of 
cement. It only requires to be damp 
enough to work well. It is mixed in a 
box, wheeled into the cellar, dumped, and 
spread smooth with a shovel, hoe or 
trowel, about 2 in. thick. Take a spade 
or shovel, flat side, and beat it down hard 
and smooth. For finishing, use 1 part 
of cement to 1 part of sand ; this is thor- 
oughly mixed, and then watered so it is 
like plastering mortar. Dump it on the 
first coat, about % in. thick, spread and 
smooth with a trowel. It will soon become 
as hard as stone. The cement is known 
as Portland cement, though the common 
hydraulic cement will answer if fresh. 

b. — Mix 6 parts of plaster of paris with 
1 part of lime ; wet, slake, and lay the 
floor. Then go over it after it is dry 
with a solution of copperas. This is 
repeated several times. The surface must 
be perfectly dry before each application. 
Finally, after some days' drying, brown 
with boiled linseed oil, and finally varnish 
with copal varnish. The floor may have 
to be laid in sections, on account of the 

[ 



(Building Cements) 



expansion on setting. The iron oxide 
turns brown on exposure to the air. 

7. — Granite Works, Filling in. — A fill- 
ing that is used to fill up holes and to 
patch up nicked corners, etc., in granite 
monuments is made by melting gum dam- 
mar in a shallow vessel, over a water 
bath, so as not to burn it. When quite 
thin, stir in granite dust, and add enough 
marble dust to lighten it to the color 
of the granite. Stir in all the dust the 
gum will easily hold ; roll out in long 
sticks, and it is ready for use. To apply, 
heat an iron red hot, and hold it over 
the stone, and at the same time hold 
the stick near the monument, and it will 
melt, and can then be pressed into the 
cavity. When cold, pare down with a 
sharp tool, and touch it up lightly with 
a bush hammer or chisel. 

8. — Hamelin^s Mastic, for Covering 
Buildings. — Silicious sand, 60 parts ; 
Bath or Portland stone (in fine powder), 
40 parts ; lime marl, 20 parts ; litharge, 
8 parts ; ground together. For use, it 
is mixed up with linseed oil, and used 
like mortar. When this cement is ap- 
plied to the purpose of covering build- 
ings intended to resemble stone the sur- 
face of the building is first washed with 
linseed oil. 

9. — Hydraulic Cement. — a. — Burnt 
brick, 63 parts ; litharge, 7 parts. Use 
with linseed oil. Wet the surfaces to be 
cemented. 

b. — Gad's. — Clay, well dried and pow- 
dered, 3 parts ; oxide of iron, 1 part ; 
mixed together, and made into a stiff 
paste with boiled oil. Used for work re- 
quired to harden under water. 

c. — Turkish Plaster or Hydraulic Ce- 
ment. — Fresh lime (reduced to powder), 
150 lb. ; linseed oil, 15 qt. ; cotton, 1% 
to 3 oz. Gradually mix the oil and cot- 
ton into the lime until the mixture is 
of the consistency of bread dough. Mix 
in a wooden vessel. Dry the mixture, 
and, when used, form a paste by mixing 
with linseed oil. Put on in coats. Used 
to coat water pipes of clay or metal. 

10. — Linseed-Oil Cements, for Jointing 
Stones, etc. — Linseed oil, 25 parts ; boil 
with 35 parts of litharge and 2.50 parts 
of finely powdered burned lime. Use hot. 

11. — Martin's. — This is manufactured 
in the same way as Keene's, only car- 
bonate of soda or carbonate of potash is 
used, as well as alum, and the burning 
is carried on at a higher temperature. 

12. — Metallic Cement. — (See Stone Re- 
pairing.) 

13. — Parian Cement. — Also made in 
the same way as Keene's, but with the 
274] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Building Cements) 



use of a solution of borax, the biborate 
of soda, in place of alum. All these 
cements are capable of receiving a high 
degree of polish, and as they dry very 
rapidly, can be painted over within a few 
days. 

14. — Pen's Cement for Covering Build- 
ings, etc. — Powdered quicklime, 1 part ; 
powdered baked clay, 2 parts ; mix, then 
add 1 part of freshly baked and pow- 
dered gypsum to 2 parts of powdered 
baked clay ; and after mixing well, add 
them to the former powder, and thor- 
oughly incorporate the two. It is mixed 
up with water and applied like mortar. 
It acquires great hardness, and is very 
durable. 

15. — Pointing for Buildings. — Use equal 
parts of hydraulic cement (Portland), 
lime, and fine white sand. 

16. — Portland Cement. — It derives its 
name from its supposed resemblance to 
Portland stone when used as a stucco 
upon walls. The materials required in 
its manufacture are chalk, or any other 
"rich" limestone, river mud, or clay, and 
oxide of iron, the proportions in which 
these materials are mixed varying at dif- 
ferent works — from 65 to 80% of lime- 
stone and 20 to 35% of clay and iron 
oxide, which are intimately mixed witli 
water in a mill, then dried slowly on hot 
plates, and afterward calcined in a kiln 
and reduced to fine powder. Before be- 
ing used, the cement should be kept for 
some months in a dry place, as its co- 
hesive strength is thereby increased. It 
hardens rapidly when stirred up with 
water, and possesses great cohesive power, 
which is diminished by the admixture of 
sand. When used as a stucco it can be 
mixed with 3 or 4 parts of sand to 1 of 
cement, and the setting then proceeds 
more slowly than if pure cement is used. 
The sand must be perfectly free from 
loamy particles, otherwise it will not_ 
harden, but will crumble to pieces at the 
touch. If painted over with oil color 
soon after it has been laid on a wall it 
will peel off and form blisters, probably 
from the large proportion of quicklime it 
contains not being thoroughly slaked be- 
fore it hardened. Some months, there- 
fore, should be allowed to elapse before 
paint is applied to it. 

17. — Roman Cement. — This consists of 
pulvis Puteolanus or pozzuolana, a fer- 
ruginous clay from Puteoli, calcined by 
the fires of Vesuvius, lime and sand, 
mixed up with soft water. The only 
preparation which the pozzuolana under- 
goes is that of pounding and sifting ; but 
the ingredients are occasionally mixed up 



(Building Cements) 



with bullock's blood and fat of animals, 
to give the composition more tenacity. 
18. — Roman Cement. — Ordinary clay, 

00 lb. ; calcine, and mix with 40 lb. lime ;; 
recalcine the whole. 

19. — Roofs. — a. — Melt together in an 
iron pot 2 parts by weight of common 
pitch and 1 part gutta percha. This 
forms a homogeneous fluid much more 
manageable than gutta percha alone. To 
repair gutters, roofs, or other surfaces, 
carefully clean out of the cracks all earthy 
matters, slightly warm the edges with 
a plumber's soldering iron, then pour the 
cement, in a fluid state, upon the cracks 
while hot, finishing up by going over the 
cement with a moderately hot iron, so 
as to make a good connection and a smooth 
joint. The above will repair zinc, lead 
or iron, and is a good cement for aqua- 
riums. 

b. — Rosin, 4 lb. ; linseed oil, 1 pt. ; red 
lead, 2 oz. ; stir in fine sand until the 
proper consistency is secured, and apply 
warm. This cement becomes hard, and 
yet possesses considerable elasticity, is 
durable and waterproof. 

20. — Roofs, Tile. — Dry sand and whit- 
ing, equal parts ; litharge, 25%. Make 
of the consistency of putty, with linseed 
oil. This cement is not liable to crack 
when cold, or melt, like tar or asphalt, 
with the heat of the sun. 

21. — Sandstone, Cement for. — Clean 
sand, 10 parts ; lead oxide, 1 part ; ground 
lime, ^ part ; mix with linseed oil. 

22. — Stone Repairing, Metallic Cement 
for. — The following recipe is given by 
Professor Brune, of the School of Fine 
Arts. It was used in the restoration of 
the colonnade of the Louvre, of the Point 
Neuf, and of the Conservatoire des Arts 
et Metiers. It consists of a powder and 
a liquid. The powder : 2 parts by weight 
of oxide of zinc, 2 parts of crushed lime- 
stone of a hard nature, and 1 part of 
crushed grit, the whole intimately mixed 
and ground. Ocher in suitable propor- 
tions is added as a coloring matter. The 
liquid: A saturated solution of zinc in 
commercial hydrochloric acid, to which 
is added a part, by weight, of hydrochlo- 
rate of ammonia equal to 1-6 that of the 
dissolved zinc. This liquid is diluted with 
2-3 of its bulk of water. To use the ce- 
ment, 1 lb. of powder is to be mixed 
with 2,y2 pt. of the liquid. The cement 
hardens very quickly, and is very strong. 

23. — Stonemason's Cement. — Clean riv- 
er sand, 20 lb. ; litharge, 2 lb. ; quicklime, 

1 lb. ; linseed oil, sufiicient to form a thick 
paste. This cement is applied to mend 



[275] 



Cements, Glues, Tastes, Etc. 



(Concrete) 



broken pieces of stone, and after a time 
it becomes exceedingly hard and strong. 

24. — Terra Cotta. — Coat the terra cotta 
after heating, and apply the cement as 
soon as possible. The cement is made 
as follows : Rosin, 10 parts ; yellow wax, 
10 parts ; sulphur, 2 parts. Melt these 
together and add 1 part each of hammer 
slag and quartz sand. Point up the edges 
of the joint with pounded terra cotta. 

Articles on the Manufacture, Chemis- 
try, Testing, Hardening, etc., of Building 
Cements are contained in the Scientific 
American Supplement, Nos. *1433, *1465, 
*1466, 1491, 1510, 1511, 1533, 1561, 1575, 
1587, 1588, 1590, 1679, 1723 and 1724. 
For voluminous data on Concrete and Re- 
inforced Concrete Construction of Dwell- 
ings, Farm Buildings, Walks, Posts, etc. ; 
Engineering Structures, Computation, 
Formula for Floors, Beams, Columns, 
etc. ; Proportioning, Mixing, Selecting of 
Sand and Aggregates, Surface Treatment, 
Waterproofing, etc., see our Scientific 
American Supplement, Nos. *1547, *1548, 
1551, 1564, 1565, *1567, 1568, *1569, 
*1570, *1571, *1573, *1575, *1576, *1577, 
1580, 1581, 1583, 1586, 1591, 1595, 1596, 
1605, *1608, 1624, 1626, *1634, 1658, 
*1673, *1685, *1721, *1773, *1687 and 
1778. (*) Indicates illustrated articles. 

Concrete. 

1. — A good concrete is used in France 
for building purposes that possesses the 
necessary qualities of solidity and hard- 
ness. It is composed of 8 parts of sand, 
gravel and pebbles ; 1 part of common 
earth, burned and powdered ; 1 part of 
powdered cinders and 1^/^ parts of un- 
slaked hydraulic lime. These materials 
must be thoroughly beaten up together ; 
their mixture, when properly moistened, 
gives a concrete which sets almost imme- 
diately, and becomes in a few days ex- 
tremely hard and solid, properties which 
may be still further increased by the ad- 
dition of a small quantity — say 1 part— 
of Portland cement. It is stated that 
many large buildings have been construct- 
ed of this material in France — in one 
case a house 3 stories in height, 65 x 45 
ft., standing on a terrace, having a re- 
taining wall built perpendicularly 20 ft. 
high and 200 ft. in length. Every part 
of this structure was made of hard con- 
crete, including foundations, vaults of 
cellars, retaining wall, and all walls, ex- 
terior and interior, as well as the cornice 
work, moldings, string courses, parapets 
and balustrades, and the building has 
no band iron in the quoins, or other plan 
to bind it together. All lintels over doors 



(Concrete) 



and windows and sills are composed of 
the same materials, being cast in molds. 

2. — a. — Coarse sand, 5 parts ; pebbles, 
12 parts ; lime, 3 parts. 

b. — Pebbles, 16 parts ; river sand, 8 
parts ; lime, 2 parts. 

3. — Brickwork. — Slaked lime, 7 parts, 
by measure ; sand, 12 parts. 

4. — Coignet Beton. — Sand, 5 measures; 
quicklime, 1 measure ; hydraulic cement, 
%: to ^2 measure. 

5. — Floors. — To make a permanent 
pavement, excavate to the depth of 2 ft., 
and lay in the largest stone you can pro- 
cure, 1 ft. deep. Fill in upon this bed 
enough small stones of egg size to level 
it very smooth, carefully filling all the 
interstices between the large stones. Now 
procure a quantity of coarse gravel, en- 
tirely free from loam, and fill in up to 
within 6 in. of the surface. Let this 
remain in this condition until it has un- 
dergone a thorough settling and packing, 
by being subjected to a heavy rain. You 
will now have a solid, substantial bed 
for your concrete, which may be made 
as follows : To 3 lb. of clear, sharp sand 
add 1 bbl. of good cement, dry. Thor- 
oughly incorporate, then sprinkle enough 
water upon the mixture to make a paste, 
stirring it well. To this paste add 2 
bbl. of stone chips and 2 bbl. of coarse 
gravel, but only as much, however, as 
the paste will take up. Mix thoroughly, 
and deposit it immediately on the bed, 
letting it fall from the barrow, and level- 
ing it off to its proper height. The whole 
floor should be covered with as little de- 
lay as possible, and when laid should be 
compressed by a rammer such as is used 
by street pavers. Finish with a thin 
coat of pure cement mortar, to bring the 
surface to complete evenness, and do not 
let it dry too quickly, but wet it occa- 
sionally, so that it may have all the water 
it will absorb. 

6. — Foundations. — Five parts gravel 
and sand to 1 part fresh-burned stone 
lime, ground to powder, without slaking, 
and measured dry. Well turn and shovel 
together, with sufiicient water to slake 
the lime into the state of very thick mor- 
tar. Chips and small pieces of stone may 
be added with advantage. 

7. — Marhle. — Very finely powdered mar- 
ble, or white limestone, is mixed with 
milk of lime until a smooth paste is 
formed. Some powdered limestone may 
now be added, and the mixture used at 
once. 

8. — Masonry. — a. — Screened sand, 9 
parts by measure ; slaked lime, 7 parts ; 
forge ashes, 1 part ; pozzuolana, 1 part. 



[276] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Marble, To Cement) 



b. — Slaked lime, 1 part ; sea sand, 1 
part ; furnace ashes, % part. 

Marble, To Cement. 

1. — Melt together 8 parts of rosin and 
1 of wax ; when melted, stir in 4 or 5 
parts of plaster of paris. The pieces to 
be joined should be made hot. 

2. — Procure a small piece of quicklime 
fresh from a newly burnt kiln, slake with 
the white of an egg, wash the fractured 
parts quite clean, and apply. 

3. — Soak plaster of paris in a saturated 
solution of alum, bake in an oven, reduce 
it to a powder, mix with water, and ap- 
ply ; it sets like granite. 

4. — Mix 12 parts of Portland cement, 
6 parts of slaked lime, 6 parts of fine 
sand and 1 part of infusorial earth, and 
make up into a thick paste with silicate 
of soda. The object to be cemented does 
not require to be heated. It sets in 24 
hours, and the fracture cannot be readily 
found. 

5. — Make a thick mucilage of 1 oz. of 
gum arable, add 1^^ oz, dental plaster, 
and finally i/^ oz. finely powdered quick- 
lime ; mix well. When required for use 
heat the marble. 

6. — Coat the marble with linseed-oil 
varnish, then apply the following cement : 
Brick dust, 10 parts; litharge (elutri- 
ated ) , 1 part ; linseed-oil varnish, 2 parts ; 
work up into a stiff putty. 

7. — Mix litharge and freshly burned 
lime in the proportion 20 to 1. Make into 
a putty with q. s. of linseed oil. 

8. — Lac, colored to imitate the marble ; 
may be mixed with marble dust passed 
through a silken sieve. 

9. — W. F. Reid gives the following de- 
tails for it. Begin with the raw gypsum 
in lumps of moderate size, burning them 
at the usual temperature (below red 
heat). The solution of alum should con- 
tain 1 part of this salt in 10 parts of 
water. There is no difficulty in dissolv- 
ing this quantity if the water be previous- 
ly heated and the alum coarsely pulver- 
ized. By immersing the lumps of burnt 
gypsum in this solution while they are 
still warm, and leaving them in it for 
about 15 minutes, they will become thor- 
oughly saturated with the liquid. They 
should then be allowed to drain, and 
again burnt, but this time at a red heat. 
Gypsum which has been treated in this 
way forms, when pulverized, a slow-set- 
ting cement which ultimately attains great 
hardness, and has frequently been used 
for making paving tiles, especially in 
Italy. 

10. — Into a solution of chloride of zinc, 

[ 



(Mortar) 



1.490 to 1.652 sp. gr., is introduced 3% 
of borax or sal ammoniac ; when this is 
dissolved oxide of zinc, which has been 
subjected to a red heat, is added, till the 
mass attains the desired consistency. This 
cement becomes as hard as marble, and 
may be used for molding. 

11. — Portland cement, 12 parts ; slaked 
lime, 6 parts ; fine sand, 6 parts ; infu- 
sorial earth, 1 part ; mix into a thick 
paste with silicate of soda. The object 
to be cemented need not be warmed. The 
cement sets in 24 hours, and the fracture 
can then hardly be detected. The ce- 
mented portions are harder than the rest, 
and the -fracture cannot by any chance 
be reopened. 

12. — Keene's Marlle Cement. — Baked 
gypsum or plaster of paris, steeped in a 
saturated solution of alum, and then re- 
calcined and reduced to powder. For use, 
mix up with water the same as plaster 
of paris. This important cement will not 
stand the weather, but is admirably adap- 
ted for applying as a stucco. 

Mortar. 

1. — A mortar that can hardly be picked 
to pieces is made as follows : Mix equal 
parts of lime and brown sugar with 
water, and be sure the lime is thoroughly 
air-slaked. This mortar is equal to Port- 
land cement, and is of extraordinary 
strength. 

2. — Mortar is composed of quicklime 
and sand reduced to a paste with water. 
The lime ought to be pure, completely 
free from carbonic acid, and in the state 
of a very fine powder ; the sand should 
be free fi"om clay, partly in the state of 
fine sand, and partly in the state of 
gravel ; the water should be pure ; and if 
previously saturated with lime, so much 
the better. The best proportions are 3 
parts of fine and 4 parts of coarse sand, 
1 part of quicklime, recently slaked, and 
as little water as possible. 

3. — The addition of burnt bones im- 
proves mortar, by giving it tenacity, and 
rendering it less apt to crack in drying ; 
but they ought never to exceed i^. of the 
lime employed. 

4. — When a little manganese is added 
to the mortar it acquires the important 
property of hardening under water, so 
that it may be employed in constructing 
those edifices which are constantly ex- 
posed to the action of water. Limestone 
is often combined with manganese ; in 
that case it becomes brown by calcina- 
tion. 

5. — Impenetrahle. — To make impene- 
trable mortar, mix thoroughly 14 of freih 
277] 



Cements, Glues, Tastes, Etc. 



(Roads and Pavements) 



unslaked lime witli % of sand, and let 
5 laborers make mortar of these ingredi- 
ents, by pouring on water with trowels, 
to supply one mason, who must, when 
the materials are sufficiently mixed, apply 
it instantly as cement or plaster, and it 
will become as hard as stone. The lime 
used should be stone lime ; previous to 
its use it should be preserved from the 
access of air or wet, and the plaster 
screened for some time from the sun and 
wind. 

6. — Khorassar or Turkish. — Powdered 
brick and tiles, 1 part ; fine sifted lime, 
2 parts ; mix with water to the desired 
consistency, put on layers of 5 or 6 in. 
in thickness, between the courses of brick 
and stone. This mortar is used where 
great solidity is required in buildings. 

7. — Waterproof. — Instead of slaking in 
the usual manner, use a solution of cop- 
peras dissolved in warm water, and use 
only fine quartz sand. 

Roads and Pavements. 

Cement Slabs. — These are made in 
metal-lined molds (as described with ar- 
tificial stone slabs), with or without 
pressure. The cement is Portland, and 
should not only be good, but well ma- 
tured. Granite chippings are mixed with 
the cement about 3 to 4 parts to 1 part 
cement, the granite passing through a 
3-16-in. mesh sieve. After well mixing 
in a dry state, water is applied sparingly 
by a fine rose, and the whole well mixed 
into a fairly stiff mass. The mixture is 
put into metal-lined molds, the corners 
and angles being well filled, and the whole 
rammed or beaten firm. When set hard, 
the slab is taken out and set in the open 
air to mature, if possible, for 3 or 4 
months. They are then in good condi- 
tion for paving. A better slab is pro- 
duced when pressure can be used. Tliis 
necessitates stiff cast-iron molds, and a 
simple form of machine to effect the press- 
ure with. By this means a good slab can 
be made with such material as clinker, 
to take the place of the granite, and can 
be put to utilize some of the waste ma- 
terial from destructor furnaces. In lay- 
ing these slabs, a bedding of sand or fine 
ash is put on the earth, and a layer of 
lime mortar put on this. Tlie slab 
is then laid, and the joints between the 
slabs are grouted with thin mortar. This 
makes an excellent pavement. 

Coke Breeze. — This is more usually 
adopted for covered floors or walks. The 
coke should pass through a sieve of %-in. 
mesh, but not be so fine as to pass 
through a 1-lG-in. mesh ; dust should not 



(Roads and Pavements) 



be used. Mix together 2^2 parts of coke, 
2 parts clean, sharp sand, and 1 part 
Portland cement. Let the parts be meas- 
ured, not guessed, and mixed in a dry 
state, then wetted sparingly with a rose. 
Mix into a stiff mass, and use. 

Concrete. — 1. — The terraza floors 
used in Italy at the present day are 
made in the following manner : First 
coat, a concrete consisting of common 
lime %, sand and fine gravel %, laid 6 
in. thick, and well beaten with wooden 
rammers ; after 2 days, in that climate, 
it is sufficiently dry for the next coat. 
Second coat, a terraza consisting of 
pounded brick or tile 1-6, common lime 
2-6, sand 3-6, of the consistency of mor- 
tar, laid 11/4 in. thick, well beaten with 
a light, flat rammer. After 2 or 3 days 
it is hard enough for the next coat. Third 
coat, a similar terraza, but with the grit 
of broken stones, instead of sand, in it, 
laid on like a coat of plaster, with a 
trowel. After this has been laid for 1 
day a layer of small, hard, broken stones 
is pressed into it ; these stones should be 
of some substance that will take a polish, 
and be of uniform size (they are passed 
through a gravel screen), about that of 
a walnut ; these being afterward rubbed 
to a smooth, even surface with some 
smooth, hard stone, form a. kind of mo- 
saic work. The stones are frequently se- 
lected by color, and laid in the third 
coat to a rough pattern. They should 
be moistened with oil or water till hard 
set. 

2. — Dig the earth out about 8 in., fill 
in with coarse gravel and stones, v/ell 
rammed, and leveled about 5 in. Mix 
Portland cement to the consistency of 
cream, and pour over, spreading it with 
a stiff broom ; when hard, mix finer gravel 
with cement and water, and fill up to 
within % in. of the surface ; when hard, 
mix clean, sharp sand and Portland ce- 
ment, half and half, with water to about 
the thickness of mortar, and finish, slight- 
ly rounding. It should not be walked 
on for a day or two. Cement must be 
Portland, and fresh. 

3. — It is sometimes contended that 
a concrete pavement or floor should 
consist of 3 layers, but there can be no 
doubt that the material of the 2 under 
layers can as well be mixed and laid as 
one. This would then consist of the 
roughest and a medium material, the lat- 
ter filling the voids in the larger stuff. 
This layer is best allowed to set before 
the final coat, which is made up of fine 
stuff. When this has been laid, and 
ruled or leveled off. a short time should 



[278] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Roads and Pavements) 



be allowed for it to commence setting, 
then the following finishing-off process 
is done. Take a hand float and beat the 
surface lightly until the "fat" appears, 
or until it "creams," then trowel it off 
with light strokes, and the finished sur- 
face will be as smooth as if it was wholly 
cement. It is best to let the top coat 
get somewhat firm before the hand float 
is used as described, for if this is done 
while the material is soft an uneven sur- 
face will result. 

Footwalks. — An excellent cement for 
all uses which require exposure to the 
weather or dampness is described in 
Der Praktische Maschinen-Constructeur. 
It is made by thoroughly stirring Port- 
land cement or good hydraulic lime into 
a warm solution of glue, so as to make 
a thick paste, and applying it immedia- 
ately. In three days it acquires extraor- 
dinary hardness and tenacity. It is an 
excellent cement for joining the porcelain 
heads to the metal spikes which are used 
as ornamental nails. 

Granolithic. — This consists of 1 part 
Portland cement and 3 parts of granite 
chippings, red oxide being added to give 
the characteristic color, if desired. The 
whole is first mixed dry, then wetted 
sparingly with a fine rose, well worked 
into a mass, and laid on a good founda- 
tion in the usual way. When set, the 
surface is polished with a rubber of York 
gritstone, fixed in a handle with an iron 
shoe, water being freely used during the 
rubbing, the presence of the granite mak- 
ing the polish possible, as cement only 
cannot be polished. Chippings of colored 
marble can replace the granite, and can 
be polished, but have not quite the good 
wearing qualities of granite. 

Roadway Cement. — The first coat 
should be 3% in. thick, 7 parts of sharp, 
coarse sand or fine gravel to 1 part of 
cement, thoroughly mixed in a box, dry, 
then dampened with water. Spread it on 
the ground in sections or squares. As 
soon as it is set, put on another coat, 1 
in. thick, of 1 part cement to 3 parts 
sharp sand. When that is set, for a fin- 
ishing coat put % in. thick of 1 part 
cement and 1 part sand. Do not drive 
over it for 5 days. 

Stone Flags, Artificial. — 1. — Take 1 
part of fresh and good quality Portland 
cement and 3 parts of small granite chip- 
pings (passed through a 3-16-in. mesh 
sieve), these chippings having been previ- 
ously washed and dried. Well mix the 
cement and chippings in a dry state. Now 
sprinkle water on carefully, using a fine 
rose to prevent the cement being washed 



(Roads and Pavements) 



through the chippings, and when thor- 
oughly mixed (and before setting com- 
mences) fill the molds, taking care to fill 
all angles and corners, that the finished 
flags may have good sharp angles. The 
molds, which are probably wooden frames, 
must be metal-lined, and soft soap may 
be used to prevent sticking. When the 
flags are sufliciently hard, loosen the 
molds and then immerse the flags in a 
tank (galvanized-iron tank will do) of 
silicate of soda solution, and allow them 
to remain 2 or 3 weeks. After this re- 
move the flags and stack them carefully 
in the open air to season ; the seasoning 
should be allowed considerable time. To 
make silicate of soda, the silicate stone 
is first crushed in an edge-runner mill 
and then put into steam-jacketed boilers 
with good caustic soda. Steam is then 
turned on, and the heat causes the two 
ingredients to combine, and form silicate 
of soda. 

2. — Flag Pavement. — Solution of water 
glass, 20 parts ; quicklime, 8 parts ; whit- 
ing, 80 parts. Used for flag pavement by 
mixing with small, sharp-edged stones and 
stamping in molds. Hardens slowly. 

3. — Stone Sidewalks, Artificial. — Eng- 
lish Portland cement is generally pre- 
ferred. Procure a sharp, light-colored 
sand, and wash it free from all particles 
of soft earth or soil ; also some stone 
chips, gravel and large stone. Excavate 
the sidewalk about 18 in. deep, and fill 
in the large stone to within 6 in. of the 
surface ; prepare a concrete made of the 
cement, 1 part, stone chips and gravel 
about 6 parts, and bed it in upon the 
stone bottom to within 2 in. of the sur- 
face ; then prepare a concrete of the ce- 
ment, 1 part, and fine sand 2 parts, and 
lay it in up to the surface, floating the 
surface with the cement at pleasure. Fin- 
ish by lining off into very regular blocks. 
A more economical sidewalk can be made 
by omitting the stone bed, but it will re- 
quire a good hard soil to lay it on, and 
then will not be so sure of being per- 
manent. 

Walks, Gravel and Tar. — Take 2 parts 
very dry lime rubbish and 1 part coal 
ashes, also very dry, and both sifted fine. 
In a dry place, on a dry day, mix them, 
and leave a hole in the middle of the heap, 
as bricklayers do when making mortar. 
Into this pour boiling hot coal tar, mix, 
and when as stiff as mortar put in 3 in. 
thick where the walk is to be ; the ground 
should be dry, and beaten smooth ; sprin- 
kle over it coarse sand. When cold, pass 
a light roller over it : in a few days the 
walk will be solid and waterproof. 



[279] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Casein Cements) 



CASEIN CEMENTS 

1. — Casein is used for a number of ce- 
ments which are useful, and, if prepared 
from pure casein, are very permanent. 
The cements of casein with lime are par- 
ticularly recommended. Pure casein is 
prepared in the following way : Skim the 
milk carefully until there is not a trace 
of cream. Let it stand in a warm place 
until it curdles. Then pour it through 
a paper filter. Wash the casein remain- 
ing on the filter with rain water until the 
water shows no trace of free acid. Tie 
the casein in a cloth, and boil in water 
to remove all fat. Spread on blotting 
paper, and dry in a moderately warm 
place. It will shrivel up in a hornlike 
mass. • 

2. — A solution of casein in a concen- 
trated aqueous solution of borax, made 
with cold water, makes a very tenacious 
cement. 

3. — Casein, in powder, 5 av.oz. ; quick- 
lime, in powder, 1 av.oz. ; camphor, in 
powder, 120 grams. Mix, This powder 
to be made into a cream with sufficient 
water before using. 

4. — ^Casein, in powder, 2 av.oz. ; borax, 
in powder, 1 av.oz. Mix. Made into a 
paste with water when required. 

5. — Casein, in powder, 3 av.oz. ; quick- 
lime, in powder, i/^ av.oz. ; salt of tartar, 
in powder, y^ av.oz. Mix. Made into 
paste with water when required. 

6. — Freshly precipitated casein, suffi- 
cient ; caustic soda, i/^ av.oz. ; potassium 
bichromate, l^ av.oz. ; boiling water, 4 
fl.oz. Dissolve the caustic soda in the 
boiling water, maintain the heat for 15 
minutes, adding to it all the casein it will 
dissolve, and allow to get cold. Rub the 
bichromate of potash to a powder in a 
Wedgwood mortar, and mix intimately 
with the cold casein solution. Put in 
a tin can with tight-fitting cover, and 
keep in a cool place. In using the casein 
cements, the edges of the articles must 
be perfectly clean, and the thinnest pos- 
sible coating put on both surfaces and 
put together with as much pressure as 
possible, and set aside in a dry place for 
several days. 

7. — Foreign Casein Cements. — a. — The 
chief cement used in the island of Suma- 
tra is made from the curd of buffalo milk, 
prepared in the following way : The milk 
is left to stand till all the butter has 
collected at the top. The latter is then 
removed and the thick, sour mass left 
is termed the curd. This is squeezed into 
cakes and left to dry, by which it be- 
comes as hard as flint. For use, some 



(Celluloid, Cement for) 



is scraped off, mixed with quicklime, and 
moistened with milk. It holds exceed- 
ingly well, even in a hot, damp climate, 
and is admirably adapted f«r mending 
porcelain vessels. 

b. — In the German cantons of Switzer- 
land a compound of cheese and slaked 
lime is used, under the name of Kaseleim, 
for laying floors, puttying joiners' work, 
making blocks for hand printing cotton 
and tapestry goods, and other like pur- 
poses. The material sets so rapidly that 
it is necessary to mix it as the work 
goes on, which entails trouble, and ne- 
cessitates a certain knack in its use. A 
Swiss chemist, Brunnschweiler, of St. 
Gall, has invented a preparation of lime 
and skim milk, to which he gives the 
name of Kaseleim-pulver, whereby these 
inconveniences are avoided. Fill a bot- 
tle to ^ of its height with damp casein ; 
then fill the flask with silicate of soda 
(water glass), and shake frequently until 
the casein is dissolved. 

8. — Whep, White of Egg, Lime. — a. — 
Use white of an egg, beaten up, an 
equal quantity of water, and add enough 
slaked lime to make a paste ; apply im- 
mediately. Whey might take the place 
of water, on account of the albuminoids 
contained. 

b. — Mix rapidly white of egg with plas- 
ter of paris containing % its weight of 
freshly slaked lime. 

c. — Mix white of egg with scraped lime, 
or calcined plaster of paris, or calcined 
and sifted oyster shells. 

d. — Work together freshly prepared 
casein and freshly calcined lime to make 
a thick paste. 

e. — Mix equal amounts of dry, pow- 
dered casein and slaked lime and mak-^ 
into a paste with water. Whey or skim 
milk may be used in place of water. 

CELLULOID 

1. — Make a mixture composed of t 
parts of alcohol and 4 parts of ether ; 
keep in a well corked bottle, and when 
celluloid articles are to be mended, paint 
the broken surfaces over with the alco- 
hol and ether mixture until the surfaces 
soften ; then press together and bind, and 
allow to dry for at least 24 hours. 

2. — Dissolve 1 part of gum camphor in 
4 parts of alcohol ; dissolve an equal 
weight of shellac in such strong cam- 
phor solution. The cement is applied 
warm, and the parts united must not be 
disturbed until the cement is hard. 

3. — Rasp the celluloid fine, and let it 
macerate in 90% alcohol to render it sol- 
uble. A solution may also be prepared 



[280] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Dental Cements) 



(more inflammable) by mingling 5 parts 
of celluloid in 16 parts of a solution of 
amyl acetate, acetone and sulphuric ether. 

4. — Glue for Celluloid. — Shellac, 2 
parts ; spirit of camphor, 3 parts ; alco- 
hol, 4 parts ; dissolve in a warm place. 
This glue may be used for fastening cel- 
luloid to wood, tin, or other materials. 
It should not be exposed to the air when 
not in use. Apply hot. 

5. — Celluloid on Wood, Leather, etc. — 
Make a solution of 2 parts shellac in 2 
parts spirits of camphor and 6 to 8 parts 
of 90% alcohol. 

DENTAL CEMENTS 

1. — Tooth cements are extensively used 
in England, but their use is not advised. 
Consult a good dentist. 

2. — Evans' Cement. — Take of pure 
grain tin, 2 parts ; cadmium, 1 part ; bees- 
wax, 1 part. Melt them together in a 
porcelain crucible, at a heat not exceed- 
ing 000° F., and "cast" the alloy so as 
to form a small ingot, which, when cold, 
must be reduced to filings. For use, a 
small quantity of these "filings" is formed 
into an amalgam with quicksilver, the ex- 
cess of the latter is squeezed out through 
a piece of chamois leather, and the amal- 
gam at once applied to the tooth. This 
cement is recommended by Mr, Evans as 
very durable and unobjectionable. Its 
color is intermediate between that of sil- 
ver and tin, but it is said not to darken 
so readily as the simple amalgam of those 
metals. 

3. — Fairtliorne's Cement. — Powdered 
glass, 5 parts ; powdered borax, 4 parts ; 
silicic acid (SiOo), 8 parts; zinc oxide, 
200 parts. Powder very finely, and mix ; 
then tint with a small quantity of golden 
ocher or manganese. The compound, 
mixed, before use, with concentrated, 
syrupy zinc chloride solution, soon be- 
comes as hard as marble, and constitutes 
a very durable tooth cement. 

4. — Gutta PercJia Stopping. — a. — This 
is pure, uncolored, native gutta percha. 
A small piece is softened in hot water 
and at once applied. It answers well 
for filling hollow teeth, with central cavi- 
ties, and is efficient and durable. 

b. — Soften gutta percha on a tin or 
porcelain slab, over boiling water. Knead 
in gradually zinc oxide until of a suitable 
consistency. Knead the mass thoroughly 
for an hour or more. 

c. — Temporary Stopping. — White bees- 
wax, 1 oz. ; red gutta percha, 4 oz. ; pre- 
cipitated calcium carbonate, 4 oz. Melt 
the wax, add gradually the gutta percha, 
and afterward the calcium carbonate, 

[ 



(Dental Cements) 



kneading all together in a warm mortar. 

d. — Aluminized Gutta Percha Stopping. 
— Aluminum filings, 5 oz. ; prepared chalk, 
1/^ oz. ; zinc oxide, 1 oz. ; white gutta 
percha, 8 oz. Mix with the aid of gentle 
heat. 

5. — Huehner's Cement. — Zinc oxide, 500 
parts ; powdered manganese, 1.5 parts ; 
yellow ocher, powdered, 1.5 to 4.0 parts ; 
powdered borax, 10 parts ; powdered 
glass, 100 parts. As grinding liquid it is 
well to use exclusively acid-free zinc chlo- 
ride, which one may prepare oneself by 
dissolving pure zinc, free from iron, in 
concentrated, pure hydrochloric acid, in 
such a manner that zinc is always in ex- 
cess. When no more hydrogen is evolved 
the zinc in excess is still left in the so- 
lution for some time. The latter is fil- 
tered, and boiled down to the consistency 
of syrup. Commercial zinc oxide cannot 
be employed without previous treatment, 
because it is too loose ; the denser it is 
the better is it adapted for dental ce- 
ments, and the harder the latter will be. 
For this reason it is well, in order to 
obtain a dense product, to stir the com- 
mercial pure zinc oxide into a stifE paste 
with water to which 2% of nitric acid 
has been added ; the paste is dried and 
heated for some time at white heat in a 
Hessian crucible. After cooling, the zinc 
oxide thus obtained is very finely pow- 
dered, and kept in hermetically closing 
vessels, so that it can absorb no carbonic 
acid. The dental cement prepared with 
such oxide turns very hard, and solidifies 
with the concentrated zinc chloride solu- 
tion in a few minutes. In place of the 
zinc-chloride cements, phosphate-zinc ce- 
ments are, of late, more and more gain- 
ing ground. They all consist, essentially, 
of zinc oxide and the thickish liquid of 
meta- or pyro-phosphoric acid. Mix pyro- 
and meta-phosphoric acid, or dissolve in 
ortho-phosphoric acid, either pyro-phos- 
phoric acid or meta-phosphoric acid or 
pyro-phosphoric acid anhydride ; the li- 
quid may also contain zinc oxide, dis- 
solved, about 1-20 to 1-10. 

6. — Phosphate Cement. — a. — Concen- 
trate pure phosphoric acid till semi-solid ; 
mix aluminum phosphate with it by heat- 
ing. For use, mix with basic oxide of 
zinc, to the consistency of putty. The 
light oxide of zinc should not be used 
here, nor in making oxychlorides. The 
cement sets in two minutes. 

b. — "By calcining magnesium nitrate 
an oxide is made. This, when hydrated. 
forms a durable cement. When mixed 
with phosphoric acid it hardens at once, 
growing so hot as to burn the hand. As 
281] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Dental Cements) 



basic oxide of zinc forms with phosphoric 
acid a slower setting cement, the indica- 
tion is plain. I have used for pulp cap- 
ping and temporary filling the following 
mixture : Basic oxide of zinc, 2 parts ; 
oxide of magnesium, 5 parts ; grind them 
together. For use, mix to a paste with 
syrupy phosphoric acid. This sets in 
30 seconds." 

7. — Poudre Metallique. — According to 
Mr. Redwood, the article sold in Paris 
under this name is a triple amalgam of 
mercury, silver and ammonium, with the 
latter in excess. 

8. — Silica. — A mixture of levigated por- 
celain, plaster of paris, and steel filings, 
in equal proportion, made into a paste 
with thick, quick-drying copal varnish. 
It is only adapted to fill central cavities 
in the double teeth, as its color unfits it 
for the front ones. 

9. — SoreVs Cement. — Mix commercial 
zinc white with half its bulk of fine^ sand, 
adding a solution of chloride of zinc of 
1.26 specific gravity, and rub the whole 
thoroughly together in a mortar. The 
mixture must be applied at once, as it 
hardens very quickly. (See also Zinc 
below.) 

10. — Taveare's. — This is powdered mas- 
tic mixed with about half its weight of 
ether, and then with sufiicient powdered 
burnt alum to form a stiff paste. It 
must be kept in a closely stoppered bottle. 
It has little hardness and durability. 

11. — Vienna Cement. — Powdered asbes- 
tos made into a paste with thick mastic 
varnish. Neither hard nor durable. 

12. — Wirth's Cement. — Levigated quartz 
m^de into a paste with very thick mastic 
varnish. The color is good, but it is not 
very durable. 

13. — Zinc Amalgam ; Dentist's Zinc. — ■ 
Pure zinc filings, combined with twice 
their weight of quicksilver, a gentle heat 
being employed to render the union more 
complete. It is best applied as soon as 
made. Color, gray ; often proves effective 
and durable. 

!j.4. — Zinc Cement, Oxychloride of. — a. — 
This cement, or mastic, is prepared by 
mixing 1 part of the finest pulverized 
glass with 3 parts of oxide of zinc thor- 
oughly calcined (made from the carbon- 
ate), which is afterward kept in well 
stoppered glass vials. Separately, 1 part 
of borax is dissolved in the smallest pos- 
sible quantity cf water. It is mixed with 
a solution of chloride of zinc of 1.5 to 
1.6 sp. gr., and is kept in this state in 
well closed vials. To use this mastic, 
enough of the powder is mixed with some 
of the liquid to form a putty, which hard- 



( Glass, Cements for) 



ens readily until like stone. Under the 
name of Paris dental cement, a similar 
preparation is sold in the pharmacies 
which has even been used for filling hollow 
teeth. This composition can serve excel- 
lently for many other purposes ; for exam- 
ple, to attach to each other different parts 
of technical, scientific or domestic appli- 
ances, where a tenacious, quickly hard- 
ening cement is required. 

b. — That in most general use for ordi- 
nary plugging is composed of oxide of 
zinc, 5 ; silex, 2 ; borax, 1 ; moistened 
with a solution of 1 oz. zinc chloride in 
6 drams of water. Where it is to be used 
as a capping or temporary filling over 
freshly exposed pulps, the fluid should 
be zinc chloride 1 oz„ water 1 to 2 oz., 
making a solution of only sufficient 
strength to cause the mixture to set. The 
cavity having been cleaned, creosote 
should be applied to the exposed pulp, 
and the oxychloride introduced in a semi- 
fluid state, and protected by a rubber 
dam from the fluids of the mouth until 
properly hardened (half an hour usually 
suffices). It is advisable to allow sev- 
eral days to intervene for the more thor- 
ough solidification of the cap prior to 
the removal of the excess of material and 
final insertion of the metal stopping. 

GLASS, PORCELAIN, CROCKERY, 
MARBLE CEMENTS 

1. — Shredded Russian isinglass, cut Pe- 
nang isinglass, water, absolute alcohol, 
acetic ether, gum mastic, gum ammoniac, 
sandarac, of each sufficient. Macerate in 
cold distilled water, not over 70° F., for 
24 hours, equal parts of best shredded 
Russian and cut Penang isinglass. Strain 
off all superfluous fluid by letting the 
swollen gelatine remain for a few minutes 
on a coarse towel stretched over a colan- 
der. Dissolve at a gentle heat in the 
smallest possible quantity of alcohol of 
50°, and strain through a cloth to re- 
move the muscular fibers. Add to a por- 
tion of absolute alcohol 5% of its volume 
of acetic ether, and in this dissolve as 
much of the following mixture as will 
make a liquid of the consistency of syrup : 
Gum mastic, 1 part ; gum ammoniac, 2 
parts ; sandarac, 3 parts. Mix the solu- 
tion of gelatine and the solution of gums 
in equal parts, thoroughly incorporating 
the mixture. Put into small vials, and 
cork well. When required for use, heat 
in a water bath until fluid. 

2. — Carlsbad Patent Cement. — (1) 
Water glass, 1.340 sp. gr. (2) Washed 
chalk, 1 part ; kaolin, 19 parts. Mix- 
ture alternately replaced by baryta white 



[282] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Glass, Cement for) 



or precipitated barium sulphate. The ob- 
ject to be warmed; (1) and (2) mixed 
to a thin paste, edges of fractured parts 
smeared with it, and pressed together ; 
12 hours to dry. 

3. — Casein and Soluble Glass. — Casein, 
dissolved in soluble silicate of soda or 
potassium, makes a very strong cement 
for glass or porcelain. 

4. — German Cement. — An excellent ce- 
ment for glass or earthenware is made as 
follows : Gum shellac, 2 parts ; Venice 
turpentine, 1 part ; fuse together in an 
iron pot, and when partially cool form 
into sticks. When wanted for use, melt 
near a gentle heat. Care must be taken 
while fusing -the materials to keep the 
vessel closed, as the turpentine is very 
inflammable. Or : Litharge, 2 parts ; un- 
slaked lime and flint glass, of each 1 part ; 
pulverize separately, and mix. To use it, 
wet with old drying oil. 

5. — London Cement. — The London ce- 
ment for joining broken glass, china, 
wood, etc., is made by taking a piece of 
Gloucester cheese, boiling it 3 times in 
water, each time allowing the water to 
evaporate, and mixing the paste thus left 
with dry quicklime. 

6. — Mucilage, to Unite Glass, Wood 
or Porcelain. — a. — Strong gum arable so- 
lution, 8 1-3 oz., to which a solution of 
30 gr. sulphate of aluminum, dissolved in 
2-3 oz. of water, is added. 

b. — Put 1 or 2 drops of glycerine in a 
small bottle of mucilage. This will pre- 
vent the gum cracking or drying. Too 
much glycerine must not be added, as 
that would prevent the gum from hard- 
ening. 

7. — Riveting Porcelain and Glass. — Ac- 
cording to the Metallarheiter, porcelain 
(and glass) can be quite readily pierced 
with steel tools. Hardened drills of or- 
dinary shape, moistened with oil of tur- 
pentine, if the glaze or vitreous body is 
to be pierced, are best for this purpose. 
In the case of majolica, and glass with- 
out enamel, the drilling should be done 
under water. The vessel should be filled 
with water, and placed in a receptacle 
containing water, so that the drill is used 
under water, and after piercing the clay 
body, reaches the water again. In the 
case of objects glazed on the inside, in- 
stead of filling them with water, the spot 
where the drill must come through may 
be underlaid with cork. The pressure 
with which the drill is worked is de- 
termined by the hardness of the mate- 
rial; but when the tool is about to reach 
the other side it should gradually de- 
crease, and finally cease almost altogether, 



(Glass, Cement for) 



so as to avoid chipping. In order to en- 
large small-bore holes already existing, 
three-cornered or four-square broaches, 
ground and polished, are best adapted. 

8. — Stick Cement. — a. — Melt together, 
sulphur, 6 parts ; white Burgundy pitch, 
4 parts ; shellac, 1 part ; elemi, 2 parts ; 
mastic, 2 parts ; powdered kaolin, passed 
through a very fine sieve, 6 parts. Before 
applying, the surfaces to be joined must 
be carefully heated. 

b. — Best and purest gum arable is put 
into a small quantity of water, and left 
till next day, when it is of the consist- 
ency of treacle. Calomel (mercurous 
chloride or subchloride of mercury, poi- 
son) is then added to make a sticky mass, 
and well mixed on a glass plate with a 
spatula. No more is to be made than 
that required for immediate use. The 
cement hardens in a few hours, but it is 
better to leave it for a day or two. 

c. — The Pharmacist recommends the fol- 
lowing as a proved recipe : "Take 1 oz. 
of Russian isinglass, cut it in small 
pieces, and bruise well, in order to sepa- 
rate the fibers ; then add 6 oz. of warm 
water, and leave it in a warm place that 
the isinglass may dissolve, which will re- 
quire from 34 to 48 hours. Evaporate 
this to about 3 oz. Next dissolve % oz. 
of mastic in 4 oz. of alcohol, and when 
this is ready transfer the isinglass from 
the evaporating dish to a tin can (an 
empty ether can will be found conven- 
ient), heat both solutions, and add the 
mastic solution to the isinglass in small 
quantities at a time, shaking the can vio- 
lently after each addition. While still 
hot strain the liquid through muslin cloth 
and put up in i^-oz. bottles. This ce- 
ment is very valuable, and articles such 
as mortars, graduates, etc., mended with 
it, have been in use for years ; and, in 
fact, seem to be stronger than they were 
originally." 

d. — Pure casein (see Casein) is dis- 
solved in sodium silicate (water glass) 
in the proportion of 1 part of casein to 
6 or 7 of the silicate. Apply at once, 
and dry in the air. 

e. — Use bleached shellac and turpen- 
tine, varying proportions. 

f . — Elemi, 1 part ; shellac, 4 parts ; tur- 
pentine, 2 parts. Melt. 

g. — Use Canada balsam, which can be 
obtained at any artists' colorman. This 
is used by opticians to cement their lenses 
together, and is perfectly transparent. 

9. — Transparent Cement. — a. — Dissolve 
1 part of India rubber in 64 parts of 
chloroform ; then add gum mastic, in pow- 
der, 14 to 24 parts, and digest for 2 days, 



[ 283 ] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Glass, Cement for) 



with frequent shaking. Apply with a 
camel's-hair brush. For glass. 

b. — According to Dingler's Polytechn. 
Journal, a very strong, transparent ce- 
ment, applicable to wood, porcelain, glass, 
stone, etc., may be made by rubbing to- 
gether in a mortar 2 parts of calcium 
nitrate, 25 parts of water, and 20 parts 
of powdered gum arable. The surfaces 
to be united are to be painted with the 
cement, and bound together until com- 
pletely dry. 

c. — Pure, unvulcanized rubber, 75 parts ; 
dissolve in 60 parts of chloroform, and 
15 parts of mastic are added. 

10. — Water Glass Cement. — Solution of 
water glass, 48 parts ; elutriated glass 
powder, 8 parts ; elutriated powder of 
fluorspar, 16 parts. Stir together quickly. 
The paste which is formed should be ap- 
plied at once. This cement hardens in 
a few days, so that the article can be 
heated with safety. 

Crockery Ware. 

1. — One of the strongest cements, and 
easiest applied for this purpose, is lime 
and the white of an egg. To use it, take 
a sufficient quantity of the egg to mend 
one article at a time, shave off a quan- 
tity of lime, and mix thoroughly. Ap- 
ply quickly to the edges, and place firmly 
together, when it will very soon become 
set and strong. Mix but a small quan- 
tity at one time, as it hardens very soon, 
so that it cannot be used. Calcined plas- 
ter of paris would answer the same pur- 
pose as lime. 

2. — Isinglass, 1 part, steeped in 4 parts 
of water, and dissolved in 4 parts of gla- 
cial acetic acid. 

3. — Botany Bay. — Yellow gum and 
brick dust, equal parts, melted together. 
Used to cement coarse earthenware, etc. 

Glass, Cements for. 

1. — Five parts of pumice-stone are 
mixed with 1 of turpentine and 2 of 
shellac. 

2. — India rubber, 10 parts ; chloroform, 
6 parts ; mastic, 2 parts. This size is 
also good for making glass adhere to 
other hard surfaces. 

3. — Delicate glassware, such as Vene- 
tian glass, can be cemented with best fish 
glue, applied hot and afterward tied well. 

4. — Ten parts of gelatine are mixed 
v/ith 2 parts of acid chromate of lime, 
in solution. This cement is hardened by 
the action of light. 

5. — Lead, 3 parts ; tin, 2 parts ; bis- 
muth, 21/^ parts. A good cement for 
glass, and one which completely resists 



(Glass, Cement for) 



the solvent action of water, may, accord- 
ing to Herr H. Schwartz, be prepared 
by the following process : From 5 to 10 > 
parts of pure, dry gelatine are dissolved/ 
in 100 parts of water. To the solution/ 
about 10% of a concentrated solution ofi 
bichromate of potash is added, and the) 
liquid is kept in the dark. When arti-t 
cles joined by this cement are exposed to 
the light the gelatine film is acted upon 
by the chemical rays, the chromate being 
partially reduced, and the film of cement 
becomes tough and durable. 

6. — Fuse together equal weights of 
rosin, yellow wax and Venetian red. 

7. — Soak isinglass in water, and dis- 
solve the swollen mass in glacial acetic 
acid. 

8. — Fuse together : Rosin, 8 lb. ; plas- 
ter of paris, 2 lb. 

9. — Fuse together : Rosin, 10 lb. ; shel- 
lac, 2 lb. ; rouge, 1 lb. 

10. — Best gelatine, 100 parts, dissolved 
by warming in 150 parts of 96% acetic 
acid; then add 5 parts of ammonium bi- 
chromate in fine powder. Keep away 
from light. When drying mended parts, 
expose directly to the sun. 

11. — Finely pulverized caustic lime, 10 
parts, triturate with 25 grams of fresh 
Qgg albumen, add 10 parts of water, then 
mix with 55 parts of plaster of paris, 
and apply at once. 

12. — Take % oz. of white glue and dis- 
solve in the smallest quantity of water 
possible ; then add 2 oz. proof spirits, 
and dissolve in it 10 gr. gum ammoniac 
and 30 gr. of gum mastic. Mix carefully 
with the glue solution, and when wanted 
for use immerse in hot water until in a 
liquid condition. Apply to the edges of 
the broken material, and unite carefully. 
This will bear an ordinary degree of 
warmth, but not likely to stand boiling 
water. 

13. — Dextrine Paste. — Yellow dextrine, 
8 oz. ; thymol, 10 gr. ; tepid water, 18 
fl.oz. Dissolve. 

14. — Lime-Oil Cement. — Quicklime, 4 
parts ; litharge, 6 parts ; linseed-oil var- 
nish, 1 part. 

15. — Oil Cement. — a. — Burned lime, 10 
parts ; litharge, 15 parts ; pipeclay, 5 
parts ; linseed-oil varnish, 3 parts. 

b. — Without Heat. — Boil isinglass in 
water to a creamy consistency, and add 
a little alcohol. Warm before using. 

c. — Melt 5 or 6 bits of gum mastic, as 
large as peas, in the smallest quantity of 
alcohol ; mix with 2 oz. of solution of 
isinglass (made by dissolving isinglass 
in boiling brandy to saturation), having 
previously mixed the isinglass solution 



[284] 



Cements^ Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Porcelain, Cement for) 



with 2 or 3 bits of galbanum, or gum 
ammoniac ; keep in a well corked bottle, 
and gently heat before using. 

d. — With a small camel's-hair brush 
rub the edges with a little carriage oil 
varnish, and, if neatly put together, the 
fracture will hardly be perceptible ; and, 
when thoroughly dry, will stand both fire 
and water. • 

e. — Dissolve fine glue in strong acetic 
acid to form a thin paste. 

f. — Canada balsam, or clear glue (gela- 
tine), to which has been added a small 
quantity of bichromate of potash. The 
latter soon loses its yellow tint, and be- 
comes unaffected by damp when exposed 
to daylight. 

g, — Two parts of common black pitch 
and 1 part of gutta percha, melted, and 
worked together till mixed ; or 2 parts 
shellac, 1 part Venice turpentine, melted 
together. These would want using warm. 
They are both impervious to weather in- 
fluences. 

Porcelain and China. 

1. — Gum ammoniacum, 3 dr. ; Brazilian 
isinglass, 3 oz. ; distilled water, 6 oz. ; 
methylated spirit, 12 oz. Add 4 oz. of 
alcohol to the water, in which dissolve 
the isinglass by the aid of gentle heat ; 
dissolve the gum in the remainder of the 
alcohol and add to the previous solution. 

2. — Fresh casein, 100 parts ; triturate 
well with sufficient soluble glass to make 
a mass of the consistency of honey. 

3. — ^Add plaster of paris to a strong 
solution of alum until the mixture is of 
the consistency of cream. It sets readily, 
and is said to unite glass, metal, porce- 
lain, etc., quite firmly. It is probably 
suited for cases in which large rather 
than small surfaces are to be united. 

4, — Use thick white lead paint. 

5. — Milk is coagulated with acetic acid, 
and the casein thus formed is washed well 
in water and then dissolved in a cold 
saturated solution of borax ; a clear solu- 
tion is thus obtained which is superior 
to gum arable. For porcelain, mix with 
finely powdered quicklime, apply to the 
ware immediately, bind with cord, and ex- 
pose to gentle heat. 

6. — Into a clear solution of gum arable 
stir plaster of paris ; use immediately ; 
water will destroy the joint made by this 
cement. 

7. — Melt together 75 gr. of fish glue 
and 5 drams of glacial acetic acid ; after- 
ward heat the solution until it becomes of 
a syrupy consistency, so as to form a 
jelly upon cooling. To use it, the jelly 

[ 



(Miscellaneous Cements) 



is placed upon a stove, in order to bring 
it to a liquid state, after which the edges 
of the broken crockery are coated with 
it, and the pieces strongly compressed. 

8. — Gelatine, 2 oz. ; water, 4 oz. ; when 
the gelatine has fully swelled add 2 oz. of 
glacial acetic acid. 

9. — Russian glue, 8 oz. ; water, 4 oz. 
Macerate for 4 hours, then dissolve in 
water bath, and add 6 oz. of strong acetic 
acid. 

10. — An almost invisible joint may be 
made, with careful handling, with the fol- 
lowing : Chloroform, 60 parts ; India 
rubber, 25 parts ; mastic, 15 parts. Cut 
the rubber into shreds, put into a suitable 
vial, and pour on the chloroform. Stop- 
per tightly and set aside until the rub- 
ber is dissolved ; then add the mastic, and 
let stand until the same is dissolved. Ap- 
ply the cement to each surface to be 
united, and let the pieces stand until the 
greater part of the chloroform is evapo- 
rated ; then unite, press firmly to place, 
and, if possible, tie in position. When 
the cement is apparently thoroughly dry 
on the surface scrape off the superfluity, 
and dust over the line of junction a lit- 
tle zinc oxide, chalk, powdered infuso- 
rial earth, or some such material, and 
with . a clean pencil brush it over the 
joint. After the cement has become per- 
fectly dry remove the cords and rub off 
the superfluous powder. The joint can 
scarcely be discovered if the work has 
been well done. 

11. — Cheese Cement. — Take skim-milk 
cheese, cut it in slices, and boil it in 
water. Wash it in cold water, and knead 
it in warm water several times. Place 
it, warm, on a levigating stone, and knead 
it with quicklime. It will join marble, 
stone, or earthenware so that the joining 
is scarcely to be discovered. 

12. — Sulphur Cement. — Sulphur, 7 
parts ; white pitch, 5 parts ; shellac 
(bleached), 1 part; mastic, 2 parts; gum 
elemi, 2 parts ; glass meal, 7 parts. 

Special Purposes. 

1. — Cap Cements. — These are so named 
because they are used to fix on parts of 
electrical or other apparatus to glass. 
They are very useful for many purposes, 
and should find a place in every labora- 
tory and amateur's workshop. (See also 
Faraday^s Cement.) a. — Glue, best white, 
11 oz. ; white curd soap, 1 oz. ; plaster 
of paris, 3^ lb. ; water, ^ gal. The 
glue is put to soak overnight in just 
enough of the water to well cover it. In 
the morning (or when properly softened) 
it is dissolved, together with the soap, in 
285] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Miscellaneous Cements) 



the rest of the water, previously heated 
to boiling. When a quantity of the ce- 
ment is required, a sufficient quantity of 
the plaster of paris is mixed up quickly 
with enough of the warm liquid to form 
a smooth thin paste. This paste must be 
used at once, as it soon sets or hardens. 
When hardened it is impervious to coal 
oil. 

b. — (C. G. Williams.) Equal weights 
of red lead and white lead used for chem- 
ical and electrical purposes. For cement- 
ing glass tubes, necks of balloons, etc., 
into metal mountings. This is preferable 
to white lead alone, and may be depended 
on for temperature up to 212°. 

c.^ — Rosin, 5 lb. ; beeswax and dried 
Venetian red, of each 1 lb. ; melted to- 
gether. 

d. — Black rosin, 7 lb. ; red ocher, % lb. ; 
plaster of paris, % lb., well dried, and 
added while warm ; heat the mass to a lit- 
tle above 212° F. (100° C.) and agitate it 
together till all frothing ceases, and the 
liquid runs smooth ; the vessel is then re- 
moved from the fire, and the contents are 
stirred till sufficiently cool for use. 

e. — Linseed oil, 4 oz., added to the in- 
gredients of the last. 

2. — Chemical Cement. — a. — A good ce- 
ment for chemical and electrical appara- 
tus may be prepared by mixing 5 lb. of 
rosin, 1 lb. of wax, 1 lb. of red ocher and 
2 oz. of plaster of paris, and melting the 
whole with moderate heat. 

b.— Yellow wax, 4 parts ; common tur- 
pentine, 2 parts; Venetian red (well 
dried), 1 part; melted together. Used as 
a temporary stopping or lute for the ends 
or joints of tubes which are not exposed 
to much heat, as in alkalimetry. 

c. — Mix equal parts of wheat flour, 
finely powdered Venetian glass, pulverized 
chalk, and a small quantity of brick dust, 
finely ground ; these ingredients, with a 
little scraped lint, are to be mixed and 
ground up with the white of eggs. It 
must then be spread on pieces of fine linen 
cloth, and applied to the crack of the 
glasses, and allowed to get thoroughly dry 
before the glasses are put to the fire. 

d. — Equal parts of pitch, rosin and 
plaster of paris, thoroughly dried ; mix 
together. Used for the masonry of chlo- 
rine chambers, vitriol works, etc., and as 
a lining for casks intended to hold chlo- 
ride of lime. 

3. — Enamel and Porcelain Letters to 
Glass. — a. — Copal varnish, 15 parts ; dry- 
ing oil, 5 parts ; turpentine, 2 parts ; li- 
quefied marine glue, 5 parts ; melt in a 
water bath, and add slaked lime, 10 parts. 

b. — Rosin, 22 parts ; burnt umber, 4 

[ 



(Miscellaneous Cements) 



parts ; calcined plaster, 2 parts ; boiled 
oil, 1 part. 

c. — The National Druggist says, reply- 
ing to a correspondent who complains 
that porcelain letters are difficult to keep 
fastened to glass, that the failure of some 
cements to hold is due to the difference 
in the rate of expansion of the glass and 
porcelain, and recommends a cement that 
is likely to overcome the difficulty, as fol- 
lows : Slake 15 parts of fresh quicklime 
in 20 parts of water ; melt 50 parts of 
caoutchouc and 50 parts of linseed-oil var- 
nish together, and bring the mixture to 
a boil. While boiling pour the liquid on 
the slaked lime, little by little, under con- 
stant stirring. Pass the mixture, while 
still hot, through muslin, to remove any 
possible lumps, and let cool. It takes this 
cement 2 days to set completely, but when 
dry it makes a joint that will resist a 
great deal of pulling, whether from expan- 
sion or contraction, or force acting di- 
rectly (as a wedge) to pull apart the 
pieces united with it. By thinning the 
mixture down with oil of turpentine a 
brilliant, powerfully adhesive varnish is 
obtained. 

d. — Eight parts of starch are mixed 
with jiO parts of finely powdered chalk, 
by using equal pan's of alcohol and water, 
with the addition of 3 parts of Venice 
turpentine. 

e. — Solution sodium silicate, 30 parts ; 
slaked lime, 45 parts ; mix, and add 
litharge, 30 parts ; glycerine, q. s. ; make 
a paste, and use immediately. 

f. — Glass Labels to Bottles. — Rosin, 1 
part ; yellow wax, 2 parts ; melt together. 

4. — Glazier's Solvent. — a. — Dissolve soft 
soap in 3 times its weight of strong lye. 

b. — Make a thin paste or cream with 
freshly slaked lime and twice its weight 
of pearlash and a little water. 

5. — Grinder's Cement. — a. — Pitch, 5 
parts ; wood ashes and hard tallow, of 
each 1 part ; melted together. 

b. — Black rosin, 4 lb. ; beeswax, 1 lb. ; 
melt, and add of whiting, previously heat- 
ed red hot, and still warm, 1 lb. 

c. — Shellac, melted, and applied to the 
pieces slightly heated. Used to fix pieces 
of glass while grinding. The last is used 
for lenses and fine work. 

6. — Lenses. — a. — In those of foreign 
make an arborescent appearance is occa- 
sionally to be seen between the elemen- 
tary parts of which the lens is composed. 
This arises from the drying or shrinking 
of the balsam with which it is cemented. 
To remedy this unset the lens, place it 
in warm water, which may be still further 
heated till the balsam softens, separate 
286] 



CementSy Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Miscellaneous Cements) 



the components, and clean with ether, 
benzole or turpentine. Next place a drop 
of pure balsam on the center of the con- 
cave surface and gently press the convex 
one down upon it until the balsam spreads 
and oozes out at the edges. Then apply 
a gentle heat until the balsam is found to 
have been hardened. 

b. — C. Fleck (Photograph. Chron.) 
gives the following formula for a cement 
for setting objectives and other lenses 
in situ : Balata gum, 1 part ; mastic, 1 
part ; white shellac, 1 part ; benzol, 75 
parts ; chloroform, 75 parts ; mix. 

7. — Marble. — a. — Gum arable, 1 lb. ; 
powdered plaster of paris, l^^ lb. ; sifted 
quicklime, 5 oz. Mix the gum with 4 oz. 
of hot water into a thick mucilage, add 
to it the powdered plaster of paris and 
the quicklime, adding several ounces more 
of water. Heat the part of marble to 
be mended and press tight. Excellent for 
mending marble slabs, etc. 

b. — Marble table tops, tops of commodes, 
etc., that become loose, may be firmly 
fixed, says the Werkstatt, by a cement 
of carpenter's glue and plaster of paris, 
which is durable and strong. The glue 
is soaked in cold- water until it absorbs 
all it can, the surplus water is drained 
off, then it is put on the fire and melted. 
When entirely dissolved, burnt gypsum is 
sifted in until it forms a thin paste with 
the glue. Stir vigorously, and apply this 
paste quickly to the wood and the mar- 
ble, adapt the latter to place, and let 
stand. The mixture hardens very quickly, 
hence it is necessary to be expeditious in 
making the application. Apply pressure 
to the slab if it is not already heavy 
enough to fit snugly. Let dry for 2 days. 

c. — Enamel Shields to Marble Slabs. — ■ 
(1) Two parts of finely crushed quartz 
and 1 part of finely ground heavy spar, 
or 3 parts of finely ground glass and 2 
parts of finely crushed fluorspar, are 
mixed with silicate of soda to a thick 
paste, and used at once. If in place of 
the soda water glass, potash water glass 
is used, the cement will harden much more 
rapidly. 

(2) The following solutions are pre- 
pared warm, best of all in the water 
bath : (a) Steeped isinglass, 2 parts ; 96% 
alcohol, 8 parts; (b) mastic, 2 parts; 
chloride of ammonia, 1 part ; 96% alco- 
hol, 12 parts. Both solutions are thor- 
oughly mixed while warm. When used, 
the cement and the article to be cemented 
must be heated ; the cement is applied in 
a thin layer. 

(3) A well-known solution of gutta 
percha in chloroform, known as trau- 



( Jewelers* Cement) 



maticine, mixed with concentrated water- 
glass solution, is used for cementing. 

8. — Meerschaum, Cement for. — a. — 
Take some garlic, and crush it, in order 
to form a kind of dough ; rub over the 
broken pieces of meerschaum with it, and 
reunite them by pressing very closely ; 
bind them with iron wire, according to 
the strength of the pieces, and finally boil 
them for half an hour in a sufficient quan- 
tity of milk. Casein and quicklime ce- 
ments apply here. 

b. — Dissolve casein in a solution of 
water glass (silicate of soda) and stir 
into it calcined magnesia, and use at once. 
Casein is prepared by allowing perfectly 
skimmed milk to stand until it curdles, 
when the casein is filtered out and washed 
on the filter. To simplify above a little 
fresh cheese may be boiled in water and 
mixed with slaked lime and ashes, using 
10 parts cheese, 20 parts water, 2% parts 
lime, and 2 parts wood ashes. 

9. — Wash Basins, Cement for. — Glass 
meal, 2 parts ; litharge, elutriated, 2 
parts ; linseed-oil varnish, 1 part. Wet 
the powders slightly with the oil, heat 
and gradually add the rest. Do not use 
the basin for 4 days. Glass meal can 
be made by heating glass and throwing in 
cold water. Grind and elutriate. 

JEWELERS' CEMENT 

1. — Amber. — a. — Melt mastic in linseed 
oil. Use hot. 

b. — Moisten the surfaces with solution 
of potash and press them together. 

c. — Smear with boiled linseed oil, press 
strongly together and heat over a clear 
charcoal fire. To keep the parts in firm 
contact, it may be well to bind them to- 
gether with fine, soft iron wire. The sur- 
faces should be carefully cleansed before 
applying the cement, and as the solvent 
is very volatile, arrangements should be 
made beforehand for applying compres- 
sion so that no time be lost. 

d. — A solution of hard copal in ether 
has been suggested. 

2. — Amber, Meerschaum and Ivory. — 
Soften 8 parts of isinglass in water con- 
taining a little alcohol. Add to it 1 part 
of galbanum, 1 part of gum ammoniac 
and 4 parts of alcohol. The mixture is 
used hot. 

3. — Armenian. — a. — Employed by Ori- 
ental jewelers. Dissolve 10 parts of gum 
mastic in 60 parts of absolute alcohol, 
dissolve separately 20 parts of fish glue 
in 100 parts of water on the water bath 
with gentle fire and add 10 parts of alco- 
hol of 50°. Then dissolve 5 parts of am- 
moniacal gum in 25 parts of alcohol of 
287] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Jewelers' Cement) 



50^. Mix the first solution with the sec- 
ond, stir well until assured of complete 
mingling, then add the ammoniacal gum 
and stir again. Finally put the whole on 
the water bath under moderate heat, in 
order to bring down the preparation 
by evaporation to 175 parts only. 

b. — Dissolve 5 or 6 bits of gum mastic 
the size of a large pea in as much spirits 
of wine as will suffice to render it liquid ; 
in a separate vessel dissolve as much isin- 
glass (previously softened in water, 
though none of the water must be used) 
in rum, or other spirit, as will make a 
2-oz. phial of very strong glue, adding 2 
small pieces of gum ammoniacum, which 
must be rubbed or ground till they are 
dissolved ; then mix the whole with a suffi- 
cient heat. Keep it in a phial closely 
stopped, and when it is to be used set the 
phial in boiling water. The preceding is 
also effectual in uniting almost all sub- 
stances, even glass, to polished steel. 

c. — Thick isinglass glue, 1 part ; thick 
mastic varnish, 1 part. Melt the glue, 
mix and keep well corked. Heat in hot 
iWater to use. 

d. — Isinglass soaked in water and dis- 
solved in spirit, 2 oz. (thick) ; dissolve in 
this 10 gr. of very pale gum ammoniac 
(in tears) by rubbing them together; then 
add 6 large tears of gum mastic, dissolved 
in the least possible quantity of alcohol. 

e. — Isinglass dissolved in proof spirit 
(as above), 3 oz. ; bottoms of mastic var- 
nish (thick, but clear), li/^ oz. ; mix well. 

f, — Relieves Armenian Cement. — Soak 
isinglass, i^ oz.. in 4 oz. water for 24 
hours ; evaporate in a water bath to 2 oz. ; 
add 2 oz. alcohol and strain through 
linen ; mix this while warm with a solu- 
tion formed by dissolving i/4 oz. best mas- 
tic in 2 oz. alcohol ; add of powdered gum 
ammoniac 1 dr. and triturate together 
until perfectly incorporated, avoiding as 
much as possible the loss of spirit by 
evaporation, 

4. — Horn and Bone. — Dissolve in 6 
parts linseed oil, 5 parts of mastic and 2 
parts of turpentine. 

5. — Horn and Shell. — Dissolve 500 
parts of glue on the water bath with 125 
parts of alcohol ; add 10 parts of pulver- 
ized alum and mingle the whole on the 
fire. If the cement is too thick water is. 
to be added. 

6. — Ivory. — a. — Dissolve 1 part of isin- 
glass and 2 parts of white glue in 30 parts 
of water : strain and evaporate to 6 parts. 
Add 1-30 part of gum mastic, dissolved in 
y^ part of alcohol ; add 1 part of zinc 
white. When required for use, warm and 
shake up. 

[ 



(Jewelers' Cement) 



b. — Moisten thoroughly a small quan- 
tity of very finely powdered quicklime 
with white of egg to form a paste. Use at 
once, clamp parts firmly together and 
leave for 24 hours. Use as little cement 
as possible. 

c. — To cement ivory pieces together 
mix 1 part albumen with 1 part glue 
water. Or 

d. — Mix 1 part albumen with 3 parts of 
water or 3 parts of burnt gypsum to a 
thin paste. 

e. — To cement small pieces of ivory to 
other substances melt 1 part wax, 1 part 
rosin and 1 part turpentine together and 
with the melted mass mix 1 part moun- 
tain flax. Or 

f. — Melt together 2 parts gutta percha 
and 2 parts of ordinary pitch. Warm the 
parts to be cemented. Apply the cement 
and press the parts together. 

g. — Dissolve 5 parts isinglass and 4 
parts finest gilder's glue in 30 parts of 
water, warmed. Evaporate the mixture 
to % its volume and add 1-3 part mastic, 
dissolved in 1 part alcohol, and mix in, 
while stirring, 1 part zinc white. The 
cement is applied warm to the warmed 
parts ; it dries very quickly and soon be- 
comes hard, but can be kept for a long 
time in a closed receptacle. 

h. — Boil isinglass in water until very 
thick, add enough zinc white to make the 
whole the consistency of molasses. 

7. — Jet. — Shellac is the only cement 
used by jewelers for jet. The broken 
edges should be made warm before apply- 
ing the shellac. Should the joint be in 
sight, by smoking the shellac before ap- 
plying it, it will be rendered the same 
color as the jet itself. 

8. — Mother of Pearl. — Isinglass in thin 
sheets, 4 dr. ; mastic, 2 dr. : amm. chlor- 
ride, powdered, 1 dr. ; alcohol, 3% oz. ; 
water, 4 oz. Steep the isinglass in the 
water for 1 day and then dissolve by aid 
of a gentle heat, add 16 dr. of alcohol, 
pass through a cloth strainer, and to the 
hot solution add, with constant stirring, 
the mastic, previously dissolved in 12 dr. 
of alcohol. 

9. — Seal Engravers\ — Common rosin 
and brick dust melted together. Use. To 
fix the pieces of metal while cutting, and 
also to secure seals and tools in their 
handles. It grows harder and improves 
every time it is melted. 

10. — Temporary.— A temporary cement, 
to fix optical glasses, stones, jewelry, etc.. 
on stocks or handles for the purpose of 
painting, repairing or ornamenting is 
made by melting together at a good heat 
rosin, 2 oz. ; wax, 1 dr., and whitening, 2 
288] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Leather Cements) 



oz, ; with this applied to the article when 
heated secure fixation may be obtained, 
unfixed at pleasure by the same means, 
viz., heat. 

11. — Tortoise Shell. — a. — Dissolve in 
125 parts 90% alcohol, shellac, 30 parts ; 
mastic, 10 parts, and turpentine, 2 parts. 

b. — Mastic, 15 parts ; shellac, 45 parts ; 
turpentine, 3 parts ; spirit of wine, 90%, 
175 parts. 

c. — Gum mastic, 10 parts ; shellac, 30 
parts ; turpentine, 2 parts ; spirits of 
wine, 90%, 120 parts. 

d. — Fit the broken pieces carefu^jiy and 
wrap in a piece of paper to hold them 
firmly in place. Heat 2 pieces of iron and 
place the article with the paper around it 
between them. The iron must not be so 
hot as to burn. ^ Squeeze the article be- 
tween the iron p'leces for a few minutes 
and allow it to cool. The shell melts and 
forms a cement which firmly joins the 
broken parts. 

12. — Turkish. — a. — Isinglass, 3 oz. ; 
best gum arable, 1^ oz. Put in a bottle, 
cover with alcohol, cork loosely. Put the 
bottle in water and boil until a thorough 
solution is made. Strain. A good ce- 
ment. 

b. — Isinglass, 50 parts ; mastic varnish, 
25 parts. Dissolve the isinglass in as 
little water as possible, adding some 
strong spirit of wine. The mastic varnish 
is made by pouring rectified spirit of wine 
and benzine over finely powdered mastic. 
Use as small a quantity of the solvent as 
possible in dissolving this. Pour the solu- 
tions together and mix thoroughly. 

LEATHER CEMENTS 

1. — A good cement is gutta percha dis- 
solved in bisulphide of carbon until it is 
of the thickness of molasses ; the parts to 
be cemented must first be well thinned 
down, then pour a small quantity of the 
cement on the parts to be cemented, 
spreading it well so as to fill the pores of 
the leather ; warm the parts over a source 
of heat for about % minute, apply them 
quickly together and press hard. The 
bottle containing the cement should be 
tightly corked and kept in a cool place. 

2, — This is made by mixing 10 parts of 
bisulphide of carbon with 1 part of oil of 
turpentine and then adding enough gutta 
percha, cut into small pieces, to make a 
tough, thickly flowing liquid. One essen- 
tial prerequisite to a thorough union of 
the parts consists in freedom of the sur- 
faces to be joined from grease. This may 
be insured by laying a cloth upon the part 
to be joined and applying a hot iron for a 
time. The cement is then applied to both 



(Leather Cements) 



pieces, the surfaces brought in contact 
and pressure applied till the joint is dry. 

3. — This glue, though rather complex 
in composition, gives good results. Eight 
oz. of rye whisky are diluted with 8 oz. of 
water and the mixture is made into a 
paste with 2 oz. of starch, % of an oz. 
of good glue are dissolved in the same 
amount of water, an equal amount of tur- 
pentine is added and the mixture and the 
paste are combined. 

4. — Strong glue, 50 parts ; water, suflS- 
cient quantity ; turpentine, 2 parts ; 
starch paste, 100 parts. Dissolve the glue 
over the fire in the water; add the tur- 
pentine, stir up well and mix with the 
starch paste while hot. 

5. — Amalgamate by heat gutta percha, 
100 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 80 oz. ; shel- 
lac, 8 oz. ; India rubber, 2 oz. ; liquid 
storax, 10 oz. 

6. — Gutta percha, 1 lb. ; India rubber, 
4 oz. ; pitch, 2 oz. ; shellac, 1 oz. ; linseed 
oil, 2 oz., melted together ; it hardens by 
keeping and needs remelting for use. 

7.— Best glue, 2 lb. ; water, 3 pt. Dis- 
solve by the aid of heat and when the 
solution has become thick add Venice tur- 
pentine, 31/4 oz. ; liquefied carbolic acid, 
80 min. On cooling this cement congeals to 
a gelatinous mass, which is then to be cut 
in strips and spread upon tin plates to 
dry. For use the cement is melted with 
the addition of a little vinegar and applied 
to the freshly cut leather and the points 
pressed between warm iron plates for 15 
minutes. 

8. — Gutta percha, 100 parts; black 
pitch or asphaltum, 100 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 15 parts. Mix. It is used hot. 

9. — Belting. — Take of common glue and 
American isinglass, equal parts ; place 
them in a boiler and add water sufficient 
to just cover the whole. Let it soak 10 
hours, then bring the whole to a boiling 
heat, and add pure tannin until the 
whole becomes ropy or appears like the 
white of eggs. Apply it warm. Buff the 
grain off the leather where it is to be 
cemented, rub the joint surfaces solidly 
together, let it dry a few hours and it is 
ready for practical use, and if properly 
put together it will not need riveting, as 
the cement is nearly of the same nature 
as the leather itself. 

10. — Gutta Percha to Leather. — Gutta 
percha, 100 parts ; Venice turpentine, 80 
parts ; shellac, 8 parts ; pure unvulcan- 
ized rubber, 2 parts ; liquid storax, 10 
parts. Heat the turpentine, then add the 
gutta percha and shellac. Heat over a 
water bath. 

11. — Joining Leather Straps. — Gilder's 



[289] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Leather Cements) 



glue, 250 parts ; isinglass, 60 parts ; gum 
arable, 60 parts ; comminuted and boiled 
in water until a solution of uniform con- 
sistency is obtained, then add Venice tur- 
pentine, 5 parts ; oil of turpentine, 6 
parts ; alcohol, 10 parts. 

12. — Leather on Top Rollers. — Gum 
arable, 5% oz. ; isinglass, 5% oz. Dis- 
solve separately in water and mix. 

13. — Leather to Pastel)oard. — Strong 
glue, 50 parts, is dissolved with a little 
turpentine in a sufficiency of water over a 
gentle fire ; to the mixture is added a thick 
paste made with 100 parts of starch. It 
is applied cold and dries rapidly. 

14. — Saddle Paste. — Ceresine, natural 
yellow, 1.5 k. ; yellow beeswax, 1.5 k. ; 
Japan wax, 1.5 k. Melt on the water 
bath and when half cooled stir in 8 k. 
of turpentine oil. 

15. — Shoemakers^ Cement. — a. — Dis- 
solve gutta percha in chloroform to the 
consistency of honey. Heat the surfaces 
to which it is to be applied and press 
together. 

b. — An elastic cement for patching 
shoes (invisible patches), attaching soles 
that have become "started," etc. Dissolve 
10 parts of gutta percha in 100 parts of 
benzol, pour the solution into 100 parts of 
linseed oil varnish and stir until a homo- 
geneous mixture is obtained. To make a 
firm and nicely appearing job the patch 
should be chamfered down at the edges 
with a keen knife and the shoe leather 
trimmed away around the break so as to 
present a clean, fresh surface to the 
cement. 

c. — Cement for sticking on leather 
patches and for attaching rubber soles to 
boots and shoes is prepared from virgin 
or native India rubber by cutting it into 
small pieces or else shredding it up ; a 
bottle is filled with this to about one-tenth 
of its capacity, benzine is then poured on 
till about 3 parts full, but be certain that 
the benzine is free from oil. It is then 
kept till thoroughly dissolved and of a 
thick consistency. If it turns out too 
thick or thin suitable quantities must be 
added of either material to make as re- 
quired. 

d. — The pieces of waste gutta percha, 
first prepared by soaking in boiling water 
till soft. Cut into small pieces and place 
in a vessel and cover with coal-tar oil. 
Tightly cork to prevent evaporation and 
allow to stand for 24 hours. Melt by 
standing in hot water till perfectly fluid, 
and stir well. Before using it must be 
warmed as before, by standing in hot 
water. 

[ 



(Metals, Cement for) 



MECHANIC'S CEMENTS 

Chuck Cement, To Remove. — To re- 
move chuck cement from lathe work warm 
the object over a spirit lamp and tap 
lightly with a stiff brush ; the wax will ad- 
here to the latter. If in a hurry, a few 
seconds' boiling in alcohol will remove the 
remainder of the wax. 

Turner^s Cement. — 1. — Rosin, % oz. ; 
pitch, % oz. ; beeswax, 1 oz. ; melted to- 
gether, sufficient fine brick dust added to 
produce desired consistency. 

2.— Rosin, 2 lb. ; Burgundy pitch, 2 lb. ; 
dried whiting, 2 lb. ; yellow wax, 2 oz. ; 
melted and mixed together. 

3. — Black rosin, % lb. ; yellow wax, 1 
oz. ; melted together and poured into a tin 
canister. 

4. — Use a mixture of rosin, turpentine 
and yellow wax, then add a little pulver- 
ized sealing wax. 

5. — Melt 1 lb. of rosin in a pan over 
the fire, and, when melted, add ^4 lb. of 
pitch. While these are boiling add brick 
dust until, by dropping a little on a cold 
stone, you think it hard enough. In win- 
ter it may be necessary to add a little 
tallow. By means of this cement a piece 
of wood may be fastened to the chuck, 
which will hold when cool; and when the 
work is finished it may be removed by a 
smart stroke with the tool. Any traces of 
the cement may be removed from the work 
by means of benzine. 

6. — When wanted for use, chip off as 
much as will cover the chuck to the 1-16 
of an inch, spread it over the surface in 
small pieces, mixing it with % of its bulk 
of gutta percha in thin slices; then heat 
an iron to a dull red heat and hold it 
over the chuck till the mixture and gutta 
percha are melted and liquid; stir the 
cement until it is homogeneous ; chuck the 
work, lay on a weight to enforce contact, 
leave it at rest 20 minutes. 

7. — The following is a very excellent 
cement for the use of turners and ar- 
tisans in general : Sixteen parts of whit- 
ing are to be finely powdered and heated 
to redness, to drive off all the water; 
when cold, this is mixed with 16 parts of 
black rosin and 1 part of beeswax, the 
latter having been previously melted to- 
gether, and the whole stirred till of uni- 
form consistency. 

METALS 

1. — Melt over a water bath copal var- 
nish, 30 parts; drying oil, 10 parts; tur- 
pentine, 6 parts ; when melted add 20 
parts slaked lime. 

2. — Boiled linseed oil, 6 parts; copal, 



290] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Metals, Cement for) 



6 parts ; litharge, 2 parts ; powdered white 
lead, 1 part. 

3. — Slaked lime, 1 part; brick dust, 2 
parts ; boiled linseed oil, 3 parts. Make 
a thoroughly homogeneous mixture of the 
ingredients. 

4. — Glycerine and litharge, stirred to a 
paste, harden rapidly and make a toler- 
able cement for iron upon iron, for two 
stone surfaces and especially for fasten- 
ing iron in stone. This cement is in- 
soluble and is not acted upon by strong 
acids. 

Brass Joints. 

Caoutchouc, 2 parts ; gutta percha, 1 
part ; brass filings, 10 parts. Melt by the 
aid of heat. 

Brass to Tin. 

To 20 parts of fine, reduced copper add 
sufficient sulphuric acid to make a stiff 
paste. To this add 70 parts of metallic 
mercury and work in, at the same time 
applying heat until the mass assumes a 
wax-like consistency. Warm or heat the 
plates to be united to about the same tem- 
perature, apply the mixture, hot, to each, 
then press together and let cool. 

Casein Cement. 

Mix washed quartz sand, 20 parts ; 
casein, 16 parts ; slaked lime, 20 parts. 

Copper to Sandstone. 

a Take white lead, 30 parts ; litharge, 3 
parts ; bole, 3 parts, and broken glass, 3 
parts, and rub up witli 2 parts linseed-oil 
varnish. 

Coppersmiths* Cement. 

Powdered quicklime mixed with bul- 
lock's blood ; use at once. 

Iron. 

1. — Graphite, 50 lb. ; whiting, 15 lb. ; 
litharge, 15 lb. Make to a paste with 
boiled oil. 

2. — Make a putty of white lead and as- 
bestos. 

3. — Make a paste of litharge and glyc- 
erine. Red lead may be added. This also 
does for stone. 

4. — Make iron filings to a paste with 
water glass. 

5. — Sal ammoniac, 4 oz. ; sulphur, 2 
oz. ; iron filings, 32 oz. Make as much 
as is to be used at once to a paste with 
a little water. This remark applies to 
both the following dry recipes : 

6. — Mix iron filings, 180 oz. ; lime, 45 
oz. ; saltj 8 oz. 

7. — Mix iron filings, 140 oz..; hydraulic 



(Metals, Cement for) 



lime, 20 oz. ; sand, 25 oz. ; sal ammoniac, 
3 oz. 

Either of these last two mixtures is 
made into a paste with strong vinegar 
just before use. 

Steam, Hot Water and Hot Air Boil- 
ers and Pipes. — 1. — Take of coarsely pow- 
dered iron borings, 5 lb. ; powdered sal 
ammoniac, 2 oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz., and 
water sufficient to moisten it. This com- 
position hardens rapidly, but if time can 
be allowed it sets more firmly without the 
sulphur. It must be used as soon as 
mixed and rammed tightly into the joint. 

2. — Take sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; sublimed 
sulphur, 1 02. ; cast iron filings or fine 
turnings, 1 lb. Mix in a mortar and keep 
the powder dry. When it is to be used 
mix it with 20 times its weight of clean 
iron turnings, or filings, and grind the 
whole in a mortar ; then wet it with 
water until it becomes of convenient con- 
sistency, when it is to be applied to the 
joint. After a time it becoines as hard 
and strong as any part of the metal. 

3. — ^For stopping holes in castings or 
covering scars a useful cement may, it 
is said, be made of equal parts of gum 
arable, plaster of paris and iron filings, 
and if a little finely pulverized white 
glass be added to the mixture it will make 
it still harder. This mixture forms a very 
hard cement that will resist the action of 
fire and water. It should be kept in its 
dry state and mixed with a little water 
when wanted for use. 

4. — A permanent and durable joint can 
be made between rough cast-iron surfaces 
by the use of asbestos, mixed with suflS- 
cient white lead to make a very stiff 
putty. This will resist any amount of 
heat and is unaffected by steam or water. 

5. — A cement, impermeable by air and 
steam, and especially well adapted to use 
for steam or gas pipes, is made of pow- 
dered graphite, 6 parts ; slaked lime, 3 
parts ; sulphate of lime, 8 parts, and 
boiled oil, 7 parts ; well kneaded. 

6. — Hot Air Pipes. — Chalk, 60 parts 
(by measure) ; limestone or lime, 20 
parts ; salt, 20 parts ; brawsey sand, 10 
parts ; iron filings, 5 parts, and red or 
blue clay, 5 parts, properly mixed to- 
gether, triturated and calcined. 

7. — Hot Water Cistern. — To 4 or 5 
parts clay, dried and pulverized, add 2 
parts of fine iron filings free from oxide ; 
peroxide of manganese, 1 part : sea salt, 
1/4 part, and borax, y^ part. Thoroughly 
incorporate these in as fine a state as pos- 
sible, reduce them to a thick paste with 
water and use immediately. It should 
then be exposed to heat, gradually in- 



[291] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Metals, Cement for) 



creasing to almost a white heat. This 
cement resists heat and boiling water. 

8. — Iron Putty. — The iron putty used 
for steam joints is made by mixing dry 
2 parts of a good metallic paint ; litharge, 

1 part ; fine iron borings, sifted, 3 parts, 
or for close joints, iron filings. Add 
boiled linseed oil and mix to the consist- 
ency af stiff putty. 

9. — Leaks in Boilers. — Emergencies 
often arise when a leak must be stopped 
in a- boiler while still under fire. The 
following preparation -has been found ser- 
viceable : Mix well togeth^ powdered 
graphite, 6 parts; slaked lime, 3 parts; 
heavy spar (barytes), 8 parts, and thick 
linseed-oil varnish, 8 parts, and apply in 
the ordinary way to the spots. 

10. — Red Lead made into a paste with 
boiled linseed oil is also used for cement- 
ing the joints of metal pipes. 

11. — Rust Cement. — Make a stiff paste 
with sal ammoniac, 2 parts ; iron borings, 
35 parts ; sulphur and water, 1 part, and 
drive it into the joint with a chisel, or to 

2 parts of sal ammoniac and 1 part flow- 
ers of sulphur add 60 parts of iron chips 
and mix the whole with water, to which 
1-6 part vinegar or a little sulphuric acid 
is added. Another cement is made by 
mixing 100 parts of bright iron filings or 
fine chips or borings with 1 part pow- 
dered sal ammoniac and moistening with 
urine ; when thus prepared, force into the 
joint. It will prove serviceable under the 
action of fire. 

12. — Steam Boilers. — a. — Mix 2 parts 
of finely powdered litharge with 1 part of 
very fine sand and 1 part of quicklime 
which has been allowed to slake spon- 
taneously by exposure to the air. This 
mixture may be -kept for any length- of 
time without injury. In usin-g it a por- 
tion is mixed into paste with linseed oil, 
or, still better, boiled linseed oil. In this 
state it must be quickly applied, as it 
soon becomes hard. 

b. — Dried and powdered clay, 6 lb. ; 
iron filings, 1 lb. ; made into a paste with 
boiled linseed oil ; used for stopping 
cracks and leaks in boilers, stoves, etc. 

c. — Litharge in fine powder, 2 parts ; 
very fine sand, 1 part ; lime that has been 
allowed to slake spontaneously in a damp 
place, 1 part ; mixed and kept from the 
air ; made into a paste with boiled oil and 
used to mend cracks and secure steam 
joints. 

d. — Good linseed-oil varnish ground 
with equal weights of white lead, oxide 
of manganese and pipeclay. 

e.^Dry, powdered clay, 1 part ; clean. 



(Metals, Cement for) 



sifted iron filings, 2 parts ; acetic acid, 
sufficient to make a paste. 

f. — Sulphate of baryta, 1 part ; clay, 2 
parts ; made up with solutions of silicate 
of potash and borax ; it resists a very 
high temperature. 

g. — Iron- filings, free from rust, 50 
parts ; flowers of sulphur, 2 parts ; pul- 
verized hydrochlorate of ammonia, 1 part ; 
these substances are mixed with water of 
urine, so as to make a solid and homo- 
geneous paste, which is used in the joints 
of steam boilers. Tbe lute swells, be- 
comes very solid, and perfectly closes the 
joints. 

h. — Iron filings, 4 parts ; loam, 2 parts ; 
powdered sandstone, 1 part ; made into a 
paste with salt water; becomes very hard 
on setting. 

i. — A thick paste, composed of silicate 
of soda and iron filings ; the latter sub- 
stance may be replaced bya mixture, in 
equal parts, of powdered oxide of zinc and 
peroxide of manganese. 

j. — Sand, 84 parts ; Portland stone, 16G 
parts ; litharge, 18 parts ; pulverized glass, 
0.90 part ; red lead, 0.45 part ; suboxide 
of lead, 0.90 part; the whole rubbed up 
with oil. 

13. — Stoves, etc. — a. — The Pharmaceu- 
tische Gentralhalle say*; that P. E. Rich- 
ter is authority for the excellence of the 
following: Clay, 3 parts; borax, pow- 
dered, 2 parts ; peroxide of manganese, 
sufficient ; water glass, sufficient. Make 
the clay, borax and manganese peroxide 
into a paste with the water glass. The 
thickness of the paste, says the experi- 
menter, should depend upon the size of 
the surfaces required to be united, and the 
same is true in regard to the amount and 
size of the grains of peroxide. The ar- 
ticles must be held firmly, together for at 
least 24 hours and should not be heated 
until the lapse of this much time. 

b. — When a crack is discovered in a 
stove, through which the fire or smoke 
penetrates, the aperture may be complete- 
ly closed in a moment with a composition 
consisting of wood ashes and common salt, 
made up in paste with a little water, and 
plastered over the crack. The good effect 
is equally certain, whether the stoves, 
etc., be cold or hot. 

c. — This cement is prepared by mixing 
finely pulverized iron, such as can be pro- 
cured at the druggist's, with liquid water 
glass to a thick paste, and then coating 
the crack with it. The hotter the fire 
then becomes the more does the cement 
melt and combine with its metallic ingre- 
dients and the more completely will the 
crack become closed. 



[292] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Metals, Cement for) 



d. — Take equal parts of sulphur and 
white lead, with about 1-6 part oT borax : 
incorporate them so as to form one homo- 
geneous mass. When going to apply it, 
wet it with strong sulphuric acid and 
place a thin layer of it between the two 
pieces of iron, which should then be 
pressed together. An excellent cement 
consists of glycerine and litharge stirred 
to a paste. 

e. — Sand, 6 parts ; iron filings, 5 parts ; 
bone black, 5 parts ; slaked lime, 6 parts ; 
glue water, q. s. 

f. — Joints. — Mica, together with finely 
sifted wood ashes, an equal quantity of 
finely powdered clay and a little salt. 
When required for use. add enough water 
to make a stiff paste. 

14. — Unaffected hy Red Heat. — a. — 
Iron filings, 4 parts ; clay, 2 parts ; frag- 
ment of a Hessian crucible, 1 part ; re- 
duce to the size of rape seed and mix to- 
gether, working the whole into a stiff 
paste with a saturated solution of salt. 
A piece of fire brick can be used instead 
of Hessian crucible. 

b. — A correspondent of the English Me- 
chanic says that he used the following 
recipe with the greatest success for the 
cementing of iron railing tops, iron grat- 
ings to stoves, etc., and with such effect 
as to resist the blows of a sledge hammer : 
Take equal parts of sulphur and white 
lead, with about 1-6 of borax ; incorporate 
the three so as to form one homogeneous 
mass. When going to apply it, wet it 
with strong sulphuric acid and place a 
thin layer of it between the two pieces 
of iron, which should then be pressed to- 
gether. In 5 days it will be perfectly 
dry, all traces of the cement having van- 
ished, and the iron will have the appear- 
ance of having been welded together. 

c. — The following cement is recommend- 
ed for repairing damaged places in cast- 
iron tanks, cisterns, etc : Brimstone, 5 
parts; black lead, 2 parts, and cast-iron 
filings (previously sifted), 2 parts, are 
melted together, taking care that the brim- 
stone does not catch fire. The damaged 
place, perfectly dry, is well heated by lay- 
ing a piece of red-hot iron upon it, and 
is then stopped with the cement, previ- 
ously heated in a melting ladle till it be- 
comes soft. 

d. — Equal parts sifted zinc white and 
manganese peroxide are mixed with solu- 
ble glass, q. s. to form a thin paste ; use 
at once. 

15. — Water Glass Cement with Zinc 
and Pyrolusite. — Water glass, 16 parts ; 
pyrolusite, 64 parts ; zinc white, 80 parts. 
IJsed for cementing the joints of pipe ex- 

[ 



(Metals, Cement for) 



posed to red heat. Hardens quickly and 
makes a close joint. 

16. — Water Resisting. — Dry powdered 
loam or clay, 1,000 parts ; fine iron filings, 
80 parts ; manganese, 40 parts ; common 
salt, 20 parts, and borax, 20 parts. Mix 
thoroughly with water to a paste and use 
at once. Dry the surfaces to be cemented 
at a slowly rising heat and then raise to 
a bright red heat ; the cement becomes 
very hard and withstands equally well 
boiling water or a bright red heat. 

Isinglass. 

Isinglass solution, 100 parts, and nitric 
acid, 1 part. Stir the nitric acid evenly 
in a very thick isinglass solution and 
paint the metallic surfaces with this li- 
quid. The surfaces must be firmly pressed 
together. The object of the nitric acid 
is to make the surfaces rough by corro- 
sion ; its use, however, is attended with 
the disadvantage that it hinders the dry- 
ing of the cement. It is therefore neces- 
sary to expose the cemented metallic sur- 
faces to a higher temperature for a time 
to hasten the drying. 

Linseed Oil. 

Linseed oil and well slaked lime are 
made into a paste. Great pressure must 
be used. 

Plumber's Cement. 

Black rosin, 1 part; brick dust, 2 
parts ; well incorporated by a melting 
heat. 

Pollack's Cement for Iron and Stone. 

Take litharge and red lead, equal parts ; 
mix thoroughly and make into a paste 
with concentrated glycerine to the con- 
sistency of soft putty ; fill the crack and 
smear a thin layer on both sides of the 
casting so as to completely cover the frac- 
ture. This layer can be rubbed off if nec- 
essary when nearly dry by an old knife 
or chisel. M. Pollack has used it to fasten 
the different parts of a fly-wheel with 
great success. This cement is fire and 
water proof. 

Pots and Pans, Cement for. 

Two parts of sulphur and 1 part, by 
weight, of fine black lead; put the sul- 
phur in an old iron pan, holding it over 
the fire until it begins to melt ; then add 
the lead ; stir well until all is mixed and 
melted ; then pour out on an iron plate or 
smooth stone. When cool, break into 
small pieces. A sufiicient quantity of this 
compound being placed upon the crack of 
the iron pot to be mended, can be soldered 
293] 



Cements, Glues, Tastes, Etc. 



(Metal to Glass) 



by a hot iron in the same way a tinsmith 
solders his sheets. If there is a small 
hole in the pot, drive a copper rivet in it 
and then solder it over with this cement. 

Wood and Metals. 

Glue Cement. — Common glue with pul- 
verized chalk added makes an excellent 
cement. 

METALS TO GLASS, MARBLE, POR- 
CELAIN, STONE, ETC. 

1. — One of the best cements for uniting 
glass to other substances consists of a 
mixture of gum and calomel. Its adhesive 
power is something marvelous. It is pre- 
pared by putting the very best and purest 
gum arable into a small quantity of water 
and leaving it till next day, when it 
should be' of the consistency of treacle. 
Calomel (mercurous chloride or subchlo- 
ride of mercury) is then added in suitable 
quantity, enough to make a sticky mass, 
being well mixed on a glass plate with a 
spatula. No more is to be made than that 
required for immediate use. The cement 
hardens in a few hours, but it is wiser to 
leave it to itself for a day or two. To 
insure success it is necessary to use only 
the vei-y best gum ; inferior sorts are ab- 
solutely useless. 

2. — One lb. of shellac, dissolved in 1 
pt. of strong methylated spirit, to which 
is to be added 1-20 part of a solution of 
India rubber in carbon bisulphide. 

3. — Take 2 oz. of a thick solution of 
glue and mix with 1 oz. of linseed oil 
varnish or 1 oz. of Venice turpentine. 
Boil together, agitating until the mixture 
becomes as intimate as possible. The 
pieces cemented should be clamped to- 
gether for a space of 48 to 60 hours. 

4. — Sixty parts starch, 100 parts finely 
pulverized chalk are made into a mixture 
with equal parts of water and spirit and 
the addition of 30 parts Venice turpen- 
tine, taking care to agitate the mass with 
a stick, so as to insure its homogeneity. 

5. — Four parts glue melted with the 
least possible quantity of water, 1 part 
Venice turpentine ; will resist moisture. 

6. — Rough the edges of the glass and 
cement with a creamy paste of plaster of 
paris and alum water. Make a saturated 
solution of alum and then add the plaster 
until you have a thick creamy mass. Put 
this into glass and then insert glass ; true, 
and let it remain until quite hard. 

7. — Rosin, 20 parts ; soda, 6 parts ; po- 
tassium silicate, 2 or 3 parts ; water, 22 
parts. A froth is obtained. This should 
be skimmed off and 50 parts of it mixed 

[ 



(Metal to Glass) 



with 80 parts of plaster of paris (gyp- 
sum). 

8. — Dissolve good glue in water, heat 
and add % as much linseed and varnish 
and 1/4 as much Venice turpentine as the 
amount of glue used. 

9. — Melt together finely pulverized colo- 
phony, 160 grams ; white wax, 40 grams, 
and English red stuff, 80 grams ; add to 
the liquid mass 20 grams of oil of turpen- 
tine ; remove from the fire and stir the 
whole constantly with a wooden spatula 
until cooled. 

10. — Cement the heated parts with good 
sealing wax, not brittle ; ordinary sealing 
wax may be put into good condition by 
adding a little turpentine. 

11. — Mix equal parts of shellac and 
very finely pulverized pumice stone ; apply 
hot. 

12. — Mix 10 parts of rosin pitch with 1 
part of white wax ; attach the glass with 
the mass thus formed. 

13. — Bismuth^ Cement. — This cement is 
iTsed in attaching the tops to kerosene 
lamps. Lead, 24 parts ; tin, 16 parts ; 
bismuth, 20 parts. 

14. — Faraday's Cap Cement. — Electri- 
cal cement. Rosin, 5 oz. ; beeswax, 1 oz. ; 
red ocher or Venetian red in powder, 1 
oz. Dry the earth thoroughly in a stove 
at a temperature above 212°. Melt the 
wax and rosin together and stir in the 
powder by degrees. Stir until cold, lest 
the earthy matter settle to the bottom. 
Used for fastening brass work to glass 
tubes, flasks, etc. 

15. — Petroleum Cement. — a. — Dissolve 
5 parts of shellac and 1 part of turpen- 
tine in 15 parts of petroleum. This ce- 
ment is fairly elastic. 

b.. — A cement particularly adapted for 
attaching the brasswork to petroleum 
lamps is made by Puscher by boiling 3 
parts rosin with 1 part of caustic soda 
and 5 parts of water. The composition 
is then mixed with half its weight of 
plaster of paris and sets firmly in % to 
% of an hour. It is of great adhesive 
power and not permeable to petroleum, a 
low conductor of heat and but superficial- 
ly attacked by hot water. Zinc white, 
white lead or precipitated chalk may be 
substituted for plaster, but hardens more 
slowly. 

Brass to Glass. 

1. — Knead rosin soap with % the quan- 
tity of plaster of paris. 

2. — Substitute zinc white for the plas- 
ter of paris or slaked lime, which causes 
it to harden much slower. 

3. — Boil together caustic soda, 1 part; 
294] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc, 



(Metal to Glass) 



rosin, 3 parts ; gypsum, 3 parts, and 
water, 5 parts. The cement made in this 
way hardens in about % hour, hence it 
must be applied quickly. During the 
preparation it should be stirred constant- 
ly. Remember that all the ingredients 
used must be in a finely powdered state. 
4. — Fresh beaten blood, 13 parts; 
slaked lime, 4 parts, and a little alum. 
This should be used immediately and ap- 
plied with a brush. One or two coats will 
render any cloth waterproof. 

Enamel Plaques to Nickel, To Cement. 

Gum dammar, 10 parts ; copal rosin, 10 
parts ; Venice turpentine, 11 parts ; oxide 
of zinc, 3 parts ; ultramarine, quantities 
to tint the mass. Stir the coloring mat- 
ter (zinc white and ultramarine) into 
the compound when the solids have been 
rendered fluid. This cement should be 
used hot and when cold can be polished. 
It is also suitable as a putty for filling up 
cracks in enameled surfaces. 

Iron Articles in Stone. 

1. — Plaster of paris, 14 parts ; iron fil- 
ings, 2 parts. Mix and stir into a paste 
with water. This cement dries quickly. 

2. — Mix into a paste with water 3 lb. 
plaster of paris and 1 lb. iron filings. 

3. — Brick Dust Cement. — A new ce- 
ment for securing iron to stone is de- 
scribed in some of the foreign papers. The 
cement is made by melting rosin and stir- 
ring in brick dust, which must be finely 
ground and sifted until a sort of putty is 
formed, which, however, runs easily while 
hot. In using, the iron is set into the 
hole in the stone prepared to receive it, 
and the melted putty poured in until the 
space is filled ; then, if desired, bits of 
brick, previously warmed, may be pushed 
into the mass and a little of the cement 
thereby saved. As soon as the whole is 
cool the iron will be firmly held to the 
stone and the cement is quite durable and 
uninjured by the weather, while, unlike 
lead and sulphur, it has no injurious effect 
on the iron. 

4. — Sulphur or Brimstone Cement. — 
Roll sulphur is frequently used alone as a 
cement for fastening iron bars in holes 
drilled in stone. The addition of brick 
dust, sand or rosin lessens its liability to 
crack. When the yellow color of brim- 
stone is an objection, a little graphite may 
be mixed with it. 

Iron to Glass. 

1. — Soak fine white glue or gelatine in 
water overnight. Pour off the surplus 
water and add molasses equal to about 



(Metal to Glass) 



25% of the bulk of glue. Heat gently and 
stir until the mixture is formed. The pro- 
portion of molasses can be varied to suit. 
Glycerine may be used instead of mo- 
lasses, 

2. — Portland cement, 2 oz. ; prepared 
chalk, 1 oz. ; fine sand, 1 oz. ; solution of 
sodium of silicate, enough to form a semi- 
liquid taste. 

3. — Litharge, 2 parts ; white lead, 1 
part. Work into a pasty condition by 
using 3 parts boiled linseed oil, 1 part 
copal varnish. 

Metal Letters, on Glass, Marble, Wood, 
etc. 

1. — Copal varnish, 30 parts ; linseed-oil 
varnish, 10 parts ; oil of turpentine, 10 
parts ; glue, 10 parts. Place the mixture 
in a water bath, to dissolve the glue, then 
add 20 parts slaked lime. 

2. — Copal varnish, 15 parts ; drying oil, 
5 parts ; turpentine, 3 parts. Melt in a 
water bath and add 10 parts slaked lime. 

3. — Into melted rosin, 180 parts, are 
stirred burnt umber, 30 parts ; calcined 
piaster, 15 parts ; boiled oil, 8 parts. 

4. — Rosin, 4 to 5 parts ; wax, 1 part ; 
colcothar; 1 part ; the whole melted to- 
gether. A little powdered plaster is often 
added. 

5. — Sandarac or galipot varnish, 13 
parts ; boiled linseed oil, 5 parts ; turpen- 
tine, 2% parts ; essence turpentine, 2^ 
parts ; marine glue, 5 parts ; pearl white, 
5 parts ; dry carbonate of lead, 5 parts ; 
mixed. 

6. — Copal or lac varnish, 15 parts ; dry- 
ing oil, 5 parts ; India rubber or gutta 
percha, 4 parts ; coal oil, 7 parts ; Roman 
cement, 5 parts ; plaster, 5 parts. 

7. — Copal or -rosin varnish, 15 parts ; 
turpentine, 2% parts ; essence turpentine, 
2% parts; fish isinglass (in powder), 2 
parts ; iron filings, 3 parts ; ocher or rot- 
ten stone, 10 parts. These cements are 
much used for fixing metallic letters to 
glass, marble or wood. The two following 
are particularly good for uniting brass 
and glass : 

8. — Caustic soda, 1 part; rosin, 3 
parts ; plaster, 3 parts ; water, 5 parts ; 
the whole is boiled. This compound hard- 
ens at the end of ^2 an hour ; the harden- 
ing may be retarded by replacing the plas- 
ter by zinc white, white lead or slaked 
lime. 

9. — Fine litharge, 2 parts; white lead, 
1 part ; copal, 1 part ; boiled linseed oil, 3 
parts; the whole is triturated together. 
Dissolve by heat. 

10. — For joining metallic surfaces 
where soldering is inconvenient recourse 



[295] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Cloth to Metal) 



may be had to a composition formed in 
the following way : Pure and finely divid- 
ed copper, such as that obtained by the 
reduction of sulphate of copper with zinc 
clippings, 20 to 36 parts, according to the 
degree of hardness desired in the cement, 
dissolved in a sufficient quantity of sul- 
phuric acid to make a thick paste ; with 
this is incorporated, by trituration in a 
mortar, mercury, 70 parts. The mass is 
soft, but hardens at the end of some hours. 
For use it is heated to 212° F. (100° C), 
and powdered in an iron mortar heated 
to 302° F. (150° C.) ; it then assumes the 
consistency of wax and is harder in pro- 
portion, as it contains more copper. 

Porcelain. 

Make a mixture of equal parts of water 
and alcohol (95% strength) and use this 
fluid to make a paste with 10 oz. finely 
powdered chalk and 8 oz. starch. Then 
mix in 3 oz. of Venice turpentine. 

Tiles to Iron. 

Use a gutta percha cement, made by 
melting together in an iron pan 2 parts 
of common pitch and 1 part of gutta 
percha. Stir them well together until 
thoroughly incorporated and then pour the 
liquid into cold water. When cold it is 
black, solid and elastic, but it softens 
with heat and at 100° F. is a thin fluid. 
Also try bedding in plaster of paris. 

Tin to Wood. 

Melt in a thick-walled iron vessel 1 part 
of yellow wax, stir in 2 parts of gutta 
percha chips to complete dissolution and 
dissolve therein 2 parts of shellac and 0.1 
part of boiled linseed oil. After the mass 
has cooled off pour it upon a somewhat 
moistened metal or stone plate ; next 
knead and shape into bars. Dry well the 
wooden or tin parts to be cemented and 
apply evenly the melted cement on the 
wood and tin. Press the articles together 
moderately and allow them to remain for 
24 hours. To matt the tin by scouring 
with emery is advantageous. The process 
should not be conducted in too cool a 
place. 

METALS TO LEATHER, CLOTH, 
WOOD, ETC. 

Cloth to Metal. 

1.^ — Cloth can be cemented to polished 
iron shafts by first painting the shafts 
with a coat of best white-lead paint. 
After the paint has dried hard coat vj^ith 
Russian glue, dissolved in water acidu- 

[ 



(Metal to Cork) 



lated with a little vinegar or acetic acid. 

2. — Starch, 20 parts ; sugar, 10 parts ; 
zinc chloride, 1 part ; water, 100 parts. 
Mix the ingredients and stir until a per- 
fectly smooth liquid results entirely free 
from lumps, then warm gradually until 
the liquid thickens. 

3. — Cloth on Iron Rolls. — There is 
nothing better for this purpose than good 
glue, to which has been added tannin until 
the glue becomes ropy. 

4. — Cloth Strips to Iron, Glue. — Soak 
500 grams of Cologne glue in the evening 
with clean cold water in a clean vessel ; 
in the morning pour off the water, place 
the softened glue without admixture of 
water into a clean copper or enamel re- 
ceptacle and put on a moderate low fire 
(charcoal or steam apparatus). While 
the mass is dissolving stir continually 
with a wooden trowel or spatula. If the 
glue is too thick, thin with diluted spirit, 
but not with water. As soon as the glue 
has reached the boiling point add about 
50 grams of linseed-oil varnish (boiled 
oil), with constant stirring. When the 
latter has been stirred up well, add 50 
grams of powdered colophony and shake it 
into the mass with stirring, subsequently 
removing the glue from the fire. In order 
to increase the binding qualities and to 
guard against moisture add about 50 
grams of isinglass. The latter is previ- 
ously cut into narrow strips and placed, 
well beaten, in a vessel, into which enough 
alcohol is poured to cover all. When the 
solution has been accomplished the last- 
named mass is added to the boiling glue 
with constant stirring. The adhesive 
agent is now ready for use and is em- 
ployed hot ; it is advisable to also warm 
the iron. Apply glue only to so much 
surface as one is able to cover promptly 
with cloth strips. The latter are not 
pressed down with the hand, but with a 
stiff brush or a wad of cloth. 



Cork to Metal. 

In fastening cork to iron and brass, 
even when these are lacquered, a good 
sealing wax containing shellac will be 
found to serve the purpose nicely. Wax 
prepared with rosin is not suitable. The 
cork surface is painted with the melted 
sealing wax. The surface of the metal is 
heated with a spirit flame entirely free 
from soot until the sealing wax melts 
when pressed upon the metallic surface. 
The wax is held in the flame until it burns 
and it is then applied to the hot surface of 
the metal. The cork surface painted with 
sealing wax is now held in the flame, and 
as soon as the wax begins to melt the 
296] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Leather to Metal) 



cork is pressed firmly on the metallic 
surface bearing the wax. 

Leather to Metal. 

]. — Melt together equal parts asphalt 
and gutta percha and apply hot under a 
press. 

2. — F. Sieburger recommends the fol- 
lowing process by Fuchs : Digest 1 part 
crushed nutgalls with 8 parts distilled 
water for 6 hours and strain; macerate 
glue with its own weight of water for 24 
hours and dissolve ; spread the warm in- 
fusion of the galls on the leather and the 
glue on the roughened metallic surface ; 
apply the prepared surfaces together and 
dry gently ; the leather then adheres so 
firmly to the metal that it cannot be re- 
moved without tearing. 

3. — Wash the metal with hot solution 
of gelatine and apply the leather, previ- 
ously steeped in a hot infusion of galls. 

4. — Leather to Iron. — Paint the iron 
with some kind of lead color, say white 
lead and lampblack. When dry cover with 
a cement made as follows : Take 1 oz. of 
the best glue, soak it in cold water till 
soft, then dissolve it in 1% fl.oz. vinegar 
with a moderate heat, then add 1-3 of the 
bulk of white pine turpentine, thoroughly 
mix and by means of the vinegar make it 
of the proper consistency to be spread 
with a brush and apply it while hot ; draw 
the leather on quickly and press it tightly 
in place. If a pulley, draw the leather 
round tightly, lap and clamp. 

5. — Leather to Iron Pulleys. — Cut your 
leather roughly to shape, allowing about 
1 in. per 12 in. in the width of the pjilley. 
Then soak your leather in water until it is 
wet through. Now stretch it well in the 
direction of the circumference of the pul- 
ley and cut it to exact shape and length. 
It should next be sewn up, butt to butt, 
with a shoemaker's awl and thread, and 
the leather, having been stretched in the 
direction of circumference only, will, as it 
gets dry, have a tendency to resume its 
former shape, thereby shortening in cir- 
cumference and "clip" to the pulley. A 
shallow groove might be made for the 
stitches to sink down in. 

Linoleum on Iron Stairs. 

Use a mixture of glue, isinglass and 
dextrin, which, dissolved in water and 
heated, is given an admixture of turpen- 
tine. The strips pasted down must be 
weighted with boards and brick on top 
until the adhesive agent has hardened. 

Paper to Iron Pulleys. 

Scratch the face of the pulley with a 
rough file thoroughly, so that there are 



(Microscopists' Cement) 



no bright or smooth places. Swab the 
surface with a solution of nitric acid, 1 
part; water, 4 parts (for 15 minutes) ; 
then wash with boiling hot water. Hav- 
ing prepared a pot of the best tough glue, 
stir into the glue % oz. of a solution of 
strong tannic acid, oak bark or gallnuts, 
as convenient to obtain, to a quart of 
thick glue ; stir quickly white hot and ap- 
ply to the paper or pulley as convenient ; 
draw the paper as tightly as possible 
to the pulleys, overlapping as many folds 
as may be required. Bj' a little manage- 
ment and moistening of the paper it will 
bind very hard on the pulley when dry 
and will not come of£ or get loose until 
it is worn out. Use strong hardware 
wrapping paper. 

Wood to Metal. 

1. — Mix together carpenter's glue, 4 
parts ; Venice turpentine, 1 part. 

2. — Iron may be cemented in wood by 
dropping in the recess prepared in the 
latter a small quantity of a strong solu- 
tion of sal ammoniac. This causes the 
iron to rust, rendering it very difficult to 
extract. 

3. — Litharge and Glycerine Cement. — A 
cement made of very finely powdered ox- 
ide of lead (litharge) and concentrated 
glycerine unites wood to iron with re- 
markable efiiciency. The composition is 
insoluble in most acids, is unaffected by 
the action of moderate heat, sets rapidly 
and acquires an extraordinary hardness. 

4. — Wood and Pasteboard to Metal. — 
Dissolve 50 grams of lead acetate together 
with 5 grams of alum in a little water. 
Make a separate solution of 75 grams of 
gum arable in 2 1. of water, stir in this 
500 grams of flour and heat slowly to 
boiling, stirring the while. Let it cool 
somewhat and mix with it the solution 
containing the lead acetate and alum, 
stirring them well together. 

MICROSCOPIST'S CEMENT 

1. — Put into a bottle 2 parts of isin- 
glass and 1 part of gum arable, cover 
them with proof spirit, cork the bottle 
loosely and place it in a vessel of water 
and boil it till a thorough solution is ef- 
fected, when it must be strained for use. 
This is a highly valuable cement for many 
purposes and is used for mounting opaque 
objects for the microscope. 

2. — Belt's Cement. — The composition of 
this cement or varnish is unknown. This 
cement is largely used by the best micro- 
scopists and has obtained a world-wide 
reputation. 



[297] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Microscopists' Cements) 



3. — Brunswick Black and Gold Size. — 
Equal parts of Brunswick black and gold 
size with a very little Canada balsam. 

4. — Canada Balsam, To Thin. — Canada 
balsam can be thinned with turpentine 
or benzol. Do not use benzol unless the 
balsam is quite hard. A gentle heat is 
desirable in order to manipulate properly. 

5. — Dammar Cement. — Dissolve gum 
dammar in benzol, add 1-3 of gold size. 
This has the advantage of drying very 
quickly and may be preferably used for a 
first coat when glycerine is used as the 
material for mounting. 

6. — Gelatine Cement. — Take % oz. of 
Nelson^s opaque gelatine, soak well in 
water, melt in the usual way, stir in 3 
drops of ci-eosote and put away in a small 
bottle. Use warm. 

7. — Gutta Percha Cement. — Gutta per- 
cha cut in pieces, 1 part; turpentine, 15 
parts; shellac, 1 part. Heat the gutta 
percha and turpentine together, filter, add 
the shellac (pulverized) and beat until a 
drop hardens on a cold glass plate. Used 
to attach cells ; the slide must be warm 
when using the cement. 

8. — Lovetfs Cement. — Powdered white 
lead, 2 parts ; powdered red lead, 2 parts ; 
powdered litharge, 3 parts ; gold size. The 
white and red lead and the litharge must 
be very finely powdered ; for use, this pow- 
der is mixed with gold size to the con- 
sistency of cream and the cells immedi- 
ately fastened to the slide. They are se- 
cure in 2 weeks. This stands considerable 
heat and is excellent for fluids containing 
some alcohol. Make a little only of the 
mixture with gold size at a time, as it 
hardens quite rapidly and becomes useless. 

9. — Stieda's White Zinc Cement. — Rub 
up oxide of zinc with turpentine and add, 
stirring continually for every dram of zinc 
oxide, 1 oz. of a solution of dammar in 
turpentine of the consistency of thick 
syrup. For a red cement take, instead 
of zinc, cinnabar and take 2 dr. of the 
metal for each ounce of the dammar solu- 
tion. If the cement has become too thick 
with age, dilute with turpentine, ether or 
chloroform. 

10. — Styresin is the name of a sealing 
material for microscopic preparations. 
Dissolve solid styrax in about 5 times its 
weight of coal-tar benzol, slowly add pe- 
troleum benzine, stirring meanwhile. Pre- 
cipitate the rosin first as a blackish-brown 
mass. The addition of petroleum benzine 
is stopped as soon as the fluid has ac- 
quired a Rhine wine color ; allow to stand, 
filter and distil off the solvent. A sub- 
stance remains which is faultless as a 
sealing material. 

[298 



(Rubber Cements) 



11. — Tolu Balsam Cement. — Tolu bal- 
sam, 2 parts ; Canada balsam, 1 part ; 
saturated solution of shellac in chloro- 
form, 2 parts. Add enough chloroform to 
bring the mixture to a syrupy consistency. 
Carnoy finds this cement superior to all 
others. 

12. — Transparent Cement. — A useful 
cement for affixing minute objects to thin 
glass covers, prior to mounting them in 
Canada balsam, is described in Cole's 
"Method of Microscopical Research." Dis- 
solve, in the cold, gum arable 2 gr., in dis- 
tilled water 1 oz., then adding glacial 
acetic acid, 3 min., and the least possible 
trace of sugar. Filter carefully through 
filter paper and repeat the operation in a 
few weeks. This cement has been found 
to stand the test of use for many years, 
being quite unaffected by the balsam and 
also invisible, even under the highest 
powers. 

RUBBER 

Carbon bisulphide is the solvent most 
commonly employed where it is desired to 
make a solution of rubber. Chloroform is 
also widely used for this purpose, but it 
is more expensive. With regard to ben- 
zine, benzol, gasoline and naphtha, con- 
siderable confusion exists, the names being 
loosely applied to a number of hydrocar- 
bon compounds of petroleum derivatives 
of varying composition. The benzine of 
the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is the liquid in- 
tended in nearly all the published for- 
mulas for rubber solutions. This distil- 
late of petroleum differs from either gaso- 
line or naphtha in being more volatile and 
explosive. It is characterized by a strong 
odor resembling that of petroleum, but 
much less disagreeable. 

Rubber cements are very common and 
very useful, but great care should be 
taken in their preparation to guard 
against fire ; they should not be preparpd 
at night, as the carbon bisulphide, naph- 
tha or chloroform is very inflammable. 
Vessels which are used to digest the rub- 
ber should be closed and if possible put 
out of doors. If heat is required, use a 
sand or hot-water bath ; on no account 
bring near a fire. 

To repair the lacerated article, wash 
the hole over with the cement, then place 
a piece of linen dipped in it over the gap ; 
as soon as the linen adheres the cement 
is applied as thickly as required. 

1. — Caoutchouc, 1 part; mastic, 7 
parts ; chloroform, 50 parts. Mix and let 
stand until dissolved (which will require 
several weeks). 

2. — Gutta percha, in pieces, 1 av.oz. ; 

] 



Cements, Glues. Pastes, Etc. 



(Rubber Cements) 



carbon bisulphide, 8 fl.oz. ; rosin, 40 gr. 
Mix and dissolve. 

Hard Rubber. 

1. — Dissolve bleached gutta percha in 
carbon bisulphide. Cement and when dry- 
brush over carbon bisulphide in which 
sulphur has been dissolved. 

2. — Equal parts of pitch and gutta 
percha are melted together and linseed oil 
is added, which contains litharge. Melt 
until all are well mixed, use no more of 
the linseed oil than necessary. Apply 
warm. 

4. — Carbon Bisulphide, 26 parts ; gutta 
percha and genuine asphaltum ; apply hot 
to the joint, closing the latter immediately 
with pressure. 

4. — Sulphide of carbon, 26 parts ; gutta 
percha, 2 parts ; caoutchouc, 4 parts ; fish 
glue, 1 part. Clean the surface of fissure 
or parts to be united very carefully and 
apply the cement. The edges of the rent 
should be kept together by means of 
thread and the article left to dry. At the 
end of from 24 to 36 hours the binding 
thread may be removed and the cement 
which may have squeezed out of the fis- 
sure cut away.- 

5. — Gutta percha, 16 parts ; caout- 
chouc, 4 parts ; pitch, 2 parts ; shellac, 1 
part ; linseed oil, 2 parts. Melt together. 

6. — Melted glue, of the consistency used 
by carpenters, 4 parts ; Venice turpentine, 
1 part. 

7. — Gutta percha, bleached, 4 parts ; 
Venice turpentine, 1 part ; carbon bisul- 
phide, 32 parts. Cement, and, when dry, 
brush over with carbon bisulphide in 
which some sulphur has been dissolved. 

8. — Rubber, 100 parts ; rosin, 15 parts ; 
shellac, 10 parts ; bisulphide of carbon, 
q. s. to dissolve. 

9. — Fish glue, 3 grams ; gutta percha, 
6 grams ; India rubber, 12 grams ; carbon 
bisulphide, 96 grams. Macerate together 
until dissolved. To mend tires, rubber 
belts and other kinds of rubber material, 
clean the edges of the break, if necessary 
strengthen by some stitches, and fill up 
the space by putting on thin layers of 
the cement, allowing them to dry some- 
what before putting on additional lay- 
ers. When a little more has been laid 
on than is needed shave ofE the excess 
with a thin, sharp knife that has been 
previously dipped in water. 

10. — Indianite Cement. — a. — Finely 
chopped rubber, 100 parts ; rosin, 15 
parts ; shellac, 10 parts, dissolved in a 
sufficient quantity of bisulphide of carbon. 
Used for uniting pieces of India rubber. 

b. — India rubber, 15 gr. ; chloroform, 2 



(Rubber Cements) 



oz. ; mastic, % oz. The two first named 
to be mixed, and after the rubber is dis- 
solved add the mastic, in powder ; allow 
to macerate for a week. Do not bring 
near an open light. 

11. — Vulcanite, to Cement. — Dissolve 
1 part of sulphur and 3 parts of pure 
caoutchouc in 6 parts of alcohol and 
100 parts of bisulphide of carbon, and 
evaporate to the consistency of a thin 
paste. Join the fractured edges with this, 
and heat the whole to about 310° F. for 
four hours. 

Rubber Boots and Shoes. 

1. — Caoutchouc, 62 parts ; chloroform, 
250 parts ; mix, and dissolve. Then take 
caoutchouc, 60 parts ; rosin, 24 parts ; oil 
of turpentine, 250 parts. Mix, and dis- 
solve. When complete solution has taken 
place in both cases, mix the 2 solutions 
and agitate until homogeneous. Use cold, 
and apply' a portion of the cement to each 
surface to be joined. 

2. — Dissolve 1 dr. of gutta percha in 
1 oz. of bisulphide of carbon, filter 
through coarse filter paper, add 15 gr. 
of pure rubber, rub the whole smooth 
with a palette knife, taking care to do 
it quickly. If necessary, thin with bisul- 
phide of carbon. Keep it away from fire 
or light, as it is volatile and inflammable. 

Rubber Hose. 

The damaged part, previously well 
cleaned and dried, is painted over with 
hot oil of turpentine. A thin sheet of 
gutta percha, softened by heat, is put 
around it so that the edges meet, and is 
pressed against the hose with a knife 
blade. The edges are finally cemented to- 
gether by touching the seam with a mod- 
erately hot iron rod. 

Rubber to Wood, Glass, Metal, etc. 

1. — Soak powdered shellac in 10 times 
its weight of strong water of ammonia, 
whereby a transparent, gelatinous mass 
is produced. Melt by placing the vessel 
in hot water. When using the cement 
the surfaces of the rubber and the sub- 
stance to be cemented are coated with 
the liquid mass and then firmly pressed 
together. So soon as the ammonia has 
evaporated the rubber hardens, and the 
joints are as firm as the rubber. 

2. — Hard Ruhher to Metal. — Make a 
thin solution of glue, and gradually add 
pulverized wood ashes till you have a 
stiff varnish. Use this cement hot. 

Ruhher, to Fasten to Metal. — This may 
be done by employing a cement which 
fastens alike well to the rubber and to the 



[299] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Rubber Cements) 



metal or wood. Such cement is prepared 
by a solution of shellac in ammonia, best 
made by soaking pulverized gum shellac 
in 10 times its weight of strong ammonia, 
when a shining mass is obtained, which 
in 3 or 4 weeks will become liquid with- 
out the use of hot water. This softens 
the rubber, and becomes, after volatiliza- 
tion of the ammonia, hard, and imper- 
meable to gases and fluids. 

Tire to Rim, Leather. 

Carbon bisulphide, 19 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 1 part ; gutta percha, cut in small 
pieces, q; s. Mix the turpentine and car- 
bon bisulphide, and add suflBcient gutta 
percha, under frequent agitations, or rub- 
bing up, until a thick paste is obtained. 
To make a good joint, all fatty and greasy 
matter must be got rid of. 

Tire to Rim, Rubber. 

A good, thick shellac varnish, with 
which a small amount of castor oil has 
been mixed, will be found a very excellent 
rim cement. The formula recommended 
by Edel is as follows : 

1. — Shellac, 1 lb. ; alcohol, 1 pt. ; mix, 
and dissolve, then add castor oil, % oz. 
The castor oil prevents the cement from 
becoming hard and brittle. 

2. — Melt together, at a gentle heat, 
equal parts of gutta percha and asphalt. 
Apply hot. Sometimes a small quantity 
each of sulphur and red lead are added 
(about 1 part of each to 20 parts of 
cement). 

3. — Shellac, 2 av.oz. ; gutta percha, 2 
av.oz. ; red lead, 90 gr. ; sulphur, 90 gr. 
Melt the shellac and gutta percha, and 
add, with constant stirring, the red lead 
and sulphur, melted. Use while hot. 

4. — Pitch, 2 parts ; gutta percha, 1 
part; melted together. Use hot. 

Tire Punctures. 

1. — A patented preparation for the au- 
tomatic repairing of punctures in bicycle 
tires consists of glycerine holding gela- 
tinous silica or aluminum hydrate in sus- 
pension. Three volumes of glycerine are 
mixed with 1 volume of liquid water 
glass, and an acid is stirred in. The re- 
sulting jelly is diluted with 3 additional 
volumes of glycerine, and from 4 to 6 oz. 
of this fluid are placed in each tire. In 
case of puncture, the internal pressure 
of the air forces the fluid into the hole, 
which it closes. 

2. — Gutta percha, 1 oz. ; caoutchouc, 2 
oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 oz. ; carbon bi- 
sulphide, 8 oz. Dissolve the gutta percha 



(Wood to Wood) 



and caoutchouc in the carbon bisulphide 
and add the Venice turpentine. 

3. — India rubber, 15 gr. ; chloroform, 
2 oz. ; mastic, 4 dr. First mix the India 
rubber and chloroform together, and, when 
dissolved, the mastic is added in powder. 
It is then allowed to stand for a week 
or two before using. 

4. — a. — Caoutchouc, fine shreds, 1 oz. ; 
chloroform, 20 oz. 

b. — Caoutchouc, fine shreds, 1 oz. ; 
rosin, 3 dr. ; Venice turpentine, 90 grams ; 
oil turpentine, 2 oz. For the solution b, 
the rubber is ^ shaved into small pieces 
and melted with the rosin ; the Venice 
turpentine is then added, and all is dis- 
solved in the oil of turpentine. The two 
solutions, a and b, are then mixed. 

5. — Crude rubber, % oz. ; carbon bisul- 
phide, 4 oz. Macerate 24 hours, and then 
add a solution of rosin, 1 oz. ; beeswax, 
^ oz. ; carbon bisulphide, 4 oz. 

6. — Bisulphide of carbon, 160 parts ; 
gutta percha, 20 parts ; caoutchouc, 40 
parts ; isinglass, 10 parts. This cement 
is dropped into the crevices after they 
have been properly cleaned. If the rent 
is very big, apply the cement in layers. 
Bind up the rubber tightly with thread, 
let it dry for 24 to 36 hours ; cut ofiE the 
thread, and remove the protruding cement 
with a sharp knife, which must previously 
have been dipped in water. 

7. — A rubber cement, which comes 
upon the market in tin tubes, is made 
of un vulcanized rubber (the so-called 
"waste" is the cheapest) dissolved in ben- 
zine, or also in benzol or sulphide of 
carbon. It has the consistency of a salve. 
The solution, in wide-necked, well-sealed 
bottles, takes a day or two. 

WOOD TO WOOD, METAL, GLASS, 
STONE 

1. — Ash Cement. — Warm good cabinet- 
makers' glue with water to the consist- 
ency necessary to connect wooden ob- 
jects ; then add enough sifted ashes to 
bring it to the thickness of a varnish. 
The cement should be applied to the sur- 
faces of the objects to be united when 
warm, and then they should be pressed 
together tight»ly. After cooling and dry- 
ing, the surfaces are so strongly united 
as to require great force to separate 
them. Grinding stones fastened on wood, 
and handles to painters' stones for grind- 
ing colors, have been used for more than a 
year without exhibiting any appearance 
of fracture. 

2. — Cloth or Leather to Table-tops. — 
Wheat flour, 2% lb. ; powdered rosin, 4 
tablespoonfuls ; powdered alum, 2 table- 



[300] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Wood, Cements for) 



spoonfuls ; heat, and mix to a stiff con- 
sistency, 

3. — Emery to Wood. — Melt together 
equal parts of shellac, white rosin and 
carbolic acid, in crystals ; add the last 
after the others are melted. The effect 
of the carbolic acid is surprising. 

4. — Filling Cement for Holes in Wood. 
a. — Mix together rosin and turpentine, 1 
pt. each, over a water bath, and add 2 
pt. common burnt ocher. Have the work 
dry. 

b. — Put any quantity of fine sawdust 
of the same kind of wood into an earthen 
pan, and pour boiling water on it ; stir 
it well, and let it remain for a week or 
10 days, occasionally stirring it ; then 
boil it for some time, and it will be of 
the consistency of pulp or paste ; put it 
into a coarse cloth and squeeze all the 
moisture from it. Keep for use, and, 
when wanted, mix a sufficient quantity 
of thin glue to make it into a paste ; rub 
it well into the cracks, or fill up the holes 
in your work with it. When quite hard 
and dry, clean the work off, and, if care- 
fully done, you will scarcely discern the 
imperfection. 

c, — Dissolve 1 part of best glue in 16 
parts of water, and when almost cool 
stir in sawdust (hardwood) and prepared 
chalk in a sufficient quantity. Oil var- 
nish, thickened with a mixture of equal 
parts of white lead, red lead, litharge and 
chalk, 

d, — The following cement will be as 
hard as stone when dry, and will adhere 
firmly to wood : Melt 1 oz, of rosin and 
1 oz, of pure yellow wax in an iron pan 
and thoroughly stir in 1 oz. of Venetian 
red until a perfect mixture is formed. 
Use while hot. When cold it is as hard 
as stone. 

e. — Pulverized slaked lime, 1 part ; rye 
flour, 2 parts ; mixed with linseed-oil var- 
nish. It takes any desired color and 
polish. 

f. — Steep white tissue paper in water 
until perfectly soft, thoroughly knead 
with glue until transformed into a paste ; 
by means of ochers (earth colors), color 
as nearly as possible to the shade of the 
wood ; add calcined magnesia ; force into 
the cracks or holes. This cement attaches 
itself very firmly to the wood, and after 
drying retains its smooth surface. 

5. — Mahogany Cement. — a. — Beeswax, 
melted, 4 oz, ; then add Indian red, 1 oz,, 
and enough yellow ocher to produce the 
required tint. 

b, — Shellac, melted, and colored as 
above. Very hard. Used to fill up holes 
and cracks in mahogany. 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 

6. — Resinous Cement for Coating Wood. 
— This cement is fairly acid-proof, and re- 
sists alkalies. Melt 3 parts rosin, 1 part 
asphaltum and 2 parts brick dust. Use 
hot. 

7. — Stone to Wood. — Melt together 4 
parts pitch and 1 part wax, and add 4 
parts brick dust or chalk. AVarm for 
use, and apply thinly to the surfaces to 
be joined. 

8. — Tinfoil to Wood. — The following is 
said by the Papierzeitung to be a good 
formula for a paste for lining drawers, 
to hold seed, tobacco, etc. : Dissolve rye 
flour to a syrupy consistency in a solu- 
tion of sodium carbonate. Warm Vene- 
tian turpentine, and pour into the paste ; 
a few drops will suffice for 1 lb. of the 
flour. An ordinary starch paste may be 
used instead of rye. The best process, 
however, is to rub the leaves of tinfoil 
with onion juice, let dry, and then use 
any animal or vegetable glue, or paste, 
in sticking it on. Any good glue of ani- 
mal origin, to which hydrochloric acid 
has been added, answers the purpose, but 
should be smeared on the wood, not on 
the foil. 

CEMENTS FOR MINOR SPECIAL 

USES AND OF SPECIAL 

MATERIALS 

Aholithe Cement. — A new cement, stat- 
ed to possess excellent hardening quali- 
ties, is made by calcining magnesite (the 
carbonate of magnesia) in ovens similar 
to those used for gas-making, after which 
it is pulverized, and mixed with a quan- 
tity of fine silica. The cement is declared 
to possess great hardness and durability. 
It may be molded like plaster ; it may be 
used to replace the dilapidated stones of 
a building, and adheres with so much te- 
nacity to wood that its application as a 
preserver of timbers, railway sleepers, 
etc., by painting it upon the surface, has 
been tried with success. 

Alabaster, To Mend. — 1. — (See also 
Marble). — Add Y^ Pt- of vinegar to % 
pt. of skimmed milk. Mix the curd with 
the whites of 5 eggs, well beaten, and suffi- 
cient powdered quicklime sifted in, with 
constant stirring, so as to form a paste, 

2, — Plaster of paris, rosin (yellow), 
beeswax, equal parts, 

3, — Rice glue, thickened with finely 
powdered quicklime, 

4, — Yellow rosin, 2 parts ; melt, and 
stir in 1 part plaster of paris ; rosin, 8 
parts ; wax, 1 part ; melt, and stir in 
plaster of paris. 

Alcohol, Cement to Resist. — Take the 
best kind of glue, pour on an equal quan- 



[801] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 

tity of water ; let it soak overnight ; next 
morning melt it over a gentle heat and 
add fine Paris white or white lead ; mix 
well, and add a little acetic acid, carbolic 
acid, oil of cloves, or any other ethereal 
oil, to prevent putrefaction. This cement 
is also adapted for flexible objects like 
leather. It will not withstand boiling 
water well, as this softens the glue. 

Badigeon. — Cement used to cover up 
unavoidable holes or defects in workman- 
ship. Many formulas. Every trade has 
its own. Putty, plaster of paris, saw- 
dust and glue are extensively used for 
this purpose. 

Benzine and Petroleum, Cement to Re- 
sist. — It has quite recently been discov- 
ered that gelatine mixed with glycerine 
yields a compound liquid when hot, but 
which solidifies on cooling, and forms a 
tough, elastic substance, having much the 
appearance and characteristics of India 
rubber. The two substances united form 
a mixture entirely and absolutely insolu- 
ble in petroleum or benzine, and the great 
problem of making casks impervious to 
these fluids is at once solved by brush- 
ing or painting them on the inside with 
the compound. This is also used for 
printers' rollers and for buffers of stamps, 
as benzine or petroleum will clean them 
when dirty in the most perfect manner, 
and in an incredibly short space of time. 
Water must not be used with this com- 
pound. 

Bisque, Cement for. — Burn some oyster 
shells, reduce to powder in a muller, and 
pass through a fine sieve ; make this into 
a paste with white of egg. The shells 
should be thoroughly cleaned, well burned, 
air-slaked, and finely powdered, making 
simply a fine article of lime. The parts 
joined must be held firmly together for 
two minutes or so after the cement has 
been applied. Be sure the parts are thor- 
oughly clean before joining. 

Bisulphide of Carhon, Cement Imper- 
vious to. — Best quality of white glue with 
10% of molasses added. 

JBlacJc Cement. — Blacksmith's ashes, 1 
lb. ; sharp sand, 1 lb. ; rosin, 2 lb. 

Bone Cement. — 1. — Take of isinglass, 1 
oz. ; distilled water, 6 oz. ; boil to 3 oz., 
and add rectified spirit, 1^ oz. ; boil for 
a minute or two, strain, and add while 
hot : first, a milky emulsion of gum am- 
moniac, ^ oz., and then tincture of mas- 
tic, 5 dr. 

2. — White Cement for Bone. — If only 
to fill up cracks, try lime and white of 
egg, made into a paste, or ground rice 
flour mixed with water. 

Bottgefs Cement. — ^Bottger's cement, 

[ 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 

made with fine precipitated chalk, stirred 
into a solution of sodium silicate at 33° 
B., to which pigments may be added, if 
desired, the mixture hardening in 6 or 8 
hours. 

Bottle Cements. — 1. — A number of these 
cements will be found under Wax, where 
they are properly placed. See also Mas- 
siafs. Chemical, and Glycerine Cements. 
Copal varnish, made thick with red lead 
or other pigment, affords an excellent bot- 
tle cement. 

2. — Mix gelatine and glycerine, apply 
warm, by dipping the neck of the bottle 
in the mixture. Repeat if necessary. 

3. — Cement for sealing fruit cans is 
made of rosin, 1 lbs. ; tallow, 1 oz. 

Brown Cement. — Pure gum rubber, 20 
gr. ; carbon bisulphide, q. s. ; shellac, 2 
oz.; alcohol, 8 oz. Dissolve the rubber 
in the smallest possible amount of the 
carbon bisulphide ; add this slowly to al- 
cohol, avoiding clots ; add powdered shel- 
lac, and place the bottle in boiling water 
until the shellac is dissolved and no more 
smell of carbon bisulphide is given off. 

Casks and Cisterns, Air- and Water- 
tight Cement. — Melted glue, 10 parts ; 
linseed oil, 5 parts ; boil into a varnish 
with litharge. Hardens in 2 days. 

Cement Pipe. — The proper proportion 
for cement pipe is 1 of water cement to 
3 of sand. Gravel from the size of a 
pigeon's egg down is better than fine sand, 
and it must be perfectly clean and free 
from mold or vegetable matter. The ce- 
ment and sand must be thoroughly mixed 
before the water is added, and it must 
be used immediately after mixing. The 
most common cause of failure is a poor 
quality of cement. 

Chinese Cement (Schio-liao) . — 1. — To 

3 parts of fresh beaten blood are added 

4 parts of slaked lime and a little alum ; 
a thin, pasty mass is produced, which 
can be used immediately. Objects which 
are to be made specially waterproof are 
painted by the Chinese twice, or at the 
most three times. 

2. — Pasteboard treated therewith re- 
ceives the appearance and strength of 
wood. Most of the wooden public build- 
ings of China are painted with schio-liao, 
which gives them an unpleasant reddish 
appearance, but adds to their durability. 
This cement was tried in the Austrian 
Department of Agriculture, and by the 
Vienna Association of Industry, and in 
both cases the statements of Dr. Scherzer 
were found to be strictly accurate. 

3. — Chinese glue is made by covering 
shellac with strong liquid ammonia and 
shaking frequently until dissolved. The 
302] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 

solution takes some time to form, and 
is facilitated by standing, placing the bot- 
tle, well stoppered, in a moderately warm 
situation, and briskly agitating, it at in- 
tervals. Bleached shellac gives a lighter 
colored cement, but it is not considered 
as strong. This cement is not particularly 
recommended. 

4. — Finest pale orange shellac, broken 
small, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit (the strong- 
est 58 o. p.), 3 oz. ; digest together in a 
corked bottle in a warm place until dis- 
solved ; it should have the consistency 
of molasses. 

Chinese Blood Cement. — This cement is 
in general use in China for making 
wooden and pasteboard vessels, willow- 
ware, etc., waterproof. Slaked lime, 50 
parts ; beaten bullock's blood, 37i/^ parts ; 
alum, 1 part. Mix together. 

Cloch Faces, Cement for White En- 
ameled. — Dammar, 50 parts ; gum copal, 
50 parts ; Venice turpentine, 55 parts ; 
zinc white, 30 parts ; ultramarine, 1 to 
2 parts. Apply the cement hot, and pol- 
ish when entirely cold. 

Cloth, Cement for. — 1. — Use thin sheet 
gutta percha, which can be purchased of 
the manufacturers, especially for tail- 
ors' use. Place a piece of the tissue 
between the layers of cloth to be ce- 
mented, and press with a hot iron. 
This causes the cloth to firmly adhere 
on account of the melting of the gutta 
percha. 

2. — Gutta percha, 16 ; caoutchouc, 4 ; 
pitch, 2 ; shellac, 1 ; linseed oil, 2. 

Collodion Cement. — Powdered nitrate 
of potash, 1 dr. ; concentrated sulphuric 
acid, iy2 dr. ; carded cotton, 5 dr. The 
nitrate of potash and the acid should be 
mixed in a porcelain capsule, gradually 
add the cotton, and stir for 5 minutes. 
Wash it thoroughly in clear water, pull 
it apart, and dry — not near the fire, as 
it is a species of guncotton. Dissolve 
in rectified sulphuric ether and a lit- 
tle alcohol. It will form a transparent, 
colorless and strong adhesive cement. 

Colored Cements. — According to the 
Seifen Zeitung, a water-glass solution of 
25° B., thickened with the following ma- 
terials, produces cements of the colors 
named, as follows : Finely sifted anti- 
mony sulphide, black ; cast-iron, in finest 
powder, green-black ; zinc dust, gray ; cop- 
per carbonate, light green ; chrome oxide, 
dark green ; cobalt blue, blue ; red lead, 
orange ; cinnabar, bright red ; carmine, 
violet red. 

Corks, etc.. Cement for. — 1.— Zinc 
white, rubbed up with copal viarnish to 
fill up the indentures ; when dry, to be 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 

covered with the same mass, somewhat 
thinner ; and lastly, with the copal var- 
nish alone. Plain shellac varnish will 
often answer the purpose. 

2. — Corks boiled in paraffine resist the 
action of the atmosphere, also worms and 
insects. 

Crocus Cement. — Crocus, mixed with a 
little linseed oil, makes a hard and use- 
ful cement. 

Crucible. — 1. — A mixture of powdered 
clay and brick dust, made up with water, 
or a solution of borax. Used to join cru- 
cibles which are exposed to a strong heat. 
When mixed up with borax solution the 
lute becomes a compact vitreous mass in 
the fire. 

2. — Form a paste with water of 2 parts 
borax, 2 parts slaked lime, and 1 part 
litharge. Can also be used for porcelain. 

Cue Tips, Cement for. — Russian isin- 
glass, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 2 fl.oz. ; 
glycerine, 2 fl.dr. ; glacial acetic acid, 1 
fl.oz. Mix. 

Cutler's Cement. — 1. — For fastening 
blades of dinner knives in ivory handles. 
Consists of rosin, 4 parts ; beeswax, 1 
part ; plaster of paris or brick dust, 1 
part. Fill the hole in the handle with 
the cement, heat the tang of the blade, 
crowd in, and remove superfluous cement. 

2. — Rosin, 16 oz. ; hot whiting, 16 oz. ; 
wax, 1 oz. 

3. — Pitch, 5 parts ; wood ashes, 1 part ; 
hard tallow, 1 part ; melted together. 

4. — Black rosin, 4 lb., melted with 1 lb. 
beeswax, and 1 lb. red-hot whiting added. 

Davy's Cement. — Davy's universal ce- 
ment is made by melting 4 parts common 
pitch with 4 parts gutta percha in an 
iron vessel, and mixing well. It must be 
kept fluid, under water, or in a dry, hard 
state. 

DiamantJcitt. — A German cement, ac- 
cording to Hager. Graphite, 50 parts ; 
litharge, 15 parts ; milk of lime, 10 parts ; 
slaked lime, 5 parts ; intimately mixed 
with enough linseed oil to make a firm 



Diamond Cement. — The following for- 
mula will be found useful in repairing 
china, glass, wood, leather, etc. : Isin- 
glass, 240 gr. ; mastic, 120 gr. ; gum am- 
moniac or galbanum, 60 gr. ; alcohol, 4 
fl.oz. ; water, 4 fl.oz. Soak the isinglass 
in the water for 24 hours ; evaporate on 
a water bath to 2 fl.oz. ; then add 2 fl.oz. 
of alcohol ; strain ; add the mastic, dis- 
solved in the remaining alcohol, and add 
the ammoniac by trituration, avoiding 
loss of alcohol as much as possible. 

Effg Cements. — 1. — These are useful 
household cements. Use white of an egg, 



[303] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 

beaten up with an equal quantity of 
water ; add enough slaked lime to make 
a paste ; apply immediately. 

2. — Plaster of paris, with the addition 
of 14 its weight of lime, and q. s. of 
white of egg. Reduce the lime, which 
should be freshly slaked, to a fine powder. 
Mix quickly, apply immediately, and al- 
low it to remain undisturbed for at least 
3 days. 

Evans^ Cement. — Cadmium, 26 parts ; 
mercury, 74 parts ; dissolve this amal- 
gam in an excess of mercury, knead thor- 
oughly, and heat if necessary, so that the 
cement is plastic as wax. 

Flexible Cement. — Flexible cement is 
composed of white pitch and gutta percha, 
equal parts, mixed over a water bath. 
Many of the other gutta percha and rub- 
ber cements answer for flexible cements. 

French Cement. — Gum water, thick- 
ened with starch ; a little lemon juice is 
sometimes added. 

Gas Bags, Cement for. — Add 1 part of 
glycerine to very thick boiled glue. Fill 
the bag with air and apply while warm ; 
if too sticky, strew it with a little pow- 
dered soapstone. For large rents use 
leather well covered with glue. 

Gas Fitters' Cement. — Melt together 
414 parts rosin (by weight), 1 part bees- 
wax ; then stir in 3 parts Venetian red, 
and pour into molds made of oiled paper 
or iron. 

Gas Retorts, Cement for. — For cement- 
ing earthenware gas retorts, which have 
to withstand very high temperatures, the 
following cement can be used : Pow- 
dered glass, 5 parts ; chamotte meal, 5 
parts ; powdered borax, 1 part. Cha- 
motte meal is obtained by pulverizing 
broken pieces of gas retorts. This cement 
is a hard glass, which only melts at the 
highest temperatures, then closes the 
leaks in the retort. To render airtight 
the iron cover which closes the retort, a 
cement is used consisting of schwerspath 
powder, to which as much soluble glass 
has been mixed as to obtain a paste of 
suflacient strength. 

Gases, To Resist. — 1. — Clay _ is dried, 
powdered, sifted, placed in an iron mor- 
tar, and incorporated with drying oil, 
added gradually, the whole being well 
beaten up till the mass assumes the con- 
sistency of a fine paste. It should be 
preserved under a coating of oil, to pre- 
vent it drying up. It resists the action 
of corrosive gases, but inconveniently soft- 
ens by exposure to heat. 

2. — Plaster of paris, mixed with water, 
milk, or weak glue. Stands a dull-red 
heat. 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 



Cement. — 1. — Take pulverized 
glass, 10 parts ; powdered fluorspar, 20 
parts ; soluble silicate of soda, 60 parts. 
Both glass and fluorspar must be in the 
finest possible condition, which is best 
done by shaking each in fine powder, with 
water, allowing the coarser particles to 
deposit, and then to pour off the remain- 
der, which holds the finest particles in 
suspension. The mixture must be made 
very rapidly, by quick stirring, and when 
thoroughly mixed must be at once applied. 
This is said to yield an excellent cement. 

2. — Red lead and boracic acid, equal 
parts ; add white sand, 2-3 part ; mix ; 
reduce to very fine powder, make into a 
paste with dilute sodium silicate. Apply 
as an ordinary cement, and heat high 
enough to fuse the water glass. 

Gram-Rutzon's Cement. — Hard Canada 
balsam, 50 grams ; shellac, 50 grams ; ab- 
solute alcohol, 50 grams ; anhydrous ether, 
100 grams. The ingredients are mixed, 
and, when the gums are dissolved, filter, 
if necessary, and evaporate, away from 
the flame, over a water bath, until of 
syrupy thickness. 

Grouville's Oil Cement. — White lead, 
1% parts ; red lead, l^ part ; dry clay, 
1 part. Mix with boiled linseed oil. 

Gutta Percha Cement. — 1. — Valuable 
for many purposes, especially where the 
article is not required to be fireproof. 
(See caution under Ruhher Cements.) 
This highly recommended cement is made 
by melting together in an iron pan 2 
parts common pitch and 1 part gutta per- 
cha, stirring them well together until 
thoroughly incorporated, and then pour- 
ing the liquid into cold water. When 
cold it is black, solid and elastic ; but it 
softens with heat, and at 100° F. is a 
thin fluid. It may be used as a soft 
paste, or in the liquid state, and answers 
an excellent purpose in cementing metal, 
glass, porcelain, ivory, etc. It may be 
used instead of putty for glazing win- 
dows. 

2. — Fuse together equal parts of gutta 
percha and pitch. Use hot. 

3. — Fuse together equal parts of pitch 
and gutta percha, and to this add about 2 
parts of linseed oil containing 5 parts of 
litharge. Continue the heat until the in- 
gredients are uniformly commingled. Ap- 
ply warm. 

Gutta Percha, Cement for. — 1. — Stock- 
holm tar, 1 part ; rosin, 1 part ; gutta 
percha, 3 parts. 

2. — Rosin, 2 parts ; Stockholm tar, 2 
parts ; gutta percha, 4 parts. 

Hagar's Cement. — Graphite (elutri- 
ated), 500 parts; whiting, 150 parts: 



[304] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 

litharge, 150 parts. Mix with linseed-oil 
varnish to form a stiff putty. 

Hensler's Cement. — Litharge, 6 parts ; 
quicklime, 4 parts ; white bole, 2 parts. 
Grind with boiled linseed oil. Though 
tenacious, it is not recommended, on ac- 
count of time required to set. 

Uoenle's Cement. — This is composed of 
shellac and Venice turpentine. Shellac, 
2 parts ; turpentine, 1 part. Melt, and 
mold into sticks. 

Hoofs of Horses, Cement for. — Use 
gutta percha, 2 parts ; gum ammoniac, 1 
part. Heat the gutta percha and grad- 
ually add the gum ammoniac, which must 
be very finely powdered. Heat for use. 

Household Cement. — Alum and plaster 
of paris, well mixed in water, and used 
in the liquid state, form a hard composi- 
tion and also a useful cement. 

Incandescent Lamp Filaments, Cement 
for. — Take 100 gr. of carburet of iron 
(Dixon's stove polish), grind dry to a 
fine powder, add 10 gr. of lump sugar, 
mix well in a mortar ; then add 40 gr. 
gold bronze, mix again ; then add sufii- 
cient water to make a thick paste, and 
apply it to the junction between the car- 
bon and the platinum wire ; allow it to 
stand for 20 minutes or so, then burn 
the joint to a cherry-red heat by a fine 
gas flame. 

Insulating Cement. — -Shellac, 5 parts ; 
rosin, 2 parts ; Venice turpentine, 1 part ; 
yellow ocher, 3 parts. 

Insulating Tapes, Cement for. — 1. — 
Pure gum rubber, dissolved in turpentine, 
with the addition of 5% of raw linseed 
oil. 

2. — ^Yellow pitch, 8 parts ; beeswax, 2 
parts ; tallow, 1 part. 

Insulators, Ceraent for. — Sulphur, lead, 
plaster of paris, with a little glue to pre- 
vent it setting quickly. 

Iron and Blood Cement. — Pulverized 
lime, 100 parts, triturated with bullock's 
blood, 290 parts cement, and from 5 to 
10 parts iron filings. 

Jannin's Cement. — This is known as 
Jannin's cement, from the name of the 
patentee (patent now expired). The ce- 
ment is simply a mixture, in suitable pro- 
portions, of yellow oxide of lead (the 
quality known as massicot being prefer- 
able) with glycerine. Several other me- 
tallic oxides and matters may be mixed 
with the cement, so as to suit the quality 
or the color of the cement to the nature 
of the work to be produced, but the two 
essential compounds are yellow oxide of 
lead and glycerine. The proportions of 
oxide of lead and glycerine vary accord- 
ing to the consistency of the cement it is 

[ 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 

desired to produce. The proportion of 
glycerine will, of course, be larger for 
a very soft cement than for a stiff ce- 
ment ; it is not necessary, therefore, to 
specify the exact proportion of each of 
the two essential compounds. This ce- 
ment is specially adapted for molding 
those objects which require an extreme 
delicacy in the lines of the cast, such as 
engraved blocks and plates, forms of 
printing type, photoglyptic plates, etc. 
Under the influence of gentle heat it sets 
in a few minutes, and then resists per- 
fectly both pressure and heat. When set, 
it is also a very good substitute for natu- 
ral lithographic stones, and it can replace 
them for many practical purposes. It 
can also be used for artistic reproduc- 
tions, such as fac-similes of terra cotta, 
whose color and sonorous quality it pos- 
sesses. Though setting to great hard- 
ness in a few minutes, it does not shrink. 

Lime Cements. — Lime cements are very 
valuable in mending many articles, and 
when combined with casein, sodium sili- 
cate, or egg, produce one of the simplest 
and most durable cements for household 
use. 

Lime and Glue Cement. — Into hot glue 
stir air-slaked lime. This gives a good 
cement, and very cheap. 

Litharge Cement. — Litharge, 1 oz. ; 
plaster of paris, 1 oz. ; finely powdered 
rosin, 1-3 oz.; mix thoroughly, and make 
into a paste with boiled linseed oil to 
which driers have been added. Beat it 
well, and let it stand 4 or 5 hours before 
using. Soda silicate and chalk make a 
good cement. 

Marteaux & Roherfs Cement. — Pyro- 
lusite, finely powdered, 100 parts ; graph- 
ite, 12 parts ; white lead, 5 parts ; red 
lead, 5 parts ; clay, 3 parts. After sift- 
ing and mixing, 1 part of boiled linseed 
oil to each 7 parts of the mixture is 
added. Make into a paste, heat, and 
pound ; repeat the operation several times. 

Mastic Cement. — 1. — Mastic cement is 
used for molding ornaments, etc. Reduce 
all materials to fine powder. Quartz 
sand, 60 parts ; limestone, 20 parts ; lith- 
arge, 10 parts ; linseed oil, 7 parts. 

2. — Powdered slaked lime, 30 parts ; 
sand, nVz parts ; litharge, 1^/^ parts. 
Knead to a stiff mass with 3% to 5 parts 
of old linseed oil, or linseed-oil varnish 
may be used. Work thoroughly in a mor- 
tar, with a pestle. 

Mending Tissues. — 1. — Caoutchouc, 5 
parts ; chloroform, 3 parts ; dissolve, and 
add gum mastic (powder), 1 part, 

2. — Gutta percha, 16 parts ; India rub- 
ber, 4 parts ; pitch, 2 parts ; shellac, 1 
305] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 

part ; linseed oil, 2 parts. Reduce solids 
to small pieces. Melt together with the 
oil. Mix well. 

3. — Bisulphate of carbon, 8 oz. ; gutta 
percha, % oz. ; rosin, 40 grams. Mix. 

Metallic Cement. — From 20 to 30 parts 
of finely divided copper, obtained by the 
reduction of oxide of copper with hydro- 
gen, or by precipitations from solutions 
of its sulphate with zinc, are made into 
a paste with oil of vitriol, and 70 parts 
of mercury added, the whole being well 
triturated. When the amalgamation is 
complete the acid is removed by wash- 
ing with boiled water, and the compound 
allowed to cool. In 10 or 12 hours it 
becomes suflSciently hard to receive a bril- 
liant polish, and to scratch the surface 
of tin or gold. By heat it assumes the 
consistency of wax, and as it does not 
contract by cooling, it is recommended by 
a noted chemist for dentists' use for stop- 
ping teeth. This is a splendid cement 
for attaching to the surface of wood, 
glass, metal and porcelain. 

Mica, Cement for. — A colorless cement 
for joining sheets of mica is prepared as 
follows: Clear gelatine is softened by 
soaking it in a little cold water, and the 
exces* of water is pressed out by gently 
squeezing it in a cloth. It is then heated 
over a water bath until it begins to melt, 
and just enough hot proof spirit (not in 
excess) stirred in to make it fluid. To 
each pint of this solution is gradually 
added, while stirring, % oz. of gum am- 
moniac and 1 1-3 oz. of rectified spirit. 
It must be warmed to liquefy it for use, 
and kept in stoppered bottles when not 
required. This cement, when properly 
prepared, resists cold water. 

Mohr^s. — Equal parts of pulverized 
brick and litharge are made into a paste 
with linseed oil. After application a lit- 
tle fine sand is dusted over the lute, and 
it is dried in the oven. 

Muirhead's Cement. — Portland cement, 

3 lb. ; sharp sand, 3 lb. ; blacksmith's 
ashes, 4 lb. ; rosin, 4 lb. Melt the rosin 
and stir the other ingredients in. 

Oil and Sulphur. — One part of sulphur 
to 12 of oil gives a substance like molasses ; 

4 parts of sulphur to 12 of oil a stiff sub- 
stance like rubber. To be successful in 
making this compound take an iron ladle, 
such as is used for the melting of lead, 
and fill it not more than one-third full, 
and place it over a clear fire. Owing to a 
quantity of water being held in the oil 
by the vegetable matter, it will begin to 
seethe, and if not closely watched boil 
over into the fire. After a little time 
it will subside, the surface remaining 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 

quite placid, with now and then little 
flickers of smoke flitting across the sur- 
face. Your sulphur must be either roll 
brimstone or the crude sublimed — i.e., not 
washed or treated with acid. If the first, 
finely powder it, and mix by degrees in 
the oil, stirring all the time until incor- 
porated. 

Opticians^ Cement.— 1. — Shellac, soft- 
ened with rectified spirit or wood naph- 
tha. For fine work. 

2. — Beeswax, 1 oz. ; rosin, 15 oz. Melt, 
and add whiting (previously made red 
hot, and still warm), 4 oz. 

3. — Rosin, 1 lb. ; melt, and add plaster 
of paris, dry, 4 oz. The above are used 
to fix glasses, stones, etc., while polishing 
and cutting them. The last is a very 
strong cement for rough purposes. 

4. — Rosin, 10 parts ; shellac, 2 parts ; 
rouge, 1 part. Melt, mix, and add enough 
turpentine to make it tough, so as not to 
splinter under pressure from the thumb- 
nail, at the working temperature of the 
room. 

Papier MdcJie, Architectural Cement. 
— 1. — Strong rice-water size and paper 
pulped in boiling water, are mixed to- 
gether; enough whiting is then added to 
make it of a proper consistency. The pa- 
per must be perfectly pulped. 

2. — Make the cement the same, only 
substitute plaster of paris for whiting. 

Parabolic. — Syn. Universal Cement. — 
Curdle skim milk, press out the whey, and 
dry the curd by a gentle heat, but as 
quickly as possible. When it has become 
quite dry, grind it to powder in a coffee 
or pepper mill, and mix it with 1-10 of 
its weight of finely powdered quicklime, 
and a piece of camphor the size of a pea, 
also reduced to powder, to every ounce of 
the mixture. Keep it in wide-mouthed 
1-oz. vials, well corked. For use, make 
it into a paste with a little water, and 
apply it immediately. 

Pasteboard, To Cement. — Good pitch 
and gutta percha (about equal parts) are 
fused together, and to 9 parts of this 
are added 3 parts of boiled oil and 1-5 part 
of litharge ; continue the heat, with stir- 
ring, until thorough union of the ingredi- 
ents is effected. This is applied hot, or 
cooled somewhat, and thinned with a 
small quantity of benzole or turpentine 
oil. 

Pestles, Cement for Mending. — 1. — 
Plaster of paris is ordinarily used for 
fastening loose handles. It is made into 
a moderately thick paste with water, run 
into the hole in the head of the pestle, 
the handle inserted, and held in place 
till the cement hardens. Some add sand 



[306] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 

to the paste, and claim to get better re- 
sults. 

2. — Boil together 1 part of caustic soda, 
3 parts of rosin, and 5 parts of water, 
till homogeneous, and add 4 parts of plas- 
ter of paris. The paste sets in half an 
hour, and is but little affected by water. 

3. — Equal quantities of gutta percha 
and shellac are melted together and well 
stirred. This is best done in an iron 
capsule placed on a sand bath and heated 
over a gas furnace or on the top of a 
stove. It is a combination possessing 
both hardness and toughness, qualities 
that make it particularly desirable in 
mending mortars and pestles. In using, 
the articles to be cemented should be 
warmed to about the melting point of 
the mixture, and retained in proper po- 
sition until cool, when they are ready 
for use. 

Patent Fuel Cement. — This cement, 
used for the agglomeration of coal dust, 
and the manufacture of patent fuel, con- 
sists of coal tar, gluten and starch. The 
qualities of these substances vary ac- 
cording to the quality and property of 
coal dust. About 2% of this mixture 
(say containing 2% parts tar, 1 part 
gluten, 14 part starch) would be suitable 
for coal dust of an average quality of 
bituminous coal. 

Peiv^s Cement. — Prep. Powdered quick- 
lime, 1 part ; powdered baked clay, 2 
parts ; mix, then add 1 part of freshly 
baked and powdered gypsum to 2 parts 
of powdered baked clay, and after mix- 
ing well add them to the former powder 
and thoroughly incorporate the two. Used 
to cover buildings. It is mixed with 
water, and applied like mortar. It ac- 
quires great hardness, and is very dur- 
able. 

Plaster Cement. — 1. — Plaster of parts, 
baked and ground, acquires great hard- 
ness and solidity when left for 24 hours 
in contact with a solution of alum, and 
when, after drying in the air, it is sub- 
mitted to a second baking. 

2. — A mixture of silicate of potash, 100 
parts ; carbonate of potash, 27 parts ; and 
water, 500 parts, may also be used. 

4. — Plaster of paris busts, etc., are best 
mended with shellac varnish or soluble 
glass. 

Prisms, Bisulphide of Garhon, Cement 
for. — For bisulphide of carbon prisms, 
Mr. Lewis M. Rutherford, who has had 
much experience in this subject, employs 
a cement of glue and molasses. The sur- 
faces must be perfectly clean ; they are 
then warmed, and dusted with a fine 
camel's-hair brush, and placed in contact. 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 

A hot and fluid mixture of glue and mo- 
lasses is then applied around the edges, 
and penetrates by capillary attraction. 
It must be left a day or two to harden 
before preparing the next side. The 
ground stopper was also rendered tight 
by a little molasses. 

Quicklime Cement. — Dilute white of 
egg with its bulk of water, and beat up 
thoroughly. Mix to the consistency of 
thin paste with powdered quicklime. Must 
be used immediately. 

Resinous Cements are excellent in all 
cases where heat is not applied, and they 
are very inexpensive. 

Scheihler's Cement. — Melt 1 part of 
wax and 3 parts of shellac, and work 
into the mixture, while still warm, 2 
parts of gutta percha, cut fine. 

Schottler's Cement. — Plaster of paris, 
freshly ground, 12 parts by weight ; cin- 
ders, sifted, 8 parts ; brick dust, 6 parts. 
Mix with water. 

Serhafs Linseed-Oil Mastic. — Lead sul- 
phate, 6 parts ; mix with 1 part linseed ; 
add gradually ; add 6 parts powdered 
pyrolusite. 

Shellac Cement. — For fastening leather, 
wood, stone, etc., to metal or other sub- 
stances : (a) Orange shellac, 4 oz. ; (b) 
concentrated ammonia, 8 fl.oz. ; distilled 
water, 6 fl.oz. Weigh out (a), place in 
a quart fruit jar, and add (b). Seal up 
the cover so as to prevent evaporation, 
and set aside. In about 6 days the shel- 
lac will be perfectly dissolved, especially 
if the mixture be shaken occasionally. In 
order to use this cement it should be 
poured into a shallow dish and evaporated 
until quite thick and gummy. If you 
get it too thick it is easily thinned with 
a little hot water. The only objection 
to this cement is the color, which assumes 
a deep maroon tone when mixed with 
ammonia. It is very tenacious, and is 
useful for many purposes. 

Siemen's Cement. — Black iron rust, or 
iron filings, 12 lb. ; sulphur, 100 lb. 

Signs,^ Filling, Cement for. — Melt to- 
gether, in a clean iron pot, 2 parts each 
of best asphaltum and gutta percha ; stir 
well together, and then add 1 part of 
gum shellac in fine powder. It may be 
used hot and mixed with smalt, vermil- 
ion, or other pigment, if desired. 

Slag Cement. — 1. — Granulated slag is 
ground and mixed with lime and the mix- 
ture calcined and reground. 

2. — Blast-furnace slag is mixed in the 
following proportions with lime and clay : 
Slag, 10 parts ; lime, 25 parts ; clay, 10 
parts. Calcine. 

Soft Cement. — Melt yellow beeswax 



[307] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc, 



(Cements for Minor Uses) 



with its weight of turpentine, and color 
with finely powdered Venetian red. When 
cold it has the hardness of soap, but is 
easily softened, and molded with the fin- 
gers, and for sticking things together tem- 
porarily it is invaluable. 

Soluble Glass Cements. — When finely 
pulverized chalk is stirred into a solu- 
tion of soluble glass of 30° B. until the 
mixture is fine and plastic, a cement is 
obtained which will harden in between 
6 and 8 hours, possessing an extraordi- 
nary durability, and alike applicable for 
domestic and industrial purposes. If any 
of the following substances be employed 
besides chalk, differently colored cements 
of the same general character are ob- 
tained : 

1. — Finely pulverized or levigated stib- 
nite (gray antimony or black sulphide of 
antimony) v^^ill produce a dark cement, 
which, after long burnishing with an 
agate, will present a metallic appearance. 

2. — Pulverized cast-iron, a gray cement. 

3. — Zinc dust, so-called zinc gray, an 
exceedingly hard gray cement, v^^hich, 
after burnishing, v^ill exhibit the white 
and brilliant appearance of metallic zinc. 
This cement may be employed with ad- 
vantage in mending ornaments and ves- 
sels of zinc, sticking alike well to metals, 
stone and wood. 

4. — Carbonate of copper, a bright green 
cement. 

5. — Sesquioxide of chromium, a dark 
green cement. 

6. — Thenard's blue (cobalt blue), a blue 
cement. 

7. — Minium, an orange-colored cement. 

8. — Vermilion, a splendid red cement. 

9. — Carbon red, a violet cement. 

Spirit Cement (White). — For metal, 
glass plates, wood, etc. (a) Bleached 
shellac, 1 lb.; (b) 95% alcohol, 1 qt. 
Dissolve (a), which should be fresh, and 
finely pulverized, in (b). Solution may 
be made cold, the operation being hast- 
ened by agitation. When dissolved, ex- 
pose in an open porcelain or earthenware 
dish, in a dry atmosphere, until evapo- 
rated to a thick, gummy paste ; or, if time 
be an important feature, heat some sand 
in an iron dish, extinguish the fire, then 
place the shellac mixture on the hot sand 
to evaporate. Do not have the sand too 
hot, as it might crack the dish. For a 
rapid setting cement, evaporate down un- 
til quite thick — i.e., liquid, but not dry — • 
then add a very little of the following 
mixture : Wood alcohol, 4 fl.oz. ; solvent 
naphtha (benzole), 2 fl.oz. Caution: 
Keep away from the fire. 

Statuary. — This is simply a solution of 



(Glue) 



potassium silicate. It forms a very val- 
uable cement for mending statuary. It 
suffices to brush the surfaces with the 
solution, and to press them firmly to- 
gether. 

Stephenson's Oil Cement. — 1. — Lith- 
arge, 10 parts ; air-slaked lime, 5 parts ; 
fine sand, 5 parts ; mix to a paste with 
hot linseed oil. Use immediately. 

2. — Litharge, 20 parts ; slaked lime, 10 
parts ; sand, 10 parts ; linseed-oil varnish, 
3 parts. 

Vegetable Cement. — 1. — Mix gum ara- 
ble with calcium nitrate, 1 part of the 
gum arable to 10 parts of the calcium, 
and use 10 parts of water. 

2. — Calcium nitrate, 2 parts ; gum ara- 
ble, pulverized, 20 parts ; water, 25 parts. . 

Water Cements. — 1. — Slaked lime, 100 
parts ; brick dust, 190 parts ; sand, 160 
parts ; blacksmith's dross, 50 parts ; pow- 
dered lime, 50 parts ; mix with water. 

2. — Iron filings, 600 parts ; ignited 
sand, 100 parts ; powdered slaked lime, 
100 parts ; mix with water. 

White Cement. — Mix in a well-stop- 
pered bottle 10 drams of chloroform with 
121/^ drams of unvulcanized caoutchouc, 
in small pieces. The solution is easily 
effected, and when finished add 2i/^ drams 
of mastic, and let the whole macerate 
from 8 to 10 days, shaking the mixture 
from time to time, but without heat. A 
perfectly white and very adhesive cement 
is thus i5roduced. This comipound is made 
on the same principle as the cement great- 
ly in vogue among florists for making 
permanent bouquets. 

White Cement, Zeigler's. — Composition 
unknown. Is very much used on the 
Continent for microscopical use. 

Zeiodite. — Is a cement composed of 10 
parts sulphur and 12 parts glue or pumice. 

Zinc Ornaments, Cement for. — Water 
glass, having fine whiting and impure 
zinc (zinc gray) stirred in, forms an ex- 
cellent cement, and receives a high polish. 

Zinc White Cement. — German formula : 
1, mastic ; 2, dammar ; 3, sandarac ; 4, 
Venetian turpentine ; 5, turpentine ; 6, 
benzol ; 7, zinc white. 1, 2 and 8, pow- 
dered, are mixed in a well-corked bottle 
with 4, 5 and 6; shake well occasion- 
ally ; after several days filter, and tritu- 
rate in a mortar with zinc white in q. s. 
Dilute, if necessary, with benzol. 

GLUE 
Glue is a cement used for joining pieces 
of wood together, and has for its chief 
constituent a substance called gelatine, 
obtained from the cuttings of hides, skins, 
tendons and other refuse parts of ani- 



[308] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Glues) 



mals, as well as from cuttings of leather 
and parchment, which, after being well 
soaked in milk of lime, to dissolve any 
blood, flesh or fat, are thoroughly washed 
in a stream of water to remove the lime. 
The material is then boiled in water un- 
til the required adhesive strength is ob- 
tained, when the liquid is run off into 
a cistern, and clarified with powdered 
alum, which precipitates in the form of 
sulphate any lime that may remain, as 
well as other impurities. Before cooling 
it is drawn off into molds, and is then 
in the form of size, which, when cut into 
slices, and dried in the air, hardens into 
glue. 

Hints About Glue. 

1, — Good glue should be a light brown 
color, semi-transparent, and free from 
waves or cloudy lines. Glue loses much 
of its strength by frequent remelting; 
therefore, glue which is newly made is 
preferable to that which has been re- 
boiled. The hotter the glue the more 
force it will exert in keeping the joined 
parts glued together. In all large and 
long joints it should be applied immedi- 
ately after boiling. Apply pressure until 
it is set or hardened. Glue, being an ani- 
mal substance, must be kept sweet. To 
do this keep it cool after it is once dis- 
solved, and not in use. In all cases keep 
the glue kettle clean and sweet, by clean- 
ing it often. Good glue requires more 
water than poor: The best glue will re- 
quire from one-half to more than double 
the water that is required with poor glue, 
which is clear and red; the quality can 
be discovered by breaking a piece. If 
good, it will break hard and tough, and 
will be irregular on the broken edge. If 
poor, it will break comparatively easy, 
leaving a smooth, straight edge. In dis- 
solving glue, it is best to weigh the glue, 
and weigh or measure the water ; other- 
wise, there is a liability of getting more 
glue than the water can properly dis- 
solve. It is a good plan, when once the 
quantity of water that any sample of 
glue will take up has been ascertained, 
to put the glue and water together at 
least 6 hours before heat is applied, and 
if it is not soft enough then, let it re- 
main longer in soak, for there is no dan- 
ger in letting good glue remain in pure 
water, even for 48 hours. The advan- 
tage of frozen glue is that it can be made 
up at once, on account of its being so 
porous. I'rozen glue of same grade is as 
strong as if dried. If glue is of first-rate 
quality, it can be used on most kinds 
of woodwork vers thin, and will make the 



(Glues) 



joint as strong as the original. White 
glue is made white by bleaching. 

2. — The following, translated from Des 
Ingenieurs Taschenhuch, contains a great 
deal of valuable information, which will 
probably be acceptable to many of our 
readers. The absolute strength of a well- 
glued joint is : 

Pounds per square inch. 

Across the grain. With the 

end to end. grain. 

Beech 2,133 1,095 

Elm 1,436 1,124 

Oak 1,735 568 

White wood 1,493 341 

Maple 1,422 896 

It is customary to use from 1-6 to 1-10 
of the above values, to calculate the re- 
sistance which surfaces joined with glue 
can permanently sustain with safety. 

3. — Cracking, To Prevent. — a. — Glue 
frequently cracks because of the dryness 
of the air in rooms warmed by stoves. 
An Austrian contemporary recommends 
the addition of a little chloride of calcium 
to glue to prevent this disagreeable prop- 
erty of cracking. Chloride of calcium is 
such a deliquescent salt that it attracts 
enough moisture to prevent the glue from 
cracking. Glue thus prepared will ad- 
here to glass, metal, etc., and can be 
used for putting on labels without danger 
of their dropping off. 

b. — Add a very small quantity of glyc- 
erine to the glue. The quantity must be 
modified according to circumstances. 

4. — Hardening Glue. — Try a little fine- 
ly powdered brick dust, which will harden 
quickly in proportion to the quantity 
used. 

Liquid Glue. 

1. — Glue, cut in small pieces, 6 parts ; 
water, 16 parts, poured over it and al- 
lowed to stand for a few hours ; add sul- 
phate of zinc, ll^ part ; hydrochloric-acid 
gas, 1 part. Keep the mixture at a tem- 
perature of 175 to 190° F. for 10 or 12 
hours. This glue may be used for join- 
ing all articles, even porcelain, glass, 
mother-of-pearl, etc. It does not con- 
geal. 

2. — Best white glue, 4 parts ; lead car- 
bonate, 1 part ; rain water, 8 parts ; alco- 
hol, 1 part. Dissolve the glue in the 
water on a water bath, stirring constant- 
ly ; then mix in the lead carbonate, add 
the alcohol, and continue the heat for a 
few minutes ; lastly, pour into bottles 
while it is still hot. 

3. — Take a wide-mouthed bottle, and 
dissolve in it 8 oz. best glue, in ^ pt. 



[309] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Glues) 



of water, by setting it in a vessel of 
water and heating until dissolved. Then 
add, slowly, 2% oz. of strong aquafortis 
(nitric acid), 36° B., stirring all the 
while. Effervescence takes place under 
generation of nitrous acid. When all the 
acid has been added the liquid is allowed 
to cool. Keep it well corked, and it will 
be ready for use at any moment. 

4. — Take 1 pt. of the common turpen- 
tine and mix in a quart bottle with 4 
fl.oz. of 98% alcohol. Agitate well, and 
let stand until the two fluids separate. 
Decant the turpentine (which will form 
the lower layer) from the alcohol, and 
mix it with 1 pt. of clear water. Agi- 
tate thoroughly, and let stand until these 
two fluids separate, then from the water 
decant the turpentine (which this time 
will form the upper layer), and, finally, 
mix with the turpentine about 1 oz. of 
powdered starch, and filter through paper. 

5. — The following recipe is said to keep 
indefinitely : Best glue, 10 oz. ; formaline, 
40%, 1 to 3 oz. ; acetic acid, 90%, 2 to 5 
oz. Or, hydrochloric or nitric acid (1.3), 
% to iy2 oz. ; water, 100 oz. A little 
glycerine increases the elasticity of the 
glue. 

6. — Crush 100 parts of brightest gela- 
tine as minutely as possible and pour 
water over it until it is entirely covered. 
Allow to swell for 24 hours, adding more 
water as the upper layer of glue dries 
out. Now rub up 10 parts of zinc oxide 
with water in a porcelain mortar to a 
liquid paste, and add 11 parts of concen- 
trated hydrochloric acid ; the zinc oxide 
will quickly dissolve. When gas ceases 
to be evolved, filter, and add the clear 
zinc solution to the glue, stirring the mix- 
ture thoroughly while pouring it in. Li- 
quefy the glue at a heat of about 140° F. 
(but not over an open fire), and add 1 
part of alum, previously dissolved in the 
minimum quantity of water. Now let the 
whole stand (at the same temperature) 
until all the impurities rise to the sur- 
face, when the transparent glue under- 
neath is carefully decanted and admixed 
with 2 parts of alcohol. 

7. — In a solution of borax in water 
soak a good quantity of glue until it has 
thoroughly imbibed the liquid. Pour ofE 
the surplus solution and then put on the 
water bath and melt the glue. Let cool 
down until the glue begins to set, then 
add, drop by drop, with agitation, enough 
acetic acid to check the tendency to solidi- 
fication. If, after becoming quite cold, 
there is still a tendency to solidification, 
add a few drops more of the acid. The 



(Glues) 



liquid should be of the consistency of or- 
dinary mucilage at all times. 

8. — Dilute 1 part of official phosphoric 
acid with 2 parts of water, and neutral- 
ize the solution with carbonate of am- 
monium. Add to the liquid an equal quan- 
tity of water, warm it on a water bath, 
and dissolve it in sufficient glue to form a 
thick, syrupy liquid. Keep in well-stop- 
pered bottles. 

9. — Glue or gelatine, 10 oz. ; water, 40 
oz. ; oxalic acid, 5% dr. Dissolve the 
acid in the water, and in the solution 
steep the glue for 24 hours ; then heat on 
a water bath for 5 or 6 hours, dilute with 
water, neutralize with chalk, allow to 
stand until clear, and evaporate the clear 
solution to 20 oz. 

10. — White gelatine, 40 parts ; acetic 
acid, 40 parts ; alcohol, 10 parts ; alum, 
2 parts. Heat the gelatine and acetic 
acid together on a water bath until solu- 
tion takes place, add the alcohol, and the 
alum last. 

11. — White glue, 2 oz. ; acetic acid, 8 
oz. ; nitric acid, 10 min. Mix the glue 
and acetic acid in a wide-mouthed, stop- 
pered bottle, set in a warm place, agitate 
frequently until dissolved, and then add 
the nitric acid. 

12, — A very good liquid glue is pro- 
duced by adding to ordinary glue its vol- 
ume of vinegar and the fourth of a part 
of alcohol. A little alum may also be 
added as a preservative. 

13. — Glue, 100 grams ; water, 150 
grams ; sodium salicylate, 10 grams ; oil 
of cloves, 90 drops. Prepare by boiling 
in* a water bath until it becomes liquid. 
The object of the sodium salt is to pre- 
vent setting. 

14. — A German pharmaceutical chem- 
ist, named Ernest E. Eduard Martens, 
of Neustadt-Holstein, has patented a prep- 
aration of liquid glass for joiners, uphol- 
sterers, etc., the object being to provide 
a strong adhesive glue that will not be 
injurious to health. Dissolve ordinary 
glue in water, with the addition of sodium 
salicylate, or of one of the compounds 
of the derivatives of the benzol group. 
Place in a suitable vessel 100 parts in 
weight of the very best glue made from 
leather parings, and allow it to soften in 
150 parts of water; add 10 parts in 
weight of sodium salicylate, and heat the 
mixture in a water bath until the solid 
part is thoroughly dissolved. To preserve 
the glue thus prepared, which remains 
liquid, add 1 gram of oil of cloves to each 
kgm. of glue. This solution, diluted with 
water, forms a cheap substitute for gum, 
and can be used for all household pur- 



[310] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Glues) 



poses. The advantages claimed for it are 
that it does not require to be heated for 
use, and is entirely free from the objec- 
tionable smell of ordinary glue. 

15. — Glue, 1 oz. ; acetic acid, 11 oz. ; 
carbolic acid, 10 min. ; water, sufficient. 
Macerate the glue in 6 fl.oz. of water for 
12 hours, heat the mixture on a water 
bath until the glue is dissolved, add the 
acids, and finally enough water to make 
1 pt. 

16. — Dissolve 3 parts of glue, in small 
pieces, in 12 to 15 parts of saccharate 
of lime. By heating the glue dissolves 
rapidly, and remains liquid, when cold, 
without loss of adhesive power. Any de- 
sirable consistency can be secured by 
varying the amount of saccharate of lime. 
Thick glue retains its muddy color, while 
a thiii solution becomes clear on standing. 
The saccharate of lime is prepared by 
dissolving 1 part of sugar in 3 parts of 
water ; add ^ part of the weight of the 
sugar of slaked lime, heat the whole to 
05 to 85° C, allow it to macerate for 
several days, and shake it frequently. The 
solution, which has the properties of mu- 
cilage, is then decanted from the sedi- 
ment. 

17. — Glue, 8 oz. ; glacial acetic acid, 1 
oz. ; water sufficient to make 16 oz. Soak 
the glue in enough water to cover it, un- 
til soft, then heat on a water bath until 
dissolved ; add the acetic acid, and suffi- 
cient water to make up the measure of 
16 oz., and strain. 

18. — White glue, 12 av.oz. ; alum, 50 
gr. ; acetic acid, 1 fl.oz. ; water, 13 fl.oij, ; 
alcohol, 3 fl.oz. Mix all but the alcoho'l, 
digest on a water bath until the glue is 
dissolved. When cool add the alcohol. 

19. — Isinglass, 1 oz. ; mastic, % oz. ; 
alcohol, 1% oz. ; water, 6 oz. Soak the 
isinglass in a portion of the water until 
soft, then add the balance of the water, 
and heat until dissolved ; to this add the 
mastic, dissolved in the alcohol. 

20. — To make 1 gal. of the gum, about 
1% gal. of water, 3 lb. of glue, 4 oz. of 
borax, and 2 oz. of carbonate of soda, or 
an equivalent of any other alkali, are 
taken. The glue and alkaline salts are 
dissolved in the water by heat, and the 
solution is kept at a temperature a few 
degrees below boiling point for 5 or 6 
hours. The continued application of heat 
renders the gum permanently liquid at 
the ordinary temperature. After allow- 
ing the sediment to settle, the clear li- 
quid is evaporated to the required con- 
sistency. 

21. — Soak gelatine in water, melt at 
a low heat, and add strong vinegar or 



(Glues) 



acetic acid until it remains liquid when 
cold. 

22. — Brandos Liquid Glue. — Borax, 60 
kgm. ; water, 100 1. ; solution of potassa, 
90%, 4 kgm.; solution of glue, 12° B., 
1,450 kgm. Dissolve the borax in the 
water, add to the boiling solution of po- 
tassa, and to this add the hot solution 
of glue. 

23. — Quick-Setting Glue Cements. — For 
paper, cloth, leather, wood, earthenware, 
etc.: (a) Soak 1 lb. of white fish glue 
4 hours in 30 fl.oz. of cold water; (b) 
mix 4 oz. of dry white lead with 2 fl.oz. 
of hot water; (c) 4 oz. 90% alcohol. 
Dissolve (a) by aid of a glue pot, then 
slowly add (b). Cook for about 10 min- 
utes, then let cool to about 100° F. Now, 
with constant stirring, add (c). This 
cement sets in about 1 minute, due to 
the alcohol used. It is non-elastic, and 
extremely hard. For leather and cloth, if 
wanted pliable, add 2 to 4 oz. of glycer- 
ine, according to the elasticity desired. 
The above cement, without glycerine, and 
with the addition of 4 oz. of red lead, 
will stand a bath in hot oil without frying 
out. 

24. — Russian Liquid Glue. — Soften 50 
parts of best Russian glue in 50 parts of 
warm water; add, slowly, from 2% to 3 
parts of aquafortis and 3 parts of pow- 
dered sulphate of lead. 

25. — Spaulding^s Glue. — Soak the glue 
in cold water, using only glass, earthen 
or porcelain dishes. Then by gentle heat 
dissolve the glue in- the same water, and 
pour in a small quantity of nitric acid, 
sufficient to give the glue a sour taste, 
like vinegar, about 1 oz. to every pound 
of glue. 

26. — Syndeticon — Liquid Fish Glue. — 
Fish glue, 100 parts ; acetic acid, 125 
parts ; gelatine, 20 parts ; water, 125 
parts ; shellac varnish, 20 parts. Dis- 
solve the fish glue in the acid, the gela- 
tine in the water, mix the solutions, and 
the gradually incorporate the varnish. 

27. — Very Strong Liquid Glue. — Glue, 
4% parts ; water, 12 parts. Let them 
stand several hours. To soften the glue, 
add muriatic acid, % part ; sulphate of 
zinc, 1% parts. Heat the mixture to 
185° F. for 10 or 12 hours. This glue 
remains liquid after cooling. Used for 
sticking wood, crockery and glass. 

Special Glues. 

1. — Chromium Glue. — a. — Glue, when 
combined with chromates, and exposed to 
light, loses its solubility in water, and 
can, therefore, be used as a cement for 
articles exposed to moisture. The fol- 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Glues) 



lowing is a suitable formula : White glue, 
5 to 20 parts ; water, 20 parts ; potassium 
bichromate, 1 to 2 parts ; water, 10 parts. 
Make solutions of the glue and potassium 
bichromate in separate portions of water, 
as indicated above (the glue being dis- 
solved by heat) ; stir in the solution of 
bichromate ; mix well, and then pour the 
mixture into tin boxes and allow it to 
congeal therein. For use, take a suflS- 
cient quantity of the glue, melt in a cup 
standing in boiling water ; place a layer 
uniformly on the fractured surfaces, press 
them together, and expose the articles to 
the sun for a few hours. 

b. — Chrome glue is known to consist 
of a moderately strong gelatine solution 
(containing 5 to 10% of gelatine), to 
which about 1 part of acid chromate of 
potassium, in solution, is added to every 
5 parts of gelatine. This mixture pos- 
sesses the property of becoming insoluble 
by water through the action of sunlight 
under partial reduction of the chromic 
acid, a property which is advantageously 
utilized in photography. The author 
coated both fractures of a glass as uni- 
formly as possible with the freshly pre- 
pared solution, pressed them together, and 
fixed them in this position with a cord. 
The cylinder glass was exposed to the 
sunlight, and was found to be firmly 
united after a few hours. Even hot water 
did not dissolve the oxidized chrome glue, 
and the fracture was scarcely noticeable. 
Valuable articles of glass, which would be 
disfigured by a thick cement joint, can be 
very nicely repaired in this manner. In the 
production of waterproof textures chrome 
glue is likewise of use ; at least, where 
a certain tightness is no drawback. The 
fabric, after having been put in a frame, 
only needs to be painted 1 to 3 times with 
the hot chrome glue, and then to be ex- 
posed to the sunlight or daylight. Used 
specially as a glass cement. 

2. — Compound Glue. — Take very fine 
flour, mix it with white of eggs, isinglass 
and a little yeast ; mingle the materials, 
and beat them well together ; spread them, 
the batter being made thin with gum 
water, on even tin plates, and dry them 
in a stove ; then cut them out for use. 
To color them, tinge the paste with Brazil 
or vermilion for red ; indigo or verditer, 
etc., for blue ; saffron, turmeric or gam- 
boge, etc.. for yellow. 

3. — Elastic Glue. — a. — Best glue, 7 
av.oz. ; glycerine, 16 fl.oz. ; water, enough. 
Pour on the glue more than enough water 
to cover, allow to macerate for several 
hours, then decant the greater portion of 
V water; apply heat until the glue is dis- 



( Glues) 



rs 



solved, and add the glycerine. If the 
mixture is too thick, more water may be 
added. It may be colored by means of 
an aniline dye, dissolved in alcohol. The 
addition of a little calcium chloride also 
tends to prevent the glue from cracking. 
May be used for camera bellows. 

b. — The following does not spoil : Dis- 
solve good common glue in water, on the 
water bath, and evaporate the water down 
to a mass of thick consistency ; add a 
quantity of glycerine equal in weight with 
the glue, after which continue the heat- 
ing until all the water has been driven 
oflE; pour the mass out into molds or on 
a marble slab. This mixture answers for 
stamps, printer's rolls, galvano-plastic 
copies, etc. 

4. — Ether Glue. — Dissolve glue in nitric 
ether. The ether will only dissolve a cer- 
tain amount of glue, therefore the solu- 
tion cannot be made very thick; it v/iP 
be about the consistency of molasses, and 
is much more tenacious than glue made 
with hot water. It is improved by add- 
ing a few bits of India rubber, cut into 
pieces about the size of a buckshot. Let 
the solution stand a few days, stirring 
frequently. 

5. — Fireproof Glue. — Mix a handful of 
quicklime in 4 oz. of linseed oil, boil to 
a good thickness, then spread on tin plates 
in the shade, and it will become exceed- 
ingly hard, but may be easily dissolved 
over the fire, and used as ordinary glue. 

6. — Frozen Glue. — The glue, while gel- 
atinous, is sliced, placed on nets, and al- 
lowed to freeze by natural cold. Of 
course, the process can only be conducted 
in cold weather. The product is porous, 
and much more bulky than hard glue, but 
is a better article, as it dissolves more 
easily. It sells largely in New England, 
where it is preferred by buyers to the 
hard glue. 

7. — Isinglass Glue. — Dissolve isinglass 
in water, and strain it through coarse 
linen. Then add a little alcohol, and 
evaporate to such a consistency that when 
cold it will be dry and hard. This will 
be found to be more tenacious than com- 
mon glue, and therefore preferable in 
many cases. 

8. — Marine Glue. — a. — Although now 
far from new, the extremely valuable ma- 
rine glue of Jeffrey does not seem to be 
as well known in this country as it de- 
serves. Prepared by dissolving 1 part of 
India rubber in crude benzine, and mix- 
ing with 2 parts of shellac, by the aid of 
heat. The waterproof character of this 
cement, in connection with its slight elas- 
tic, flexibility, the ease with which it is 
151 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Glue) 



applied when warm, and the promptness 
with which it sets, on cooling, make it a 
most useful substance in many applica- 
tions to house construction and furniture, 
as well as on board ship, where it was 
originally intended to be chiefly employed. 
b. — Caoutchouc, 1 oz. ; genuine asphal- 
tum, 2 oz. ; benzole or naphtha, q. s. The 
caoutchouc is first dissolved by digestion 
and occasional agitation, and the asphal- 
tum is gradually added. The solution 
should have about the consistency of mo- 



c. — Take of coal naphtha, 1 pt. ; pure 
(not vulcanized) rubber, 1 oz. ; cut in 
shreds, and macerate for 10 or 12 days, 
and then rub smooth with a spatula on 
a slab; add, at heat enough to melt, 2 
parts of shellac, by weight, to 1 part of 
this solution. To use it, melt it at a 
temperature of about 248° F. 

d. — Elastic Marine Glue. — Dissolve un- 
vulcanized rubber in chloroform, benzole, 
or bisulphide of carbon. Ropes, or other 
material exposed to the action of air and 
water, are coated with this glue. Whiting 
or fine sand may be added. 

9. — Parchment Glue. — Parchment, 10 
parts, is cut into small pieces, and boiled 
in 128 parts of water until the liquid is 
reduced to 80 parts. The decoction is 
filtered through linen, and evaporated over 
a gentle fire until it presents the required 
consistency. 

10. — Powdered Glue, SoluUe Cold. — • 
Carbonate of potash, 1 part; alum, IV2 
parts ; ordinary glue or fish glue, 10 
parts; water, 4 parts. The whole is 
mixed and boiled, dried by ordinary meth- 
ods, and then pulverized. It is applicable 
to any use. 

11.— Rubber Glue.— Take 1 lb. of glue, 
cover it with cold water in a vessel in 
which it can be heated, let it stand over- 
night ; then add 1 fl.oz. of glycerine, and 
apply heat; bring to the boiling point, 
and continue the boiling for about 15 min- 
utes ; take off the fire and add to it color- 
ing matter, if desired, and pour into 
molds, from which remove when it has 
become rigid. Keep in a cool place ; when 
used, apply gentle heat to soften, being 
careful never to bring to a boil. 

12. — Stratena. — This well-known house- 
hold cement is said to be prepared as 
follows: White glue, 6 parts, dissolved 
in 8 parts of acetic acid ; this solution is 
added to another composed of 1 part of 
French gelatine in 8 parts of water. After 
mixing add 1 part of shellac varnish. 

13. — Tungstic Glue. — Tungstic glue has 
been suggested as a substitute for hard 
India rubber, as it can be used for all 

[ 



(Lutes) 



the purposes to which the latter is ap- 
plicable. It is thus prepared : Mix a 
thick solution of glue with- tungstate of 
soda and hydrochloric acid. A compound 
of tungstic acid and glue, is precipitated, 
which, at a temperature of 86 to 104° 
F., is sufficiently elastic to be drawn out 
into very thin sheets. 

14. — Veneering Glue, Well Suited for 
Inlaying. — The best glue is readily known 
by its transparency, and being of a rather 
light brown, free from clouds and streaks. 
Dissolve this in water, and to every pint 
add % gill of the best vinegar and % oz. 
of isinglass. 

15. — White Glue. — A writer in the 
Moniteur Scientifique says that to add 
oxalic acid and white oxide of zinc, in 
the proportion of 1%, to glue, gives a 
whiter and clearer product than any of 
the measures now in use. The glue should 
first be reduced with water, and heated 
to a thick syrup, and the chemicals added 
while the mass is hot. 

LUTES* 

BY SAMUEL S. SADTLER 

The subject of plastic cements used to 
secure joints in vessels and connections 
(generally for temporary purposes) has 
been rather neglected in the chemical lit- 
erature. 

The success or failure of processes has 
very seldom depended upon the choice of 
satisfactory lutes, but great annoyance 
has been experienced in chemical works 
and manufacturing places where only un- 
suitable compounds have been found to 
seal apertures in nitric acid, chlorine, hy- 
drogen-sulphide and illuminating-gas ap- 
paratus, and frequently considerable dam- 
age to property and loss of life has re- 
sulted. 

The majority of these cements are use- 
ful for purposes of preventing the escape 
of inert gases, and others are suitable for 
more or less special purposes, where cor- 
rosive gases, etc., come in contact with 
them. Many of them had to be put down 
from memory, and therefore the product 
obtained in their use may be a little too 
stiff or too thin, but such deficiencies 
could be easily regulated. 

Lutes always consist of a menstruum 
and dissolved or suspended solids, and 
they must not be attacked by the gases 
and liquids coming in contact with them. 
In some cases the constituents of the lute 



*Read before the Franklin Institute, 
and reprinted from its Journal by Samuel 
S. Sadtler. 
313] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Lutes) 



react to form a more strongly adhering 
mass. 

The conditions of application are, in 
brief : 

(a) Heating the composition to make 
it plastic until firmly fixed in place. 

(b) Heating the surfaces. 

(c) Applying the lute with water or a 
volatile solvent, which is allowed to vol- 
atilize. 

(d) Moistening the surface with water, 
oil, etc. (the menstruum of the lute it- 
self). 

(e) Applying the lute in workable con- 
dition, and the setting taking place by 
chemical reactions. 

(f) Setting by hydration. 

(g) Setting by oxidation. 

These principles will be found to cover 
nearly all cases. 

Joints should not be ill-fitting, depend- 
ing upon the lute to da what the pipes 
or other parts of the apparatus should 
do. In most cases, one part of the fitting 
should overlap the other, so as to make a 
small amount of the lute effective, and 
to keep the parts of the apparatus rigid, 
as a luted joint is not supposed to be a 
particularly strong one, but rather one 
quickly applied, effective while in place, 
and easily removed. 

Very moderate amounts of the lute 
should be used, as large amounts are like- 
ly to develop cracks, be rubbed off, etc. 

A classification may be given as fol- 
lows : 

(1) Plaster of paris, 

(2) Hydraulic cement. 

(3) Clay. 

(4) Lime. 

(5) Asphalt and pitch. 

(6) Rosin. 

(7) Rubber. 

(8) Linseed oil. 

(9) Casein and albumen. 

(10) Silicates of soda and oxychlo- 

ride cements. 

(11) Flour and starch. 

(12) Miscellaneous, including core com- 

pounds. 

I. PLASTER OF PARIS 

is, of course, often used alone, as a paste, 
which quickly solidifies, for gas and wood 
distillation retorts, etc., and similar places 
where quickness of setting is requisite. It 
is more often, however, used with some 
fibrous material to give it greater 
strengt'h. Asbestos is the most commonly 
used material of these, as it will stand 
a high temperature. When that is not 
so important, straw, plush trimmings, 
hair, etc., are used as binders, while 

[ 



(Lutes) 



broken stone, glass and various mineral 
substances are used as fillers ; but they 
do not add anything to the strength. 
These lutes seem to be particularly suit- 
able for oil vapors and hydrocarbon gases : 
Formulae : 1, plaster anS water ; 2, 
wet plaster and asbestos ; 3, wet piaster 
and straw ; 4, wet plaster and plush trim- 
mings ; 5, wet plaster and hair ; 6, wet 
plaster and broken stone, etc. 

JI. HYDRAULIC CEMENT 

Cement is used either alone or with 
sand, asbestos, etc., and it is said that 
these lutes are suitable for nitric acid. 
When used with substances such as rosin 
or sulphur, it is probably employed be- 
cause it is in such a fine state of division, 
and used as a filler, and not because of 
any powers of setting by hydration. 

Formulae : 1, neat cement ; 2, cement 
and asbestos ; 3, cement and sand. 

III. CLAY 

This most frequently enters into the 
composition of lutes as a filler, but even 
then the very finely divided condition of 
certain grades renders it valuable, as it 
gives body to a liquid such as linseed oil, 
which, unless stiffened, would be pervious 
to a gas, the clay, in all cases, being neu- 
ti'al. Thus, for luting pipes carrying 
chlorine, a stiff paste of clay and mo- 
lasses has been suggested by Theo. Roller 
in Die Surrogate, but it cannot be recom- 
mended, as it soon gives way. 

Formulae : 1, clay and linseed oil ; 2, 
same, using fireclay ; 3, clay and mo- 
lasses. 1 is suitable for steam, etc. ; 2, 
for chlorine, and 3 for oil vapors. 

IV. LIME 

is used in the old lute known as putty, 
which consists of caustic lime and linseed 
oil. Frequently the lime is replaced by 
chalk and china clay, but the lime should 
be, in part, at least, caustic, so as to form 
a certain amount of lime soap. Lime is 
also used in silicate and casein compo- 
sitions, which are very strong and useful. 
Formulae : 1, lime and boiled oil to 
stiff mass ; 2, clay, etc., boiled oil to stiff 
mass. 

V. ASPHALT AND PITCH 

These substances are used in lutes 
somewhat interchangeably. As a rule, 
pitch makes the stronger lutes. Tar is 
sometimes used, but because of the light 
oils and (frequently) water contained, it 
is not as good as either of the others. 

Asphalt, dissolved in benzol, is very 
useful for uniting glass for photographic, 
814] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Lutes) 



microscopical and other uses; also for 
coating wood, concrete, etc., where the 
melted asphalt would be too thick to 
cover well. Benzol is the cheapest sol- 
vent that is satisfactory for this purpose, 
as the only one that is cheaper would be 
a. petroleum naphtha, and it does not dis- 
solve all the constituents of the asphalt. 
For waterproofing wood, brick, concrete, 
etc., melted asphalt alone is much used, 
but when a little paraffine is added it im- 
proves its waterproofing qualities, and in 
particular cases boiled oil is also added 
to advantage. Formulae : 

1. — Refined lake asphalt. 

2. — Asphalt, 4. parts ; paraffine, 1 part. 

3. — Asphalt, 10 parts ; paraffine, 2 
pa'rts; boiled oil, 1 part. 

Any of these may be thinned with hot 
benzol or toluol. Toluol is less volatile 
than benzol, and about as cheap, if not 
cheaper, the straw-colored grades being 
about 24 cents per gallon. 

Examples- of so-called "stone cement" 
are : 

4. — Pitch, 8 parts ; rosin, 6 parts ; wax, 
1 part ; plaster, % to % part. 

5. — Pitch, 8 parts ; rosin, 7 parts ; sul- 
phur, 2 parts ; stone powder, 1 part. 

These compositions are used to unite 
slate slabs and stoneware for domestic, 
engineering and chemical purposes. Va- 
rious rosin and pitch mixtures are used 
for these purposes, and the proportions 
of these two ingredients are determined 
by the consistency desired. Sulphur and 
stone powder are added to prevent the 
formation of cracks, sulphur acting chem- 
ically and stone powder mechanically. 
Where the lute would come in contact 
with acid, or vapors of the same, lime- 
stone should not be the powder used ; oth- 
erwise, it is about the best. Wax is a 
useful ingredient to keep the composition 
from getting brittle with age. 

A class of lutes under this general 
grouping that are much used are so-called 
"marine glues." They must be tough and 
elastic. When used for calking on a ves- 
sel, they must expand and contract with 
the temperature, and not crack or come 
loose. Formulae : 

6. — Pitch, 3 parts ; shellac, 2 parts ; 
pure crude rubber, 1 part. 

7. — Pitch, 1 part ; shellac, 1 part ; rub- 
ber substitute, 1 part. These are used by 
melting over a burner. 

VI. BOSIN, SHELLAC AND WAX 
A strong cement, used as a stone ce- 
ment, is : 

1. — Rosin, 8 parts ; wax, 1 part ; tur- 



(Lutes) 



pentine, 1 part. It has little or no body, 
and is used in thin layers. 

For nitric and hydrochloric acid va- 
pors : 

2. — Rosin, 1 part ; sulphur, 1 part ; fire- 
clay, 2 parts. Sulphur gives great hard- 
ness and permanency to rosin lutes, but 
this composition is somewhat brittle. 

Good waterproof lutes of 4:his class are : 

3. — Rosin, 1 part ; wax, 1 part ; pow- 
dered stone, 2 parts. 

4. — Shellac, 5 parts ; wax, 1 part ; tur- 
pentine, 1 part ; chalk, etc., 8 to 10 parts. 

For a soft, airtight paste for ground- 
glass surfaces : 

5. — Wax, 1 part ; vaseline, 1 part. 

6. — A strong cement, without body, for 
metals (other than copper, or alloys of 
same), porcelain and glass, is made by 
letting 1 part of finely powdered shellac 
stand with 10 parts of ammonia water 
until solution is effected. 

VII. EUBBER 

Because of its toughness, elasticity, and 
resistance to alterative influences, rubber 
is a very useful constituent in lutes, but 
its price makes its use very limited. 

1. — Leather cement. Asphalt, 1 part ; 
rosin, 1 part ; gutta percha, 4 parts ; car- 
bon bisulphide, 20 parts. 

2. — To stand acid vapors. Rubber, 1 
part; linseed oil, 2 parts; fireclay, 3 
parts. 

3. — Plain rubber cement. Cut the crude 
rubber in small pieces and then add the 
solvent. Carbon bisulphide is the best ; 
benzol, good, and m«ch cheaper ; but gaso- 
Mne is probably most extensively used be- 
cause of its cheapness. 

4. — To make corks and wood impervi- 
ous to steam and water, soak them in a 
rubber solution as above ; if it is desired 
to protect them from oil vapors, use glue 
composition. (See Section IX.) 

VIII. LINSEED OIL 

This is one of the most generally use- 
ful substances we have for luting pur- 
poses, if absorbed by a porous substance 
that is inert. Formuise : 

1. — China clay of general utility for 
aqueous vapors ; linseed oil of general 
utility for aqueous vapors. 

2. — Lime forming the well-known put- 
ty ; linseed oil forming the well-known 
putty. 

3. — Red or white lead and linseed oil. 

These mixtures become very strong 
when set, and are best diluted with pow- 
dered glass, clay or graphite. There are 
almost an endless number of lutes using 
metallic oxides and linseed oil. A very 



[315 J 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Lutes) 



good one, not getting as hard as those 
containing lead, is : 
4. — Oxide of iron and linseed oil. 

1%. CASEIN, ALBUMEN AND GLUE 

These, if properly made, become very 
tough and tenacious ; they stand moder- 
ate heat and oil vapors, but not acid 
vapors. 

1. — Finely powdered casein, 12 parts; 
slaked lime, fresh, 50 parts ; fine sand, 
50 parts ; water to thick mush. 

A very strong cement for ground unions 
stands moderate heat, as follows : 

2. — Casein, in very fine powder, 1 part ; 
i^ubbed up with silicate of soda, 3 parts. 

A strong lute far general purposes^ 
which must be used promptly when made : 

3. — White of egg, made into a paste 
with slaked lime. 

A composition for soaking corks, wood, 
packing, etc., to render them impervious 
to oil vapors, is : 

4. — (gelatine or good glue, 2 parts ; 
glycerine, % to 1 part; water, 6 parts. 
Oil of wintergreen, etc., to keep from 
spoiling. 

X. SILICATE AND OXYCHLORIDE CEMENTS 

1. — For oil vapors, standing the highest 
heat : A stiff paste of silicate of soda and 
asbestos. 

2. — Gaskets for superheated steam, re- 
torts, furnaces, etc. : Silicate of soda and 
powdo/ed glass ; dry the mixture, and 
heat. .Not as strong, however, as the fol- 
lowinv t 

3. — jMilicate of soda, 50 parts ; asbes- 
tos, 15 parts ; slaked lime, 10 parts. 

4. — Metal cement. Silicate of soda, 1 
part ; oivides of metal, such as zinc oxide, 
litharge, iron oxide, singly or mixed, 1 
part. 

5. — Very hard and extra strong com- 
position. Zinc oxide, 2 parts ; zinc chlo- 
ride, 1 part ; water to make a paste. 

6. — Very hard and extra strong com- 
position. Magnesium oxide, 2 parts ; mag- 
nesium chloride, 1 part ; water to make a 
paste. 

XI. FLOCK AND STARCH COMPOSITIONS 

1. — The well-known flaxseed poultice 
sets very tough, but does not stand water 
or conderised ste-im. 

2.— Flc'ur and molasses, made by mak- 
ing a stilf composition of the two. This 
is an excellent lute to have at hand at 
all times for emergency use, etc. 

8. — Stiff paste of flour and strong zinc 
chloride s olution forms a more impei^ious 
lute, and is more permanent as a cement. 
This is g )od for most purposes, at ordi- 

[ 



(Lutes) 



nary temperature, where it would not be 
in contact with nitric-acid vapors or con- 
densing steam. 

4. — ^A mixture of dextrine and fine sand 
makes a good composition, mainly used 
as core compound. 

XIL MISCELLANEOUS 

1. — Litharge and glycerine, mixed to 
form a stiff paste ; sets and becomes very 
hard and strong, and is very useful for 
inserting glass tubes, etc., in iron or brass. 

2. — For a high heat. Alumina, 1 part ; 
sand, 4 parts ; slaked lime, 1 part ; borax, 
l^ part ; water, sufficient. 

Of course, there are an almost infinite 
number of lutes or cements, but, classi- 
fied as these are, they represent the lar- 
gest number of them. A class of mix- 
tures that can only be classified accord- 
ing to their intended use are core com- 
pounds. 

1. — Dextrine, about 1 part ; sand, about 
10 parts ; with enough water to form a 
paste. 

2. — Powdered anthracite coal, with 
enough molasses to form a stiff paste. 

3. — Rosin, partly saponified by soda 
lye, 1 part ; flour, 2 parts ; sand, with suf- 
flcient water, 4 parts. These proportions 
are approximate, and the amount of sand 
can be increased for some purposes. 

4. — Glue, powdered, 1 part ; flour, 4 
parts ; sand, with sufficient water, 6 parts. 

5, — For some purposes the following 
mixture is used. It does not seem to be 
a gasket or a core compound: Oats (or 
wheat), ground, 25 parts; glue, pow- 
dered, 6 parts ; sal ammoniac, 1 part. 

Glass, Lute for. — As a coating for glass 
vessels, to protect them from injury dur- 
ing exposure to the fire, pipeclay and 
horse dung are made into a paste with 
water. This composition is applied by 
spreading it on paper. Shredded tow or 
plumbago is substituted for the horse 
dung. 

Retorts, Lute for. — 1. — Lemery, the 
chemist, used the following lute for stop- 
ping retorts, etc. : Fine flour and fine 
lime, of each 1 oz. ; potters earth, % oz. ; 
make a moist paste of these with white 
of egg, well beaten up with a little water, 
and this will be found to stop exceedingly 
close. 

2. — This cement is used also in melting 
pots. Sift brick dust, and mix with equal 
quantity red lead ; rub together with boiled 
linseed oil, which is mixed with coarse 
sand to the stiffness of cement. In cov- 
ering dishes, apply the paste, then sand. 
Heat for a long time. 
316] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Mucilages) 



3. — Rub freshly slaked lime into a con- 
centrated solution of borax ; applj' with 
a stiff brush, and allow it to dry. When 
heated, the glazing fuses. 

4. — For large pots, take litharge, 6 
parts ; fresh burnt pulverized lime, 4 
parts ; white bole, 2 parts ; mix with cold 
linseed oil. 

5. — Boyle^s. — Pound in a mortar some 
fine quicklime and scrapings of cheese ; 
water, q. s. to make a soft paste. Spread 
on a linen rag, and apply. 

MUCILAGES 

1. — The best quality of mucilage in the 
market is made by dissolving clear glue 
in equal volumes of water and strong 
vinegar, and adding one-fourth of an 
equal volume of alcohol, and a small 
quantity of a solution of alum in water. 
The action of the vinegar is due to the 
acetic acid which it contains. This pre- 
vents the glue from gelatinizing by cool- 
ing ; but the same result may be accom- 
plished by adding a small quantity of 
nitric acid. Some of the preparations of- 
fered for sale are merely boiled starch or 
flour mixed withnitric acid to prevent the 
gelatinizing. 

2. — A strong aqueous solution of rea- 
sonably pure dextrine (British gum) 
forms a most adhesive and cheap muci- 
lage. Alcohol is usually employed as the 
solvent where the mucilage is to be used 
for gumming envelopes, postage stamps, 
etc., in order to facilitate the drying, and 
acetic acid is added to increase the mo- 
bility of the fluid. The strong aqueous 
solution is more adhesive than that pre- 
pared with alcohol, for the reason that it 
contains a greater proportion of the gum. 
To prepare this, add an excess of pow- 
dered dextrine to boiling water, stir for 
a moment or two, allow to cool and set- 
tle, and strain the liquid through a fine 
cloth. The addition of a little powdered 
sugar increases the glossiness of the dried 
gum without interfering greatly with its 
adhesiveness. The sugar should be dis- 
solved in the water before the dextrine 
is added. 

3. — Add British gum (dextrine) to a 
quantity of hot water until a syrupy li- 
quid is obtained ; then add a few drops 
of clove oil, and cool for use. 

4. — Dieterich {Pharm. Centralhalle) 
recommends the following as equal to any 
gum arable mucilage : Dextrine, 400 parts, 
stirred in 400 parts of water, diluted with 
200 parts more of water ; 20 parts of glu- 
cose and 10 parts of aluminum sulphate 
are added, and the mixture heated to 



(Mucilages) 



about 195° F., when the mass will be- 
come transparent and thin. 

5. — Brown dextrine, 1 lb. ; acetic acid, 

4 oz. ; alcohol, 4 oz. ; water, q. s. ad 2 
pt. Dissolve the dextrine in 1 pt. of boil- 
ing water, strain through Canton flannel ; 
add the acetic acid, and when nearly cold 
add the alcohol, stirring thoroughly. 

G. — Dextrine, 10 drams ; glucose, % 
dram ; in which is dissolved a solution of 
alum, 15 gr. ; glycerine, 1 dr. ; water, to 
make 2 oz. 

7. — White dextrine, 6 oz. ; dilute acetic 
acid, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 10 drops ; glyc- 
erine, 1 oz. ; water, to make 16 oz. Mix 
the dextrine thoroughly with 6 oz. of cold 
water, add 8 oz. of boiling water, boil 

5 minutes, stirring constantly ; add hot 
water sufficient to make 14 oz. When it 
is cold add the acetic acid, oil of cloves 
and glycerine. The oil must be thor- 
oughly mixed with the remainder. 

8. — Powdered sugar, 1 part ; sodium 
silicate solution, 4 parts ; mix, and warm 
until dissolved. 

9. — Dextrine, 50 to 90 parts ; alum, 4 
parts ; sugar, 75 parts ; water, 120 parts ; 
10% carbolic acid solution, 60 parts. Mix. 

10. — Yellow dextrine, 4 oz. ; soft or dis- 
tilled water, 6 fl.oz. Dissolve cold, as 
heat destroys the adhesive properties of 
dextrine. If a more fluid gum is desired, 
use 8 fl.oz. of water. 

Carragheen, Adhesive. 

(According to J. Besele.) Soak 60 
parts of carragheen moss in 1,200 parts 
of water, then boil. To the carragheen de- 
coction add 6 parts potassium carbonate, 
and concentrate the fluid by evaporation 
until a sample drop on glass remains at- 
tached, suspended, on cooling. Filter the 
fluid tlarough a cloth or sieve, and to the 
filtrate add 5,000 parts of warmed water 
glass, of 38 to 40° B., constantly stirring. 
To the mixture thus obtained add 2,500 
parts of rock candy, moistened with 
water. As soon as the candy has dis- 
solved, still further concentrate the mix- 
ture, if necessary, until it is ropy ; then 
remove from the fire and thoroughly mix 
with 75 parts of glycerine. 

Dextrine. 

British or starch gum. A soluble sub- 
stance, resembling gum, formed by the 
action of dilute acids at the boiling tem- 
perature, and by infusion of malt at about 
160° F. on starch. It is also formed 
when potato starch is heated to 400° F. 
Used extensively in the manufacture of 
mucilages, etc. It resembles gum. Its 
name is derived from the action of its so- 



[317] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Mucilages) 



lution on polarized light ; it causes the 
plane of polarization to deviate to the 
right. Commercial dextrine, or "British 
gum," is obtained by heatiug dry potato 
starch to a temperature of 750° F. in 
sheet-iron trays or revolving iron or cop- 
per drums, similar to those used in coffee 
roasting, whereby it is transformed into 
semi-transparent, brov^mish lumps, v^^hich 
are converted into a pale yellow powder 
by grinding between millstones. It is 
completely soluble in cold water, from 
which it may be precipitated by addition 
of excess of strong alcohol. Potato starch 
is generally used, but starch from other 
sources will answer. The best tests to 
ascertain its purity are to agitate briskly 
a few grains of the dextrine in a test 
tube with 50 times its weight of pure 
cold water; then set it aside for 10 min- 
utes. Pure dextrine dissolves completely 
in cold water to a clear solution. If not 
all dissolved, pour off the solution, add 
a little water to the residue, heat to boil- 
ing, let cool, and add a few drops of iodine 
water ; a blue color indicates starch. 

Gelatine Mixture, Adhesive. 

Gelatine is commonly used as a basis 
for such preparations ; its solubility is 
increased by the addition of sugar ; and 
isinglass (which is another variety of the 
same substance) is also employed, both 
alone and in admixture with gelatine. 
Brown sugar and molasses, in proper pro- 
portions, are said to answer better in 
these mixtures than white sugar. 

1. — Gelatine and sugar, equal parts ; 
water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the 
gelatine in the water, in a water bath, 
add the sugar, and continue the heat un- 
til the mass is reduced to such a consist- 
ency that it will solidify on cooling, and 
cast into suitable molds, or pour on. a 
slab and cut up into cakes. 

2. — Gelatine, 4 oz. ; isinglass, 1 oz. ; 
sugar, 1 oz. ; water, a sufficient quantity. 
Proceed as in 1. 

3. — Gelatine, 1 oz. ; isinglass, 1 oz. ; 
sugar, % oz. ; tragacanth, ^4 oz. ; water, 
a sufficient quantity. Proceed as in 1. 
Solution of the gelatine is most readily 
effected by allowing it to soak in cold 
water until it becomes softened, pouring 
off the superfluous water, and then ap- 
plying heat. 

Gum Arabic Mucilage. 

1. — To make a clear, almost odorless 
and permanent mucilage, Francke neu- 
tralizes the free acid present in the gum 
with lime water. Instead of water he 



(Mucilages) 



uses a mixture of 20% lime water and 
80% distilled water. 

2.-— -Ordinary mucilage, made from gum 
arable, does not fix paper to wood or 
pasteboard, or to metallic surfaces. These 
disadvantages are overcome by adding a 
solution of sulphate of aluminum, made 
up in 10 times its quantity of water ; 10 
gr. of aluminum sulphate are sufficient 
for 250 gr. of mucilage. Prepared in this 
way, it will not become moldy. Again, 
according to Hirschberg, a few drops of 
strong sulphuric acid are added to the 
gum solution, and the precipitated sul- 
phate of lime allowed to settle. Solu- 
tions prepared in this way a year and a 
half ago have neither become moldy nor 
lost their adhesive power. 

3. — Gum, To Preserve. — a. — Hirschberg 
adds a few drops of sulphuric acid, where- 
by the lime contained in the gum is pre- 
cipitated as sulphate ; after standing, the 
mucilage is strained off, and exhibits no 
tendency to moldiness, even after stand- 
ing for 18 months. — Les Mondes. 

b. — Moisten the gum with alcohol, then 
dissolve in water and add a few drops 
of sulphuric acid. After the deposition 
of the precipitated calcic sulphate, a per- 
fectly colorless solution of gum is ob- 
tained, even when inferior kinds of gum 
are used. 

c. — To prese^rve gum solutions, a few 
drops of oil of cloves, alcohol or acid will 
preserve a quart of the mucilage of gum 
arable or gum tragacanth from turning 
sour. A small quantity of dissolved alum 
will preserve flour paste. 

4. — Gum arable, 100 parts ; water, 140 
parts ; glycerine, 10 parts ; acetic acid 
dilute, 20 parts ; aluminum sulphate, 6 
parts. Dissolve the gum in the water 
and add the glycerine. Afterward add the 
acetic acid and the aluminum sulphate, 
and mix thoroughly. Let stand a while, 
then pour through a hair sieve. This 
mucilage is very strong, partaking some- 
what of the qualities of glue or gelatine 
solutions. 

5. — Best glue, 50 parts ; water, suffi- 
cient. Cover the glue, broken into small 
pieces, with cold water, and let macerate 
overnight. In the morning throw the 
glue on a towel and strain off the residual 
water. Dissolve 100 parts of powdered 
rock candy (loaf sugar will answer) and 
25 parts of powdered gum arable in 200 
parts of water, by the aid of heat, in 
the water bath. When completely dis- 
solved, add the swollen glue, continue the 
heat until it is dissolved, and when this 
occurs pour off into suitable receptacles. 

6. — Gum arable, 4 parts ; water, 8 



[318] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Mucilages) 



parts ; glycerine, 1 part ; neutral spirit, 
3 parts. Mix. 

7. — Gum arabic, 70 parts; water, 200 
parts ; aluminum sulphate, 2 parts. Dis- 
solve the aluminum sulphate in a small 
portion of the water and the gum arabic 
in the rest, and mix the solutions. 

8. — Gum arabic, 34 oz. ; water, 66 oz. ; 
hydronaphthol, 30 gr. Place the gum and 
hydronaphthol in a cloth bag, and the 
same in a crock containing the water. 

9. — Elastic Mucilage. — Glycerine, 4% 
parts ; soft soap, 4% parts ; salicylic acid, 
ll^ parts, dissolved in 30 parts of alco- 
hol. Shake thoroughly, and add to a 
mucilage made of 139^ parts of gum 
arable and about 270 parts of water. This 
mucilage remains elastic when dried, and 
does not have a tendency to crack. 

10. — Household Mucilage. — (a) Pulver- 
ized gum arabic, 3 oz. ; white sugar, 1 
oz. ; boiling water, 5 fl.oz. (b) White 
wine vinegar, 1 fl.oz. (or ^ oz. of acetic 
acid with % oz. of water). Mix (a) 
with (b). The acid is added to the gum 
in order to make it take hold of metal. 

Linseed Mucilage. 

Linseed, 1 oz. ; warm water, 6 oz. Di- 
gest for 6 hours, stir, and then strain. 

Stick Mucilage and Glue. 

Mucilage in the form of sticks is much 
used in architectural and mechanical 
drawing for attaching the drawing paper 
to a board, and is generally spoken of 
as mouth or lip glue. In making such 
a glue only a very pure form of gelatine 
or glue should be used, as the least odor 
would prove disgusting when the glue 
is moistened with the lips. Sugar is 
generally added, not for the purpose of 
sweetening the glue, but in order to ren- 
der it more easily soluble when it is to 
be used. This probably is brought about 
by the sugar preventing the glue from 
becoming too dry and hard. Some even 
use a good quality of glue without any 
admixture whatever, but this requires 
more rubbing whenit is applied, although 
it holds better than that to which sugar 
has been added. 

1. — The following formula is from Hal- 
dane, who states that brown sugar, or 
even molasses, is better than pure crys- 
tallized sugar for use in preparing this 
glue : Best glue, 4 oz. ; isinglass, 1 oz. ; 
brown sugar, 1 oz. ; water, q. s. Soak 
the glue and isinglass in water until soft. 
Pour off the superfluous water and add 
the sugar. Melt the whole together with 
a gentle heat, and allow to evaporate un- 
til quite thick. Pour into a flat-bottomed 

r 



(Pastes) 



dish that is quite cold, preferably placed 
on ice, and when solid cut the glue into 
the desired shape. 

2. — Dissolve 1 lb. of fine glue or gela- 
tine in water, evaporate it till most of 
the water is expelled, add % lb. of brown 
sugar, and pour it into molds. Some add 
a little lemon juice. It is also made with 
2 parts of dextrine, 2 parts of water and 
1 part of spirit. 

3. — Dissolve 100 parts of white gela- 
tine and 50 parts of crystallized sugar in 
150 parts of distilled water by aid of the 
water bath, and continue the operation 
until the product measures 200 parts, 
when it can be formed into sticks. 

4. — Glue, 12 parts ; sugar, 5 parts. Boil 
the glue until entirely dissolved, dissolve 
the sugar in the hot glue, and evaporate 
the mass until it hardens on cooling. The 
hard substance dissolves rapidly in luke- 
warm water, and is an excellent glue for 
use on paper. 

5. — Dissolve gum arabic in hot water 
to form a syrupy liquid, add a little clove 
oil, and thicken with powdered gum dex- 
trine ; mold, and dry slowly. 

Tragacanth Mucilage. 

1. — (a) Pulverized tragacanth, 1 oz. ; 
glycerine, 4 fl.oz. (b) Boiling water, 16 
fl.oz. Macerate the tragacanth with the 
glycerine in a glass mortar, then stir the 
paste into the boiling water. This makes 
a very thick mucilage ; 32 fl.oz. of boiling 
water gives a medium, and 64 fl.oz. a thin 
paste. Tragacanth paste works very 
smooth, but is not very adhesive. 

2. — Tragacanth, 1 av.oz. ; gum arabic, 
1 av.oz. ; boiling water, 64 fl.oz. ; car- 
bolic acid, 1 fl.dr. 

PASTES 
A peculiar property of dextrine has 
been brought to light, it seems, by Mr. 
F. Edel, which is that when dissolved 
in water in a certain ratio, and at a 
limited temperature, it will yield a gelat- 
inous paste instead of a mucilage. This 
fact was ascertained after considerable 
experimenting and reference to the patent 
on a certain well-known commercial brand 
of paste denominated "library paste," and 
which is considered one exceedingly well 
adapted for mounting photographs. The 
writer, who describes his experiments in 
a paper published in the American Drug- 
gist, maintains that neither flour, starch, 
nor gelatine pastes, nor those containing 
both starch and gelatine, are suitable as 
mounting agents, owing either to their 
tendency to strike through thin paper, 
or to the lack of adhesiveness. This difii- 
319] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Pastes) 



culty appears to have been overcome by 
several manufacturers in their pastes ad- 
vertised to photographers, and Mr. Edel 
has solved the riddle. Aside from correct 
proportions, two things have to be ob- 
served : not all kinds of dextrine are suit- 
able, and the best white makes must be 
experimented with, and the temperature 
at which solution is effected must not 
exceed 160° F. The following provisional 
formula is presented, which, however, may 
possibly bear improvement ; at least, more 
of the volatile oils may be required, which 
are added not only to disguise the odor 
of the dextrine, but to act as preserva- 
tives : 

1.— White dextrine (5 lb. or), 51^ lb.; 
water, at 100° F., 1 gal. ; oil of winter- 
green, 30 min. ; oil of clove, 30 min. Dis- 
solve the dextrine in the water ; after 
cooling, add the oils, pour into suitable 
bottles, cork, and then put in a cool place. 
In from 1 to 2 weeks the solution will 
have congealed. However, this "ripen- 
ing" process may be expedited by expos- 
ing the bottles in an ice chamber to a 
temperature of about 40°. Formaldehyde 
as a preservative, in this instance, seems 
to be contraindicated, on account of its 
interference with the congealing process. 
This latter, the author is inclined to 
think, is the result of molecular changes 
in the dextrine, since after the solution 
once has set it may be liquefied in a 
water bath any number of times, and 
gelation will take place again within less 
than 24 hours. As little as 4 lb. of dex- 
trine to 1 gal. of water may successfully 
be used, if desired. The author points 
out that the best-known of this class of 
library pastes is broadly covered by a 
patent, but he naturally asks, how a pat- 
ent on a solution of dextrine in water can 
hold. 

2.— Take 1 qt. of water and dissolve 
in it 1 teaspoonful of pure powdered 
alum. Stir into this enough flour to 
make a thick cream. Break up every lit- 
tle lump of flour until the mixture is 
smooth. Stir in next 1 teaspoonful of 
powdered rosin. Now pour in 1 cupful 
of boiling water. Stir it all well. When 
the mixture has thickened from cooking 
by the boiling water pour into an earthen 
vessel, cover it up, and keep it in a cool 
place ; add a few drops of oil of cloves. 
Whenever you want to use any portion 
of it, take what you need and soften it 
with a little warm water. This will give 
you a perfect paste, clean, wholesome, 
and lasting. You will be surprised how 
little waste you will have. Should you 
need larger quantities, increase the pro- 



(Pastes) 



portions in proper ratio, doubling or treb- 
ling each ingredient, according to the 
magnitude of the business requiring it. — 

3. — A solution of 2i/^ oz. of gum arable 
in 2 qt. of warm water is thickened to 
a paste with wheat flour ; to this is added 
a solution of alum and sugar of lead. 
iy2 oz. each, in water; the mixture is 
heated, and stirred about to boil, and is 
then cooled. It may be thinned, if neces- 
sary, with a gum solution. 

4. — Flour, 4 oz. ; powdered alum, % 
oz. ; water, 1 qt. ; oil of cloves, 20 drops ; 
salicylic acid, 20 grams ; alcohol, 2 dr. 
Mix the flour and alum, and sift ; add 
water slowly until a perfectly smooth 
mixture results. Then cook over a steady 
fire or flame until the paste is made. As 
it is cooling add the clove oil and salicylic 
acid, dissolved in the alcohol. Bottle in 
wide-mouthed bottles of 3 or 4 oz. each, 
cork well, and keep in a cool, dry place. 

5. — Wheat flour, 8 oz. ; alum and borax, 
of each, % oz. ; boric acid and oil of sas- 
safras, of each 1-16 oz. Mix in a granite- 
ware dish, using a square redwood paddle. 
Add all at once cold water. 

6. — Wheat flour, 10 oz. ; rice flour, 8 
oz. ; tragacanth, 2 oz. ; water, 6 pt. Make 
a paste with the tragacanth and part of 
the water ; make another, by the aid of 
heat, of the flours and water, and mix, 

7. — Wheat flour, 1 lb. ; water, 2 pt. ; 
nitric acid, % oz. ; boric acid, 40 grams ; 
oil of cloves, 20 min. Mix the flour, boric 
acid and water, and strain ; add the nitric 
acid, apply heat, and stir until the mix- 
ture thickens ; when nearly cold add the 
oil of cloves. This paste will remain 
sweet until all used, and water may be 
added as it evaporates. 

8. — Tragacanth, powdered, 2 parts : 
white dextrine, 1 part ; wheat flour, 6 
parts ; glycerine, 1 part ; cold water, 4 
parts ; boiling water, 40 parts. Over the 
tragacanth pour 16 parts of water in act- 
ive ebullition, stirring it well, and set 
aside in a moderately warm place. Mix 
the wheat flour and the dextrine with the 
cold water, stirring thoroughly, and add 
the mixture to the tragacanth. Pour the 
batter thus formed into the rest of the 
boiling water (24 parts), stirring con- 
stantly while doing; add to the glycer- 
ine about % of 1 part of salicylic acid 
(or suflicient of the substance to consti- 
tute about 1/^ of 1% of the whole batch 
of paste), and pour the mixture into the 
boiling paste, and under constant stirring 
cook for 4 or 5 minutes. Remove from 
the fire and pour into a receptacle for 
preserving ; cover with a piece of bladder 
or oilskin, and tie down. When required 



[320] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Pastes) 



for use, take out as much as needed, and 
tie up again. In this way the paste will 
keep sweet for a long time. It is white, 
odorless (or with a faint, agreeable odor), 
and is a wonderful sticker, where paper 
or cloth only is concerned. The addition 
of 2 parts of gum arabic and 3 more 
parts of glycerine (4 parts in all) con- 
verts the product into an unrivaled label 
paste for glass. The substitution of good 
glue or isinglass for gum arabic, and the 
addition of 8 parts of sugar, makes an 
all-round paste for use on wood, leather, 
metal, etc. 

9. — Gum arabic, 100 parts ; starch, 75 
parts ; white sugar, 21 parts ; camphor, 
4 parts. Dissolve the gum arabic in a 
little water ; dissolve the starch also in 
a little water; mix the whole, add the 
sugar and camphor, put on the water 
bath, and boil until a paste is formed, 
but rather thin, because cooling will 
thicken it. 

10. — Starch, 2 dr. ; sugar, 1 oz. ; aca- 
cia, 2 dr. ; water, suflBcient. Dissolve the 
gum, add the sugar, and boil until the 
starch is cooked. 

11. — Take 4 oz. of common gelatine, in 
small pieces, and steep it in 16 oz. of 
water until it becomes soft ; then by the 
aid of the heat of a water bath dissolve 
it, and while still hot pour into a mixture 
of 2 lb. of good flour paste and 1 pt. of 
water. Heat the whole to boiling, and 
when thickened remove from the fire ; 
while cooling, add 6 dr. of silicate of 
soda and stir into the mixture with a 
wooden spatula. This preparation will 
keep good for an indefinite period, and 
is very adhesive. The addition of 2 dr. 
of oil of cloves is an improvement. 

12. — The following, from Dingler's 
Journal, is highly recommended : Let 4 
parts by weight of glue soften in 15 parts 
of cold water for 15 hours, after which 
the mixture is heated until clear ; add 
65 parts of boiling water. In another 
vessel stir 30 parts of starch paste in 20 
parts of water. Into this the glue solu- 
tion is poured. Stir well, and on cooling 
add 10 drops of carbolic acid. 

13. — Mix 1 lb. of rye flour in lukewarm 
water, to which has been added 1 tea- 
spoonful of pulverized alum ; stir until 
free of lumps. Boil in the regular way 
or slowly pour on boiling water, stirring 
all the time, until the paste becomes stiff. 
When cold add a full %, lb. of common 
strained honey (regular bee honey, no 
patent mixture) ; mix well. In labeling, 
always paste the tin (or other work) and 
apply the label. 

14. — To Preserve Paste and Mucilage. — 



(Pastes) 



At the Konigliche Lehranstalt fiir Obst. 
und Weinbau, at Geisenheim, recently, a 
series of experiments were, undertaken to 
determine which, if any, of the ordinary 
additions to pastes and mucilages for bot- 
tle labels prevented fermentation, with- 
out injuring the adhesive qualities of the 
paste. Among the anti-ferments under 
observation were salicylic acid, boracic 
acid, thymol, oil of cloves, etc. With- 
out going into minutiae, it was found that 
dextrine, impregnated with from 0.3 to 
0.5% of thymol, produced a paste that 
has t'hus far proved all that could be 
desired. 

Special Uses and Special Materials. 

1.— Artists' and Architects'. — Boil white 
paper in water for 5 hours, then pour off 
the water and pound the pulp in a mor- 
tar ; pass it through a sieve, and mix with 
some gum water or isinglass glue. It is 
used in modeling by artists and archi- 
tects. 

2. — Bill-Sticking Paste. — Take flour, 25 
lb. ; alum, in powder, % lb. ; boiling 
water, sufficient quantity. This paste will 
not very long resist the action of wet 
weather, but may be made to do so by 
giving the bill, after sticking it, a wash 
of soap water, sugar of lead solution, or 
a solution of crude lac in naphtha. 

3. — Cloth, Paste for. — Use rye-flour 
paste, adding to it about % the weight 
of the flour of good glue. As the paste 
is for immediate use, there is no need 
of adding alum, gum dextrine, or any 
preservative. 

4. — Envelope Gum. — a. — The gum used 
by the United States Government on post- 
age stamps is probably one of the best 
that could be used, not only for envelopes, 
but for labels as well. It will stick to 
almost any surface. Its composition is 
said to be the following : Gum arabic, 1 
part ; starch, 1 part ; sugar, 4 parts ; 
water, sufficient to give the desired con- 
sistency. The gum arabic is first dis- 
solved in some water, the sugar added, 
then the starch, after which the mixture 
is boiled for a few minutes in order to 
dissolve the starch, after which it is 
thinned down to the desired consistency. 
Cheaper envelope gums can be made by 
substituting dextrine for the gum arabic, 
glucose for the sugar, and adding boric 
acid to preserve and help stiffen it. 

b. — Chromic acid, 2i/^ parts ; stronger 
ammonia, 15 parts ; sulphuric acid, i/^ 
part ; cuprammonium solution, 30 parts ; 
fine white paper, 4 parts. 

c. — Isinglass, a sufficient quantity ; 
acetic acid, 1 part ; water, 7 parts. Dis- 



[321] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Pastes) 



solve sufficient isinglass in the mixture 
of acetic acid and water to make a thin 
mucilage. One of the solutions is ap- 
plied to the surface of the envelope and 
the other to the flap. The parts are then 
fastened together, when the union is so 
firm as to resist acids, alcohol, hot or 
cold water and steam. The chromic acid 
forms with the isinglass a combination 
insoluble in water. 

5. — Gummed Paper. — Two kinds of 
gum solutions may be used for the man- 
ufacture of this paper, one of which gives 
a firmer adhesion than the other. — Paper 
Digest. The first solution is obtained as 
follows : Arabic gum, 1 kgm. ; cold 
water, 1 kgm. The second solution re- 
quires : Arabic gum, 1 kgm. ; cold water, 
3 kgm. ; honey, 100 grams ; glycerine, 100 
grams. When the solution is ready (for 
the production of which no warm water 
must be used, as in that case the paper 
prepared with it would get wrinkled), it 
is pressed through flannel before using, 
and spread over the paper by means of 
a good bath sponge. As underlayer, a 
smooth, straight piece of pasteboard is 
used ; then the gummed paper, with the 
gummed side up, is laid upon another 
piece of thin pasteboard, or in a drying 
frame, if preferred, and slowly allowed 
to dry. 

6. — Japanese Cement. — Mix the best 
powdered rice with a little cold water, 
gradually add boiling water until a proper 
consistency is acquired, being particularly 
careful to keep it well stirred all the 
time ; boil for 1 minute in a clean sauce- 
pan or earthen pipkin. This glue is beau- 
tifully white, and almost transparent, for 
which reason it is well adapted for fancy 
paperwork, which requires a strong and 
colorless cement. 

7. — Machine for Pasting and Folding, 
Paste for. — Four parts, by weight, of 
glue, are allowed to soften in 15 parts 
of cold water for some hours, and then 
moderately heated until the solution be- 
comes quite clear ; 65 parts of boiling 
water are now added, with stirring. In 
another vessel 30 parts of starch paste 
are stirred up with 20 parts of cold water 
so that a thin, milky fluid is obtained, 
without lumps. Into this the boiling glue 
solution is poured, with constant stir- 
ring, and the whole is kept at the boiling 
temperature. After cooling, 10 drops of 
carbolic acid are added to the paste. This 
paste is of extraordinary adhesive power, 
and may be used for leather, cardboard, 
etc., as well as for paper. The paste in 
the reservoir should be kept from the air 



(Pastes) 



as much as possible, to avoid loss of water 
by evaporation. 

8. — Matrix, Paste for. — A correspon- 
dent once wrote : "After considerable ex- 
periment, I have succeeded in making a 
paste for matrixes that gives us from 40 
to 80 casts, average perhaps 50 to each 
matrix. I use 2 oz. of French gelatine, 
dissolved in vinegar, then add to this 1 
oz. of alum and 1 qt. of hot water. In 
a separate vessel dissolve 1 lb. of starch 
in cold water. Then bring the water in 
which the gelatine and alum is dissolved 
to the boiling point, and gradually stir 
in the dissolved starch, stirring all the 
time, to prevent lumps. Boil half an 
hour, stirring all the time ; when cold, 
to a pint of paste add water and 1 oz. 
of Spanish white to make matrix ; use 
enough water to the paste so as to spread 
well." 

9. — Paper Bags and Paper Pads. — a. — 
Glue, 200 parts ; glycerine, 50 parts ; 
syrupy glucose, 10 parts ; tannin, 1 part. 
Cover the glue with cold water, and let 
stand overnight. In the morning pour 
off the superfluous water, throw the glue 
on muslin, and manipulate so as to get 
rid of as much moisture as possible, then 
put in a water bath and melt. Add the 
glycerine and syrup, and stir well in. 
Finally, dissolve the tannin in the small- 
est quantity of water possible, and add. 
This mixture must be used hot. 

b. — Best gum arable, 1 part; simple 
syrup, 5 parts; rice starch, 1 part; boil- 
ing water, sufficient. Dissolve the gum 
arabic in just enough water to dissolve it. 
Pour on the starch enough water to make 
a thick, pasty mass, then mix in the gum 
solution, and boil until the starch gelat- 
inizes. 

c. — The following is very tenacious, and 
may be used wherever a paste is needed 
around the shop or laboratory : Gela- 
tine, best hard, 2 parts ; arrowroot, 10 
parts ; alcohol, 8 to 10 parts ; water, suf- 
ficient to make 100 parts. With a por- 
tion of the water make the arrowroot 
into a thick paste. Soak the gelatine 
overnight in the residue of the water, then 
put the vessel on a water bath and heat 
until the gelatine is completely dissolved. 
Now add the arrowroot paste under brisk 
and constant stirring, and let boil until 
the arrowroot gelatinizes. Remove from 
the fire, let cool down somewhat, add the 
alcohol, and stir until cold. 

10. — Paper on Glass, for Ornamental 
Purposes. — a. — Best selected gum arabic, 
4 parts ; powdered tragacanth, 1 part ; 
glycerine, 2 to 3 parts ; distilled water, 
32 parts. Dissolve the gum arabic in a 



[322] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Pastes) 



part of the water, and the tragacanth in 
the remainder ; mix the solutions and stir 
in the glycerine. 

b. — Add to 3 parts of wheat starch 24 
to 30 parts of cold water, stir together to 
a homogeneous mass of about the thick- 
ness of syrup. Pour over this, with con- 
stant stirring, boiling water until the 
paste is of the required consistency. Stir 
until partly cold. Take a portion of the 
paste and add to it 6 to 15% of liquefied 
Venice turpentine, rub together until a 
kind of emulsion is formed, then mix the 
whole together and work thoroughly. 

11. — Paper Boxes. — Chloral hydrate, 5 
parts ; white gelatine, 8 parts ; gum ara- 
ble, 2 parts ; boiling water, 30 parts. Mix 
the chloral, gelatine and gum arable in 
a porcelain container, pour the boiling 
water over the mixture, and let stand 
for 1 day, giving it a vigorous stirring 
several times during the day. In cold 
weather this is apt to get hard and stiff, 
but this may be obviated by standing the 
container in warm water for a few min- 
utes. This paste adheres to any surface 
whatever. 

12.^ — Paper Hangers" Paste. — a. — It is 
believed that paper hangers' paste, as 
well as a paste for general purposes, is 
simply wheat or rye flour, beaten in cold 
water to perfect smoothness, and the 
whole just brought to a boil while being 
constantly stirred to prevent burning. A 
little creosote or carbolic acid will make 
it keep much better. Any addition to this 
paste fails to improve it. 

b. — A painters' magazine gives the fol- 
lowing: Put 3 pt. or 1 qt. of water, as 
hot as you can bear your hand in, into 
a pail ; add 1 tablespoonful of pulverized 
alum. Sift flour into the pail, stirring 
with the hand. Beat until the paste is 
so thick that you cannot beat it any 
longer, and it has about the consistency 
of dough. Next, pour in boiling water 
until the paste begins to turn, or cook. 
Then stop pouring in the water, but stir 
until the paste is cooked. Paste cooked 
too much won't hang, hence it is neces- 
sary to stop pouring in the water at the 
turning point. Level the paste off and 
pour water on top of it to keep it from 
caking. Let it stand overnight, and in 
the morning it can be cut in pieces, which 
may be wrapped in strong paper and car- 
ried in a grip. To use, simply thin with 
water. Thick paste like this will, before 
it is thinned, keep for months. 

13. — Postage Stamp Mucilage. — a. — • 
Gum dextrine, 2 parts; water, 5 parts; 
acetic acid, 1 part. Dissolve by aid of 
beat, and add 1 part of 90% alcohol. 

[ 



(Pastes) 



b. — Dissolve 1 lb. of gum dextrine in 

1 pt. of boiling water, strain through flan- 
nel, and add 2 oz. of acetic acid. When 
nearly cold add 4 oz. of alcohol, stir con- 
stantly, and finally enough warm water 
to make 1 qt. 

14. — Powder Paste. — Some years ago a 
patent was granted for an adhesive paste 
consisting of a compound containing flour, 
starch, or other farinaceous substance, 
with an alkali, preferably caustic soda or 
caustic potash, or some other strongly 
alkaline substance. If the flour be mixed 
with any of these substances in the form 
of powder, in the proper proportions, they 
form a compound which, when mixed 
with water, will soon assume the consist- . 
ency of a paste, and will become soluble 
in water. The action of the alkali on 
the flour bursts the starch cells and di- 
gests or dissolves it, increasing its bulk 
and reducing it to a paste, which may be 
thinned by the addition of water, or thick- 
ened by the addition of more of the alkali 
and flour. These compounds are sold as 
powders, to be mixed with water by the 
user. 

a. — The following formula has been 
given : Flour, 84 parts ; caustic soda, pul- 
verized, 8 parts. In place of the caustic 
soda pulverized caustic potash may be 
used. Other forms of alkali, such as 
strong soda ash, may also be used, but 
the quantity must be considerably in- 
creased until suflBcient to digest the flour. 
It is preferably best to employ caustic 
soda. 

b. — A formula said to answer better for 
all purposes is the following modification 
of the above : Flour, starch, or other 
farinaceous substance, 84 parts ; pulver- 
ized caustic soda, or potash, 8 parts ; am- 
monium sulphate, 8 parts. To apply it to 
use, add to it a little water. The am- 
monium sulphate is used as a neutraliz- 
ing agent, and counteracts the strong ef- 
fects of the caustic soda on colored or 
tinted papers. 

15. — Scrap Books. — Rice starch, 1 oz. : 
gelatine, 3 dr. ; water, Yz pt. ; heat, with 
constant stirring, until the milky liquid 
becomes thick and glassy, when the paste 
is ready. Keep the paste in a tight bot- 
tle, with a few drops of clove oil. 

16. — Skins. — Get 1 lb. of rye flour, put 
it in a basin, and pour enough boiling 
water over it to make a stiff paste. It 
must be made almost as stiff as ordinary 
dough for puddings, but not quite. Stir, 
and beat up well with a stick for 3 or 4 
minutes ; then cover up, and put by for 

2 days before using, when it will be much 
softer, and stick better. Spread thinlj' 

323] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Pastes) 



and evenly on back of skin with a stiff 
brush or pad ; this will stick firmly, and 
will not crack. 

17. — Stereotypers' Paste. — a. — Flour, 5 
oz. ; white starch, 7 oz. ; powdered alum, 
1 large tablespoonful ; water, 4 qt. Put 
the flour, starch and alum into a sauce- 
pan, and mix with a little of the water, 
cold, until the whole becomes of the con- 
sistency of thick cream. Then gradually 
add the remainder of the water, which 
must be boiling, stirring well meanwhile 
to prevent lumps. Put the mixture over 
the fire, and stir until it boils ; then let 
it stand until quite cold, when it should 
look like jelly. When you are ready for 
work add Spanish whiting, the mixture 
not to be too stiff to spread readily with 
the paste brush. Put through a fine wire 
sieve with a stiff brush, and it is ready 
for use. 

b. — Mix together with the hands, until 
all lumps are dissolved, 6% lb. of Oswego 
starch and 2i/^ lb, of wheat flour in 6 
gal. of water. Then add 12 oz. of com- 
mon glue which has been previously dis- 
solved in 2 qt. of water, and 2 oz. of pow- 
dered alum. Cook until the mixture boils 
thick. When cold, take out a quantity 
sufficient for the day's use and add i/^ 
its bulk of pulverized whiting. The whit- 
ing should be thoroughly incorporated 
with the paste, and the resultant mass 
forced through a sieve having about 20 
meshes to the inch. The whiting should 
be freed from grit. 

18. — Tinfoil, Fastening Paper upon. 
— Make a paste by dissolving rye flour in 
a solution of caustic soda, dilute with 
water, stirring all the time; add to this 
paste Venetian turpentine, a few drops 
for each % lb. of flour. Adheres firmly 
to all metals, tinfoil, glass, etc. 

19. — Tissue Paper. — (a) Pulverized 
gum arable, 2 oz. ; white sugar, % oz. ; 
boiling water, 3 fl.oz. (b) Common laun- 
dry starch, 1^2 oz. ; cold water, 3 fl.oz. ; 
make into a batter, and pour into 32 fl.oz. 
of boiling water. Mix (a) with (b) and 
keep in a wide-mouthed bottle. 

20. — Trunkmakers'' Paste. — To 32 parts 
of sifted wheat flour add 2 parts of rosin 
and 1 part of alum, both finely powdered, 
and mix well together. Now add a lit- 
tle at a time, and under constant stirring, 
enough soft (distilled or rain) water to 
make a paste about the consistency of 
cream. Set the vessel in the water bath, 
and boil for a few minutes, or until the 
liquid gets thick enough to hold the spoon 
upright when it is placed so. It is now 
done, and ready for use. 



(Putty) 



PUTTY 

Putty may be considered as a cement. 
It is prepared by mixing fine whiting with 
linseed oil or linseed-oil varnish, the lat- 
ter drying more quickly. The whiting 
should be passed through a sieve, the 
meshes being 42 threads to the inch. It 
should be dry before sifting, and be thor- 
oughly incorporated with the oil, a tedious 
operation. Keep in oiled paper or un- 
der water. White lead is sometimes mixed 
with the putty. Color, if desired, with 
dry colors. 

In the mixing of putty, use a stiff putty 
knife, and mix a large quantity at one 
time, as it improves with age. Pound 
your putty on the mixing block to expel 
the accumulated moisture that might be 
in the putty, also to make it tough and 
elastic. When you are pounding the putty 
add more dry pigment, if needed, as the 
more pigment you use the better the putty 
will be ; but care should be taken not to 
use too much dry pigment, making your 
putty too dry. After mixing, put it in 
a clean can, and cover with clean water, 
for future use. A good putty knife for 
puttying gears may be made out of an 
old J^-inch wide spatula, cut off about 
3 inches from the end of the ferrule. 

To Soften Putty that has become hard, 
break the putty up in as small pieces 
as possible, put in an iron kettle with 
enough water to cover it, add a little raw 
linseed oil, and let it boil, and stir well 
while hot. The putty will readily ab- 
sorb the oil ; pour off the water, and when 
cool work it into shape, and it will be 
found good as new. This process is rec- 
ommended by a large paint concern. 

1. — Keg white lead, ^ lb. ; dry white 
lead, % lb. ; pale Japan, 3 oz. ; quick rub- 
bing varnish, 3 oz. Quicken up with 
Reno's raw or burnt umber, keystone 
filler, or dry lampblack. 

2. — Dry white lead, % part ; keg white 
lead, ^ part ; mixed rough stuff, % part ; 
rubbing varnish, i^ part ; pale Japan, % 
part ; turpentine, % part. 

3. — Black Putty for Irons. — Dry lamp- 
black, 3 parts ; dry white lead, 1 part ; 
dry keystone filler, 1 part ; rubbing var- 
nish and japan, half and half. 

4. — Black Putty for Hearse Builders. — 
Dry white lead, 2 parts ; keg white lead, 
2 parts ; dry lampblack, 1 part ; dry key- 
stone filler, 1 part ; rubbing varnish, 2-3 
part; japan, 1-3 part. Take black velvet 
or plush, and unravel it so as to secure 
the short fibers of the material, which, 
when mixed with the putty in the same 
manner as hair is mixed with mortar, will 



[324] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes. Etc. 



(Putty) 



bind it firmly together, and no jar of 
the vehicle will cause it to ci-ack and fly 
out. This putty is excellent for bedding 
the glasses of hearses, and is used by 
most all of the hearse builders in prefer- 
ence to any other. 

5. — Extra Rapid Putty. — Dry white 
lead, 3 parts ; japan, 2 parts ; drying oil, 
1 part. If too thin, add more lead. This 
putty will harden very rapidly, and dries 
without any shrinkage, tack or softness. 

6. — French Putty. — a. — Ruban pre- 
pares this substance by boiling 7 parts of 
linseed oil with 4 parts of brown umber 
for 2 hours; 5% parts of chalk and 11 
parts of white lead are then added, and 
the whole well mixed. This putty is very 
durable, and adheres well to wood, even 
though not previously painted. 

b. — Gum arable, 1 part ; water, 2 parts ; 
potato starch, 4 parts. 

7. — Glazing Putty. — Keg white lead 
mixed with japan, 2 parts ; rubbing var- 
nish, 1 part ; turpentine, 1 part ; add a 
little dry color the same as the job is 
to be when painted. Make the paint a 
stiff paste or soft putty, the same as the 
job they are used on, by using consistency, 
and with a stiflE brush spread this on the 
body and running parts. 

8. — Infusorial Earth Putty. — Washed 
infusorial earth (kieselguhr), 10 parts; 
litharge, 8 parts ; slaked lime, 5 parts ; 
boiled linseed oil, 6 parts ; red lead, 1 
part ; zinc white, 1 part. This putty, in 
a few months, becomes as hard as fine- 
grained sandstone, and can be employed 
advantageously as a filling cement for 
stone. 

^.—OU Putty, White.— 2i.—V&Ty fine 
dry whiting, 3 parts ; keg white lead, 1 
part; boiled oil, and a little litharge to 
make it dry hard. 

b. — Keg white lead, 3 parts ; dry white 
lead, 2 parts ; dry bolted whiting, 1 part ; 
japan and boiled oil, half and half. 

10.— Soft Pw«i/.— a.— Whiting, 10 lb. ; 
white lead, 1 lb. ; mix with the necessary 
quantity of boiled linseed oil, adding to 
it % gill of the best olive oil. The last 
prevents the white lead from hardening, 
and preserves the putty in a state suflB- 
ciently soft to adhere at all times, and 
not, by getting hard and cracking off, 
suffering the wet to enter, as is often the 
case with ordinary hard putty. 

b. — A very strong putty is made of 
boiled oil and whiting, for exposed situa- 
tions, as skylights, but is not adapted for 
keeping ; it gets too hard. 

c. — Putty for good inside work is im- 
proved by adding white lead. 

d. — Another putty which requires to be 



(Putty) 



made as wanted (as it gets hard almost 
immediately) is composed of red lead in 
powder, mixed with boiled oil and turpen- 
tine varnish, and is used for fronts of 
houses, or any place requiring a hard 
putty. 

e. — Some manufacturers prepare an oil 
for the purpose of melting 20 lb. of rosin 
and mixing it with 90 lb. of linseed oil, 
the rosin being used for economy's sake. 

f. — For some purposes a drying oil may 
be used with the whiting. This is made 
by mixing 1 gal. of linseed oil, 12 oz. of 
litharge, 1 oz. of sugar of lead, and 1 oz. 
of white vitriol ; simmer for some time, 
allow to cool, and when settled draw it 
off. 

11. — Wax Putty. — Fuse together 4 lb. 
of yellow wax, 2 lb. of tallow, 1 lb. of oil 
of turpentine and 6 lb. of Venice tur- 
pentine. 

12. — White Putty. — a. — Dry white lead, 
3 parts ; keg white lead, 1 part ; rubbing 
varnish and japan, half and half. 

b. — Keg white lead, 4 parts ; dry white 
lead, 1 part ; varnish and japan gold size, 
half and half. 

c. — Dry white lead, % part ; pulverized 
soapstone, % part ; dry oxide of zinc, Yg 
part ; dry white stone ocher, Vs part ; 
white rubbing varnish, % part ; white 
japan, % part ; turpentine, % part. 

d. — Dry white lead, 2 parts ; keg white 
lead, 1 part ; rubbing varnish and japan, 
half and half. 

e. — Dry white lead, mixed with half 
rubbing varnish and half japan. 

Wood Putty. 

There are a great number of wood put- 
ties. They serve for filling up the faults 
or gaps in wood that has been thoroughly 
dried. Suitable coloring matter should 
be added to them to make them corre- 
spond in color to the wood. 

1. — Floors. — Litharge, 1 part ; plaster 
of paris, 2 parts ; glue, 1 part ; water, 8 
parts ; cement, 4 parts ; sawdust, 2 parts ; 
casein, 5 parts ; water, 30 parts ; am- 
monia, 3 parts ; burned lime, 3 parts. 

2. — Floors of Soft Wood, Intended to 
ie Washed. — a. — Casein, by weight, 500 
parts ; water, by weight, 4,000 parts ; 
spirit of sal ammoniac, by weight, 50() 
parts ; burnt lime, by weight, 250 parts. 

b. — Glue, 2 parts ; water, 14 parts ; 
cement, lime, 5 parts ; sawdust, 3 to 4 
parts. Both the above must be prepared 
immediately before use. 

3. — Floors to he Varnished. — Glue, 2 
parts ; water, 14 parts ; gypsum, 5 parts ; 
yellow ocher, 2 to 4 parts. 

4. — Gypsum. — This putty is used only 



[325] 



Cemerits, Glues. Pastes, Etc. 



(Special Adhesives) 



for very ordinary woodwork. It is com- 
posed of burnt gypsum, stirred with glue 
water. It must be used at once, as it 
hardens very rapidly. 

5. — Lime. — Rye flour, 10 parts ; slaked 
lime, 5 parts ; linseed-oil varnish, 5 parts ; 
umber, q. s. to color. 

6. — Sawdust Oil Putty. — "Very fine saw- 
dust is made into a paste by moistening 
with linseed-oil varnish and long knead- 
ing. The mass is very plastic. 

7. — Saicdust Glue Putty. — Water, 20 
parts ; glue, 1 part ; fine sawdust, as re- 
quired. Completely dissolve the glue by 
boiling in water ; pour the sawdust, in a 
thin stream, into the liquid, which is 
kept in constant motion by stirring. 

ADHESIVES FOR SPECIAL PUR- 
POSES 

BOOKBINDEKS' AND STATIONERS' GLUE 
AND PASTE 

1. — Use best carpenters', or white glue, 
to which, after soaking and heating, add 
1-20 its weight of glycerine. 

2. — Lehner publishes the following for- 
mula for making a liquid paste or glue 
from starch and acid : Place 5 lb. of po- 
tato starch in 6. lb. of water, and add 
% lb. of pure nitric acid. Keep it in a 
warm place, stirring frequently for 48 
hours. Then boil the mixture until it 
forms a thick and translucent substance. 
Dilute with water, if necessary, and filter 
through a thick cloth. At the same time 
another paste is made from sugar and 
gum arable. Dissolve 5 lb. of gum arable 
and 1 lb. of sugar in 5 lb. of water, and 
add 1 oz. of nitric acid, and heat to boil- 
ing. Then mix the above with the starch 
paste. The resultant paste is liquid, does 
not mold, and dries on paper with a gloss. 
It is useful for labels, wrappers, and fine 
bookbinders' use. 

3. — Cloth Books, etc. — (a) White glue, 
4 oz. ; cold water, 8 fl.oz. Soak glue 4 
hours in the cold water, then dissolve 
in a gluepot. (b) Corn starch, 4 oz. ; cold 
wattr, 8 fl.oz, ; mix, and pour into 16 
fl.oz. of boiling water. Mix (a) with (b) 
and gently heat for about 10 minutes. If 
wanted elastic, add 4 fl.oz. of glycerine. 

4. — Paper (Parchment). — a, — Mix or- 
dinary glue with about 3% of potassium 
or ammonium bichromate, in the dark. 
This may be used on the paper, and after 
exposure to light becomes perfectly in- 
soluble in boiling water. This glue has 
been very largely used in Germany for 
joining the parchment paper envelopes of 
pea sausages. The strips of paper joined 
by this glue are dried quickly and exposed 
to light till the glue changes to a brown- 



( Special Adhesives) 



ish color ; they are then boiled with water 
containing about 3% of alum till all the 
excess of alkaline bichromate is extracted, 
and then washed in water and dried. 

b.— White glue, 20 parts ; dilute acetic 
acid, 40 parts ; potassium bichromate, 1 
part. Soak the glue in water 12 hours, 
and then dissolve in a water bath ; add 
to this the aqueous solution of the bichro- 
mate. It must be done in the dark, as 
day or sunlight will make the mixture 
insoluble. This may also be used as a 
putty for glass. 

5. — TaUets and Pads. — a. — Good, clear 
cabinet glue, 4 oz. ; acetic acid, 3 fl.oz, ; 
water, 2 fl.oz. ; glycerine, i^ fl.oz. ; aniline 
(any color preferred), q. s. Place the 
glue, acetic acid and water in a wide- 
mouthed bottle or jar, set in a warm 
place, and stir occasionally until the glue 
is dissolved. If needed at once, the proc- 
ess may be hastened by dissolving the 
glue by means of a water bath. Add 
the glycerine and enough of a solution 
of aniline, in water, to give the desired 
color. Should the glue become too thick, 
add a little water till the proper con- 
sistency is restored. This preparation has 
the advantage of being easily made, and 
is always ready for use. 

b. — For 50 lb. of the best glue (dry) 
take 9 lb. of glycerine. Soak the glue 
for 10 minutes, heat to solution, and add 
the glycerine. If too thick, add water. 
Color with aniline. 

c. — A good liquid glue, without acid, 
may be prepared as follows : Slaked lime, 
40 parts ; sugar, 60 parts ; water, 180 
parts ; glue, 60 parts. Dissolve the lime 
and sugar in the water, heated to 75'^ 
C. ; then introduce the glue, and after 
allowing to swell, again apply heat until 
dissolved. 

d. — Brown glue. No, 2, 2 lb, ; sodium 
carbonate, 11 oz, ; water, 3% pt, ; oil of 
clove, 160 min. Dissolve the soda in the 
water, pour the solution over the dry 
glue, let stand overnight, or till thor- 
oughly soaked and swelled, then heat 
carefully on a water bath until dissolved. 
When nearly cold stir in the oil of clove. 
By using a white glue, a finer article, 
fit for fancy work, may be made. 

e. — Glue, 4 lb. ; glycerine, 2 lb. ; lin- 
seed oil, % lb. ; sugar, ^^ lb. ; aniline 
dyes, q. s. to color. The glue is soft- 
ened by soaking it in a little cold water, 
then dissolved, together with the sugar, 
in the glycerine, by aid of heat over a 
water bath. To this the dyes are added, 
after which the oil is well stirred in. It 
is used hot. Another composition of a 



[326] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Fireproof Adhesives) 



somewhat similar nature is prepared as 
follows : Glue, 1 lb. ; glycerine, 4 oz. ; 
glucose syrup, about 2 tablespoonfuls ; 
tannin, 1-10 oz. Give the compositions an 
hour or more in which to dry, or set, be- 
fore cutting or handling the pads. 

f. — Best glue, 5 oz. ; water, 1 oz. ; cal- 
cium chloride, 1 oz. Dissolve the calcium 
chloride in the water, add the glue, mac- 
erate until it is thoroughly softened, and 
then apply heat until completely dis- 
solved. This is known as "syndeticon," 
and, like the preceding formulas, is a 
liquid glue. 

g. — Tahleting Press. — A screw press, 
with a piece of smooth board on the bot- 
tom and a block above, to clamp and hold 
the paper, answers very well as a tablet- 
ing press. After the paper is squared 
up, and all edges even, place in the press 
and fasten securely. Apply tableting glue 
to the top edges by means of a flat bristle 
brush. Allow to remain in the press until 
glue is dry. Printing to be tableted 
should be permitted to dry thoroughly at 
least 12 hours before being placed in 
the tableting press, otherwise it will "set 
off" — that is, partially transfer the im- 
pressions, and soil the backs of the sheets. 

FIREPROOF ADHESIVES 

1. — Iron filings, 100 parts ; hydraulic 
lime, 20 parts ; quartz sand, 25 parts ; 
sal ammoniac, 3 parts. These are formed 
into a paste with vinegar, and then ap- 
plied. The cement is left to dry slowly 
before heating. 

2. — Iron filings, 180 parts ; lime, 45 
parts ; common salt, 8 parts. These are 
worked into a paste with strong vinegar. 
The cement must be perfectly dry before 
being heated. By heating it becomes stone 
hard. 

3. — Linseed or almond meal, mixed to 
a paste with milk, lime water, or starch 
paste ; resists a temperature of 500° F. 
(260° C). 

4. — Clay is puddled with water, and to 
it is added the greatest possible quantity 
of sand which has been passed through 
a hair sieve ; the whole is worked up in 
the hands, and applied in coats more or 
less thick on vessels needing protection 
from the direct action of fire. 

5. — Sifted manganese peroxide, 1 part ; 
pulverized zinc white, 1 part ; sufficient 
commercial soluble glass to form a thin 
paste. To be used immediately. Becomes 
very hard, and presents a complete re- 
sistance to red heat and boiling water. 

6. — As a coating for glass vessels, to 
protect them from injury during exposure 



(Labeling Mucilage) 



to fire, pipeclay and horse dung are made 
into a paste with water. This composi- 
tion is applied by spreading it on paper ; 
it is used by pipemakers, and will stand 
the extreme heat of their furnaces for 
24 hours without damage. 

7. — Shredded tov*/' or plumbago is sub- 
stituted for the horse dung. 

8. — Clay, 5 parts ; iron filings, 1 part ; 
linseed-oil varnish, q. s. to mix. 

9. — Common clay, dried and pulver- 
ized, 10 parts ; iron filings, 4 parts ; com- 
mon salt, 1 part ; borax, 1 part ; manga- 
nese peroxide, 2 parts. 

10. — China clay, mixed with asbestos. 
Beat well before applying ; use no more 
water than absolutely necessary. This 
is said to stand a high heat. Not recom- 
mended for household use. 

11. — Calcine oyster shells ; grind, and 
sift ; reduce to the very finest powder 
with a muller, and beat into a paste with 
white of egg ; press the broken pieces to- 
gether firmly. This cement stands both 
heat and water. 

12. — Stir the white of an egg into a 
stiff solution of glue. 

13. — BeaWs. — Chalk, 60 parts ; lime 
and salt, of each, 20 parts ; sand, 10 
parts (English books of receipts give 
Barnsey sand) ; iron filings or dust, 5 
parts ; blue or red clay, 5 parts. Grind 
and calcine. Patented as a fireproof 
cement. 

LABELING MUCILAGE AND PASTE 

1. — The following is highly recommend- 
ed by Dr. Carpenter : Dissolve 2 oz. of 
gum arable in 2 oz. of water, then add 
% oz. of soaked gelatine (heat required), 
30 drops of glycerine, and a lump of cam- 
phor. (See also Cements and Pastes.) 

2. — A good mucilage for labels is made 
by macerating 5 parts of good glue in 
18 to 20 parts of water for a day, and 
to the liquid add 9 parts of rock candy 
and 3 parts of gum arabic. The mixture 
can be brushed upon paper while still 
lukewarm. 

3. — Dextrine, 2 parts ; acetic acid, 1 
part ; water, 5 parts ; alcohol, 1 part. 

4. — Gelatine, 2 parts ; rock candy, 1 
part ; water, 3 parts. 

5. — White dextrine, 5 lb. ; water, heat- 
ed to about 160°, 1 gal. ; oil of winter- 
green, % dr. ; oil of cloves, % dr. Dis- 
solve the dextrine in the hot water by 
stirring ; when cool add the oils, and 
stir. Then pour the paste into suitable 
receptacles — glass, wide-mouthed bottles, 
or porcelain jars — cork, and put in a cool 
place, where the paste may congeal an^ 



[327] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Labeling Mucilage) 



ripen. The ripening process takes about 
a week. 

6. — White dextrine, 1 lb. ; syrupy glu- 
cose, 2 av.oz. ; aluminum sulphate, 1 
av.oz. ; sodium benzoate, 20 gr. ; water, 
24 fl.oz. Mix the white dextrine, alumi- 
num sulphate and sodium benzoate with a 
portion of the water, rubbing to a smooth 
paste ; add the glucose and the remainder 
of the water, and heat the mixture on 
a water bath, with occasional stirring, un- 
til it has become translucent ; strain if 
necessary. 

7. — Macerate in a small quantity of 
water 120 grams of gum arable, and in 
another vessel, with a similar quantity 
of water, 30 grams of tragacanth. When 
the latter is thoroughly swollen rub it 
up until it makes a homogeneous magma, 
and to this add the gum arable. Force 
the mass through a linen strainer, and to 
the mixture add 120 c. c. of glycerine 
and 250 c. c. of oil of thyme, and bring 
the volume up to 1 1. by adding distilled 
water and thoroughly incorporating the 
whole. This preparation should be pre- 
served in well-stoppered bottles. 

8. — Hye flour, 4 oz. ; alum, % oz. ; 
water, 8 oz. Rub to a smooth paste, pour 
into 1 pt. of boiling water, heat until 
thick, and finally add 1 oz. of glycerine 
and 80 drops of oil of cloves. 

9. — Rye flour, 4 oz. ; water, 1 pt. Mix, 
strain, add nitric acid, 1 dr. ; heat until 
thickened, and finally add carbolic acid, 
10 min. ; oil of cloves, 10 min. ; glycerine, 
1 oz. 

10. — Dextrine, 8 parts ; water, 10 
parts ; acetic acid, 2 parts. Mix to a 
smooth paste, and add 2 parts of alcohol. 
This is suitable for bottles of wood, but 
not for tin, for which the first 3 are 
likewise adapted. 

11. — A paste very similar to 3, but 
omitting nitric acid and glycerine, is also 
recommended by Dr. H. T. Cummings. 

12. — A good paste for labels for speci- 
mens. Starch, 2 dr. ; white sugar, 1 oz. ; 
gum arabic, 2 dr. ; water, q. s. Dissolve 
the gum, add the sugar, and boil until 
the starch is cooked. 

13. — A good paste is made by soaking 
flake tragacanth in sufficient cold water 
that the brush will not sink into the paste 
when finished. To prevent souring, add 
to the water 2 gr. of hydronaphthol (dis- 
solved in a little alcohol) for each pint, 
and a few drops of clove oil for scent. 
To keep away the flies, add some oil of 
pennyroyal. 

14. — Starch paste, with which a little 
Venice turpentine has been incorporated 
while it is warm. 



(Labels on Glass) 



Labels on Cork. 

Gum tragacanth, 1 oz. ; gum arabic, 4 
oz. Dissolve in water, 1 pt. ; strain, and 
add thymol, 14 gr., suspended in glycer- 
ine, 4 oz. ; finally add water to make 2 pt. 

Labels on Flower Pots. 

Use thin paper for label, and attach 
with white gelatine in solution, to which 
has been added 1% of bichromate of pot- 
ash. This must be done in a dark or ob- 
scure room. Then expose the labels to 
sunlight. After writing, varnish with a 
solution of shellac in alcohol. 

Labels on Glass. 

1. — The Druggists* Circular and Chem- 
ical Gazette says mucilage of tragacanth 
is a satisfactory agent. The mucilage is 
made by simply pouring over the gum 
enough water to a little more than cover 
it, and then, as the gum swells, adding 
more water from time to time, in small 
portions, until the mucilage is brought to 
such a consistency that it may be easily 
spread with the brush. The mucilage 
keeps fairly well without the addition of 
any antiseptic. Flour paste may answer 
better if the labels are on unusually 
heavy paper ; it is rather more trouble- 
some to make, on account of the neces- 
sary boiling, and does not keep so well 
as the tragacanth paste. By dissolving 
dextrine in cold water, a tenacious paste 
is obtained. It has the disadvantage of 
possessing a slight odor which is not 
agreeable. 

2. — According to a German photo- 
graphic journal, the following formula 
yields a paste which will serve equally 
well to affix labels to glass, porcelain or 
metal : Acacia, 4 dr. ; tragacanth, pow- 
dered, 2 dr. ; glycerine, 1^^ fl.dr. ; thymol, 
5 grams ; alcohol, 1 dr. ; water, sufficient 
to make 4 oz. Dissolve the acacia in 'V2 
oz. of water ; rub up the tragacanth with 
1 oz. of water, mix the two, and strain 
through a cloth. Then add the glycerine 
and the thymol, first dissolving the latter 
in the alcohol. 

3. — Yellow dextrine, 8 oz. ; thymol, 10 
gr, ; dissolve in cold or lukewarm water, 
18 fl.oz. Boiling water should not be 
used with dextrine, as it impairs its ad- 
hesiveness. 

4. — Make a paste out of 280 parts of 
mucilage, 20 parts of water, and 2 or 3 
parts of aluminum sulphate, dissolving 
the sulphate in the water before adding 
the mucilage. 

5. — (a) Pulverized gum arabic, 4 oz. ; 



[328] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Labels on Metal) 



boiling water, 6 fl.oz. (b) Glycerine, 2 
oz. Dissolve (a), then add (b). 

Labels on Metal. 

1. — To attach paper to metal, and pro- 
duce strong adherence, as desired for cards 
and labels, a small quantity of carbonate 
of potash should be added to the paste. 

2. — Paint the label (which must be 
thoroughly dried) with collodion; apply 
a thin film of ordinary turpentine or of 
the lacquer with which the metal is cov- 
ered, and press the label upon the sur- 
face of the container. If the vessels to 
be labeled are cylindrical in form, it is 
advantageous to add a few drops of cas- 
tor oil to the lacquer used for fastening 
the paper. 

3. — A label paste for paper or cloth 
to metals is composed of : Starch, 20 
parts ; sugar, 10 parts ; zinc chlorite, 1 
part ; water, 200 parts. Mix the ingredi- 
ents to a smooth paste, and heat cautious- 
ly until it thickens. Stir down, remove 
from the fire, and let cool. 

4. — M. Eliel gives the following for- 
mula for a mixture which can be used 
for metal, glass or wood : Gum traga- 
canth, 30 grams ; acacia gum, 120 grams ; 
water, 500 c. c. Dissolve, filter, and add 
2% grams of thymol, suspended in 120 
c. c. of glycerine ; then add enough water 
to make up the bulk to 1 1. This bath 
will keep a long time. 

5. — Dextrine, 400 grams ; water, 100 
grams ; grape sugar, 20 grams ; aluminum 
sulphate, 10 grams. The whole is heated 
for 30 minutes to about 90° C. to obtain 
the best adhesive quality. 

6. — Water, 1 pt. ; borax, 1 oz. ; shellac, 
5 oz. Boil until the latter is dissolved. 
Thin with boiling water. If necessary, 
use hot. 

7. — Boil 2 oz. of shellac and % oz. of 
borax in 8 oz. of water. Give the space 
on the tin to be covered with the label 
one coat of this solution ; dry and apply 
the label with ordinary mucilage. 

8. — Gum arable, 50 parts ; glycerine, 10 
parts ; water, 30 parts ; antimony, chlo- 
ride, liquid, 2 parts. Mix. 

9. — Iron. — Make a paste of rye flour 
and glue ; add linseed-oil varnish and tur- 
pentine, y2 oz. of each to 1 lb. of the 
paste. 

Labels on Nickel. 

Dissolve 40 parts of dextrine in 50 
parts of water, 2 parts of glycerine and 
1 part of glucose, and heat. 



(Labels on Tin) 



Labels on Stone. 

Melt together equal parts of asphalt 
and gutta percha. Use hot. The surfaces 
to be joined should be perfectly clean and 
dry. 

Labels on Tin. 

1. — Paste for tin should not be too 
thin, and the tin should be free from 
grease. New tin generally has an oily 
or greasy surface, due to the tallow or 
oil used in the plating process. The grease 
may be removed with an alkali or with 
benzine, but in a factory where much la- 
beling is done it is better to slightly 
roughen the surface of the tin where the 
label is to be placed with a piece of fine 
sandpaper. No. 0. 

2. — Moisten the gummed labels with 
pure diluted hydrochloric acid (1 + 1) in- 
stead of water, and paste them on at 
once. Allow the vessel to stand in the 
air for 2 days, so that the excess of acid 
not combined with the tin may evaporate. 
For pasting paper labels on varnished tin 
receptacles, as well as varnished wood 
and pasteboard, use hot glue to which 
about % of turpentine has been added. 
The turpentine partly dissolves the var- 
nish and effects a firm adhesion of the 
labels to the vessels. 

3. — Put a little calcium chloride in the 
paste, or some glycerine. 

4. — Tragacanth, 1 oz. ; acacia, 4 oz. ; 
thymol, 14 grams ; glycerine, 4 oz. ; water, 
sufiicient to make 2 pt. Dissolve the gums 
in 1 pt. of water, strain, and add the 
glycerine, in which the thymol is sus- 
pended ; shake well, and add suflBcient 
water to make 2 pt. This separates on 
standing, but a single shake mixes it suf- 
ficiently for use. 

5. — Gum arable, 12 grams ; gum traga- 
canth, 3 grams ; water, 60 grams ; thy- 
mol, 0.10 gram ; glycerine, 12 grams. Dis- 
solve the gums in the water, strain 
through cloth, then add the thymol, pre- 
viously mixed with the glycerine, and 
enough to make the whole weigh 120 
grams. 

6. — Labels, Cements or Mucilages for 
Attaching to Tin, — a. — Shellac, 4 parts ; 
borax, 2 parts ; water, 30 parts ; boil un- 
til the shellac is dissolved. 

b. — Add 4 oz. of dammar varnish to 
1 lb. of tragacanth mucilage. 

c. — Balsam of fir, 1 part ; turpentine, 
3 parts ; use only for varnished labels. 

d. — Butter of antimony is good to pre- 
pare the tin for the label. 

e. — Venice turpentine, added to good 



[329] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Minerals, Cement for) 



starch paste, makes an excellent mount- 
ing medium. 

f. — Use liquid glue or glue dissolved in 
acetic acid. 

g. — Add 1 oz. of tartaric acid to each 
lb. of flour used in making flour paste. 

h. — Add 10% of flour to tragacanth mu- 
cilage. 

i. — Corrosive sublimate, 125 parts ; 
wheaten flour, 1,000 parts ; absinthe, 500 
parts ; tansy, 500 parts ; water, 15,000 
parts. This cement is useful for vessels 
which are kept in a damp place. 

j. — Starch, 100 parts; strong glue, 50 
parts ; turpentine, 50 parts ; the whole 
boiled in water. This cement dries 
quickly. 

7.' — Tragacanth, in powder, 2 parts ; 
boiling water, 40 parts ; wheat flour, 6 
parts ; white dextrine, 1 part ; cold water, 
4 parts. Mix the tragacanth with 16 
parts of boiling water, stir well, and set 
aside. Mix the flour and dextrine with 
the cold water, and add it to the traga- 
canth. Have the residue of the water in 
active ebullition, and pour it on the mix- 
ture, stirring it vigorously while it is be- 
ing poured. To the result add 1 part of 
glycerine, and the same amount of salicyl- 
ic acid, put on the fire, and let the whole 
boil for 3 or 4 minutes, stirring all the 
time. The addition of about i/4 of 1% 
of butter of antimony to an ordinary good 
flour or starch paste will make it adhere 
to tin ; in fact, there are a number of 
substances that may be added that will 
have the same effect — ammonia water, 
aluminum sulphate, etc. 

8. — (a) Brown sugar, 2 lb.; boiling 
water, 16 fl.oz. (b) French gelatine, % 
oz. ; water, 4 fl.oz. (c) Corn starch, 12 
oz. ; beat up with cold water, 12 fl.oz. ; 
pour the batter into boiling water, 32 
fl.oz. Continue boiling (c), if necessary, 
until the paste is translucent. Dissolve 
(a) and (b) separately, and then mix 
with (c). This paste is very adhesive, 
and labels pasted with it will adhere 
nicely, even in a damp place. The sugar 
in its composition also renders it proof 
against cracking when exposed to a dry 
atmosphere. 

MINERALS 

1. — Prof. Alex. Winchell is credited 
with the invention of a paste which is 
said to be valuable for affixing labels to 
mineral specimens, and for repairing frac- 
tured ones. It is made by the following 
formula : Clear gum arable, 2 oz. ; 
starch, 1^^ oz. ; white sugar, % oz. ; 
water, a sufficient quantity. Powder the 
gum arable, and dissolve it in as much 



(Naturalists' Cement) 



water as the laundress would use for the 
quantity of starch indicated. Dissolve the 
starch and sugar in the gum solution. 
Then cook the mixture in a vessel sus- 
pended in boiling water until the starch 
becomes clear. The cement should be 
as thick as tar, and kept so. It can be 
kept from spoiling by dropping in a lump 
of camphor or a little oil of cloves or 
sassafras. The addition of a small amount 
of sulphate of aluminum will increase the 
effectiveness of the paste, besides helping 
t»o prevent decomposition. 

2. — Use best fish glue (hot) and tie 
well. 

3. — Starch, ^4 oz, ; white sugar, 1 oz. ; 
gum arable, % oz. Dissolve the gum in 
a little hot water, and the sugar and 
starch, and boil until the starch is cooked. 

4. — W ollaston' s White Cement for 
Large Ohjects. — Beeswax, 1 oz. ; rosin, 4 
oz. ; powdered plaster of paris, 5 oz. 
Melt together. To use, warm the edges 
of the specimen, and use the cement 
warm. 

NATURALISTS' CEMENT 

This cement is employed by natural- 
ists for mounting specimens, by artificial 
flower makers, by confectioners to stick 
ornaments on their cakes, etc. 

1. — Mucilage of gum arable, thickened 
with starch powder or farina, with the 
addition of a little lemon juice. Some- 
times the mucilage is used alone. 

2. — Buckland's Cement for Labels. — 
Gum arable, 2 oz. ; starch, li^ to 2 oz. ; 
sugar, % oz. All materials should be 
pulverized. It can be kept dry and mixed 
up as used. 

Botanical Specimens. 

1. — Powdered tragacanth, 30 parts ; 
powdered gum arable, 20 parts ; glycerine, 
30 parts ; water, 60 parts ; corrosive sub- 
limate, 1 part ; boiling water, 240 parts. 
Mix the gums with the glycerine and 
water, in a mortar, with vigorous stir- 
ring. Dissolve the sublimate in the boil- 
ing water and add the solution to the mix- 
ture. When cold, a few drops of oil of 
cloves or wintergreen may be added. 

2. — Ferns and Seaweeds. — Gum arable, 
5 parts ; white sugar, 3 parts ; starch, 2 
parts ; a very little water. Boil until 
thick and white. 

3. — Entomologists^ Cement. — a. — Isin- 
glass and thick mastic varnish, equal 
parts. 

b. — Dissolve gum ammoniac in alcohol, 
add the best isinglass, with gentle heat. 
It melts at a gentle heat. 

4. — Pollen and Starch. — The following 



[330] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Photographic Mountants) 

formula was originally devised by Charles 
Bulloch : Selected acacia, 4 dr. ; glycerine, 
3 dr. ; distilled water, 3 dr. ; thymol, about 

1 gram to every 3 or 4 oz. Place the 
ingredients in a wide-mouthed bottle, cork 
carefully to exclude dust, and put in a 
warm place to remain until solution is 
effected. The latter may be hastened by 
occasional stirring from the bottom with 
a bone spatula. When complete solution 
has been secured, strain the liquid through 
double folds of a silk handkerchief, or 
through fine linen. Under ordinary cir- 
cumstances (at the temperature of the 
room) this will require a week, but the 
process can be accelerated by the appli- 
cation of a gentle heat. All of the work 
is rendered unnecessary if one has a jack- 
eted filtering apparatus. Absorbent cot- 
ton in the delivery tube of the funnel 
will clear the liquid of all insoluble mat- 
ter, dirt, etc., and of air. For cells, 
use zinc-white cement. 

Organic Specimens, Antiseptic Paste 
(Poison) for. 

(a) Wheat flour, 16 oz. ; beat to a bat- 
ter with 16 fl.oz. of cold water ; then pour 
into 32 fl.oz. of boiling water, (b) Pul- 
verized gum arable, 2 oz. ; dissolve in boil- 
ing water, 4 fl.oz. (c) Pulverized alum, 

2 oz. ; dissolve in boiling water, 4 fl.oz. 
(d) Acetate of lead, 2 oz. ; dissolve in 
boiling water, 4 fl.oz. (e) Corrosive sub- 
limate, 10 gr. Mix (a) and (b) while 
hot, and continue to simmer ; meanwhile 
stir in (c), and mix thoroughly; then 
add (d) ; stir briskly, and empty in the 
dry corrosive sublimate. This paste is 
very poisonous. It is used for anatomi- 
cal work and for pasting organic tissue, 
labels on skeletons, etc. 

Shells and Other Specimens, Paris Ce- 
ment for Mending. 
Gum arable, 5 parts ; sugar candy, 2 
parts ; white lead, enough to color. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC MOUNTANTS 
In the Photographic Times, Mr. W. H. 
Gardner collects together a number of 
formulae of various mountants, of which 
we give the following : 

1. — Gelatine Mountant. — Cooking gela- 
tine, 1 oz. ; 95% alcohol, 10 oz. ; glycer- 
ine, % to 1 oz. Soak gelatine in cold 
water for an hour or more, take out and 
drain off all the water which will go, 
add to alcohol in wide-mouthed bottle : 
add % to 1 oz. of glycerine, according as 
gelatine is of a hard or soft kind ; put 
bottle in hot water, with occasional shak- 
ing, until gelatine is quite dissolved. Will 



(Photographic Mountants) 

keep indefinitely, and has only to be heat- 
ed when wanted for use. 

2. — Permanent Paste. — Arrowroot, 10 
parts ; water, 100 parts ; gelatine, 1 part ; 
alcohol, 10 parts. Soak the gelatine in 
the water, add the arrowroot, which has 
first been thoroughly mixed with a small 
quantity of the water, and boil 4 or 5 
minutes. After cooling, add the alcohol 
and a few drops of carbolic acid or oil 
of cloves. 

3. — Best Bermuda arrowroot, 1% oz. ; 
sheet gelatine or best Russian glue, 80 
gr. ; water, 15 oz. ; methylated spirit, 1 oz. 
Put the arrowroot into a small pan, add 
1 oz. of water, and mix it up thoroughly 
with a spoon, or the ordinary mounting 
brush, until it is like thick cream ; then 
add 14 oz. of water, and the gelatine, 
broken into small fragments. Boil for 
4 or 5 minutes, set it aside until par- 
tially cold, then add the methylated spirit 
and 6 drops of pure carbolic acid. Be 
very particular to add the spirit in a 
gentle stream, stirring rapidly all the 
time. Keep it in a corked stock bottle, 
and take out as much as may be required 
for the time and work it up nicely with 
the brush. 

4. — Starch Paste. — Pour cold water on 
good laundry starch to barely moisten it. 
Then stir in cold water until proper con- 
sistency is reached. Squeeze through 
canvas, if not free from lumps. Starch 
paste should be freshly made for each 
batch of prints. 

5. — Allow 4 parts by weight of hard 
gelatine to soften in 15 parts of water 
for several hours, and then moderately 
heat until the solution is quite clear, when 
65 parts of boiling water should be added 
while stirring. Stir, in another vessel, 
30 parts of starch paste with 20 parts 
of cold water, so that a thin milky fluid 
is obtained, without lumps. Into this 
the boiling gelatine solution should be 
poured while constantly stirring, and the 
whole kept at a boiling temperature. 
When cool, add to the whole 10 drops 
of carbolic acid to prevent souring. This 
makes a very tenacious paste. 

6. — Casein Mucilage. — Heat milk with 
a little tartaric acid, whereby casein is 
separated. Treat the latter, while still 
moist, with a solution of 6 parts of borax 
to 100 parts of water, and warm gently 
while stirring, which will cause the casein 
to be dissolved. Of the borax solution 
enough should be used to leave only a lit- 
tle undissolved casein behind. 

7.— Good Mounting Paste.— Add to 250 
c. cm. of concentrated gum solution 2 
parts of gum to 5 parts of water, a so* 



[331] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Photographic Mountants) 

lution of 1 gram of sulphate of alumina 
in 20 c. cm. of water. Alum does not 
answer the purpose as well. The addi- 
tion of the sulphate is effective, in that 
this gum is not so readily softened by 
moisture, and besides, wood can be fas- 
tened to wood by means of it. Its ad- 
hesive qualities are, in general, greater 
than those of pure gum arable. 

8. — Impervious Paste. — Soak ordinary 
glue in water until it softens, remove it 
before it has lost its original shape, and 
dissolve in ordinary linseed oil on a gen- 
tle fire until it acquires the consistency 
of a jelly. This paste may now be used 
for all kinds of substances, as, besides 
strength and hardness, it possesses also 
the advantage of resisting the action of 
water. 

9, — Thin Mucilage. — A paste that will 
not draw engravings when pasted down 
on paper must be thin. A mixture of 
equal parts of gum tragacanth and gum 
arabic forms, with water, a thinner mu- 
cilage than either one alc'e. 

10. — Liquid Glue. — With any desired 
quantity of glue use ordinary whisky in- 
stead of water. Break the glue into 
small fragments, and introduce these into 
a suitable glass vessel, and pour the whis- 
ky over them. Cork tightly, and set aside 
for 3 or 4 days, when it will be ready for 
use. The whisky must not be too strong, 
and a little heat is generally required. 

11. — Same as above, except that acetic 
acid is used in place of whisky, and that 
the bottle containing the ingredients must 
be placed in hot water to dissolve the 
glue. 

12. — Glue, 8 oz. ; water, 8 oz. ; nitric 
acid, 2% oz. Dissolve the glue in the 
water by immersing the vessel containing 
the same in hot water. When solution is 
effected add the acid. Effervescence will 
take place with the evolution of orange 
nitrous fumes. Now cool. It should be 
kept in a well-stoppered bottle, and will 
remain permanently liquid. 

As regards the formulae collected by 
Mr. Gardner, we may remark, says the 
Photo. Review, that of the above Nos. 
12, 11 and 8 are quite unfit for mounting 
silver prints, although they may be use- 
ful for other work in the studio ; Nos. 
11 and 12 for cardboard and light wood- 
work, where the presence of acid is not 
likely to be detrimental ; and No. 8 
Cwhich is really an emulsion of glue and 
linseed oil, and requires well beating to- 
gether) for cementing articles likely to 
be exposed to dampness. Strips of cloth 



(Photographic Mountants) 

especially if 10 gr. of finely powdered 
bichromate of potash be stirred into each 
ounce just before use. 

The desirability of employing Nos. 6 
and 7 as mountants for silver prints is 
open to doubt, although these are excel- 
lent for cementing all such ordinary ma- 
terials as come under the denomination 
of stationery. 

We thus have left adhesives Nos. 1, 2, 
3, 4, 5 and 9 as quite safe for silver 
prints if good materials are used, and do 
not become decomposed subsequently. Gel- 
atinous mountants made with a consider- 
able proportion of alcohol, like No. 1 or 
No. 10, have the advantage of not con- 
siderably stretching either mount or print, 
and are especially useful when prints 
(whether silver or Woodbury type) have 
to be mounted on thin card, as book il- 
lustrations. In the case of Nos. 2 and 3 
the alcohol is used mainly as an antisep- 
tic, and is not present in sufficient quan- 
tity to have much influence as a prevent- 
ive of stretching or cockling. The sim- 
ple starch paste, No. 4, is not satisfac- 
tory in all instances, owing to want of 
sufficient adhesion, in which case it is an 
excellent plan to adopt No. 5, in which 
starch and gelatine are used together. 

13. — The following has been suggested 
as a very desirable substitute for the ordi- 
nary pastes used for mounting photo 
prints. It is said that it can be used so 
as to scarcely swell the paper at all, 
avoiding the objectionable cockling so 
much complained of : Thick, well boiled 
clear starch (corn) paste, 1 lb.; glucose 
syrup ("A" clear), 7 oz. ; white curd 
soap, % oz. ; flowered dextrine, 5 oz. ; bo- 
rax, % oz. ; clove oil, a few drops. All 
are heated over the water bath, and 
thinned down to the proper consistency 
(if thin paste is required) with fresh 
skim milk. It is advisable to use the 
paste warm and as thick as possible. 

14. — The following is a satisfactory 
mountant for all kinds of prints : White 
dextrine, 75 grams ; powdered alum, 4 
grams ; white sugar, 15 grams ; distilled 
water, 120 c. c. Dissolve by heat, and 
when cool add alcohol sol. thymol (10%), 
6 c. c. 

15. — Soft gelatine, 40 grams ; distilled 
water, 120 c. c. ; allow to soak for 24 
hours, and add chloral hydrate, 20 grams. 
Heat on a water bath till liquid, or for 
about an hour, and then neutralize with 
a few drops of solution of carbonate of 
soda. 

16. — Pastes that liquefy on working up 



used to make the developing room light- or heating usually consist of a jelly o"f 
tight may well be cemented with No. 8, ' isinglass or refined gelatine. The most 



[332] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc, 



(Photographic Mountants) 

satisfactory paste for use as a photo- 
graph mountant has the following com- 
position : White dextrine, 8 oz. ; water, 
heated to about 160° F., I21/2 fl.oz. ; oil 
of wintergreen, 3 drops ; oil of cloves, 3 
drops. Dissolve the dextrine in hot water 
by stirring, when cool add the oils, and 
stir until a smooth cream results. Pour 
the paste into suitable vessels — glass, 
wide-mouthed bottles, or porcelain jars — 
cork, and place in a cool place for about 
a week to allow the paste to congeal and 
ripen. 

17. — Powdered starch, 3% oz. ; gelatine, 
2 dr. ; alcohol, 2 oz, ; solution of formal- 
dehyde (40%), 1 dr.; water, 30 oz. Soak 
and dissolve the gelatine in the water, 
heat to boiling, and pouf, with constant 
stirring, on to the starch, previously mixed 
to a cream with a little cold water. When 
nearly cold add to the paste the formalde- 
hyde solution. We think it likely that 
these pastes will be less adhesive than one 
made from flour, but, on the other hand, 
they probably have the advantage of be- 
ing whiter, if very white gelatine be em- 
ployed. 

18. — 1^ on-Buckling Photographic Moun- 
tant. — To prevent buckling when a print 
is mounted upon a thin support, the Pro- 
fessional and Amateur Photographer sug- 
gests the use of the following adhesive : 

(a) White shellac, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 2 oz. 

(b) Mastic, dissolved in a little chloro- 
form. Add a small proportion of (a) 
to (b) and apply to the print; allow it 
to "set" until it becomes a trifle "sticky," 
then place the print on the mount, and 
press. 

19. — Photographs on Glass. — a. — White 
gum acacia, Vz oz. ; dextrine, 2% oz. ; 
liquid ammonia, 4 drops ; water, 8 oz. 
Crush the gum acacia to a powder in a 
mortar, mix in the dextrine, and then rub 
with 2 oz. of the water until smooth ; add 
the remaining water and boil in an enam- 
eled saucepan for 10 minutes. When 
cold put into any suitable wide-mouthed 
bottle and add the ammonia. This 
mountant is said to be smooth as oil, easy 
to prepare, does not thicken, and will 
stick like glue. 

b. — According to the WerJcstatt, clean 
the inner hollow side of the glass thor- 
oughly, pour on gelatine dissolved in boil- 
ing water, lay the picture on, and pour 
on gelatine again, so that everything 
swims. Then neatly remove what is su- 
perfluous, so that no blisters result, and 
allow to dry. The following recipe is 
said to be still better: Gelatine, by 
weight, 16 parts; glycerine, by weight, 1 
part; water,- by. weight, 32 parts.; methyl- 



( Waterproof Adhesives) 



ic alcohol, by weight, 12 parts. The 
mixture is prepared by causing the gela- 
tine to swell up in water, then dissolv- 
ing it with the use of moderate heat, add- 
ing the glycerine, stirring thoroughly, and 
pouring the whole, in a thin stream, into 
the alcohol. 

20. — Transparent Glue for glass, or 
glass paperweights, so that the photo- 
graphs will show clearly through the 
glass, a. — White gelatine, 5 av.oz. ; acetic 
acid, 5 fl.oz. ; water, sufiicient. Macerate 
the gelatine, which should be of the best 
quality, white and perfectly transparent, 
in 6 fl.oz. of water for 12 hours ; heat 
the mixture on a water bath until the 
gelatine is dissolved ; add to it the acetic 
acid, and then enough water to make 16 
fl.oz. 

b. — White gelatine, 4 av.oz. ; white 
sugar, 2 av.oz. ; water, sufficient. Macer- 
ate the gelatine with 10 fl.oz. of water 
overnight ; heat the mixture until the gel- 
atine is dissolved ; add the sugar ; strain 
through a muslin strainer, and add enough 
water to make 16 fl.oz. 



WATERPROOF ADHESIVES. 
Cements. 

1. — Soak pure glue in water until it is 
soft, then dissolve it in the smallest pos- 
sible amount of proof spirits by the aid 
of gentle heat. In 2 oz. of this mixture 
dissolve 10 grams of gum ammoniacum, 
and while still liquid add i/^ dr. of mastic, 
dissolved in 3 dr. of rectified spirits. Stir 
well, and for use keep the cement lique- 
fied in a covered vessel over a hot-water 
bath. 

2. — A good waterproof cement may be 
made by mixing 5 parts of glue, 4 parts 
of rosin and 3 parts of red ocher with a 
little water. 

3. — Shellac, 4 oz. ; borax, 1 oz. ; boil in 
a little water until dissolved, and concen- 
trate by heat to a paste. 

4. — Carbon bisulphide, 10 parts, and 
oil of turpentine, 1 part, are mixed, and 
as much gutta percha is added as will 
readily dissolve. 

5. — Tar, 1 part ; tallow, 1 part ; fine 
brick dust, 1 part ; the latter is warmed 
over a very gentle fire ; the tallow is add- 
ed, then the brick dust, and the whole 
is thoroughly mixed. It must be applied 
while hot. 

6. — Good gray clay, 4 parts ; black ox- 
ide of manganese, 6 parts ; limestone, re- 
duced to powder by sprinkling it with 
water, 90 parts; mixed, calcined, and 
powdered, 



.133,3] 



CementSy Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Waterproof Adhesives) 



7. — Manganese iron ore, 15 parts ; lime, 
85 parts ; calcined and powdered. 

Both 6 and 7 require to be mixed with 
a little sand for use ; thrown into water, 
they harden rapidly. 

8. — Fine, clean sand, 1 cwt. ; powdered 
quicklime, 28 lb. ; bone ash, 14 lb. Beaten 
up with water for use. 

9. — Quicklime, 5 parts ; fresh cheese, 6 
parts ; water, 1 part. The lime is slaked 
by sprinkling with the water ; thereupon 
it is passed through a sieve, and the fresh 
cheese is added. The latter is prepared 
by curdling milk with a little vinegar and 
removing the whey. The cement thus 
formed is very strong, but it requires to 
be applied immediately, as it sets very 
quickly. 

10. — Fresh curd, as before, 1 part; 
quicklime, 1 part ; Roman cement, 3 
parts. Used for joining stone, metals, 
wood, etc. 

11. — A paste composed of hydraulic 
lime and soluble glass. 

12. — Glue, 1 part ; black rosin, 1 part ; 
red ocher, ^ part ; mixed with least pos- 
sible quantity of water. 

13. — Glue, 4 parts ; boiled oil, by 
weight, 1 part ; oxide of iron, 1 part. 

14. — Mix a handful of quicklime with 
4 oz. of linseed oil; thoroughly lixiviate 
the mixture, boil it to a good thickness, 
and spread it on the plates, in the shade. 
It will become very hard, but it can be 
dissolved over a fire, like common glue, 
and is then fit for use. 

15. — Bichromate of potash, by weight, 
8 parts ; gelatine size, by weight, 11 
parts ; alum, by weight, 1 part. Dissolve 
the gelatine in a little water, then add 
the bichromate of potash and the alum. 
This glue or cement resists water at all 
temperatures. 

16. — A cement to stop cracks in glass 
vessels, to resist moisture and heat, is 
made by dissolving casein in a cold satu- 
rated solution of borax. With this solu- 
tion paste strips of hog's or bullock's 
bladder, softened in water, on the cracks 
of glass, and dry at a gentle heat. If 
the vessel is to be heated, coat the blad- 
der on the outside, just before it has 
become quite dry, with a paste of a 
rather concentrated solution of soda and 
quicklime or plaster of paris. 

17. — A very valuable cement has been 
discovered by Mr. A. C. Fox, of which 
details are published in Dingler's Poly- 
technisches Journal. It consists of a 
chromium preparation and isinglass, and 
forms a solid cement, which is not only 
insoluble in hot and cold water, but even 
in steam, while neither acids oor alkalies 

[ 



(Waterproof Adhesives) 



have any action upon it. The chromium 
preparation and the isinglass or gelatine 
do not come into contact until the cement 
is desired, and when applied to adhesive 
envelopes, for which the author holds it 
to be especially adapted, the one mate- 
rial is put on the envelope covered by 
the flap (and, therefore, not touched by 
the tongue), while the isinglass, dissolved 
in acetic acid, is applied under the flap. 
The chromium preparation is made by 
dissolving crystallized chromic acid in 
water. Take crystallized chromic acid, 
2.5 grams ; water, 15 grams ; ammonia, 
15 grams. To this solution add 10 drops 
of sulphuric acid and 30 grams of sul- 
phate of ammonia and 4 grams of fine 
white paper. In the case of envelopes, 
this is applied to that portion lying under 
the flap, while a solution prepared by dis- 
solving isinglass in dilute acetic acid (1 
part acid to 7 parts water) is applied to 
the flap of the envelope. The latter is 
moistened, and then i^ pressed down upon 
the chromic preparation, when the two 
unite, forming a firm and insoluble 
cement. 

18. — Glass, Stoneware and Metal. — a. — 
Make a paste of sulphur and sal am- 
moniac, iron filings and boiled oil. 

b. — Mix together dry : Whiting, 6 lb. ; 
plaster of paris, 3 lb. ; sand, 3 lb. ; lith- 
arge, 3 lb. ; rosin, 1 lb. Make to a paste 
with copal varnish. 

c. — Make a paste of boiled oil, 6 lb. ; 
copal, 6 lb. ; litharge, 2 lb. ; white lead, 
1 lb. 

d. — Make a paste with boiled oil, 3 lb. ; 
brick dust, 2 lb. ; dry slaked lime, 1 lb. 

e. — Dissolve 93 oz. of alum and 93 oz. 
of sugar of lead in water to concentra- 
tion. Dissolve separately 152 oz. of gum 
arable in 25 gal. of water, and then stir 
in 621/^ lb. of flour. Then heat to a uni- 
form paste with the metallic salts, but 
take care not to boil the mass. 

f. — For iron and marble to stand in 
heat. — In 3 lb. of water dissolve first 1 
lb. of water glass, and then 1 lb. of borax. 
With the solution make 2 lb. of clay and 
1 lb. of barytes, first mixed dry, to a 
paste. 

19. — Impervious Cement. — Use zinc 
white, rubbed up with copal varnish. 

20. — Water, Acid, Oil Resisting. — Sim- 
ple shellac, made into sticks of the size 
of a lead pencil. The objects to be ce- 
mented are first warmed till they melt 
the shellac brought in contact with them. 
This is very good to cement broken glass, 
porcelain, etc.. especially as the objects 
are again ready for use immediately when 
cold ; but it is not adapted for flexible 
334] 



Cements, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Waterproof Adhesives) 



objects, as it cracks, and also will not 
withstand heat or alcohol. 

21. — WMte-Lead Cement, Withstanding 
Heat and Moisture. — Pure white lead, or 
zinc white, ground in oil, and used very 
thick, is an excellent cement for mend- 
ing broken crockery ware, but it takes 
a very long time to harden. It is well 
to put the mended object in some store- 
room, and not to look after it for sev- 
eral weeks, or even months. It will then 
be found so firmly united that, if ever 
again broken, it will not part on the line 
of the former fracture. 

Glues. 

. 1. — Glue, 1 part ; black rosin, 1 part ; 
red ocher, % part ; mix with the least 
possible fiuantity of water. Or : Glue, 
4 parts ; boiled oil, by weight, 1 part ; 
oxide of iron, 1 part. 

2.— Glue, 1 lb., melted with the least 
quantity of water, and then mixed with 
black rosin, 1 lb., and red ocher, 4 oz. 

3. — Glue, melted as above, and mixed 
with about i/4 of its weight each of boiled 
oil and red ocher. 

4. — JJre. — Melted glue (of the consist- 
ency used by carpenters), 8 parts ; linseed 
oil, boiled to varnish, with litharge, 4 
parts ; incorporate thoroughly together. 

5. — Glue (melted as last), 4 parts; 
Venice turpentine, 1 part. 

The first three dry in about 48 hours, 
and are very useful to render the joints of 
wooden casks, cisterns, etc., watertight ; 
also to fix stones in frames. The last 
serves to cement glass, wood, and even 
metal, to each other. A good cement for 
fixing wood to glass may be made by dis- 
solving isinglass in acetic acid, in such 
quantities that it becomes solid when cold. 
When applied let it be heated. They all 
resist moisture well. 

6. — Dissolve 16 oz. of glue in 3 pt. of 
skim milk. If a still stronger glue be 
wanted, add powdered lime. 

7. — Dissolve sandarac and mastic, of 
each 231 gr.,. in 1 pt. of alcohol mixed 
with 231 gr. of turpentine, and heated 
to boiling. Add the solution gradually to 
a hot concentrated solution of equal parts 
of glue and isinglass, stirring meanwhile, 
and until a thin paste is formed that can 
be filtered and used like ordinary glue. 

8. — Glue may be rendered insoluble by 
tannic acid dissolved in a small quantity 
of soft water. 

9. — In order to render glue insoluble 
in water, even hot water, it is only neces- 
sary, when dissolving the glue for use, 
to add a little potassium bichromate to 
the water and to expose the glued part 



(Waterproof Adhesives) 



to the light. The proportion of potas- 
sium bichromate will vary with circum- 
stances, but for most purposes about 1-.50 
of the amount of glue used will suffice. 
In other words, glue containing potas- 
sium bichromate, when exposed to the 
light, becomes insoluble. 

10. — To make an impermeable glue, 
soak ordinary glue in water until it soft- 
ens, and remove it before it has lost its 
primitive form. After this dissolve it in 
linseed oil over a slow fire until it is 
brought to the consistency of a jelly. This 
glue may be used for joining any kinds 
of material. In addition to strength and 
hardness, it has the advantage of resist- 
ing the action of water. — Revue Indus- 
trielle. 

11. — Cardboard. — Melt together equal 
parts of good pitch and gutta percha ; of 
this take 9 parts, and add to it 3 parts 
of boiled linseed oil and IV^ parts of 
litharge. Place this over the fire and 
stir till all the ingredients are intimately 
mixed. It may be diluted with a little 
benzine or oil of turpentine, and must be 
warm when used. 

12. — Fire and Waterproof Glue. — a. — 
Mix a handful of quicklime with 4 oz. 
of linseed oil ; thoroughly lixiviate the 
mixture. Boil until quite thick, and 
spread on tin plates. It will become very 
hard, but can be dissolved over a fire like 
common glue. 

b. — Mix a handful of quicklime in % 
lb. of linseed oil ; boil them to a good 
thickness, and then spread it on a slab 
to cool. 

13. — Wood. — a. — Very thick solution of 
glue, 100 parts ; linseed-oil varnish, 50 
parts ; litharge, 10 parts. Boil for 10 
minutes, and use while hot. 

b. — There is no glue for wood which 
must be kept in contact with water that 
is better than -bichromated glue. Allow it 
to harden thoroughly. 

c. — Liquid glue for wood and iron is 
made, according to Hesz, as follows : 
Clear gelatine, 100 parts ; cabinetmakers' 
glue, 100 parts ; alcohol, 25 parts : alum, 
2 parts ; the whole mixed with 200 parts 
of 20% acetic acid and heated in a water 
bath for 6 hours. 

d. — An ordinary glue for wood and iron 
is made by boiling together for several 
hours 100 parts glue, 260 parts water, and 
16 parts nitric acid. 

e. — Waterproof glue may be made by 
boiling 1 lb. of common glue in 2 qt. of 
skim milk. This withstands the action 
of the weather. 

f. — Glue, 12 parts ; water, q. s. to dis- 
solve ; add yellow rosin, 3 parts, and when 
35] 



Ceinents, Glues, Pastes, Etc. 



(Waterproof Adhesives) 



melted, turpentine, 4 parts ; mix thor- 
oughly together in a water bath. 

g. — Glue Which Stands Moisture With- 
out Softening. — Dissolve in 8 ti.oz. of 
strong methylated spirit, % oz. each of 
sandarac and mastic ; next add y^ oz. of 
turpentine. This solution is then added 
to a hot, thick solution of glue to which 
isinglass has been added, and is next fil- 
tered, while hot, through cloth or a sieve. 

Paste. 

1. — The following formula is intended 
to resist water, cold or hot, and is also 
unaffected by alcohol or acids : Chromic 
acid, 2^ parts ; stronger ammonia, 15 
parts ; sulphuric acid, % part ; cupram- 
monium solution, 30 parts ; fine white 
paper, 4 parts. 

2. — Isinglass, a sufficient quantity ; 
acetic acid, 1 part; water, 7 parts. Dis- 
solve sufiicient isinglass in the mixture 
of acetic acid and water to make a thin 
mucilage. One of the solutions is ap- 
plied to the surface of one sheet of pa- 
per and the other to the other sheet, and 
they are then pressed together. 



(Waterproof Adhesives) 



3. — Prepare a paste of good rye flour 
and glue, to which linseed-oil varnish and 
turpentine have been added in the propor- 
tion of ^ oz. each to the pound. 

Putty. 

Cement for petroleum lamps, panes in 
aquariums, knife handles that have be- 
come loose, as well as for any other water- 
proof closure, is produced from litharge 
and glycerine. The former must be as 
finely powdered as possible, and the glyc- 
erine very condensed, of a syrupy con- 
sistency, and limpid. Mix the two in- 
gredients into a semi-liquid paste, coat 
the places, or pour the tough mass into 
the respective cavity, and press into it the 
part to be cemented on, such as a knife 
blade or petroleum fount. The surplus 
oozing out must be removed at once and 
the place cleaned, as the putty hardens 
very rapidly. For the .same reason it 
is advisable to preserve the ingredients 
separately and to mix no more of the. ma- 
terial than is required at the time. No 
subsequent loosening or giving need be 
feared ; this cement has the advantage of 
great simplicity. 



[336] 



CHAPTEE YII 



CLEAlS^SIlSrG, BLEACHING, EE^OYATIl^G 
Al^D PEOTECTI^G 



This section deals with the removal of 
spots and stains on fabrics, leather, straw, 
paper, paint, walls, stone, metal, rust pre- 
vention and removal, etc. The scope of 
the subject is very wide, and deals with 
many household troubles and labors, such 
as laundry work.. 

The arrangement is alphabetical, but 
as it was frequently necessary to choose 
between the name of a fabric, for instance, 
and the name of a stain, or a cleansing 
agent that was not limited in usefulness, 
it will be necessary to consult the Index 
for references to necessarily scattered for- 
mulas.* 

The folic ving books are recommended 
for technical and detailed information on 
this subject : Pawlie, "Practical Hand- 
book of Garment Dyeing and Cleaning," 
$3.75 ; Farrell, "Dyeing and Cleaning, a 
Practical Handbook," $1.75; Brannt, 
"Practical Dry Cleaner, Scourer and Gar- 
ment Dyer," $2.50. 

Acid Stains. 

1. — Chloroform will restore the color 
of garments where the same has been de- 
stroyed by acids. See No. 2. 

2. — When acid has accidentally or oth- 
erwise destroyed or changed the color of 
the fabric, ammonia should be applied to 
neutralize the acid. A subsequent appli- 
cation of chloroform restores the original 
color. 

3. — Spots produced by hydrochloric or 
sulphuric acid can be removed by the ap- 
plication of concentrated ammonia, while 
spots from nitric acid can scarcely be ob- 
literated. 

4. — Acids, Vinegar, Sour Wine, Must, 
Sour Fruits. — White goods, simple wash- 
ing, followed up by chlorine water if a 
fruit color accompanies the acid. Colored 

*Dry cleaning is not treated in this 
book, as it requires special machinery and 
methods, as well as great technical skill. 



cottons, woolens and silks are very care- 
fully moistened with dilute ammonia with 
the finger end. In the case of delicate 
colors it will be found preferable to make 
. some prepared chalk into a thin paste 
with water, and apply it to the spots. 

5. — Picric Acid Spots. — Removal from 
the hands or linen is, according to Prieur, 
effected by rubbing them with a paste of 
lithium carbonate and water. 

Alabaster. 

1. — The best method of cleaning these 
ornaments is to immerse them for some 
time in milk of lime, and then wash in 
clean water, and when dry dust them 
with a little French chalk. Milk of lime 
is made by mixing a little slaked lime in 
water. This has a "milky" appearance, 
whence its name. Benzol or pure oil of 
turpentine are very highly recommended. 

2. — Use soap and water, with a little 
washing soda or ammonia, if necessary. 
Rinse it thoroughly. 

Alizarine Inks. 

White goods, tartaric acid, the more 
concentrated the older are the spots. On 
colored cottons and woolens, and on silks, 
dilute tartaric acid is applied cautiously. 

Alkali Stains. 

1. — A mixture of acetic acid, diluted 
with a large quantity of water, will re- 
move stains brought by soda, soap, boil- 
ers, lye, etc., if the solution is readily 
applied. 

2. — On white goods, simple washing in 
water. On dyed tissues of cotton and 
wool, and on silk, weak nitric acid, poured 
drop by drop, and rub with the finger the 
spot previously moistened. 

Aluminum. 

Cleansing Fluid. — A solution of 30 
grams of borax in 1 1. of water contain- 
ing a few drops of aqua ammonia. 



Always consult the Index when using this bool(. 

[337] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Ammonia) 



Discoloration, Removing. — It is neces- 
sary simply to remove the foreign mat- 
ter, and, fortunately, this can be very 
easily done. One way is to boil green 
fruits, particularly rhubarb, in a ves- 
sel. Another is to allow an oxalic acid 
solution — 1 heaping teaspoonful of ox- 
alic acid crystals to 1 gal. of lukewarm 
water — to stand in it overnight ; then 
wash out the utensil thoroughly with clear 
hot water, rinse, and use as accustomed. 
But more to the point is the fact that, 
although a discolored utensil is unsightly 
in appearance, there is no danger what- 
ever in using it. In other words, the 
impurities form no poisonous compound 
with the aluminum. 

Polish. — 1. — Aluminum is susceptible 
of taking a beautiful polish. This, un- 
fortunately, is not white, like that of sil- 
ver or nickel, but slightly bluish, like 
tin. The shade can be improved. First, 
the grease is to be removed from the ob- 
ject with pumice stone ; then, for polish- 
ing, use is made of an emery paste min- 
gled with tallow, forming cakes, which 
are rubbed on the polishing brushes. Fi- 
nally, red rouge is employed with oil of 
turpentine. 

2. — Stearic acid, 1 part ; fuller's earth, 

1 part ; tripoli, 6 parts. To give the 
aluminum a natural, pure white color, 
dip it into a strong solution of caustic 
soda or potassa, and then into a bath of 

2 parts of nitric acid and 1 part of sul- 
phuric acid ; thence into pure nitric acid, 
and finally into vinegar diluted with 
water. Rinse in running water, and dry 
in hot sawdust. Burnish with a blood- 
stone burnisher. 



Ammonia. (For toilet ammonia see Toi- 
let Pkepakations.) 

Various formulas for household am- 
monia and kindred preparations have 
been published from time to time. House- 
hold ammonia is simply diluted ammonia 
water to which borax and soap have been 
added. To make it cloudy add potassium 
nitrate or alcohol. 

1. — Soft soap, 1 oz. ; borax, 2 dr. ; eau 
de cologne, % oz. ; stronger water of am- 
monia, 5^ oz. ; water enough to make 
12 oz. Rub up soap and borax with 
water until dissolved, strain, and add the 
other ingredients. 

2, — Sodium carbonate, 20 oz. ; water 
of ammonia, 48 oz. ; water, 32 oz. 
Mix. Allow to stand 2 or 3 days, and 
then decant the clear solution, and bottle. 

3.- — The following formulas yield a 

[ 



(Ammonia) 



cloudy preparation: Potassium carbon- 
ate, 1 part; borax, 1 part; green soap, 
lYz parts ; strong water of ammonia, 4 
parts ; distilled water, 8 parts. Heat the 
water and dissolve in it the soap and po- 
tassium carbonate ; then add the borax, 
and, when cold, the stronger water of am- 
monia. The preparation may be perfumed 
with the oil of mirbane. 

4. — Ammonia water, 1 gal. ; soft water, 
8 gal. ; yellow soap, 4 lb. ; saltpeter, 8 
oz. Cut the yellow soap in shavings, and 
dissolve in soft water by heating ; add 
the saltpeter, and stir well until dissolved ; 
strain, let settle, skim ofE all soap suds, 
etc., add the ammonia, and bottle at once. 

5. — Perfumed ammonia scouring water 
is prepared by mixing spirits of sal am- 
moniac, 160 parts ; finely scraped soap, 
30 parts ; borax, 10 parts ; cologne water, 
15 parts ; distilled water, enough to make 
460 parts of liquid. 

6. — Yellow soap, 10 grains ; borax, 1 
dr. ; lavender water, 20 minims ; stronger 
ammonia water, 6 oz. ; water enough to 
make 20 oz. Dissolve the soap and borax 
in 5 oz. of boiling water ; when cold, add 
the lavender water and ammonia, and 
make up to a pint with water. 

7. — Alcohol, 1 gal. ; soft vrater, 1 gal. ;. 
stronger ammonia water, 1 gal. 

8. — Ammonia water, 5 pt. ; distilled 
water, 5 pt. ; soap, 100 gr. ; olive oil, 5 
dr. Cut the soap in shavings, boil with 
the oil and water, cool, add the ammonia 
water, and bottle. For use in laundries, 
baths and general household purposes, add 
1 tablespoonful to 1 gal. of water. 

9. — Oleic acid, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 1 oz. ; 
ammonia water, 7 oz. ; water to make 1 
pt. 

10. — Soap, in shavings, 2 oz. ; potash 
lye, 1 oz. ; ammonia water, 2 pt. A lit- 
tle alcohol is sometimes added to make 
the mixture clear. 

] 1. — Ammonia water, 16 parts ; yellow 
soap, 64 parts ; potassium nitrate, 1 part ; 
soft water, sufficient to make 200 parts. 
Shave up the soap and dissolve it in the 
water by heating ; add the potassium ni- 
trate, and dissolve. Let it cool, strain, 
skim off any suds or bubbles, add the am- 
monia, mix, and bottle at once. 

12.— The best quality: Alcohol, 94%, 
4 oz. ; soft water, 4 gal. ; oil of rosemary, 
4 dr. ; oil of citronella, 3 dr. Dissolve 
the oils in the alcohol and add to the 
water. To the mixture add 4 oz. of talc 
(or fuller's earth will answer), mix thor- 
oughly, strain through canvas, and to 
the colate add 1, 2 or 3 gal. of ammonia 
water, according to the strength desired, 
338] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Animals, Stuffed) 



in which has been dissolved 1, 2 or 3 oz. 
of white curd or soft soap. 

13. — "Ivory" soap (or other good white 
soap ) , 4 oz. ; rain water, 4 pt. ; 16° am- 
monia water, 4 pt. Cut or shave the soap 
fine and dissolve it in the water by the 
aid of heat ; thea cool, and add the am- 
monia. If other strength of ammonia 
water" is used, make it correspond with 
the 16° ; for example, if the U. S. 10° is 
used, take only 2 pt. of water instead of 
4 pt., and use 6 pt. of ammonia water ; 
if 20° ammonia is used, use 5 pt. of water 
and 3 pt. of ammonia water. This is 
sometimes called "white ammonia." 

14. — Potassium carbonate, 1 oz. ; rain 
water, 4 pt. ; ammonia water, 4 pt. Dis- 
solve the potassium carbonate (sal tar- 
tar) in the water and add the ammonia 
water. 

Aniline Stains. 

Sodium nitrate, 7 gr. ; diluted sulphuric 
acid, 15 gr. ; water, 1 oz. Let the mix- 
ture stand a day or two before using. 
Apply to the spot with a sponge, and 
rinse the goods with plenty of water. 

Animal Fibers, Bleaching. 

The material, freed from sweat, fat, 
gum, etc., is placed in a bath in which 
a little finely ground indigo (% part to 
1 part in 100,000 parts of water) is sus- 
pended. Then the spun fibers are placed 
from 24 to 48 hours in an aqueous solu- 
tion of hydrosulphite of sodium, to which 
acetic acid has been added. To each 
1,000 parts of the 1 to 4° B. solution 
take 5 to 20 parts of 50% acetic acid, 
expose to air, then wash, first in a weak 
soda solution, then in clear water, and 
finally dry at 86 to 95° F. 

Animal Glue, Bleaching. (Muzzarelli.) 
Add to fine white glue prepared from 
rabbit skins, for dressing white tissues, 
a small quantity of sulphate of soda, and 
mix well ; acetate of lead is then added, 
whereby a precipitate of sulphate of lead 
is occasioned ; the resulting jelly is thus 
blanched, and, after cooling, is cut up 
and dried as usual. 

Animals, Stuffed. 

Give the animal a good brushing with a 
stiff clothes brush. After this warm a 
quantity of new bran in a pan, taking 
care it does not burn, to prevent which 
quickly stir it. When warm, rub it well 
into the fur with your hand. Repeat this 
a few times, then rid the fur of the bran, 
and give it another sharp brushing until 
free from dust. 



(Benzine and Gasoline) 



Balances. 

Equal parts of oleic acid, water of am- 
monia and absolute alcohol are mixed, 
and filtered after settling. The articles 
to be cleaned are rubbed with the mix- 
ture by means of a cloth, and polished 
with a little powdered tripoli. 

Barometer Tubes. 

Try a small quantity of warm nitric 
acid. Then rinse with water, rinse with 
absolute alcohol, and finally with ether ; 
warm to expel the vapor of ether. 

Beeswax, To Bleach. 

Pure white wax is obtained from the 
ordinary beeswax by exposure to the in- 
fluence of the sun and weather. The 
wax is sliced into thin flakes and laid 
on sacking or coarse cloth, stretched on 
frames, resting on posts to raise them 
from the ground. The wax is turned over 
frequently, and occasionally sprinkled 
with soft water if there be not dew and 
rain sufficient to moisten it. The wax 
should be bleached in about 4 weeks. If, 
on breaking the flakes, the wax still ap- 
pears yellow inside, it is necessary to 
melt it again, and flake and expose it 
a second time, or even oftener, before it 
becomes thoroughly bleached, the time re- 
quired being mainly dependent upon the 
weather. There is a preliminary process, 
by which, it is claimed, much time is 
saved in the subsequent bleaching. This 
consists in passing melted wax and steam 
through long pipes, so as to expose the 
wax as much as possible to the action 
of the steam ; thence into a pan heated 
by a steam bath, where it is stirred thor- 
oughly with water, and then allowed to 
settle. The whole operation is repeated 
a second and third time, and the wax is 
then in condition to be more readily 
bleached. 

Benzine and Gasoline Preparations. 

In handling benzine and gasoline, and 
products into which they enter, their 
great inflammability should never be lost 
sight of. 

1. — The following is said to be the com- 
position of a preparation that will solidify 
benzine : Cocoanut-oil soap, 2 oz. ; solu- 
tion of potassium hydroxide, 1^ oz. ; am- 
monia water, 3 oz. ; water, enough to 
make 12 oz. Dissolve the soap in about 
4 oz. of hot water, add the alkalis and the 
remainder of the water. If the benzine 
be added in small portions, with thorough 
agitation, 2^2 oz. of this mixture will 
solidify 32 oz. of benzine. 



[339] 



Cleansing, Bleaching^ Etc. 



(Benzine and Gasoline) 



2. — Stronger ammonia water, 20 parts ; 
tincture of qiiillaya (20%), 30 parts; 
ether, 30 parts ; benzine, 150 parts ; alco- 
liol, 500 parts. 

3. — a. — Solidified gasoline or benzine 
jelly may be made as follows : Tincture 
of soap bark, 12 fl.dr. ; benzine to make 
8 fl.oz. Mix, and shake for l^ hour, then 
allow to stand 12 hours to solidify, 

b. — Infusion of soap bark (20%), 4 
fl.dr. ; benzine, 2 fl.oz. ; proceed as above. 

c. — White soap, 120 grams, dissolved 
in 180 grams of hot water in a liter bot- 
tle, and 30 grams of ammonia added. The 
solution is then made up to % of the bot- 
tle by water, and shaken up. A tea- 
spoonful of this mixture is placed in a 
bottle holding 250 grams, and mixed 
therein with some benzine, and afterward 
the bottle is filled with benzine under 
protracted shaking. 

4. — White Castile soap, 3I/2 av.oz. ; 
boiling water, 3^^ fl.oz. ; water of am- 
monia, 5 fl.dr. ; benzine, enough to make 
16 fl.oz. Dissolve the soap in the water, 
and, when cold, add the other ingredi- 
ents. 

5. — Incomhustihie Benzines and Ethers. 
a. — For rendering ethers and benzines in- 
combustible a method is to add carbon 
tetrachloride in suitable proportions. This 
is a slightly volatile body, which can be 
dissolved cold in ethers, alcohols, and other 
products. For benzine, absolute incom- 
bustibility is said to be secured with 25 
or 30% of the tetrachloride. The result 
of numerous experiments shows that ig- 
nited benzine is extinguished if carbon 
tetrachloride is poured on the flames ; it 
acts by solution in the benzine, and there 
is, therefore, the possibility of using the 
tetrachloride as an extinguisher of fire. 
For this purpose it may be either en- 
closed in grenades of thin glass, to be 
thrown on the fire, or, as in the Decrut 
method, directly projected by means of a 
pump. This is the composition of a much 
advertised cleaning medium which has a 
very extensive sale. 

b. — Rosin soap, 1 lb. ; common white 
soap, 1 lb. ; potassium hydroxide, 3 oz. ; 
alcohol, 8 oz. ; carbon tetrachloride, 5 pt. ; 
enough water. Melt the soaps together 
on a water bath, adding them a little 
water from time to time as required. Dis- 
solve the potassium hydroxide in the alco- 
hol, add to this solution 1% pt. of carbon 
tetrachloride and incorporate the liquid in 
the soap mass, beating the whole with an 
egg beater. Transfer the pasty mass to a 
suitable bottle, add the rest of the carbon 
tetrachloride and mix the whole by agita- 
tion. The compound should at once be 



(Blankets) 



transferred to wide-mouthed bottles of the 
size desired for the market and these im- 
mediately corked tightly. Sometimes a 
portion of the carbon tetrachloride sepa- 
rates from the "cream" on standing, but 
it can be reincorporated quite easily by 
shaking before using. 

Birds. (See Feathers and Birds.) 

Black Cloth. 

Dissolve 1 oz. of bicarbonate of am- 
monia in 1 qt. of warm water. With 
this liquid rub the cloth, using a piece 
of flannel or black cloth for the purpose. 
After the application of this solution 
clean the cloth well with clear water, dry, 
and iron it, brushing the cloth from time 
to time in the direction of the fiber. 

Blackboards, To Remove Grease from. 

Make a strong lye of pearlaslies and 
soft water, and add as much unslaked 
lime as it will take up. Stir it together 
and let it settle a few minutes ; bottle it, 
and stopper close. Have ready some 
water to dilute it when used, and scour 
the part with it. The liquor must not 
remain long on the board, as it will draw 
the color with it. Hence use it with care 
and expedition. 

Blankets. 

1. — Put 2 large tablespoonfuls of borax 
and 1 pt. of soft soap into a tub of cold 
water. When dissolved put in a pair of 
blankets and let them remain overnight. 
Next day rub, and drain them out, and 
rinse thoroughly in two waters, and hang 
them up to dry. Do not wring them. 

2. — Scrape 1 lb. of soda soap and boil 
it down in sufiicient water so that when 
cooling you can beat it with the hand to 
make a sort of jelly. Add 3 tablespoon- 
fuls of spirit of turpentine and 1 table- 
spoonful of spirit of hartshorn, and with 
this wash the article well and rinse in 
cold water until ail the soap is taken off. 
Then apply salt and water, and fold be- 
tween two sheets, taking care not to 
allow two folds of the article washed to 
tie together. Smooth with a cool iron. 
Only use the salt where there are deli- 
cate* colors that may run. If you can 
get potash soap, it will be better, as 
woolen manufacturers do not use soda 
soap. 

3. — Put the soiled blankets to soak for 
15 minutes in plain soft warm water. 
Prepare a soft jelly with first-class laun- 
dry soap and boiling water, 1 lb. of soap 
for every blanket. Pour this into a tub 
of warm water, let it melt, and lather 
it up well with the hand. Wring the 



[340] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Bleaching) 



blankets from the soaking tub, and throw 
them into the lather ; stir them about, 
and leave to soak for 10 minutes ; then 
hand-rub every inch of the blankets, pay- 
ing especial attention to stains. Take 
them out and wring, then rinse in warm 
water twice. Dry well, but do not ex- 
pose them to great heat. When dry, 
stretch them in every direction, and rub 
all over with a piece of clean rough flan- 
nel. This makes them fluffy and soft. 
If very dirty, a little borax may be added 
to the water, but no soda or bleaching 
powder should ever be used. 

Bleaching. 

1. — Bleaching Powder, or Chloride of 
Lime, is prepared by passing chlorine gas 
into boxes of lead in which a quantity 
of slaked lime is laid on shelves. The 
stuff to be bleached is first boiled in lime 
water ; wash, and, without drying, boil 
again in a solution of soda or potash ; 
wash, and, without drying, steep in a 
weak mixture of chloride of lime and 
water for 6 hours ; wash, and, without 
drying, steep for 4 hours in a weak solu- 
tion or mixture of sulphuric acid and 
water ; wash well, and dry ; upon an 
emergency, chlorate of potash, mixed with 
3 times its weight of common salt, and 
diluted in water, may be used as a bleach- 
ing liquid. 

2. — Carbonate of potash, 22 parts; 
sand, free from alumina and iron, 50 
parts ; charcoal, 2 parts. 

3. — Carbonate of soda, 22 parts ; car- 
bonate of potash, 70 parts ; silicate of 
potash, 20 parts ; charcoal, 1 part. 

4. — Silica, 1 part ; common salt, 2 
parts. 

5. — The remarkable bleaching com- 
pound of Mr. Charles Toppan, of Salem, 
Mass., consists of 3 parts, by measure, 
of mustard-seed oil, 4 parts of melted 
paraffine, and 3 parts of caustic soda, 
20° Be., well mixed to form a saponace- 
ous compound. Of this, 1 part of weight 
and 2 parts of pure tallow soap are mixed, 
and of this mixture 1 oz. for each gal. of 
water is used for the bleaching bath, and 
1 oz. of caustic soda, 20° Be., for each 
gal., is added, when the bath is heated in 
a close vessel, the goods entered, and 
boiled "until suflBciently bleached." 

6. — Delicate Fahrics. — The goods must 
be washed and boiled, then transferred 
to a warm bath of 300 parts of water 
and 2 parts of permanganate of potash. 
In this it muit be left for an hour, al- 
ways urder water. It is then transferred 
to , the second cold bath of 500 paV'^^ of 



(Bleaching) 



[341 J 



water with 50 parts of sulphurous acid, 
in which it must remain covered for 3 
to 4 hours. To be then dried in a warm 
place. 

7. — Instantaneous Bleaching Fluid. — 
In 51/^ pt. of water, heated to 190 or 
212° ^ F., are introduced successively : 
Mother of pearl, 3^^ oz. ; indigo, 0.75 
gr. ; cochineal, 0.75 gr. ; chloride of lime, 
150 gr. ; soda crystals, 150 gr. ; potash, 
150 gr. Boil for half an hour, and the 
preparation is ready for use. The in- 
ventor, M. Boiseller, says : "The mother 
of pearl gives softness, luster, suppleness, 
etc., and gives to hemp the feel of cash- 
mere ; the indigo gives a slight azure tint, 
the cochineal adds brightness, the chlo- 
ride effects the bleaching, the soda washes 
and brushes, and the potash removes all 
grease." 

8. — Small Articles. — Articles, as pocket 
handkerchiefs, require, every few weeks, 
to get a good "stewing" in a warm oven, 
often having to be left there, in a good 
large stewpan, for several days at a time, 
until they look white. As a preparation 
for washing, always steep white (not 
color-printed ones) articles in cold water 
for a few hours, and then the soiled parts 
can be very much cleansed by a good 
pressing together between the hands — no 
violent rubbing — then use good white soap 
on them, and let them remain overnight, 
folded flat in a dish, not in water, but 
yet wet enough to completely melt the soap 
through the texture of the articles. Do 
not be stingy of soap ; you can use the 
lather with other articles of a less fine 
sort. A little practice will bring you to 
the use of enough without waste. Next 
day pour on to said clothes a kettleful 
of very clean boiling water — boiling, mind 
you ; for if only 1° below the boiling 
point it will not be hot enough to whiten 
them. Cover your washing mug (or 
basin) at once, so that the steam is kept 
in ; after 20 to 30 minutes has passed 
wash your things, and give them a rinse 
in plenty of tepid water. If now they 
are not to your satisfaction, spread them, 
well pulled out, while wet, upon a large 
dish, which place at or outside an open, 
sunny window, sprinkle them with clean 
cold water several times a day. Keep 
this going for 2 or 3 days ; then wash 
again in a clean "scald," as above de- 
scribed, and when you have them finished 
it will be your own fault if your laces 
and handkerchiefs are not a wonder to 
all beholders. Never starch your lace 
articles, but crisp them in cold water in 
which 2 or 3 lumps of loaf sugar are 
dissolved; also, be sure to stretch out 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Books) 



the work while wet, then dry fiat on a 
towel upon the bed. 

Blood Stains. 

1. — An accidental prick of the finger 
frequently spoils the appearance of work, 
and if for sate, decreases its value. Stains 
may be entirely obliterated from almost 
any substance by laying a thick coating 
of common starch over the place. The 
starch is to be mixed as if for the laun- 
dry, and laid on quite wet. 

2. — The free and early application of a 
weak solution of soda or potash, and the 
subsequent application of the solution of 
alum, is recommended. 

3. — Blood and Albuminoid Blatters. — 
Steeping in lukewarm water. If pepsine, 
or the juice of the Carica papaya, can be 
procured, the spots are first softened with 
lukewarm water, and then either of these 
substances is applied. 

Books. 

1. — Blood stains. — Soak in cold water, 
wash with soap, and rinse. 

2. — Damp stains are treated in the 
same way as water stains, but with less 
chance of success. 

3. — Dust can be removed by using bread 
or very soft rubber. 

4. — Finger Marks. — Very difficult to 
erase. Apply a jelly of white or curd 
soap, then wash with a brush in cold 
water. 

5. — Fox Marks. — Use very dilute hy- 
drochloric acid or Javelle water. 

6. — Grease Spots. — a. — Put over the 
spot a piece of blotting paper and apply 
a hot iron. 

b. — Or, apply French chalk, put a piece 
of paper over it, and apply the iron. 

c. — Or, try ether or benzine, put blot- 
ting paper above and below the spot. 

7. — Ink Stains (Marking Ink, etc.). — 
Apply tincture of iodine. The silver in 
the ink forms silver iodide, which is re- 
moved by a weak solution of potassium 
cyanide (deadly poison). 

8. — Ink Stains (of Writing Ink). — 
Usually try oxalic acid, followed by chlo- 
ride of lime. Wash well. 

9. — Mud. — Very little can be done. 
Wash in cold water, then in dilute hydro- 
chloric acid, and afterward in a weak 
solution of chloride of lime. Rinse, and 
dry. 

10. — Water stains are removed by boil- 
ing water and alum. It will be necessary 
to float the sheet on this bath for some 
hours. Dry between clean blotting pa- 
per. The amount of alum is immaterial. 



(Bottles) 



Bottles. 

1. — Oil or fatty matter may be easily 
removed by a solution of permanganate 
of potassa. 

2. — To remove turpentine, petroleum, 
photogene, etc., pour into them a little 
strong sulphuric acid ; after they have 
been allowed to drain as much as pos- 
sible the bottle is then corked, and the 
acid caused to flow into every portion 
of it, for about 5 minutes. It is then 
washed with repeated rinsings of cold 
water. All traces of oil or grease left 
will be removed in a very expeditious 
manner, and no odor whatever will be 
left in the bottle after washing. 

3. — Introduce 2 heaped tablespoonfuls 
(for every quart of capacity) of fine 
sawdust or wheat bran, and shake well 
to cover the interior surface thoroughly ; 
let stand a few minutes, and then add 
about 100 c. c. of cold water. If the 
bottle be then rotated in a horizontal po- 
sition it will usually be found clean after 
a single treatment. In the case of dry- 
ing oils, especially when old, the bottles 
should be moistened inside with a little 
ether, and left standing a few hours be- 
fore the introduction of sawdust. This 
method is claimed to be more rapid and 
convenient than the customary on^ of 
using strips of paper, soap solution, etc. 

4. — Where soda and water does not do 
the work, put about equal parts of pow- 
dered potassium bichromate and sulphuric 
acid into the bottle. Shake the bottle 
well until the particles turn black, then 
rinco uut well with water. 

5. — ^If vessels are oily, or otherwise 
greasy, they should not be washed with 
water, but wiped with dry tow, or a dry 
dirty cloth, so as to remove as much 
grease l3 possible. By changing the cloth 
for one that is clean, the vessel can be 
wiped until all traces of grease disappear. 

6. — A strong solution of an alkali, such 
as pearlash, may be used, whereby the 
removal of the grease is materially facili- 
tated. 

7. — It would be easy for a practical 
brush maker to construct a brush in the 
form of a hollow cone, which would reach 
the bottom of bottles ; but the difficulty 
would be to get it into the bottle without 
spoiling it (the brush.) A brush composed 
of a single bundle of long hairs, something 
like a painter's sash tool, with the bristles 
cut somewhat tapering, should answer the 
purpose. The bottle must, of course, be 
turned around with the hand, to bring 
every part into contact with the brush. 

8. — Lead shot, where so used, often 
leave carbonate of lead on the internal 



[3423 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Brass, etc.) 



surface, and this is apt to be dissolved 
in tlie wine or other liquids afterward 
introduced, with poisonous results ; and 
particles of the shot are sometimes inad- 
vertently left in the bottle. Fordos states 
that clippings of iron wire are a better 
means of rinsing. They are easily had, 
and the cleaning is rapid and complete. 
The iron is attacked by the oxygen of the 
air, but the ferruginous compound does 
not attach to the side of the bottle, and 
is easily removed in washing. Besides, 
a little oxidized iron is not injurious to 
health. Fordos found that the small 
traces of iron left had no apparent effect 
on the color of red wines ; it had on 
white wines, but very little ; but he thinks 
it might be better to use clippings of tin 
for the latter. 

9. — Take a small piece of the very fin- 
est and softest flannel, without crease 
or seam, or a few inches of superfine 
broadcloth, dip this in powder blue, and 
with it clean your plate glass, polishing 
with a rag of soft silk or fine chamois 
leather. 

10. — To remove some odiors in bottles 
has baflBed almost all attempts of drug- 
gists to counteract or dissipate them. 
Iodoform, asafetida, ichthyol and valerian 
arevamong the articles which furnish these 
persistent odors. Fresh powdered mus- 
tard poured into the bottle {8ud. Apoth. 
Zeit.) , followed by cold water, agitation, 
short standing, and a final rinsing, will 
clear them of the offending odors. 

11. — Rosin, Turpentine, Resinous Var- 
nishes, etc. — a. — Wash with a strong al- 
kaline solution, and rub by means of wire 
and tow. 

b.— If the alkali fails to act, a little 
sulphuric acid may be employed with ad- 
vantage. The latter acid will also be 
found advantageous in removing pitch and 
tar from vessels of glass. Nitric or sul- 
phuric acids may be employed to clean 
flasks which have contained oil. 

12. — Rubber Stoppers. — Cover the stop- 
pers with water, add a few ounces of 
burnt sugar, and let them soak for a few 
days, stirring once or twice daily. After 
this treatment wash them, and they are 
ready for use. 

Brass and Copper Cleaning. ( See also Gas 
Fixtures. ) 
1. — There are many substances and 
mixtures which will clean brass. Oxalic 
acid, muriatic acid, and several other 
acids, will clean brass very effectively ; 
oxalic acid is the best, but the acids must 
be well washed off, the brass dried, and 
then rubbed with sweet oil and tripoli, 



(Brass, etc.) 



otherwise it will soon tarnish again. Mix- 
ture to clean brass is : Soft soap, 1 oz. ; 
rotten stone, 2 oz. 

2. — Oxalic acid, 1 oz. ; rotten stone, 2 
oz. ; sweet oil, 1^2 oz. ; spirits of turpen- 
tine, enough to make a paste. When 
used, a little water is added, and friction 
applied. If the brass is very dirty it re- 
quires a strong acid to make it bright ; 
such is chromic acid, best prepared by 
mixing bichromate of potassa, sulphuric 
acid and water, equal parts of each. This 
makes the dirtiest brass bright and clear 
at once, but it must be immediately 
washed off with plenty of water, rubbed 
dry, and polished with rotten stone. There 
are no patents on any of these proseed- 
ings, and if there were, the patentees 
would not be sustained in their claims. 

3. — Wash with rock alum, boiled in a 
strong lye in the proportion of 1 oz. to 
1 pt. ; polish with dry tripoli. 

4. — The government method prescribed 
for cleaning brass, and in use at all the 
United States arsenals, is claimed to be 
the best in the world. The plan is to 
make a mixture of 1 part of common nit- 
ric acid and % part of sulphuric acid, in 
a stone jar, having also ready a pail of 
fresh water and a box of sawdust. The 
articles to be treated are dipped into 
the acid, then removed into the water, 
and finally rubbed with sawdust. This 
immediately changes them to a brilliant 
color. If the brass has become greasy it 
is first dipped in a strong solution of pot- 
ash and soda in warm water ; this cuts 
the grease, so that the acid has free power 
to act. 

5. — Rub the surface of the metal with 
rotten stone and sweet oil, then rub off 
with a piece of cotton flannel, and polish 
with soft leather. A solution of oxalic 
acid rubbed over tarnished brass soon re- 
moves the tarnish, rendering the metal 
bright. The acid must be washed off with 
water, and the brass rubbed with whiting 
and soft leather. A mixture of muriatic 
acid and alum, dissolved in water, im- 
parts a golden color to brass articles that 
are steeped in it for a few seconds. 

6. — First boil your articles in a pan 
with ordinary washing soda, to remove 
the old lacquer ; then let them stand for 
a short time in dead nitric acid ; then 
run them through bright dipping nitric 
acid. Swill all acid off in clean water, 
and brighten the relieved parts with a 
steel burnisher, replace in clean water, 
and dry out in beech sawdust. Next, 
place your work on the stove till heated, 
so that you can with diflaculty bear your 
hand on the articles, and apply pale lac- 



[343] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Brass, etc.) 



quer with a brush ; the work will burn if 
heated too much or too rapidly. 

7. — Put a coat of nitric acid over the 
part you want cleaned, with a piece of 
rag ; as soon as it turns a light yellow 
rub it dry, and the brass will present a 
very clean appearance ; if not satisfac- 
tory, repeat. 

8. — Oxalic acid and whiting, mixed, and 
applied wet with a brush, and brushed 
again when dry with a soft plate brush 
to polish with dry whiting. 

9. — Chalk, 10 parts; white bole, 4 
parts ; magnesium carbonate, 1 part ; iron 
oxide, 1 part. 

10. — Oxalic acid, 1 dr. ; rotten stone, 
in powder, 4 oz. ; boiling water, 1 oz. ; 
oil of turpentine, % dr. ; soft soap, l^ 
oz. ; sweet oil, 5 dr. First dissolve the 
acid in the water, then add the rotten 
stone and other ingredients. 

11. — Oxalic acid, 1 part ; iron peroxide, 
15 parts ; powdered rotten stone, 20 
parts ; palm oil, 60 parts ; petrolatum, 4 
parts. See that solids are thoroughly pul- 
verized and sifted, then add, and thor- 
oughly incorporate, the oil and petrola- 
tum. 

12. — Starch, 1 part ; powdered rotten 
stone, 12 parts ; sweet oil, 2 parts ; oxalic 
acid, 2 parts ; water to mix. 

13. — To 1 oz. of powdered potassium 
bichromate add 2 oz. each of sulphuric 
acid and water. Apply by dipping or 
rubbing the article to be cleaned, and 
wash off immediately with water ; rub 
dry, and polish with rotten stone. 

14. — Oxalic acid, 3 parts ; water, 50 
parts ; kieselguhr, 7 parts. Dissolve the 
acid and add the earth. Shake before 
using. 

15. — It would not suflSce to pickle brass 
objects ; the brilliancy thus produced 
would not be durable. To attain a good 
polish, the surfaces have to be rubbed 
with very fine tripoli, mixed with olive 
oil ; next rinse with soap water and wipe 
dry with fine linen. 

16. — Brass work that is so dirty from 
smoke and heat as not to be cleaned with 
oxalic acid should be thoroughly washed 
or scrubbed with soda, or potash water, 
or lye. Then dip in a mixture of equal 
parts of nitric acid, sulphuric acid and 
water; or, if it cannot be conveniently 
dipped, make a swab of a small piece of 
woolen cloth upon the end of a stick, and 
rub the solution over the dirty or smoky 
parts ; leave the acid on for a minute, and 
then wash clean and polish. 

17. — Fly Specks, To Remove.— li you 
cannot wash off the fly specks with soap 
and warm water on a cloth, there is no 



(Brass, etc.) 



way that an amateur can refinish lamp- 
work with any satisfaction. To do this 
the lamp must be taken apart and the 
brasswork boiled in caustic soda to re- 
move all oil and varnish ; then rinse in 
hot water and dip in strong nitric acid 
for a few seconds only, when it will come 
out clean and bright ; then rinse clean 
in boiling water. Dry in sawdust, brush 
off, and lacquer with thin shellac varnish. 
The metal must be warm and perfectly 
free from grease. 

18. — Gun Shells. — For such as have 
been used, boil in a strong solution of 
caustic soda, rinse in hot warer, then 
dip in a hot pickle of sulphuric acid, 1 
part ; water, 4 parts ; and rinse in hot 
water. 

19. — Inlaid Work. — Mix tripoli and lin- 
seed oil, and dip felt into the prepara- 
tion. With this, polish. If the wood be 
rosewood or ebony, polish it with finely 
powdered elder ashes, or make a polishing 
paste of rotten stone, a pinch of starch, 
sweet oil and oxalic acid, mixed with 
water. 

20. — Lighting Fixtures. — Have the wa- 
ter clean and boiling in two vessels. Dip 
in one water and then in the rext as soon 
as taken from the nitric acid bath, so 
that there shall be no traces of acid on 
the fittings. Dry in boxwood sawdust 
while hot, and place upon a piece of hot 
sheet iron over a stove. As soon as all 
traces of water have left, quickly lacquer 
with very thin shellac varnish, using a 
camel's-hair brush. You can make the 
lacquer by dissolving shellac in best alco- 
hol. Do not touch the metal with the 
fingers before lacquering. 

21. — Tarnish, To Prevent. — a. — Dis- 
solve 1 oz. of best brown shellac in 1 pt. 
of alcohol (wood alcohol will answer, 
and it is much cheaper than that distilled 
from grain), and add to such solution 
1 dr. of gamboge and 3 dr. of cape aloes. 
Heat the articles, and apply the lacquer 
with a camel's-hair brush. The articles 
should be thoroughly cleaned and polished 
before the lacquer is applied, otherwise 
the result will be disappointing. 

b. — Bleached shellac, 2 oz. ; camphor, 
1/^ oz. ; alcohol, 16 oz. While wood alco- 
hol, or denatured alcohol, will answer 
very well for lacquers, we wish again 
to warn those who employ the methyl 
spirit of its poisonousness, and its power 
to cause blindness even by its fumes. ^ 

Brass and Copper Polishing. 

The Wiener Seifensieder-Zeitung pub- 
lishes the following collection of formulas 
for copper and brass polishes : 



[344] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Brass and Copper) 



1. — Cream of tartar, 5 parts ; alum, 10 
parts ; sodium chloride, 10 parts ; water, 
100 parts. The salts are dissolved in the 
water, and the solution is allowed to 
stand several days. A white precipitate 
is formed, from which the liquid is de- 
canted. If turbid, the liquid must be fil- 
tered through paper. 

2. — Dissolve 10 parts of tartaric acid 
in 100 parts of water, and mix with 5 
to 10 parts of ferric oxide. 

3. — Pour 1 part of sulphuric acid care- 
fully into 20 parts of water, stirring with 
a stick of wood. Dissolve 2 parts of 
alum in the dilute acid, and add 2 parts 
of fine potato meal. The meal must be 
thoroughly rubbed down with the acid 
liquid, added in small portions at a time, 
until a homogeneous paste is obtained. 
This preparation must be kept in bottles 
closed with paraffined corks. 

4. — Oxalic acid, 500 parts ; tripoli, or 
infusorial earth, 150 parts. 

5. — Ammonia water, concentrated, 50 
parts ; water, 100 parts ; prepared chalk, 
20 parts. Red or yellow aniline dye, as 
much as desired. 

6. — Sal ammoniac, 10 parts, is dissolved 
in 75 parts of water, and 5 parts of chalk 
added. 

7. — Flowers of sulphur, 10 parts ; 
ground chalk, 10 parts ; mix with 100 
parts of vinegar. 

8.— Alcohol, 80%, 100 parts ; olein, 50 
parts ; tartaric acid, 80 parts ; tripoli, 30 
parts. Mix the tartaric acid (in powder 
form) with the alcohol, whereby the acid 
is partly dissolved. Then add the olein, 
and finally the tripoli, taking care to mix 
thoroughly. 

9. — Rotten stone, 3 oz. ; powdered soap, 
1 oz. Apply with a little spirit of turpen- 
tine or sweet oil. 

10. — Brass, Copper, German Silver, 
etc., To Polish. — Use Vienna lime, with 
oil. 

Brass. — 1. — Rub the metal with rotten 
stone and sweet oil, then rub off with a 
piece of cotton flannel, and polish with 
soft leather. A solution of oxalic acid, 
rubbed over tarnished brass, soon removes 
the tarnish, rendering the metal bright. 
The acid must be washed off with water, 
and the brass rubbed with whiting and 
soft leather. A mixture of muriatic acid 
and alum dissolved in water imparts a 
golden color to brass articles that are 
steeped in it for a few seconds. 

2. — In polishing old brasswork which 
has been scratched and tarnished by wear, 
pumice or bath brick should be used with 
soap and water for scouring off with, and 
rotten stone, with kerosene oil, for the 



(Brass and Copper) 



wet finish, and dry for the final polish. 
The same method should be used for new 
brasswork. New work should require, 
after leaving the lathe and vise tools, but 
little polishing or grinding, and every good 
workman should try to avoid using an 
emery stick or emery cloth, as with prop- 
er care in the use of tools a great deal 
of grinding and polishing can be dispensed 
with. The polishing of metals varies 
somewhat according to their character, 
but the main principle underlying all is 
the substitution of progressively finer 
scratches for those left by the material 
last used, until they become so delicate as 
to be invisible without the aid of a mi- 
croscope. 

3.— Three parts of oxalic acid are dis- 
solved in 40 parts of hot water ; add 
100 parts of powdered pumice stone, 2 
parts of oil of turpentine, 12 parts of 
soft soap and 12 parts of a fat oil. 

4. — Rotten stone, 7 oz. ; powdered ox- 
alic acid, 1 oz. Both are used with a lit- 
tle water. 

5. — Soft soap, 2 oz. ; rotten stone, 4 
oz. ; beaten to a paste. 

6. — Rotten stone, made into a paste 
with sweet oil. 

7. — Rotten stone, 4 oz. ; oxalic acid, 
in fine powder, 1 oz. ; sweet oil, 1 V^ oz. ; 
turpentine, q. s. to make a paste. 

The above are used to clean brasswork, 
when neither varnished nor lacquered. 
The first and last are best applied with 
a little water. Both require friction with 
soft leather. 

8. — Make a paste of equal parts of sul- 
phur and chalk, with sufficient vinegar to 
reduce it to the proper consistency ; apply 
it to the metal while moist, allow it to 
dry on, and rub with a chamois skin. 
For ornaments or engraved work, clean 
with a brush. 

9. — Another process, and one that gives 
to the brass a very brilliant color, is to 
make a wash of alum boiled in strong 
lye, in the proportion of 1 oz. of alum 
to 1 pt. of lye. Wash the brass with 
this mixture, and afterward rub with 
chamois and tripoli. 

10. — A weak solution of ammonia in 
water makes an excellent wash. Apply 
it with a rag, dry with a piece of chamois, 
and afterward rub with a piece of chamois 
and a very small quantity of jewelers' 
rouge. 

11. — Place 2 oz. of sulphuric acid in an 
earthen vessel and add 1 qt. of cold soft 
water ; after the heat that is generated 
has passed off add 1 oz. each of tripoli 
and jewelers' rouge. When well mixed 
put in a bottle for use. 



[345] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Brass, and Copper) 



12. — Brass may be polished without a 
burnisher by using an exceedingly fine cut 
file and fine emery cloth. 

13. — Small articles to be polished 
should be shaken by themselves for a 
short time ; then some greasy parings of 
leather should be put in the barrel with 
them. After they have been shaken 
smooth the greasy leather parings are re- 
placed by clean ones, and the shaking is 
continued as long as necessary. 

14. — When the brass is made smooth 
by turning, or filing with a very fine file, 
it may be rubbed with a smooth, fine- 
grained stone, or with charcoal and water. 
When it is made quite smooth, and free 
from scratches, it may be polished with 
rotten stone and oil, alcohol, or spirits of 
turpentine. 

15. — Brasswork can be polished by rub- 
bing the metal with finely powdered trip- 
oli mixed with sweet oil, and applied with 
a rubber made from a piece of an old hat 
or felt. Or else a mixture of glycerine, 
stearine, naphthaline or creosote, mixed 
with dilute sulphuric acid, can be used. 

16. — Magic Polish for Brass. — Sulphu- 
ric acid, 20 parts ; pulverized bichromate 
of potash, 10 parts ; dilute with an equal 
weight of water ; apply well to the brass. 
Wash well in water, immediately wipe 
dry, and polish with rotten stone. 

17. — Brass Movements. — Spanish whit- 
ing is mixed with clear rain water in 
the proportion of 2 lb. to the gal. Stir, 
and let stand for a few minutes to allow 
the gritty portion to settle ; decant off the 
water into another vessel and again allow 
it to stand. The settlings in the second 
vessel are mixed with jeweler's rouge and 
used for polishing. 

18. — Petroleum Brass Polish. — Tripoli, 
16 av.oz. ; Spanish whiting, 16 av.oz. ; 
powdered rotten stone or pumice, 8 
av.oz. ; petroleum, 2 fl.oz. ; petrolatum, to 
make a soft paste ; oil of myrbane to 
suit. 

19. — Pickling Brass Castings. — A solu- 
tion is frequently made up by mixing 3 
parts of sulphuric acid and 2 parts of 
nitric acid, and adding to each quart of 
the mixture about a handful of common 
table salt. This mixture is frequently 
used undiluted with water, and is to be 
handled with great care, as it will at- 
tack the hands badly. One advantage of 
this solution is that it leaves a good color 
on the castings, and hence it is frequently 
used for this purpose. The pickling so- 
lution used for brass castings must be 
kept in an earthenware crock or in a 
vitrified bathtub, and the bath must be 
large enough to dip the large casting.-: 



(Bronze and Gilt) 



into it. Owing to the fact that hydro- 
fluoric acid will attack sand, it cannot 
be kept in a crock or jug, as it would 
immediately eat a hole through it and 
escape. Hydrofluoric acid must be kept 
in a lead carboy, but the dilute acid can 
be kept in wooden tubs or barrels. Either 
dilute or concentrated hydrofluoric acid 
will dissolve glass very readily, and hence 
cannot be kept in a glass bottle. Con- 
centrated sulphuric acid is frequently 
kept in iron tanks, but dilute sulphuric 
acid attacks iron readily, and hence it 
is necessary to keep dilute sulphuric acid 
in earthenware jugs and jars, glass bot- 
tles or wooden tubs or vats. 

Brickwork, To Remove Mildew. 

Builders' acid (hydrochloric acid) is 
often used for removing white stains 
from brickwork. Its efficacy in the case 
of mildew would be doubtful. A coat 
of linseed oil on the perfectly dry brick 
would have a good preventive tendency. 
Melted paraffine, applied hot, and worked 
in with a paint burner, would also be effi- 
cacious. Perhaps either of the last named 
applications would destroy the mildew or 
white stain also. Acid, used by an expe- 
rienced man, would not injure the joints. 

Bristles, To Bleach. 

Cleanse well in a preparation of tepid 
water and soft soap. Then dip in cold 
water. Leave for 2 or 3 days in an aque- 
ous solution of sulphurous acid, after 
which wash and dry. 

Britannia Metal. 

1. — Use finely powdered whiting, 2 ta- 
blespoonfuls of sweet oil and a little yel- 
low soap. Mix with spirits of wine to a 
cream. Rub on with a sponge, wipe off 
with a soft cloth, and polish with a 
chamois skin. 

2. — Rub first with jewelers' rouge, made 
into a paste with oil ; wash in suds, rinse 
dry, and polish with chamois. 

Broadcloth, To Remove Stains. 

Grind fine 1% oz. of pipeclay ; mix 
with 18 drops of alcohol and the same 
quantity of spirits of turpentine. Mois- 
ten a little of this mixture with alcohol 
and rub on the stains. When dry, rub 
off with a woolen cloth. 

Bronze and Gilt. See also Brass and 
Copper above.) 

1. — Clean the surface, first of all, with 
whiting and water, or crocus powder, un- 
til it is polished ; then cover with a paste 
of plumbago and crocus, mixed in the 



[S46] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Bronze and Gilt) 



proportions that will produce the desired 
color. Heat the paste over a small char- 
coal fire. Perhaps the bronzing has been 
produced by a corrosive process ; if so, 
try painting a solution of sulphide of po- 
tassium over the cleaned metal. 

2. — Articles of bronze are best cleaned 
by the use of a paste made of powdered 
chicory and water. The paste is spread 
over the bronze and rubbed well over the 
surface by means of a stiff brush (an old 
stiff tooth brush will answer), and then 
allowed to dry on the article. After dry- 
ing, rinse oflE the powder with running 
water, and dry in the sun. Wiping off 
with an oiled rag will improve the looks 
of modern bronzes. 

3. — Rub delicate objects with a sponge 
charged with a mixture of 28 parts of 
alcohol, 14 parts of water and 4 parts of 
lavender oil. 

4. — Flp Specks. — Lavender oil, 1 dr. ; 
alcohol, 1 oz. ; water, li/^ oz. Use a soft 
sponge, and proceed quickly, with little 
rubbing. 

5. — Gilded Bronze. — a. — Commence by 
removing the spots of grease and wax with 
a little potash or soda dissolved in water. 
Let dry, and apply the following mixture 
with a rag : Carbonate of soda, 7 parts ; 
whiting, 15 parts ; 85° alcohol, 50 parts ; 
water, 125 parts. When this coating is 
dry pass over it a fine linen cloth or a 
piece of supple skin. The hollow parts 
are cleaned with a brush. 

b. — After removing the grease spots, as 
specified above, let dry, and pass over all 
the damaged parts a pencil dipped in the 
following mixture : Alum, 2 parts ; nitric 
acid, 65 parts ; water, 250 parts. When 
the gilding becomes bright, wipe, and dry 
in the sun or near a fire. 

c. — Wash in hot water containing a lit- 
tle soda, dry, and pass over the gilding a 
pencil soaked in a liquid made of 30 parts 
of nitric acid, 4 parts of aluminum sul- 
phate and 125 parts of pure water. Dry 
in sawdust. 

d. — Immerse the objects in boiling soap 
water and facilitate the action of the soap 
by rubbing with a soft brush ; put the 
objects in hot water, brush them care- 
fully, and let them dry in the air ; when 
they are quite dry rub with an old linen 
cloth or a soft skin the shining parts only, 
without touching the others. 

e. — If greasy, wash carefully in suds ; 
or, better, dip into a hot solution of caus- 
tic potash, and then wash in suds with 
a soft rag, and rinse in running water. 
If not then clean and bright, dip into the 
following mixture : Nitric acid, 10 parts ; 



(Brushes) 



aluminum sulphate, 1 part ; water, 40 
parts. Mix. Rinse in running water. 

f. — Boil in a weak alkali prepared from 
an infusion of wood ashes. Then clean 
with a solution composed of equal parts 
of nitric acid, water and alum. 

6. — Imitation of Gilding. — There are 
varnished bronzes so nearly resembling 
gilded bronzes in appearance that they 
may be easily confounded. To distinguish 
them it is sufiicient to touch them with 
a glass rod dipped in a solution of mer- 
cury bichloride (corrosive sublimate). If 
the object is gilded the point touched will 
not change color ; if not, a brown spot 
will be formed. 

7. — Ornaments. — Boil the articles in 
ordinary soaper's lye ; rinse out, and roll 
in bran and sawdust. If the bronze is 
of the stamped variety, the lye must be 
mixed with salt. The ornaments should 
then be properly brushed, but no water 
must get to the back. A well-known 
method of cleaning gold-colored bronze ar- 
ticles consists in washing them in the 
above lye and brushing thoroughly with 
a brush, then passing them through a 
fluid made up of equal parts by weight 
of water, nitric acid and alum, drying 
them with a rag and gently warming 
them. 

8. — Oxidized Bronzes. — First dip in 
strong soda lye, then in a bath containing 
1 part of sulphuric acid to 12 parts of 
water. Rinse in clean water, and next 
in water containing a little ammonia. 
Dry, and rub with a polishing powder or 
paste. 

9. — Statuary. — Use weak soap suds or 
aqua ammonia. 

Brushes. 

Dissolve a piece of soda in some hot 
water, allowing a piece the size of a wal- 
nut to 1 qt. of water. Put the water 
into a basin, and after combing out the 
hair from the brushes, dip them, bristles 
downward, into the water and out again, 
keeping the backs and handles as free 
from the water as possible. Repeat this 
until the bristles look clean ; then rinse 
the brushes in a little cold water ; shake 
them well, and wipe the handles and 
backs with a towel, but not the bristles, 
and set the brushes to dry in the sun, 
or near the fire ; but take care not to put 
them too close to it. Wiping the bristles 
of a brush makes them soft, as does also 
the use of soap. 

Brushes, Varnish, To Keep. — Varnish 
brushes should never be allowed to touch 
water, as it not only injures the elastic- 
ity of the hair, but a rosin is deposited 



[ 347 ] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Canvas) 



in the hilt of the brush which can never 
be thoroughly removed, and which will 
work out little by little when the brush 
is used, destroying the glossy surface 
which otherwise might be obtained. 

Calico and Linen. 

1. — When linen or calico is discolored 
by washing, age, or lying out of use, the 
best method of restoring the whiteness is 
by bleaching in the open air and exposure 
on the grass to the dews and winds. 
There may occur cases, however, where 
this may be difficult to accomplish, and 
where a quicker process may be desirable, 
and the following is the best : 

2. — Lay the linen for 12 hours in a 
lye formed of 1 lb. of soda to 1 gal. of 
boiling-hot soft water ; then boil it for 
half an hour in the same liquid. Then 
make a mixture of chloride of lime with 
8 times its quantity of water, which must 
be well shaken in a stone jar for 3 
days, then allowed to settle, and being 
drawn off clear, the linen must be steeped 
in it 36 hours and then washed out in 
the ordinary way. This will remove all 
discoloration. 

Candle Grease, Removing. 

1. — For all kinds use 95% alcohoL 
2. — Scrape off as much as possible with 
a knife, then lay a thin, soft white blot- 
ting paper upon the spots and press with 
a warm iron. By repeating this, the sper- 
maceti will be drawn out. Afterward, 
rub the cloth where the spots have been 
with some very soft brownish paper. 

Cane-seated Chairs. 

1. — Clean the articles with a solution 
of oxalic acid. Their color will be re- 
stored. 

2. — Wash with hot water and a sponge, 
using soap, if necessary. Dry in a cur- 
rent of air. 

Canvas, To Render Mildew-proof. 

1. — Saturate the cloth in a hot solu- 
tion of soap (1/4 lb. to 1 gal. of water), 
wring out, and digest it for 12 hours in 
a solution of % lb. of alum to 1 gal. of 
water. 

2, — Treatment with a strong aqueous 
solution of alum or lead acetate answers 
very well. Use the following : Alum, 2 
lb., dissolved in 60 lb. of water ; blue 
vitriol, 2 lb., dissolved in 8 lb. of water : 
to which is added gelatine, 1 lb., dissolved 
in 30 lb. of water ; lead acetate, % lb., 
dissolved in 30 lb. of water. The solu- 
tions are all hot, and separately mixed, 
with the exception of the vitriol, which is 



(Carpets) 



added. (See also receipts for water- 
proofing cloth.) 

3. — Dissolve 1 lb. of zinc sulphate in 
40 gal. of water, and then add 1 lb. of 
sal soda. When dissolved, 2 oz. of tar- 
taric acid are added. This holds the par- 
tially separated zinc carbonate without 
neutralizing the excess of alkali used. The 
canvas, etc., should be soaked in this so- 
lution for 24 hours, and then dried with- 
out wringing. 

4. — To Remove Mildew. — Wash with a 
solution of calcium hypochloride (bleach- 
ing powder) in cold water or vinegar. 
Use plenty of cold water afterward. 

5. — Renovation. — Coat it with a black 
leather varnish, such as the following : 
Digest shellac, 12 parts ; white turpen- 
tine, 5 parts ; gum sandarac, 2 parts : 
lampblack, 1 part; with spirits of tur- 
pentine, 4 parts ; and alcohol, 96 parts. 

Carpets. 

1. — If brooms are wet with boiling suds 
once a week they will become very tough, 
will not cut a cai-pet, and will last much 
longer. A handful or so of salt sprinkled 
on a carpet will carry the dust along 
with it and make the carpet look bright 
and clean. A very dusty carpet may be 
cleaned by dipping the broom in cold 
water, shaking off all the drops, and 
sweeping a yard or so at a time. Wash 
the broom, and repeat, until the entire 
carpet has been swept. 

2.— Use 1 pt. of oxgall to 1 pailful of 
water; after washing, apply cold water 
to rinse out the oxgall, and finally sponge 
as dry as possible. 

3. — A specimen of an American carpet 
soap (says the American Soap Journal), 
exported to Europe, found its way to the 
municipal laboratory of the city of Bres- 
lau, and after examination received the 
following verdict : "This soap is to be 
used by making a stiff lather from a rath- 
er concentrated solution of the soap ; this 
is then applied to the carpet and left to 
dry. After the drying the soap has be- 
come brittle, and can be beaten out, the 
single particles so removed taking the dirt 
along. The analytical data were as fol- 
lows : Water, 9.67% ; residue on drying, 
90.33%; ash, 22.2% (in the same, 19.3% 
sodium carbonate determined by tritura- 
tion). The separated fatty acids showed: 
Melting point, 43-44° G. ; congealing 
point, 40-41° C. ; acid number, 214.15 ; 
iodine number, 38.0. Accordingly, this 
carpet soap is nothing more nor less than 
an honest tallow-soda soap. Its effect 
depends on the circumstance that with 
such soap a stiff lather is only obtained 



[348] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Carpets) 



with concentrated solutions, which then 
remains and dries ; soaps made witli palm 
oil and other exotic fats, on the other 
hand, yield a strong lather with thin so- 
lutions, but this lather subsides again 
rapidly." 

4. — The following formula, known as 
"Clark's Wash for Carpets," may be found 
serviceable : Solution a. — Dissolve 10 
parts of soap in 20 parts of water, add 
Sy2 parts of soda and y2 part each of am- 
monia water and alcohol. Solution b, 
which is the actual cleansing liquid, con- 
sists of 4 parts of ammonia water and 3 
parts of alcohol, diluted with water. This 
solution is first used, and when the dirt 
loosened by it has been removed the soap 
solution is applied. Carpets thus treated 
are said to regain much of their original 
colors, the entire operation of washing 
and drying requiring but a few hours, and 
the carpet need not be taken up. 

5. — Dry Cleaning. — Have ready a num- 
ber of dry, coarse cotton or linen cloths, 
some coarse flannels, and 1 or more large 
pieces of coarse sponge ; 2 or more hard 
scrubbing or scouring brushes, some large 
tubs or pans and pails, and also a plen- 
tiful supply of both hot and cold water. 
First take out all grease spots ; this may 
be effected in several ways. Well rub the 
spot with a piece of hard soap, and wash 
out with a brush and cold water, and 
well dry each spot before leaving it. 

6. — Or, use, instead of the soap, a mix- 
ture of fuller's earth, gall and water, well 
rinsing and drying each spot as before. 
When this has been done the carpet may 
be cleaned by the first method mentioned. 

7. — Grape Stains, To Remove. — ^Wash 
out with warm soapsuds and a little am- 
monia water. 

8. — Ink, To Remove. — First, take up 
as much as possible of the ink with a tea- 
spoon, if in considerable quantity ; with 
a blotting pad, if not so plentiful, using 
the latter under either condition at the 
finish. Now pour cold sweet milk over 
the spot, and after letting it remain a 
moment, take up as before, repeating the 
process until the milk comes away only 
slightly stained with black. Finish by 
using cold water into which some lemon 
juice has been strained. Finally, rinse 
with pure water, and dry off with a soft 
cloth, rubbing the surface slightly as the 
water is absorbed. Old ink spots may 
be removed by moistening a crystal of 
citric acid and rubbing the spot gently, 
repeating the operation until the spot 
vanishes. 

9. — Kerosene Oil. — Spread over the 
stain, above and below, warm pipeclay, 



(Carpets) 



and allow it to remain 24 hours; then 
brush it off and beat out the carpet. 

10. — Sweeping. — It is not an easy mat- 
ter to sweep well, at any rate, if we may 
judge by experience ; for when a broom 
is put into the hands of the uninitiated 
more harm than good generally results 
from the use of it. Without the greatest 
care and some little knowledge, furni- 
ture and paint, by being knocked about 
with the broom, may soon receive an ir- 
reparable amount of damage. Before 
sweeping rooms the floors should be 
strewed with a good amount of dry tea 
leaves, which should be saved for the pur- 
pose ; these will attract the dust and save 
much harm to other furniture, which, as 
far as possible, should be covered up dur- 
ing the process. Tea leaves also may be 
used with advantage upon druggets and 
short-piled carpets. Light sweeping and 
soft brooms are here desirable. Many a 
carpet is prematurely worn out by inju- 
dicious sweeping. Stiff carpet brooms 
and the stout arms of inexperienced ser- 
vants are their destruction. In sweeping 
thick-piled carpets, such as Axminster and 
Turkey carpets, the servant should be in- 
structed to brush always the way of the 
pile ; by so doing they may be kept clean 
for years ; but if the broom is used in 
a different way all the dust will enter 
the carpet and soon spoil it. Salt sprin- 
kled upon the carpet before sweeping will 
make it look bright and clean. This is 
also a good preventive against moths. 

11. — Vacuum Cleaning. — The vacuum 
system, which may be said to suck the 
loose dirt from the carpets (for it can- 
not remove fixed dirt marks or stains, 
though by removing loose dirt from fixed 
marks it may make them less pro- 
nounced), is now being largely used ow- 
ing to the many advantages it offers. In 
the first place, it raises no dust, does not 
scatter a proportion of the dirt disturbed, 
as any brushing process must ; it is more 
positive, removing more dirt from beneath 
a carpet than a brush can get at. It may 
not be as effective as taking up carpets 
and underfelts, beating them, and wash- 
ing the floor, but for ordinary periodical 
thorough cleaning, as required in hotels 
and similar places, the vacuum method is 
considered to make the raising of fixed 
carpets unnecessary. AVith a public din- 
ing (general meal) room, the raising of 
the carpet and its cleaning would mean 
stopping business for a day or two at 
least ; while the cleaning of sitting and 
bedroom carpets, by raising them, would 
keep a certain percentage of rooms per- 
petually unfit for occupation. Vacuum 



[349] 



Cleansing, Bleaching^ Etc. 



(Carriages) 



cleaning is quite as quick as surface 
brushing, and in certain pressing cases it 
is undertaken without even removing the 
hangings in the room. The vacuum is 
produced by an air pump, this being 
driven by a petrol, or similar motor 
(when the outfit is portable, and carried 
in a van from house to house). A good 
vacuum of 25 in. is easily got, and the 
general working of the system presents 
no diflSculties. The chief detail, that' is 
kept secret as far as possible, is the "dirt 
arrester." A pump that may be effective 
and free working with air will quickly 
fail if the air is loaded with dust and 
debris, and the duty of the dirt arrester 
is to filter this out of the air which is 
drawn through the substance of the car- 
pet, and which, of course, disengages and 
carries the dirt from the carpet with it. 



To Pump ToCf^ 




Metal ^auze 






3^ 



^,^^m 



The details of an arrester are given here- 
with, this showing the interior con- 
struction in section. Its exterior is 
simply a box or case, or any convenient 
shape, the interior being divided up and 
including a coke air filter bed, as shown. 
The case must have a door to admit of 
the dirt being removed (and the coke, 
which will require washing or renewing), 
and, needless to add, the door, and the 
whole case, must be absolutely airtight. 
The cleaning out of the box must be done 
as often as the operator judges best, this 
being governed by the size of the box and 
the state of the carpet. 

Carriages, To Preserve. 

1. — Ammonia cracks varnish and fades 
the colors, both of painting and lining. 
A carriage should never, under any cir- 
cumstances, be put away dirty. In wash- 
ing a carriage, keep out of the sun, and 



(Casks and Barrels) 



have the lever end of the "setts" covered 
with leather. Use plenty of water, which 
apply (where practicable) with a hose 
or syringe, taking care that the water is 
not driven into the body to the injury 
of the lining. When forced water is not 
attainable, use for the body a large soft 
sponge. This, when saturated, squeeze 
over the panels, and by the flow down of 
the water the dirt will soften and harm- 
lessly run off ; then finish with a soft 
chamois leather and oil-silk handkerchief. 
The same remarks apply to the under- 
works and wheels, except that when the 
mud is well soaked, a soft mop, free from 
any hard substance in the head, may be 
used. Never use a "spoke brush," which, 
in conjunction with the grit from the 
road, acts like sandpaper on the varnish, 
scratching it, and, of course, effectually 
removing all gloss. Never allow water to 
dry itself on the carriage, as it invari- 
ably leaves stains. 

2. — Be careful to grease the bearings 
of the fore carriage so as to allow it to 
turn freely. Examine a carriage occa- 
sionally, and whenever a bolt or slip ap- 
pears to be getting loose, tighten it up 
with a wrench, and always have little 
repairs done at once. Top carriages 
should never stand with the head down, 
and aprons of every kind should be fre- 
quently unfolded, or they will soon spoil. 

Casks and Barrels. 

1. — Put a few pounds of unslaked lime 
in the barrel, add water, and cover. In 
a short time add more water, and roll 
the barrel. Rinse with clean water, 

1.— Cider Casfcs.— a.— Plalf fill each 
cask with boiling water, and add % lb. 
of pearlash ; then bung it up, and turn 
over occasionally for 2 days ; then empty, 
and wash with boiling water. 

b. — Scald out with boiling water ; if 
the heads are out, put them over a straw 
fire for a few minutes, so as to slightly 
char the inside. If you have a steam 
boiler, partially fill with water, and ad- 
mit steam through the bunghole by a pipe 
down into the water, and so boil. 

3. — Musty Casks. — a. — Have the casks 
well scrubbed with boiling liquor in which 
a little soda ash has been dissolved. If 
they are not wanted for immediate use, 
let them stand exposed to the air, one 
head out, for a month ; there is no greater 
purifier than the atmosphere. Then head 
up, slightly steam, blow off, and send to 
cellar to be filled. If wanted for use, 
scrub, then gently fire until well hot 
through, steam, etc., as before. They 
should all be tested for sweetness, by chip- 



[350] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Chamois Skin) 



ing and smelling, before being headed up. 
If not wanted for use, when finished put 
about 1 pt. of bisulphite of lime and 
water, 1 to 4 of water, and they will 
keep good in a cellar for 12 months. 

b. — Burn a little sulphur in the empty 
casks, bung, and let them stand for a 
day. 

4. — Vinegar Casks. — Old vinegar bar- 
rels become impregnated to such an ex- 
tent with acetous substances that it is 
next to impossible to render them fit for 
the storage of any other liquid. Fill the 
barrels with milk of lime and let this 
remain in them for several months, then 
rinse out well with plenty of warm water, 
and steam them inside for half an hour. 

5.— Wood Taste, To Remove. — Fill the 
barrels with lime water, adding for each 
14 gal. capacity about 178 gr. of potash, 
and allow them to stand 6 to 8 days, after 
which they should be washed out with 
clean water. The fluid can be used over 
again, especially if to each new cask 
some more lime and potash be added. 

Celluloid Collars and Cuffs, To Whiten. 

1. — If the coloring does not disappear 
when the affected portions are rubbed 
with a woolen cloth and a little tripoli, 
and then polished with a clean woolen 
rag, the injury is a permanent one. 

2. — Saleratus is the best cleansing 
agent. 

Celluloid Covered Mountings. 

Rub the covered parts with a woolen 
cloth and a little tripoli, and polish with 
a clean woolen rag. 

Chamois Skin. 

1. — ^Soak in a weak solution of wash- 
ing soda, then in soapsuds for 2 hours ; 
then rinse thoroughly in water, and final- 
ly in a solution of soap and soda, and 
dry. 

2. — Wet the chamois leather in water 
just off cold — not at all hot — squeeze it 
between the two hands, then lay it flat 
on a board or table, and rub soap over 
both sides ; do not treat it as if it were 
a coarse cloth, but keep squeezing and 
opening and opening and squeezing it in 
the hands to get the soap well through 
it. Next rinse it in several waters till 
the dirt is out — cold water always. Ex- 
amine if more soap is wanted ; if so, 
again lay the piece flat and rub the soap 
over every inch of it. Then press and 
squeeze and rinse as before until it be- 
comes clean. Hang it up to half dry, 
then rub it in the hands to soften and 



(Clothes Brushing) 



stretch it, and continue this until it dries ; 
finally, roll it in a mangle. 

3. — To a basinful of soft water add 2 
or 3 teaspoonfuls of liquor sodse or po- 
tasse, and some rasped soap, and let dis- 
solve. Into this throw the chamois, and 
let it soak for 2 or 3 hours, then rub 
clean. Throw it into a basin of tepid 
water, let lie for a few minutes, then 
wring out and spread on a clean bath 
towel. Cover it with another, wrap, and 
dry quickly. When dry, rub the surfaces 
together, or, better, brush with a stiff 
brush (an old nail brush will answer), 
to restore softness to the skin. A corre- 
spondent of the National Druggist, some 
years ago, recommended the addition of 
a small amount of glycerine to the last 
rinsing water, which he says prevents the 
skin from becoming hard and stiff in 
drying. 

China. 

Use a little fuller's earth and soda or 
pearlash with your water. 

Clocks and Watches. 

In cleaning clock and watch move- 
ments, take 1 qt. of water, about 1 tea- 
spoonful or 5 gr. of liquid ammonia or 
alkali ; into this liquid should be grated 
or scraped fine 5 gr. of common soap. 
These proportions can be varied as de- 
sired, if the following remarks are kept 
in view : The articles to be cleaned 
should be plunged into this bath, where 
they should be allowed to remain at least 
10 minutes ; 20 or 30 minutes is better, 
especially for clocks. The articles should 
be wiped dry when removed from the 
bath, or polished up with a brush dipped 
in some polishing powder. Rectified ben- 
zine is preferable, as ammonia is apt to 
turn the movement black, if in excess. 
Use great care in using benzine, as it is 
very inflammable, and never should be 
used at night. 

Clothes, To Brush. 

Brushing clothes is a very simple but 
very necessary operation. Fine clothes 
require to be brushed lightly, and with 
rather a soft brush, except where mud is 
to be removed, when a hard one is neces- 
sary, being previously beaten lightly to 
dislodge the dirt. Lay the garment on a 
table, and brush it in the direction of the 
nap. Having brushed it properly, turn 
the sleeves back to the collar, so that the 
folds may come at the elbow joints ; next 
turn the lapels or sides back over the 
folded sleeves, then lay the skirts over 
level with the collar, so that the crease 



[351] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Coffee and Tea Stains) 



may fall about the center, and double 
one half over the other, so that the fold 
comes in the center of the back. 

Coffee, Tea and Milk Stains. 

1. — These stains are very difficult to 
remove, especially from light-colored and 
finely finished goods. From woolen and 
mixed fabrics they are taken out by mois- 
tening them with a mixture of 1 part of 
glycerine, 9 parts of water and % part 
of aqua ammonia. This mixture is ap- 
plied to the goods by means of a brush, 
and allowed to remain for 12 hours, occa- 
sionally renewing the moistening. After 
this time the stained pieces are pressed 
between cloth, and then rubbed with a 
clean rag. Drying, and, if possible, a lit- 
tle steaming, is generally sufficient to thor- 
oughly remove the stains. 

2. — Stains on silk garments which are 
dyed with delicate colors, or finely fin- 
ished, are more difficult to remove. ^ In 
this case 5 parts of glycerine are mixed 
with 5 parts of water, and % part of am- 
monia added. Before using this mixture 
it should be tried on some part of the 
garment where it cannot be noticed, in 
order to see if the mixture will change 
the color. If such is the case, no am- 
monia should be added. If, on the con- 
trary, no change takes place, or, if, after 
drying, the original color is restored, the 
above mixture is applied with a soft 
brush, allowing it to remain on the stains 
for 6 or 8 hours, and is then rubbed with 
a clean cloth. The remaining dry sub- 
stance is then carefully taken off by 
means of a knife. The injured places are 
now brushed over with clean water, 
pressed between cloths, and dried. If the 
stain is not then removed, a rubbing with 
dry bread will easily take it off. To re- 
store the finish a thin solution of gum 
arable, or, in many cases, beer is pre- 
ferred, is brushed on, then dried, and 
carefully ironed. By careful manipula- 
tion these stains will be successfully re- 
moved. 

3. — When any article has had tea or 
coffee spilled over it, be careful not to 
allow soap to touch it till the stains are 
removed, for the alkali in the soap will 
make the coloring matter turn into fast 
dyes. Spread the stained part over a 
basin and pour clean, soft, boiling water 
through it. If the stains prove obstinate, 
rub in a little powdered borax, and pour 
on more boiling water; then place the 
article to soak. 

Coins and Medals. 

1. — Fr. Rathgen (in the Chemische 
Zeitung) says that coins, medals, etc., as 



(Color Restoring) 



well as small iron articles, may be cleaned 
as follows : The coating of silver chlo- 
ride may be reduced with molten potas- 
sium cyanide, then boil the article in 
water. Displace the water with alcohol, 
and finally dry off in a drying closet. 
When dry, brush off with a suitable brush 
(soft, like a jeweler's), and finally cover 
with "zaponlack" (any good transparent 
lacquer or varnish will answer). Potas- 
sium cyanide is deadly poison, and should 
be handled with care. Instead of potas- 
sium cyanide alone, a mixture of that 
and potassium carbonate may be used. 
Delicate objects of silver become, after 
treatment in this way, less brittle. An- 
other way is to put the article in molten 
sodium carbonate and remove the silver 
carbonate thus formed by acetic acid of 
50% strength. This process produces the 
finest possible polish. The potassium 
cyanide process may be used with all 
small iron_ objects. For larger ones mol- 
ten potassium rhodanide is recommended. 
This converts the iron oxides into iron 
sulphides that are easily washed off, and 
leaves the surface of a fine black color. 

2. — To clean old medals, immerse in 
lemon juice until the oxidation is entirely 
removed. A full day is generally suffi- 
cient. A longer stay, however, is not 
disadvantageous. 

3. — Immerse in strong nitric acid, and 
wash immediately in water. If very dirty, 
or corroded with verdigris, it is better to 
give them a rubbing with the following : 
Pure bichromate of potash, % oz. ; sul- 
phuric acid, 1 oz. ; nitric acid, 1 oz. Rub 
over, wash with water, wipe dry, and pol- 
ish with rotten stone or chalk. 

4. — Make a bath of 10 parts of sul- 
phuric acid and 90 parts of water, and 
let the coin lie in this until the crust of 
silver sulphide is dissolved. From 5 to 
10 minutes usually suffice. Rinse in run- 
ning water, then rub with a soft brush 
and Castile soap, rinse again, dry with a 
soft cloth, and then carefully rub with 
chamois. 

5. — Dip in a strong, hot solution of 
potash or soda, rinse, and dip for a mo- 
ment in nitric acid, after which rinse 
quickly in running water. 

Color, To Restore. 

1. — When color on a fabric has been ac- 
cidentally or otherwise destroyed by acid, 
ammonia is applied to neutralize the 
same, after which an application of chlo- 
roform will, in almost all cases, restore 
the original color. The application of 
ammonia is common, but that of chloro- 
form is but little known. 



[352] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Copper) 



2. — Faded Black Cloth or Leather. — < 
Take of the best quality of blue galls, 
4 oz. ; of logwood, clean sulphate of iron 
(copperas), clean iron filings and sumac 
leaves, each 1 oz. ; put the galls, logwood 
and sumac berries into 1 qt. of the best 
white-wine vinegar, and heat to nearly 
the boiling point in a sand bath, then add 
the iron filings and copperas ; digest for 
24 hours and strain for use. Apply with 
a sponge. 

3. — Muslins and Piqu6s. — French, 
method : Make a strong lather with best 
white soap dissolved in soft water, and 
use while rather warm, but not hot. Wash 
the dress in this, but do not soak it 
previously. As soon as the lather appears 
soiled squeeze out the dress, throw away 
the lather, and wash the dress again in 
a second lot, and so continue until the 
dress is thoroughly clean. Then well rinse 
it in cold water, and afterward in cold 
water slightly blued. Squeeze all the 
water out of the dress, but do not wring 
it, and hang in a shady place to dry ; or, 
if the weather be wet, dry it before the 
fire. When dry they are to be starched. 
It is in this operation that the failures 
in getting up muslins and piqiies more 
often occur than in the washing. Use a 
large basin, and have plenty of starch, 
and dissolve in the starch, according to 
the quantity of it, 3 or 4 in. of composite 
or wax candle. Squeeze the starch well 
out of the dress, and while it is still wet 
put it between some old sheets or table- 
cloths, and pass it between the rollers of 
a wringing machine or under a mangle ; 
by this means all lumps of starch will be 
removed. Finish by ironing. Piques 
should be ironed on the wrong side, as 
lightly as possible. 

Combs. 

If it can be avoided, never wash combs, 
as the water often makes the teeth split, 
and the tortoiseshell or horn of which 
they are made rough. Small brushes, 
manufactured purposely for cleaning 
combs, may be purchased at a trifling 
cost ; with this the comb should be well 
brushed, and afterward wiped with a 
cloth or towel. 

Copper. (See also Brass.) 

1. — Take 1 oz. of oxalic acid, 6 oz. of 
rotten stone, % oz. of gum arable, all in 
powder, 1 oz. of sweet oil, and sufficient 
water to make a paste. Apply a small 
portion, and rub dry with a flannel or 
leather. 

2. — Use soft soap and rotten stone, 
•made into a stiff paste with water, and 

[ 



(Copper) 



dissolved by gently simmering in a water 
bath. Rub on with a woolen rag, and 
polish with dry whiting and rotten stone. 
Finish with a leather and dry whiting. 

3. — Copper plates are cleaned by lay- 
ing them near a fire and pouring on them 
some turpentine, and then rubbing them 
with a small, soft brush. 

4. — The cleaning of some copper ob- 
jects with powders or other substances is 
attended with difficulty on account of 
their worked and ornamented surfaces. 
Still, at times, success is complete, by 
means of acids. If the object is greasy, 
the grease must first be removed by a 
hot solution of soda, and then the object 
immersed in clear water. The bath de- 
signed for re':toring brilliancy is thus 
composed : Nitric acid, 2 parts ; sal am- 
moniac, 1 part ; or else sal ammoniac, 1 
part; nitric acid, 1 part; and water, 1 
part. The sal ammoniac is to be dis- 
solved in the water so as to obtain a sat- 
urated solution. The object should not 
be left immersed in the bath more than 
2 seconds, and should afterward be rinsed, 
first in cold water, then in hot, soapy 
water, and dried with warm sawdust. 

5. — Make Armenian bole into a paste 
with oleic acid. 

6. — Rotten stone, 1 part ; iron subcar- 
bonate, 3 parts ; lard oil, a sufficient quan- 
tity. 

7. — Iron oxide,' 10 parts ; pumice stone, 
32 parts ; oleic acid, a sufficient quantity. 

8. — Soap, cut fine, 16 parts ; precipi- 
tated chalk, 2 parts ; jewelers' rouge, 1 
part ; cream of tartar, 1 part ; magnesium 
carbonate, 1 part ; water, a sufficient 
quantity. Dissolve the soap in the small- 
est quantity of water that will effect so- 
lution over a water bath. Add the other 
ingredients to the solution while still hot, 
stirring all the time to make sure of com- 
plete homogeneity. Copper tubing, or 
other parts of apparatus that cannot be 
readily cleaned by mechanical means, 
should be well coated with tin. 

9. — Copper Halftones. — To remove 
stains from copper halftones, some oper- 
ators use acetic acid and salt, the salt 
being dissolved in the acid. The halftone 
can be brushed with this without disturb- 
ing the enamel. 

10. — Copperplate Engravings. — Wash 
the sheet on both sides by means of a 
soft sponge, or brush with water to which 
40 grams of ammonium carbonate have 
been added per liter of water, and rinse 
the paper each time with clear water. 
Next moisten with water in which a lit- 
tle wine vinegar has been admixed; rinse 
the sheet again with water containing a 
353] 



Cleansing; Bleaching, Etc. 



(Corks) 



little chloride of lime, and dry it in the 
air, preferably in the sun. The paper be- 
comes perfectly clear without the print 
being injured. 

11- — Polished Copper. — a. — Objects of 
polished copper, bronze, brass, and other 
alloys of copper, tarnish through water, 
and it is sometimes necessary to give 
them again their bright appearance. To 
obtain good results it is by no means 
indifferent Avhat method is pursued. Ex- 
perience has taught that the best way 
consists in pickling the article in an acid 
bath, to wash them next in a neutral 
bath, to dry them, and subsequently to 
rub them with a polishing powder. 

b. — Make a mixture of powdered char- 
coal, very fine, 4 parts ; spirit of wine, 
3 parts ; essence of turpentine, 2 parts ; 
to this add water in which one-third of 
its weight of sorrel salt or oxalic acid 
has been stirred, and rub the objects 
with this mixture. 

Coral, To Clean and Bleach. 

1. — The secret in cleaning coral is to 
turn the mass bottom upward and sus- 
pend it by- means of a piece of wire in 
the saucepan, so that the dirt, as it boils 
off, may drop into the water, instead of 
down the septa. A strong solution of 
ordinary washing soda, or, better, oxalic 
acid, is to be used to boil in it. The 
mass is to be boiled at least 3 hours. 
This is not only to clean the coral, but 
to bleach it also. 

2. — Apply a mixture of hydrochloric 
acid and water, or wash the coral with 
a stiff brush in cold salt and water, with 
a little soap powder ; a little chloride of 
lime will improve it ; then put in the sun 
to dry and bleach. 

3. — First, well wash in very dilute hy- 
drochloric acid (1 part acid to 30 parts 
of water) ; then well rinse in water, then 
put into some chloride of lime and water. 

Corks, Cleaning. 

1- — Old corks can be cleaned by wash- 
ing with water containing 10% of hydro- 
chloric acid, then immersing in a solution 
of sodium hyposulphite and hydrochloric 
acid. Finally, the corks are washed with 
a solution of soda and pure water, says 
the Pharmaceutical Era. Corks contain- 
ing oil or fat cannot be cleaned by this 
method. 

2. — Used corks are placed in a tub 
with a perforated head. It must be 
capable of descending into the tub, so 
as to rest directly on the corks. Pour 
on boiling water in which, to each 10 
parts, there has been added 0.5 part of sul- 



( Crape) 



phuric acid. Allow it to stand 15 to 20 
minutes, run the water off, and rinse out 
the tub. Treat the whole in the same 
manner with clear water. Then the same 
treatment with a solution of 0.13 part 
of alum in 8,500 parts of water. After 
half an hour run the water off. Lay the 
corks in the sun ; in 2 days they are 
ready. Do not expose them to the night 
air. 

Cotton and Linen, Bleaching. 

1. — Make a strong solution of chloride 
of lime (hypochlorite of lime — bleaching 
powder) in watei', allow to settle, and 
draw off the clear liquid. Rinse the goods 
in clean water containing about 5% of 
sulphuric acid, and then pass them slowly 
through the bleaching solution. They 
should then be well rinsed in water con- 
taining a little carbonate of soda. If 
the cloth is much colored it may be neces- 
sary to allow it to remain for a short 
time in the bath. This is the usual method 
of bleaching in laundries. 

2. — Hydrated sodium oxide, 0.227; li- 
quid sodium perchlorite, free from lime, 
().900 ; nitro-benzol, 0.002 ; candurango 
colorant, 0.001; water, 0.370. 

Crape. 

1. — Crape is cleansed by rinsing it in 
oxgall and water, to remove the dirt, 
afterward in pure water to remove the 
gall, and lastly in a little gum water to 
stiffen and crisp it. It is then clapped 
between the hands until dry. 

2. — To Restore. — a. — Black crape may 
be freshened and made to look almost 
equal to new if treated in the following 
way : Lay over the ironing table a piece 
of black cambric or cloth of any kind, 
and pin the piece of crape smoothly 
through to the blanket, stretching it out 
to its original size. Wring another piece 
of black cambric out of water and lay 
it over the crape, patting it down with 
the palm of the hand. Now take hot flat- 
irons and pass them over the wet cloth, 
letting them just touch the cloth, but al- 
lowing no pressure to come upon the 
crape. When the cloth has become dry 
from the heat of the iron remove it, but 
let the crape remain pinned down until 
all the moisture has evaporated and it is 
perfectly dry. The crape will now feel 
and look like new. A long veil can be 
renovated in this way, making sure that 
the part redressed comes under the edge 
of the wet cloth. 

b. — Skim milk and water, with a lit- 
tle bit of glue in it, made scalding hot, 
is excellent to restore rusty Italian crape. 



[354] 



Cleansing y Bleaching, Etc. 



(Engravings) 



If clapped and pulled dry, like muslin, it 
will look as good as new ; or, brush the 
veil till all the dust is removed, then fold 
it lengthwise, and roll it smoothly and 
tightly on a roller. Steam it till it is 
thoroughly dampened, and dry on the 
roller. 

Crocks and Jars, To Remove Grease. 

1. — Use hot water and sal soda. 

2. — Porous earthenware often becomes 
foul with organic matter when used to 
hold water. Use 1 oz. of muriatic acid, 
rubbed on the exterior and interior with 
a piece of flannel. Wash afterward with 
hot water. 

Diamonds. 

Clean all diamonds and precious stones 
by washing them with soap and water, 
with a soft brush, adding a little am- 
monia in the water, and then dry in fine 
boxwood sawdust. A little potash or 
pearlash put in the water will answer 
the same purpose. 

Earthenware. (See Crocks and Jars.) 
Engravings. 

1. — Presuming these to be mounted, 
proceed in the following manner : Cut a 
stale loaf in half with a perfectly clean 
knife ; pare the crust away from the 
edges. Place the engravings on a flat ta- 
ble, and rubbing the surface with the 
fresh cut bread, in circular sweeps, lightly 
but firmly performed, will remove all su- 
perficial markings. Soak the prints for 
a short time in a dilute solution of hydro- 
chloric acid, say 1 part of acid to 100 
parts of water, and then remove them 
into a vessel containing a sufficient quan- 
tity of clear chloride of lime water to 
cover them. Leave them there until 
bleached to the desired point. Remove, 
rinse well by allowing to stand an hour 
in a pan in which a constant stream of 
water is allowed to flow, and finally dry 
off by spreading on clean cloths. Per- 
haps they may require ironing between 
two sheets of clean paper. 

2. — Put the engraving on a smooth 
board, cover it thinly with common salt 
finely powdered ; squeeze lemon juice upon 
the salt so as to dissolve a considerable 
portion of it ; elevate one end of the board 
so that it may form an angle of about 
45 or 50° with the horizon. Pour on the 
engraving boiling water from a tea ket- 
tle until the salt and lemon juice be 
all washed off; the engraving will then 
be perfectly clean and free from stains. 
Tt must be dried on the board, or on 
some smooth surface, gradually. If dried 



( Engravings ) 



by the fire or the sun, it will be tinged 
with a yellow color. 

3. — Hydrochloric acid, oxalic acid, or 
eau de Javelle, may be employed, weak- 
ened by water. After the leaves (if it 
be a book) have by this means been whit- 
ened, they must be bathed again in a 
solution of sulphate of soda, which will 
remove all the chlorine and leave the 
leaves white and clean. They will, how- 
ever, have lost all firmness of texture, 
owing to the removal of the size from 
the paper. It will, therefore, be advis- 
able to give a bath of gelatine and alum, 
made with boiling water, to which may 
be added a little tobacco, or any other 
coloring substance, to restore the tint of 
the now too white paper. 

4. — Immerse each mildewed sheet sep- 
arately in a solution made in the propor- 
tions of ^2 lb. of chloride of lime to 1 pt. 
of water. Let it stand, with frequent 
stirring, for 24 hours, and then strain 
through muslin, and finally add 1 qt. of 
water. Mildew and other stains will be 
found to disappear very quickly, and the 
sheets must then be passed separately 
through clear water, or the chloride of 
lime, if left in the paper, will cause it 
to rot. Old prints, engravings, and every 
description of printed matter, may be suc^ 
cessfully treated in the same manner. 

5. — "I have in my time cleaned many 
hundreds. The plan which I adopt is as 
follows : I place them, one or two at a 
time, in a shallow dish, and pour water 
over them until they are completely 
soaked or saturated with it. I then care- 
fully pour off the water and pour on to 
the prints a solution of chloride of lime 
(1 part liquor calcis chlorate to 39 parts 
of water). As a general rule, the stains 
disappear as if by magic, but occasionally 
they are obstinate. When that is the 
case, I pour on the spot pure liquor calcis 
chlorate, and, if that does not succeed, 
I add a little dilute nitro-muriatic acid. 
I have never had a print which has not 
succumbed to this treatment ; iu fact, as 
a rule, they become too white. As soon 
as they are clean they must be carefully 
washed with successive portions of water 
until the whole of the chlorine is got rid 
of. They should then be placed in a 
very weak solution of isinglass or glue, 
and many collectors color this solution 
with coffee grounds, etc., to give a yellow 
tint to the print. They should be dried 
between folds of blotting paper, either 
in a press or under a heavy book, and 
finally ironed with an ordinary flat iron 
to restore the gloss, placing clean paper 
between the iron and the print. Grease 



[355] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Engravings) 



stains are much more difficult. I find 
benzine best. Small grease spots may be 
removed by powdered French chalk be- 
ing placed over them, a piece of clean 
blotting paper over the chalk, and a hot 
iron over that." — F. Andrews, 

6. — Mildew often arises from the paste 
used to attach the print. Take a solu- 
tion of alum of medium strength and 
brush on back and face of the engraving 
2 or 3 coats, then make the frame air- 
tight by pasting a strip of paper all 
around the inside of the glass, leaving 
about % in. overlapping (taking care not 
to paste the paper on the glass so as to 
be seen from the front), then place your 
glass in frame, take the overlapping piece 
and paste to side of rabbet ; place your 
picture in position, spring backboard in, 
and then place a sheet of strong paper 
(brown) on the table, damp it, and paste 
around back of frame ; lay it on to the 
paper, leave to dry, cut level. If this 
does not answer, there will be no help 
for it, but dust off as the mold accumu- 
lates. Do not brush on surface with the 
alum if the engraving is colored, but sev- 
eral coats on the back. 

7. — It has been found that ozone 
bleaches paper perfectly without injuring 
the fiber in the least. It can be used for 
removing mildew and other stains from 
engravings that have been injured by 
hanging on the walls of damp rooms. The 
engravings should be carefully moistened, 
and suspended in a large vessel partially 
jBlled with ozone. The ozone may be gener- 
ated by putting pieces of clean phosphorus 
in the bottom of the vessel, partially cov- 
ered with water ; or by passing electric 
sparks through the air in the vessel. 

8. — If the engravings are very dirty, 
take 2 parts of common salt and 1 part 
of common soda, and pound them to- 
gether until very fine. Lay the engraving 
on a board, and fasten it with drawing 
pins, and then spread the mixture, dry, 
equally over the surface to be cleaned. 
Moisten the whole with warm water and 
a little lemon juice, and, after it has re- 
mained about a minute, or even less, tilt 
the board up on its end and pour over it 
a kettleful of boiling water, being care- 
ful to remove all the mixture, and avoid 
rubbing. If the engraving is not very 
dirty, the less soda used the better, as 
it has a tenc^ency to give the engraving 
a yellow hue. 

Emery. 

Boil with caustic potash, stirring con- 
stantly, then wash with acid dilute, and 
dry. 



(Feathers) 



Emery Wheels. 

To remove grease, wash with bisulphide 
of carbon. 

Feathers and Birds. 

1. — To clean feathers from their own 
animal oil, steep them in 1 gal. of water 
mixed with 1 lb. of lime, stir them well, 
and then pour off the water and rinse the 
feathers in cold spring water. To clean 
feathers from dirt, simply wash them in 
hot water with soap. Rinse them in hot 
water. 

2. — Colonel Wragge treated the soiled 
plumage of albatrosses. Cape petrel, etc., 
by simply washing the feathers in rain 
water, after the process of skinning, and 
then laying a thick mixture of starch and 
water over the portion to be cleansed. 
Next he laid the birds aside, and left 
them till the plastering of starch had be- 
come thoroughly dry. He then removed 
the dry plaster by tapping it, and found 
that the feathers had become much clean- 
er. Old specimens may be cleaned^ in 
this way. Feathers may be set by just 
arranging them naturally with a needle 
or any pointed instrument. 

3. — Bird Skins. — Make a strong solu- 
tion of salt in water, saturate a large 
and thick cloth with it. Wrap the bird 
up in the damp cloth in as many folds 
as you can, not disarranging the plumage. 
Look at the bird in 6 hours, and if not 
long dried on, the blood will be soft ; if 
not soft, keep it in the cloth longer, and 
rewet it. When soft, rub out with gen- 
tle pressure, putting something hard un- 
der each feather with blood on, and rub- 
bing with the back of a knife. Of course, 
each feather must be done separately. 

4. — Bleaching. — a. — The feathers are 
put into a bath of permanganate of pot- 
ash, containing 4 to 5 parts of perman- 
ganate to 1,000 parts of water; a solu- 
tion of sulphate of magnesia of the same 
strength is added, and it is heated to 140° 
F. (60° C.) at the most. The feathers, 
previously washed, are put into this bath, 
then taken out, rinsed, and passed through 
weak sulphuric acid at about 1^/^ to 3° 
Tw. 

b. — It is also possible to bleach the 
feathers in a bath of 1 part of barium 
peroxide in 100 parts of water at 86° F. 
(30° C). Leave for 48 hours in this 
solution, wash, pass through a weak acid 
bath, and wash. 

c. — Feathers may be bleached by expos- 
ure to the vapor of burning sulphur (sul- 
phurous acid) in a moist atmosphere, but 
it is usually necessary to remove the oily 



[356] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc, 



(Feathers) 



matters from them before they can be 
satisfactorily so bleached. This may be 
accomplished by immersing them for a 
short time in good naphtha or benzine, 
rinsing in a second vessel of the same, 
and thoroughly drying by exposure to the 
air. This treatment does not injure the 
feathers. 

5.— Colored. — These are to be cleaned 
and rinsed in warm and cold water, but 
not rinsed in blue water. Colored feath- 
ers may also be cleaned in a mixture of 
1 part of fresh gall and 3 parts of luke- 
warm^ water, washing them in this mix- 
ture in the same manner as in the soap 
liquor. But they will require more rins- 
ing when done by this method, in order 
to take ofE all smell of the gall. Dry, and 
curl as before. 

6. — Grehe. — Carefully take out the lin- 
ing, and wash with warm water and soap, 
as directed for white ostrich feathers, but 
do not shake them until they are quite 
dry. Before remaking, carefully repair 
any rents there may be in the skin. 

7. — Ostrich Feathers, White. — a. — 
White curd soap, cut small, 4 oz., dis- 
solved in 4 pt. of water, rather hot, in 
a basin. Make the solution into a lather 
by beating it with birch rods, or wires. 
Introduce the feathers, and rub well with 
the hands for 5 or 6 minutes. After 
the soaping, wash in clean water, as hot 
as the hand can bear. Shake until dry. 

b. — Slightly soften the soiled feathers 
with warm water, using a camel's-hair 
brush. Next raise each feather with a 
flat piece of wood, or a paper knife, and 
clean them with spirits of wine. Dry 
with plaster of paris, and afterward brush 
them carefully with a dry camel's-hair 
brush. 

8. — White. — Dissolve 4 oz. of white 
soap in 2 qt. of boiling water, put it into 
a large basin or small pan, and beat to 
a strong lather with a wire egg beater 
or a small bundle of birch twigs ; use 
while warm. Hold the feather by the 
quill with the left hand, dip it into the 
soap liquor, and squeeze it through the 
right hand, using a moderate degree of 
pressure. Continue this operation until 
the feather is perfectly clean and white, 
using a second lot of soap liquor if neces- 
sary. Rinse in clean hot water to take 
out the soap, and afterward in cold water 
in which a small quantity of blue has 
been dissolved. Shake well, and dry be- 
fore a moderate fire, shaking it occasion- 
ally, that it may look full and soft when 
dried. Before it is quite dry curl each 
fiber separately with a blunt knife or 
ivory paper folder. 

[ 



(Firearms) 



9. — Bed Feathers, To Glean and Disin- 
fect. — a. — Separate them, and remove dust 
in a willow, then place them in a wide, 
open copper cone, underneath which is a 
kettle of boiling water. The steam passes 
through the perforated lid into the feath- 
ers, and heats them to 212°. The feath- 
ers are then transferred to hot sheet-metal 
plates and dried, then again spread on a 
grate under which is placed a vessel* con- 
taining chloride of lime, from which, by 
means of admixed acid, chlorine gas is 
generated, which permeates the feathers. 

b. — Prepare a quantity of lime water in 
the following manner : Well mix 1 lb. of 
quicklime in each gal. of water required, 
and let it stand until all the undissolved 
lime is precipitated as a fine powder to 
the bottom of the tub or pan, then pour 
off the clear liquor for use. The number 
of gallons to be prepared will, of course, 
depend on the quantity of feathers to be 
cleaned. Put the feathers into a clean 
tub, pour the lime water on them, and 
well stir them in it until they all sink 
to the bottom. There should then be 
sufficient of the lime water to cover them 
to a depth of 3 in. Let them stand in 
this for 3 or 4 days, then take them out, 
drain them in a sieve, and afterward well 
wash and rinse them in clean water. Dry 
on nets having a mesh about the same 
size as a cabbage net ; shake the net oc- 
casionally, and the dry feathers will fall 
through. When they are dried beat them 
well to get rid of the dust. It will take 
about 3 weeks to clean and dry a suffi- 
cient quantity for a bed. This process 
was awarded the prize ofEered by the So- 
ciety of Arts. 

Felt Hats. 

1. — Clean with ammonia and water; if 
greasy, wash with fuller's earth. Size 
with glue size, and block while warm. 
Glue size made by diluting hot glue with 
hot water. Apply inside, not outside the 
hat. The thicker the glue the stiffer the 
hat. 

2. — The stains of grease and paint may 
be removed from hats by means of tur- 
pentine or benzine, and if the turpentine 
leaves a mark finish with a little alcohol. 

Firearms. 

1. — A good and simple way of cleaning 
and recoloring the barrels and other metal 
parts of a double-barrel shotgun which 
are quite rusty. Take the barrels from 
the stock and put them in clean cold 
water free from gritty matters. Attach 
the brush to the washing rod and get out 
all adhering powder and residues ; next 
357] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Firearms) 



take tow, and wash until the barrels are 
quite clean. If the parts have rusted, it 
will be necessary to use a little emery 
flour. Dry the barrels with clean cot- 
ton rags, rubbing until the metal feels 
warm. Plug the ports and muzzles se- 
curely, then cleanse the outside parts with 
a strong alcoholic solution of caustic pot- 
ash, aided, if necessary, with a little em- 
ery flour and a soft rag. Rinse thor- 
oughly in water, dry thoroughly, warm, 
and while warm rub over every part with 
the following preparation: Pure (dry) 
zinc chloride, 1 oz, ; nitrate of antimony, 
% oz. ; olive oil, 2 oz. ; well rubbed down 
into a smooth, uniform paste. After half 
an hour's exposure, rub off excess of this 
paste, and polish with clean, soft rags. 
In warming^ the metal avoid overheating 
it so as to injure the temper. 

2. — In the volunteer service there are 
several fluids used, which are composed 
of either turpentine, naphtha, petroleum, 
benzine or gasoline, about one-third, or 
according to fancy, with machine oil. But 
the instructions to the troops are — a damp 
rag, flannel or tow, is all that is required 
to clean the barrel out ; if much water 
is used, it is liable to run into the action. 
The butt should be raised when washing 
out. After washing out and drying, an 
oily rag or flannel to be used. On many 
occasions the oily material will be found 
to be efficacious, without the previous 
use of water. 

_ 3. — Easy method of cleaning guns and 
rifles when loaded. If a muzzle-loader, 
stop up the nipple or communication hole 
with a little wax ; or, if a breech-loader, 
insert a cork in the breech rather tightly ; 
next pour some quicksilver into the bar- 
rel, and put another cork in the muzzle ; 
then proceed to roll it up and down the 
barrel, shaking it about for a few min- 
utes. The mercury and the lead will 
form an amalgam, and leave the barrel 
as clean and free from lead as the first 
day it came out of the shop. The same 
quicksilver can be used repeatedly by 
straining it through wash leather ; for 
the lead will be left behind in the leather, 
and the quicksilver will be again fit for 
use. 

4. — If the barrels have become leaded, 
wet the tow on the rod with spirits of 
turpentine, as the latter enjoys the prop- 
erty of removing any leading almost 
equally with quicksilver. Paraffine will 
also be found useful where neither of the 
foregoing can be obtained. Never touch 
the grooves of a rifle with emery, as it 
will dull their edges, and, consequently, 
affect the shooting power. 



(Fishing Nets) 



5. — Rusty. — a. — Vaseline oil, 4 parts ; 
French turpentine, 1 part ; naphtha, 1 
part. It is sufficient to thoroughly sat- 
urate the oakum wrapped around the wad 
hook with this mixture and to wipe the 
interior of the barrels a few times. Next, 
rub the barrel stock and system exter- 
nally with a moistened brush, and wipe 
the rifle clean with a rag. 

b. — A lubricating oil which it is said 
will clean rust from rifle barrels, and 
also prevent corrosion by nitro powders, 
has the following formula : Kerosene 
(free from acid), 2 oz. ; sperm oil, 1 oz. ; 
oil of turpentine, 1 oz. ; acetone, 1 oz. 
Mix in the order given. Oil of citronella 
or oil of bergamot may be added to dis- 
guise the odor. 

Fishing Nets, Preservation. 

The Allgemeine Fischer eizeitung gives 
the following receipts for the preservation 
of fishing nets, which are, of course, also 
applicable to ropes, etc., in contact with 
water. Some have been subjected to a 
long test by the Drontheimer Fischerei 
Gesellschaft : 

1. — For 40 kgm. of cord, hemp or cot- 
ton, 3 kgm. of cutch, 1 kgm. of blue vit- 
riol, % kgm. of potassium chromate, and 
2l^ kgm. of wood tar are required. The 
cutch is boiled with 150 1. of water until 
dissolved, and then the blue vitriol is 
added. Next, the net is entered, and the 
tar added. The whole should be stirred 
well, and the cordage must boil 5 to 8 
minutes. Now take out the netting, lay 
it in another vessel, cover up well, and 
leave alone for 12 hours. After that it 
is dried well, spread out in a clean place, 
and coated with linseed oil. Not before 
6 hours have elapsed should it be folded 
together and put into the water. The 
treatment with linseed oil may be omit- 
ted. 

2. — Dissolve 1 kgm. of blue vitriol in 
water. Immerse the net, which must be 
perfectly dry, in the solution for 24 to 
28 hours. This treatment must be re- 
peated every 3 or 4 weeks. 

3. — The following treatment is said to 
preserve nets for a long time in a good 
condition: Soften 1 lb. of good glue in 
cold water, then dissolve it in 10 gal. 
of hot soft water, with % lb. of curd 
soap. Wash the nets in soft water, then 
boil them in this for 2 hours, press out 
excess of the liquid and hang up over- 
night. The second bath consists of alum, 
2 lb. ; water, 5 gal. ; heat nearly to boil- 
ing, and immerse the nets in this for 
about 3 hours, then press, and transfer 
to a strong decoction of oak bark or a 



[358 J 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Floors) 



solution of sumac in warm water (water, 
5 gal.; sumac, 8 lb.), and let them re- 
main immersed in this for 48 hours, or 
longer, if convenient. 



Flannel. 

1. — Bleaching.— Flannel which has be- 
come yellow with use may be bleached by 
putting it for some days in a solution of 
hard soap to which strong ammonia has 
been added. The best proportions are 
iy2 lb. of hard curd soap, 50 lb. of soft 
water and 2-3 lb. of strong ammonia so- 
lution. The same object may be attained 
in a shorter time by placing the flannel 
for a quarter of an hour in a weak solu- 
tion of bisulphite of sodium to which a 
little hydrochloric acid has been added. 

2. — Ironing. — Most flannels are the bet- 
ter for not being ironed, but in some cases 
it is necessary to do so. The proper way 
is to dry the flannels, then spread them 
on an ironing board, cover them with a 
slightly damp cloth, and iron over this, 
pressing down heavily. The iron must 
not be too hot. 

3. — Shrinking. — New flannel should al- 
ways be washed, before it is made up, in 
clean warm water, as warm as the hand 
can bear, and entirely by itself. Rub the 
soap to a lather in the water, or the flan- 
nel will become hard. Wash it in this 
manner through two warm waters, rinse 
it in another warm water, with just sufii- 
cient soap in it to give it a whitish ap- 
pearance ; to this water add a little in- 
digo blue ; wring and shake it well, and 
while drying shake, stretch and turn it 
several times. Flannel washed in this 
manner will be white and soft as long 
as it lasts. When dry let it be clapped 
and stretched with the hands, and rolled 
tight and smooth till wanted. 

4. — Washing. — To wash flannel or flan- 
nel garments, prepare a good lather in hot 
water ; when just warm throw in your 
flannel, and work it up and down, back- 
ward and forward. Scrubbing must be 
avoided, and no soap should be actually 
rubbed on it, as this will induce further 
shrinkage. Rinse in warm water, twice 
if necessary. Never wash or rinse in hot 
or cold water, as they both cause the flan- 
nel to shrink suddenly. 

Floors. 

1. — W. O. Owen {Cin. Lancet-Clin'c) 
thinks soap and water are far from being 
an ideal cleansing agent. It cleanses 
the upper surface, but every crack and 
crevice is filled with debris to its full 
capacity, and every hole through the floor 

[ 



(Floors) 



is shown below by a pile of dirt or a 
streak of dirt along the wall below. He 
has a photograph taken beneath a floor 
where such debris exceeded a peck in 
amount, and he has seen others as bad. 
Moreover, there is an odor of wet wood — 
rather an odor due to the decomposition 
of this organic accumulation. The mois- 
ture and heat make it an ideal place for 
germ growth. In the hospital at Fort 
Thomas he has adopted the following 
method : They were first cleaned as thor- 
oughly as possible with soap and water, 
allowed to dry, then gone over with coarse 
sandpaper to remove splinters, etc., the 
cracks filled with putty, a wood filler ap- 
plied, and after this a coat of floor finish. 
When this was hard it was, in its turn, 
sandpapered, and then the final coat of 
floor finish applied. No water should 
then be applied, except to remove mud or 
other adherent material. Dr. Owen has 
found the following composition satisfac- 
tory : Wax, 5 lb. ; linseed oil, 2 gal. ; 
turpentine, 2 gal.; floor finish (Perma- 
nere), 1 gal.; benzine, 10 gal. Melt the 
wax in the oil at as low a temperature 
as possible, remove from the fire, add 
the turpentine and floor finish, take the 
liquid out of the house and add the ben- 
zine. If the wax and oil are heated too 
much the mixture is not so soluble in 
the benzine. Less oil and more wax will 
perhaps be a better composition. The 
method of application that has given the 
best results is this : After the heavy 
part of the day's work is done the floor 
is brushed thoroughly with a floor brush 
and the liquid is as evenly and thinly 
as possible applied with an old piece of 
cotton cloth to the already polished floor. 
It is then left for 12 hours, when it is 
again brushed and polished with a cot- 
ton mop. The brush removes all of the 
heavier particles of dirt and the mop the 
finer. The result is that the house and 
floors become thoroughly dry, the wood- 
work retains its original color and fin- 
ish, the work of your help is reduced 
fully one-half, and the floors are much 
cleaner than it is possible to get them 
with soap and water. The cotton mops 
become rapidly soiled. They may be 
cleaned by boiling in a weak solution of 
soda or potash. They cost ten cents 
apiece. Some care must be exercised on 
account of the danger of fire, but this 
danger is slight with reliable help. 

2. — Take some clean, sifted, white or 
silver sand, and scatter it on the floor. 
Dissolve 1 lb. of American potash or 
pearlash in 1 pt. of water, and sprinkle 
the sand with this solution. Have a pail 
359] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Floors) 



of very hot water, and well scrub the 
boards lengthwise with a hard brush, and 
use the best mottled soap. Change the 
water frequently. This is the best way 
to scour and whiten boards. The potash, 
if applied as directed, will take out all 
stains. Ink stains may be removed from 
boards by using either strong vinegar or 
salts of lemon. 

3. — The following will be found useful 
in cleaning and lestoring color to wooden 
floors : Calcinated soda, 1 part, allowed to 
stand % hour in 1 part of slaked lime ; 
then add 15 parts of water, and boil. 
Spread the solution, thus obtained, upon 
the floor with a rag, and, after drying, 
rub with a hard brush and fine sand and 
water. A solution of 1 part of concen- 
trated sulphuric acid and 8 parts of water 
will enliven the wood after above appli- 
cation. When dry, wash and wax the 
floor. 

4. — InTc Spots on Floors. — Rub with 
sand wet with equal parts of water and 
oil of vitriol ; when ink is removed rinse 
with weak lye water. In place of oil- 
cloth, tack down an old Brussels carpet, 
wrong side up ; give it 2 coats of paint, 
and, when thoroughly dry, varnish. 

5. — Oil Stains, To Remove. — Use oxalic 
acid and water, then wash well with soda 
and soap. 

Q.— Paint, To Remove.— Take 1 lb. of 
American pearlash and 3 lb. of quick 
stone lime ; slake the lime in water, then 
add the pearlash, and make the whole 
about the consistency of paint. Lay the 
mixture over the whole body of the work 
which is required to be cleaned, with an 
old brush; let it remain for 12 or 14 
hours, when the paint can be easily 
scraped off. 

7. — Parquet Floors. — To remove grease 
spots from parquet floors rub the spot 
with soft soap thoroughly, pour some 
strong alcohol on to it, and light it, tak- 
ing the proper precautions. Do not al- 
low the clothing to come too close to 
the flames. After the flames are extin- 
guished scour several times thoroughly 
with very hot water ; the spot will then 
certainly have disappeared. 

8. — Scouring. — Clean sand, 12 parts; 
soft soap, 8 parts ; lime, 4 parts. Use a 
scrubbing brush, and rinse. 

9. — Waooed Floors, To Remove Grease. 
— Cover with turpentine for an hour or 
two. Cover with powdered talc, and press 
with a warm iron. Brush off the talc ; 
if spot has disappeared, rub with wax ; 
if not, repeat the process. 



(Fruit and Wine Stains) 



Fringe, Bullion and Worsted. 

Dissolve 1 bar of soap in 4 gal. of boil- 
ing water ; have 3 vessels, each contain- 
ing 2 gal. of cold water. Into the first 
of these put 2 gal., into the second 1^/^ 
gal., and into the third 1 gal. of the dis- 
solved soap. Tack the fringe end to end, 
and then put it into the first soap liquor ; 
work it well in this, then put it into the 
second liquor, and again well work it ; 
now put it into the third liquor, handle 
it well in this, and afterward put it on 
a clean peg to drain. Put 8 gal. of cold 
water into a cleaa vessel, and stir into 
it 1 tablespoonful of oil of vitriol; han- 
dle the fringe in this spirit water for 5 
minutes, take it out, and rinse it in 1 
lot of cold water for about 1 minute. If 
the fringe contains any spickets — that is, 
pieces of wood covered with silk — these 
must be taken off and cleaned with bread 
crumbs and camphine ; or, if necessary, 
sent to the fringe makers to be recovered. 

Fruit and Wine Stains. 

1. — White cotton or linen, fumes of 
burning sulphur, warm chlorine water. 
Colored cottons or woolens, wash with 
tepid soapsuds of ammonia. Silks, the 
same, with very gentle rubbing. 

2. — First rub the spot on each side with 
hard soap and then lay on a thick mix- 
ture of starch and cold water. Rub this 
mixture of starch well into the spot, and 
afterward expose it to the sun and air. 
If the stain has not disappeared at the 
end of 3 or 4 days repeat the process. 

3. — Stains of wine may be quickly and 
easily removed from linen by dipping the 
parts which are stained into boiling milk. 
The milk to be kept boiling until the 
stain disappears. 

4. — Most fruits yield juices which, ow- 
ing to the acid they contain, permanently 
injure the tone of the dye ; but the great- 
er part may be removed without leaving 
a stain if the spot be rinsed in cold water 
in which a few drops of aqua ammonia 
have been placed, before the spot has 
dried. Wine stains on white materials may 
be removed by rinsing with cold water, 
applying locally a weak solution of chlo- 
ride of lime, and again rinsing in an abun- 
dance of water. Some fruit stains yield 
only to soaping with the hand, followed 
by fumigation with sulphurous acid; but 
the latter process is inadmissible with cer- 
tain colored stuffs. If delicate colors are 
injured by soapy or alkaline matters, the 
stains must be treated with colorless vine- 
gar of moderate strength. 

5. — To remove fruit and wine stains 



[360] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Fur) 



from table linen, moisten with dilute sul- 
phuric acid and then rub with an aque- 
ous solution of sulphite or hyposulphite 
of soda in water. 

6. — Spread the stained part over a 
bowl or basin, and pour boiling water 
through it ; or rub on salts of lemon, and 
pour boiling water through until the stain 
disappears or becomes very faint. 

Fuller's Earth, White. 

Fuller's earth, in powder, 2 lb. ; talc, 
in powder, 12 lb. ; violet powder, 2 lb. 
Mix. 

Fur. 

1. — Soap or water will spoil it. Get 
some clean common whiting — powdered, 
and plenty of it — put it in a damp place 
for a day or so, but on no account let it 
get wet ; rub it into the fur with the 
hand, and don't be afraid to rub it. Now 
let it stop till next day, give it another 
good rubbing, then shake out all the whit- 
ing you can, and give it a good brushing 
with a clothes brush. It will now be 
pretty clean, except the skin at the bot- 
tom of the fur. To remove the dirt from 
this get the fur over the back of the 
chair, and use the point of the clothes 
brush very briskly, at the same time giv- 
ing a short puff of wind every time you 
give a stroke with the brush. With a 
little practice you will remove every trace 
of whiting, grease or dirt. Lastly, pour 
alcohol on a plate, dip the point of the 
clothes brush in this, and lightly pass 
it over the fur ; move the brush the same 
way as the fur runs. 

2. — Take equal parts of flour and pow- 
dered salt (which should be well heated 
in an oven), and thoroughly rub the fur. 
It should afterward be well shaken to free 
it from the flour and salt. 

3. — Lay the fur on a table, and rub it 
well with bran made moist with warm 
water. Rub until quite dry, and after- 
ward with dry bran. The wet bran 
should be put on with flannel, and the 
dry with a piece of book muslin. 

4. — Thoroughly sprinkle every part with 
hot plaster of paris, and brush well with 
a hard brush. Then beat it with a cane, 
comb smooth with a wet comb, and press 
carefully with a warm iron ; when dry, 
shake out all loose plaster of paris. 

5. — Make a thin paste by adding ben- 
zoline to light carbonate of magnesia. 
Cover the fur with this thoroughly, hang 
it out in the open air to dry, then shake 
and brush it until the whole of the pow- 
der has been removed. 

[ 



(Gas Stoves) 



Gas Fixtures. (See also Brass.) 

1. — Cleansing. — It is very rarely that 
gas brackets are gilded with real gold ; 
they are either dipped or lacquered. To 
cleanse, whether gilded with gold or only 
its imitation, they must be taken apart 
and the separate parts boiled in a strong 
lye for a few minutes and brushed with 
a soft brush. Then pass through a solu- 
tion of cyanide of potassium ; after this, 
wash in boiling water, and after drying 
in sawdust, polish parts with chamois 
leather. When putting them together 
again the parts should, if it be necessary, 
be freshly varnished. 

2. — Befinishing. — Gas fixtures which 
have become dirty or tarnished from use 
may be improved in appearance by paint- 
ing with bronze paint, and then, if a still 
better finish is required, varnishing after 
the paint is thoroughly dry with some 
light-colored varnish that will give a hard 
and brilliant coating. If the bronze paint 
is made up with ordinary varnish it is 
liable to become discolored from acid 
which may be present in the varnish. One 
method proposed for obviating this is to 
mix the varnish with about 5 times its 
volume of spirit of turpentine, add to the 
mixture dried slaked lime in the propor- 
tion of about 40 gr. to the pint, agitate 
well, repeating the agitation several times, 
and finally allowing the suspended matter 
to settle, and decanting the clear liquid. 
The object of this is, of course, to neu- 
tralize any acid which may be present. 
To determine how effectively this has been 
done, the varnish may be chemically 
tested. 

3. — Polishing. — Pickle, and while in the 
lathe dip the burnisher in the following 
liquid : Turmeric root, 60 parts ; orange 
shellac, 60 parts ; dissolved in alcohol tar- 
tar, 120 parts ; oxgall, 3 parts ; alcohol, 6 
parts; water, 180 parts; dry with a soft 
cloth. 

Gas Stove. 

Every housewife is more or less an- 
noyed by the facility with which the top 
of her gas stove becomes soiled, if not, 
indeed, clogged with spatterings of grease. 
An easy method of removing this will be 
very acceptable, no doubt. It is well to 
immerse the separable parts for several 
hours in a warm lye, heated to about 70° 
C, said lye to be made of 9 parts of caus- 
tic soda and 180 parts of water. These 
pieces, together with .the fixed parts of 
the stove, may be well brushed with this 
lye and afterward rinsed in clean warm 
water. The grease will be dissolved away, 
361] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Gilt Mountings) 



and the stove returned almost to its origi- 
nal purity. 

German Silver, To Polish. 

Take 1 lb, of peroxide of iron, pure, 
and put half of it into a wash basin, 
pouring on water, and keeping it stirred 
until the basin is nearly full. While the 
water and crocus are in slow motion, 
pour off, leaving grit at the bottom. Re- 
peat this a second time, pouring off into 
another basin. Cleanse out grit, and do 
the same with the other half. When the 
second lot is poured off the crocus in the 
first will have settled to the bottom ; pour 
off the water gently, take out the powder, 
dry it, and put both, when washed clear 
of grit, and dried, into a box into which 
dust cannot get. If the silverwork is 
very dirty, rub the mixture of powder and 
oil on with the fingers, and then it will 
be known if any grit is on the work. If 
the work is not very black, take a piece 
of soft chamois leather and rub some 
dry crocus on, and, when well rubbed, 
shake out the leather and let the powder 
fall off that is not used, or rub it off 
with a brush. Do not put down the 
leather in the dust. 

Gilt Mountings and Frames. 

1. — Fly marks can be cleaned off with 
soap and water, used sparingly on end 
of finger covered by piece of rag. When 
all cleared off, rinse with cold water, and 
dry with chamois leather ; next buy 1 lb. 
of common size and 2 small paint pans. 
Boil a little of the size in one of the pans, 
with as much water as will just cover it. 
When boiled, strain through muslin into 
clean pan, and apply thinly to frames; 
with camel's-hair brush (called, techni- 
cally, a "dabber"). Take care you do not 
give the frames too much water and "el- 
bow grease." On no account use gold 
size, as it is used only in regilding, and 
if put on over the gold would make it 
dull and sticky. 

2. — Dissolve a very small quantity of 
salts of tartar in a wine bottle of water, 
and with a piece of cotton wool soaked 
in the liquid dab the frames very gently ; 
no rubbing, on any account, or you will 
take off the gilt ; then stand up the frames 
so that the water will drain away from 
them conveniently, and syringe them with 
clean water. Care must be taken that the 
solution is not too strong, 

3. — If new gold frames are varnished 
with the best copal varnish it improves 
their appearance considerably, and fly 
marks can then be washed off carefully 
with a sponge. The frames also last 



(Glass) 



many times longer. It also improves old 
frames to varnish them with it. 

4, — Gilt frames may be cleaned by 
simply washing them with a small sponge 
moistened with hot spirits of wine or oil 
of turpentine, the sponge only to be suffi- 
ciently wet to take off the dirt and fly 
marks. They should not afterward be 
wiped, but left to dry of themselves. 

5. — Old ale is a good thing to wash any 
gilding with, as it acts at once upon the 
fly dirt. Apply it with a soft rag ; but 
for the ins and outs of carved work a 
brush is necessary ; wipe it nearly dry, 
and don't apply any water. Thus will 
you leave a thin coat of the glutinous 
isinglass of the finings on the face of the 
work, which will prevent the following 
flies' faeces from fastening to the frame 
as they otherwise would do. 

6. — Mix and beat the whites of 3 eggs 
with one-third, by weight, of Javelle 
water, and apply to the gilt work, which 
will be quickly restored to newness. 

7. — Gilt mountings, unless carefully 
cleaned, soon lose their luster. They 
should not be rubbed ; if slightly tar- 
nished, wipe them off with a piece of 
Canton flannel, or, what is better, remove 
them, if possible, and wash in a solution 
of % oz. of borax, dissolved in 1 lb. of 
water, and dry them with a soft linen 
rag ; their luster may be improved by 
heating them a little and rubbing with a 
piece of Canton flannel. 

8. — (Upton.) Quicklime, 1 oz. ; sprin- 
kle it with a little hot water to slake it, 
then gradually add 1 pt. of boiling water, 
so as to form a milk. Next, dissolve 
pearlash, 2 oz., in ll^ pt, of boiling 
water. Mix the 2 solutions, cover up the 
vessel, agitate occasionally for an hour, 
allow it to settle ; decant the clear, put 
it into flat %-pt. bottles, and cork them 
well. Use to clean gilding, either alone 
or diluted with water. It is applied with 
a soft sponge, and then washed off with 
clean water. It is essentially a weak so- 
lution of potassa, and may be extempo- 
raneously prepared by diluting solution of 
potassa with about 5 times its volume. 

Glass. 

For removing any sort of dirt that is 
insoluble in water, lye, and dilute acids, 
from hollow vessels, a great variety of 
mechanical means are employed, such as 
iron chains and balls, sand, shot, hand 
and machine brushes. The selection is 
governed less by the quality of the filth 
than by economical considerations, such 
as the cost of the material used, of hand 



[862 J 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Glass) 



labor, the wear and tear on the vessel, 
etc. 

For cleansing glass vessels, river and 
sea sand are inadmissible because hard 
quartz sand, especially angular river sand, 
sci'atches the glass, and gradually renders 
it opaque, if it does not previously crack 
where the scratches occur, on the prin- 
ciple of the Bologne flask and Prince Ru- 
pert drops. 

1. — Adherent slime and sediment are 
removed, especially from valuable glasses, 
by shaking with bits of paper or linen 
rags. 

2. — A substitute for sand for household 
use is found in calcined ashes and coarse 
salt. 

3. — Clean wood ashes, mixed with 
pieces of charcoal, can be strongly recom- 
mended, and they act chemically, too, ow- 
ing to the potash they contain. Coal 
ashes, and those from peat, are worthless, 
because they are mixed with sharp sand. 

4. — Ordinary salt is less useful for 
cleansing than coarse sea salt or ground 
rock salt. Where the resulting brine can 
be utilized, as in agriculture, etc., salt 
can be recommended for scouring pur- 



5. — As scouring material in large es- 
tablishments we can recommend gypsum 
and marble dust, free from sand, and also 
ground bones. In the manufacture of 
bone meal, from the stronger and more 
resistant (tubular) bones, there is an in- 
termediate product, about the size of bar- 
ley grains (knochen-graupen), that is ex- 
cellent for cleansing bottles. Many bone 
mills now furnish this product, but it 
has found little favor as yet. 

6. — Marble and gypsum dust are, in 
general, less sure to be free from quartz ; 
and besides, the latter dissolves to some 
extent in water, and, if used, must be 
well rinsed out afterward. 

7. — The india-rubber washer is useful 
in analytical laboratories, where it is re- 
quired to collect and save the sediments, 
as in filtering precipitates, etc. Chisel 
or tongue-shaped pieces are cut from 
thick pieces of india-rubber, and a sharp 
brass or platinum wire is fixed into the 
thick end to serve as a handle. For 
beakers aad capsules it is to be preferred 
to the hair pencil and feather commonly 
used, for owing to their fibrous structure, 
the precipitate gets entangled in them, 
while they also lose some of their nitro- 
geneous particles, which would affect the 
accuracy of careful nitrogen determina- 
tion, as, for example, in water analysis. 

8. — To cleanse glass or porcelain ves- 
sels very thoroughly from the greatest va- 

r 



(Glass) 



riety of adherent organic substances, the 
mixture of bichromate of potash and sul- 
phuric acid possesses an indisputable ad- 
vantage over benzine, ether, alcohol, etc. 
Always keep a stock of this chromic and 
sulphuric-acid mixture, made from the 
acid of the desiccators, and the chromate 
from the nitric-acid estimations, and use 
it for rinsing graduated vessels, which are 
then more easily moistened. 

9. — If greasy, wipe with taw, then with 
nitric acid or caustic potash ; rinse well. 

10. — Cover Glasses. — There is, says Mr. 
F. W. Cooper, in the Photogrom, noth- 
ing better than a piece of chamois leather 
or velveteen, stretched over a board (2 ft. 
by 5 in. by % in.), and tacked to the 
under side, a piece of stout twill being 
interposed between the board and the vel- 
vet. The glasses having been cleaned, 
and merely drained, can be very quickly 
and perfectly polished by rubbing up and 
down the leather or velvet surface. The 
board has the advantage of obviating any 
risk of cutting the hands or breaking the 
glasses as when polishing is done with a 
duster and the glass held in the hand. 

11. — Gut Glass. — A high polish may be 
given to cut-glass dishes, decanters, etc., 
by sprinkling with warmed sawdust di- 
rectly after washing and drying in the 
usual way. A very soft chamois leather 
must give the final polish, and this 
should be kept free from dust and for 
the one purpose only. 

12. — Discolored Glass. — Apply dilute 
nitric acid. Water of ammonia is also 
good. 

13. — Framed Glass. — To clean glass in 
frames, when the latter are covered, or 
otherwise so finished that water cannot 
be used, moisten tripoli with brandy, rub 
it on the glass while moist, and when dry 
rub off with a silk rag ; to prevent the 
mixture injuring the cloth on the frame, 
use strips of tin bent to an angle ; set 
these on the frame with one edge on the 
glass ; when the frames are of a charac- 
ter that will not be injured by water, rub 
the glass with water containing a little 
liquid ammonia, and polish with moist 
paper. 

14. — Gloles. — In order to remove from 
lamp globes the unsightly grease spots 
frequently met with, and to restore the 
handsome matt appearance of polished 
glass, pour 2 spoonfuls of a slightly heat- 
ed solution of potash into the) globe, mois- 
ten the whole surface with it, and rub 
the stains with a fine linen rag ; rinse 
the globe with clean water, and carefully 
dry it off with a fine soft cloth. 

15. — Paint Stains. — a. — American pot- 
363] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Goatskiu Rugs) 



ash, 3 parts ; unslaked lime, 1 part. Lay 
this on with a stick, letting it remain for 
some time, and it will remove either tar 
or paint. 

b. — Common washing soda dissolved in 
water. Let it soak a while — if put on 
thick, say 30 minutes — and then wash off. 
If it does not remove, give it another ap- 
plication. 

16. — Photographic Plates. — Photogra- 
phers will find the following a useful 
glass-cleaning preparation : Water, 1 pt. ; 
sulphuric acid, % oz. ; bichromate of pot- 
ash, % oz. The glass plates, varnished, 
or otherwise, are left for 10 or 12 hours, 
or as much longer as desired, in this so- 
lution, then rinsed in clean water and 
wiped dry with soft white paper. The 
liquid quickly removes silver stains from 
the skin without any of the attendant 
dangers of cyanide of potassium. 

17. — Polish. — Sodium carbonate, 1 oz. ; 
powdered whiting, 4 oz. ; stronger am- 
monia water, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 4 oz. ; water, 
enough to make 1 pt. Mix well, and ap- 
ply with a sponge. When it is dry, rub 
off and polish. Of course, nothing should 
be used in polishing glass that will 
scratch it. 

Simple diluted ammonia water is a 
good cleanser for glassware, especially if 
the article is a little greasy. 

18. — Scratches. — a. — Slight scratches 
may be partially polished out by rubbing 
the part with rouge wet with water, upon 
a piece of soft leather. If it is a deep 
scratch, it will have to be ground out 
Avith the finest flour emery, such as is 
used by opticians, and the spot polished 
with rouge and water upon a piece of 
soft leather. If you have much of this 
kind of work to do it will save time to set 
up a buf£ wheel of wood, and grind out 
the scratches with fine pumice stone and 
water. Then polish with a felt buff and 
rouge with water. 

b. — When scratches are not too deep 
they may be removed, and the surface 
restored, by rubbing with the following 
powder : Powdered chalk, 60 parts ; trip- 
oli, 30 parts ; bole, 15 parts. Reduce to 
a fine powder, and mix. Wet the sur- 
face of the article slightly with water ; 
then, with a linen cloth dipped in the 
powder, rub the surface until the dull- 
ness disappears. 

Goatskin Rugs. 

One washing with warm (not hot) 
suds will not materially hurt the skin 
itself. The skin may not seem quite so 
soft after the washing, but if the wash- 
ing is done quickly, the skin well rinsed 



(Gloves) 



in cold water, and dried with only mod- 
erate warmth, being frequently turned 
and shaken, the difference will hardly be 
perceptible. 

Gloves. 

1. — Soft soap, 1 oz. ; water, 4 oz. ; oil 
of lemon, % dr. ; precipitated chalk, a suf- 
ficient quantity. Dissolve the soap in 
the water, add the oil, and make into 
a stiff paste with a suflacient quantity of 
chalk. 

2. — White hard soap, 1 part; talcum, 
1 part ; water, 4 parts. Shave the soap 
into ribbons, dissolve in the water by 
the aid of heat, and incorporate the tal- 
cum. 

3. — White bole, 600 parts ; orris root, 
300 parts ; dry soap, 75 parts ; borax, 150 
parts ; ammonium chloride, 25 parts. 
Powder and mix thoroughly. Dampen 
the gloves with a wet rag, dust on the 
powder, and then rub it well in. When 
dry, brush off the residual powder. — 
Druggists' Circular. 

4. — Chloroform, 1 fl.dr. ; alcohol, 2 
fl.dr. ; ammonia water, 10 fl.dr. ; sodium 
carbonate, 2 dr. ; Castile soap, 1 oz. ; 
water, 4 pt. 

5. — Stronger ammonia water, 2 fl.dr. ; 
glycerine, 1 fl.oz. ; ether, 1 fl.oz. ; Castile 
soap, 1 fl.oz. ; water, 2 pt. 

6. — Castile soap, 1 oz. ; borax, 1 oz. ; 
soap liniment, 12 fl.dr. ; alcohol, 2^/^ fl.oz. ; 
ammonia water, 4 fl.oz. ; boiling water, 
3 pt. 

7. — Curd soap, 1 av.oz. ; water, 4 fl.oz. ; 
oil of lemon, % fl.dr. ; French chalk, a 
suflScient quantity. Shred the soap, and 
melt it in the water by heat ; add the oil 
of lemon, and make into a stiff paste with 
French chalk. 

8. — White soap, 25 parts; water, 15 
parts ; solution of chlorinated soda, 16 
parts; ammonia water (10%), 1 part. 
Shred the soap, and melt it in the water 
by heat, stirring well all the time ; when 
lukewarm add the other liquids, and mix 
thoroughly. Put the glove on the hand 
and apply the paste with a piece of flan- 
nel, rubbing the kid from wrist to finger 
tips. 

9. — Castile soap, white, old and dry, 
100 parts ; water, 75 parts ; tincture of 
quillaia, 10 parts ; ether, 10 parts ; am- 
monia water, stronger, 5 parts ; benzine, 
deodorized, 75 parts. Melt the soap, 
previously finely shaved, in the water, 
bring to boiling, and remove from the 
fire. Let cool, then add the other in- 
gredients, incorporating them thoroughly. 
The paste should be put up in collapsible 



L 36-4 J 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Gloves) 



tubes, or tightly closed metallic boxes. 
It can also be used for clothing. 

10. — Kaolin, 8 oz. ; talcum, 4 oz. ; 
borax, 2 oz. ; soap, 1 oz. ; ammonium chlo- 
ride, 4 dr. A powder to be applied with 
a damp cloth. 

11. — Ether, 1 part ; benzol, 2 parts. 
Put the gloves on the hands and rub thor- 
oughly with the solution, with a clean 
piece of flannel. Let the greater part of 
the fluid evaporate, then remove the 
gloves from the hands and hang them in 
a current of warm, dry air until the 
smell of the liquid is dissipated. 

12. — Tincture of quillaia, 3 oz. ; ben- 
zine, 13 oz. Mix, and shake for half 
an hour, then set aside for 12 hours to 
solidify. 

13. — Hard white soap, 3 oz. ; boiling 
water, 5 oz. ; stronger ammonia water, 
8 oz. ; benzine, 26 oz. Dissolve the soap 
in the water, and when nearly cold add 
the ammonia and the benzine. This may 
be perfumed with any suitable oil or 
"essence." 

14. — The following from Dieterich is 
said to be especially excellent : Tincture 
of quillaia, 10 parts ; sulphuric ether, 10 
parts ; ammonia water, 3 parts ; oil of 
lavender, 0.5 part; deodorized benzine, 
q. s. to make 100 parts. Mix. Shake 
before using. 

15. — Plain benzine, with % part each 
of oil of mirbane and oil of lavender, 
makes, according to one authority, the 
best of all cleaners. 

16. — Doeskin, Wash Leather (Cham- 
ois), and Undressed Kid. — a. — Wash them 
in lukewarm soft water, with a little 
Castile or curd soap, oxgall or bran tea ; 
then stretch them on wooden hands, or 
pull them into shape without wringing 
them ; next rub them with pipeclay, yel- 
low ocher, or umber, or a mixture of 
them in any required shade, made into 
a paste with ale or beer ; let them dry 
gradually, and when about half dry rub 
them well, so as to smooth them and put 
them into shape ; when they are dry brush 
out the superfluous color, cover them with 
paper, and smooth them with a warm 
(not hot) iron. 

b. — Take out the grease spots by rub- 
bing them with magnesia or with cream of 
tartar. Then wash them with soap dis- 
solved in water as directed for kid gloves, 
and afterward rinse them, first in warm 
water and then in cold. Dry them in 
the sun, or before the fire. All gloves 
are better, and more shapely if dried on 
glove trees or wooden hands. 

[ 



(Gold) 



Gold. (See also Gilt Mountings and 
Frames. ) 

1. — Dull Gold. — A solution of 80 grams 
of chloride of lime, 80 grams of bicarbon- 
ate of soda, and 20 grams of common salt, 
in 3 1. of distilled water, is prepared, and 
kept in well closed bottles. The article 
to be cleaned is allowed to remain some 
short time in this solution (which is 
only to be heated in the case of very 
obstinate dirt), then taken out, washed 
with spirit, and dried in sawdust. 

2.— Matt GoZtZ.— Take 80 grams of chlo- 
ride of lime and rub it up with gradual 
addition of water, in a porcelain mortar, 
into a thin, even paste, which put into 
a solution of 80 grams of bicarbonate 
of soda and 20 grams of cooking salt, in 
3 1. of water. Shake it, and let stand 
a few days before using. If the prepara- 
tion is to be kept for any length of time 
the bottle should be placed, well corked, 
in the cellar. For use, lay the tarnished 
articles in a dish, pour the liquid, which 
has previously been well shaken up, over 
them so as to just cover them, and leave 
them therein for a few days. In very 
stubborn cases one may dilute somewhat. 
Next wash the objects, rinse with alco- 
hod, and dry in sawdust. 

3. — Tarnished Gold. — This preparation 
is made up by carefully mixing together 
20 parts of bicarbonate of soda, 1 part 
of calcium chloride and 1 part of com- 
mon salt in 16 parts of water. Of this, 
a small quantity is spread upon the sur- 
face to be cleansed with a soft brush, and 
afterward rubbed well with a piece of 
tissue paper until it is perfectly dry. The 
liquid may be applied either lukewarm or 
cold, according to convenience. 

4. — Use rouge on a bufE moistened with 
alcohol. 

5. — Use jewelers' rouge with a brush. 

6. — Chalk, 18 parts ; mixed with talc, 
5 parts ; silica, 2 parts ; alumina, 5 parts ; 
carbonate of magnesia, 2 parts ; jewelers' 
red, 2 parts. 

7. — Rock alum, burned and finely pow- 
dered, 5 parts ; levigated chalk, 1 part ; 
mix, and apply with a dry brush. 

8. — The Journal fUr Goldschmiedekunst 
gives the folic .ving formula for a prepa- 
ration for cleaning and polishing gold, 
silver and plated ware : Acetic acid, 2 
parts ; sulphuric acid, 2 parts ; oxalic 
acid, 1 part ; jewelers' rouge, 2 parts ; 
distilled water. 200 parts. Mix the acids 
and water and stir in the rouge, after 
first rubbing it up with a portion of the 
liquid. With a clean cloth, wet with this 
mixture, go well over the article. Rinse 
off with hot water, and dry. 
365] 



Cleansing, Bleaching^ Etc. 



(Grass Stains) 



9. — A powder of somewhat similar com- 
position is said to be used by gold and 
silversmiths, the formula for which fol- 
lows : Chalk, 54 part's ; magnesium car- 
bonate, 5 parts ; alumina, 14 parts ; silica, 
8 parts ; iron oxide, 5 parts. 

Gold and Silver Lace, 

Gold lace, spangles, clasps, knots, etc., 
may be brushed over with the following 
composition : Shellac, 1^ oz. ; dragon's 
blood, % dr. ; turmeric root, % dr. ; digest 
with strong alcohol, decanting the ruby- 
red colored tincture thus obtained. After 
coating with this composition a warm flat- 
iron is gently brushed over the objects so 
as to heat them only very slightly. Gold 
embroidery can be similarly treated. Sil- 
ver lace or embroidery may be dusted over 
with the following powder and well 
brushed : Take alabaster, and strongly 
ignite it and while still hot place it in 
corn brandy; a white powder is thus ob- 
tained, which is fit for use after heating 
over the flame of a spirit lamp. It should 
be dusted on from a linen bag. 

Gold Workers, Polishing Powders for. 

Carbonate of lead, 21^^ parts ; carb- 
onate of lime (chalk) , 87 parts ; carbonate 
of magnesia, 8i/^ parts ; alumina, 21 1/^ 
parts ; silica, 13 parts ; jewelers' rouge, 
81^ parts. Mix together. 

Granite, Removal of Stains. 

1.— A paste of oxgall, 1 oz. ; strong 
solution of caustic soda, 1 gill ; turpen- 
tine, 1% tablespoonfuls ; pipeclay, enough 
to make it thick and consistent. Scour 
well. 

2. — Mix together whiting, % lb.; soft 
soap, % lb. ; washing soda, 1 oz. ; sul- 
phate of soda, a piece as big as a walnut. 
Rub it over the surface you propose to 
treat, let it stand 24 hours, and then 
wash off. If it succeeds, try another por- 
tion. 

3. — Smoke and soot stains can be re- 
moved with a hard scrubbing brush and 
fine sharp sand, to which add a little 
potash. 

4. — Use strong lye, or make a hot so- 
lution of 3 lb. of common washing soda 
dissolved in 1 gal. of water. Lay it on 
the granite with a paint brush. 

Grass Stains. 

1. — Wash the stained places in clean, 
cold soft water, without soap, before the 
garment is otherwise wet. 

2. — Remove by ether, in which the col- 
oring matter of grass — chlorophyll — is 
soluble. 



(Grease and Stains) 



[366 J 



Grease and Stains. 

1. — When the fabric is washable and 
the color fast, ordinary soap and water 
are, of course, efficient in removing grease 
and the ordinarily attendant dirt; but 
special soaps are made for clothes clean- 
ing which may possibly be more effective. 

2. — In the removal of grease from cloth- 
ing with benzol or turpentine, people gen- 
erally make the mistake of wetting the 
cloth with the turpentine and then rub- 
bing it with a sponge or piece of cloth. 
In this way the fat is dissolved, but is 
spread over a greater space, and is not 
removed ; the benzol or turpentine evapo- 
rates, and the fat covers a greater sur- 
face than before. The way is to place 
soft blotting paper beneath and on top 
of the grease spot, which is to be first 
thoroughly saturated with the benzol, and 
then well pressed. The fat is then dis- 
solved, and absorbed by the paper, and 
entirely removed from the clothing. 

3. — Another method, namely, to apply 
a hot iron on one side, while blotting pa- 
per is applied to the other, depends upon 
the fact that the surface tension of a sub- 
stance diminishes with a rise of tempera- 
ture. If, therefore, the temperature at 
different portions or sides of the cloth is 
different, the fat acquires a tendency to 
move from the hotter parts toward the 
cooler. 

4. — Castile soap, in shavings, 4 oz. ; 
carbonate of soda, 2 oz. ; borax, 1 oz. ; 
aqua ammonia, 7 oz. ; alcohol, 3 oz. ; sul- 
phuric ether, 2 oz. ; soft water, enough 
to make 1 gal. Boil the soap in the 
water until it is dissolved, and then add 
the other ingredients. Although it is not 
apparent what good 2 oz. of ether can 
do in 1 gal. of liquid, the mixture is said 
to be very efficient. 

5. — Make a weak solution of ammonia 
by mixing the ordinary "liquor ammoniae" 
of the druggist with its own volume of 
cold water, and rub it well into the 
greasy parts, rinsing the cloth in cold 
water from time to time until the grease 
is removed. The ammonia forms a soap 
with the fatty acids of the grease, which 
is soluble in water. 

6. — Strong ammonia water, 4 oz. ; wa- 
ter, 2 qt. ; saltpeter, 1 oz. ; mottled soap, 
finely shaved, 2 oz. Mix thoroughly, and 
allow the preparation to stand for sev- 
eral days before using. Cover any grease 
spot with this preparation, rub well, and 
rinse with clean water. 

7. — Camphor, 1 oz., dissolved in 3 oz. 
of alcohol ; add 4 oz. of essence of lemon. 

8. — Camphine, 8 OZ. ; alcohol, 1 oz. ; 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Grease and Stains) 



sulphuric ether, 1 oz. ; essence of lemon, 
1 dr. 

9. — Alcohol, 8 oz. ; white soap, 1 % oz. ; 
oxgall, XV2 oz. ; essence of lemon, % to 
1^: oz. 

10. — Fuller's earth, 15 parts ; French 
chalk, % part ; j^ellow soap, 10 parts ; 
pearlash, 8 parts ; mix thoroughly, and 
make it into paste with spirits of tur- 
pentine. Color, if desired, with yellow 
ocher. Form into cakes. 

11. — An earthy compound for remgving 
grease spots is made as follows : Take 
fuller's earth, free it from all gritty mat- 
ter by elutriation with water ; mix with 
1/^ lb. of the earth so prepared % lb. of 
soda, as much soap, and 8 yolks of eggs, 
well beaten up, with % lb. of purified 
oxgall. The whole must be carefully 
triturated upon a porphyry slab, the soda 
with the soap in the same manner as col- 
ors are ground, mixing in gradually the 
eggs and the oxgall, previously beaten 
together. Incorporate next the soft earth 
by slow degrees till a uniform thick paste 
be formed, which should be made into 
balls or cakes of a convenient size, and 
laid out to dry. A little of this deter- 
gent being scraped off with a knife, made 
into a paste with water, and applied to 
the stain, will remove it. 

12. — Castile soap, 4 oz. ; hot water, 1 
qt. When the soap is dissolved add water, 
4 qt. ; water of ammonia, 4 fl.oz. ; sul- 
phuric ether, 1 fl.oz. ; glycerine, 1 fl.oz. ; 
alcohol, 1 oz. Medical Brief states that 
this is an excellent preparation for re- 
moving grease. 

13. — A soft oxgall soap may be pre- 
pared as follows : Oxgall, fresh, 10 grams ; 
alcohol, 100 grams ; hard soap, 10 grams ; 
soft soap, 10 grams. Boil the oxgall in 
the alcohol, and strain the mixture ; dis- 
solve the soaps in this spirit, and evap- 
orate to the proper consistency on a water 
bath. 

14. — Castile soap, 4 dr. ; chloroform, 4 
dr. ; ammonia water, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 4 dr. ; 
water, enough to make 8 oz. This mix- 
ture blows the stopper out of the bot- 
tle. 

The claims of carbon tetrachloride as 
a grease eradicator should not be over- 
looked. It is said to be equal to ben- 
zine for this purpose, and is non-inflam- 
mable. It acts as an anesthetic, and 
must be handled with care. 

15. — Powdered borax, 30 parts ; extract 
of soap bark, 30 parts ; oxgall, fresh, 120 
parts ; Castile soap, 450 parts. First 
make the soap-bark extract by boiling the 
crushed bark in water until it has as- 
sumed a dark color, then strain the liquid 



(Grease and Stains) 



into an evaporating dish, and by the aid 
of heat evaporate it to a solid extract ; 
then powder, and mix it with the borax 
and the oxgall. Melt the Castile soap 
by adding a small quantity of water and 
warming, then add the other ingredients, 
and mix well. About 100 parts of soap 
bark make 20 parts of extract. 

16. — Castile soap, 2 lb. ; potassium car- 
bonate, % lb. ; camphor, % oz. ; alcohol, 
% oz. ; ammonia water, % oz. ; hot water, 
% pt., or suflBcient. Dissolve the potas- 
sium carbonate in the water, add the 
soap, previously reduced to thin shav- 
ings, keep warm over a water bath, stir- 
ring occasionally until dissolved, adding 
more water if necessary, and finally, when 
of a consistency to become semi-solid on 
cooling, remove from the fire, and when 
nearly ready to set, stir in the camphor, 
previously dissolved in the alcohol, and 
the ammonia. If a paste is desired, a 
potash soap should be used instead of the 
Castile in the foregoing formula, and a 
portion or all of the water omitted. Soaps 
made from potash remain soft, while soda 
soaps harden on the evaporation of the 
water which they contain when first made, 
A liquid preparation may be obtained by 
the addition of suflBcient water, and some 
more alcohol would probably improve it, 

17. — A strong decoction of soap bark, 
preserved by the addition of alcohol, 
would also form a good liquid cleanser 
for fabrics of the more delicate sort. 

18. — Wood alcohol, 1 gal. ; ether, 1 oz, ; 
chloroform, 1 oz. ; oil of bergamot, 1 dr. ; 
essential oil of almonds, 10 drops. Mix 
them. To be applied with a sponge or 
soft cloth. 

19. — Gasoline, 1 gal. ; chloroform, 1 oz. ; 
bisulphide of carbon, 1 oz. ; essential oil 
of almonds, 5 drops ; oil of bergamot, 1 
dr. ; oil of cloves, 5 drops. Mix them. To 
be applied with a sponge or soft cloth. 
Gloves are best cleaned on the hand. This 
preparation should not be made or used 
at night, or in a room where there is a 
fire, as it is very inflammable. It will 
not stain nor discolor. 

20. — Glycerine, 1 oz. ; sulphuric ether, 
1 oz. ; alcohol, 1 oz. ; ammonia, 4 oz. ; 
Castile soap, 1 oz. ; mix together, and add 
suflBcient water to make 2 qt. Apply, 
and rinse. 

21.— Take 22 lb. of the best white soap 
and reduce it to thin shavings. Place it 
in a boiler, together with water, 8.8 lb. ; 
oxgall, 18.25 lb. ; cover up, and allow to 
remain at rest all night. In the morning 
heat up gently, and regulate it so that 
the soap may dissolve without stirring. 
When the whole is homogeneous, and 



[367 3 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Gutta Percha) 



flows smoothly, part of the water having 
been vaporized, add turpentine, 0.55 lb. ; 
best clear benzine, 0.44 lb. ; and mix well. 
While still in the state of fusion, color 
with green ultramarine and ammonia, 
pour into molds, and let stand for a few 
days before using. The product will be 
found to act admirably, and the yield is 
very good indeed. 

22. — Billiard Cloth, etc. — Grease can be 
removed from billiard or other cloths by 
a paste of fuller's earth and turpentine. 
This should be rubbed upon the fabric 
until the turpentine has evaporated, and 
a white powder remains. The latter can 
be brushed off, and the grease will have 
disappeared. 

2S.— Cold MetJiod.—Cocosinnt oil, 30 
kgm. ; soda lye, 38° B., 15 kgm. ; potash 
lye, 20° B., 5 kgm. ; "brilliant" green, 
200 grams ; oil of turpentine, purified, 
800 grams ; finely pulverized clay, 26 
kgm. The clay (kaolin), finely sifted, is 
first placed in the vat. The coloring mat- 
ter ("brilliant" green) is rubbed up with 
a portion of the oil, and the balance of 
the latter poured in upon the clay, and 
the two intimately mixed. The colored 
oil is next added, and all well stirred to- 
gether. Mix the 2 alkaline solutions, and 
pour them in a strong stream into the 
mixture of oil and clay, agitating the lat- 
ter constantly. Finally, add the turpen- 
tine, under constant stirring. The result- 
ant soap is poured into metallic boxes and 
closely covered. Grease spots in garments 
are first covered with a little of the paste, 
well rubbed in. Sponging with warm 
water afterward removes soap and spot 
in the most complete manner. 

24. — Scouring Balls. — a. — Curd soap, 8 
oz. ; oil of turpentine and oxgall, of each 
1 oz. Melt the soap, and when cooled a 
little stir in the rest, and make it into 
cakes while warm. 

b. — Soft soap and fuller's earth, each 
1 lb. ; beat them well together in a mor- 
tar, and form into cakes. To remove 
grease, etc., from cloth. The spot, first 
moistened with water, is rubbed with the 
cake, and allowed to dry, when it is well 
rubbed with a little warm water, and 
afterward rinsed or rubbed off clean. 

25. — Sugar, Glue, Blood, Albumen. — 
On white goods, on dyed tissues of cot- 
ton and wool, and on silk, simple wash- 
ing with water. 

Gutta Percha. 

Bleaching. — 1. — Dissolve the gutta per- 
cha in 20 times its weight of boiling 
benzole, add to the solution plaster of 
very good quality, and agitate the mix- 



( Horsehair) 



ture from time to time. By reposing 
for 2 days the plaster is deposited, and 
carries down with it all the impurities of 
the gutta percha insoluble in benzole. The 
clear liquid decanted is introduced by 
small portions at a time into twice its 
volume of alcohol of 90%, agitating con- 
tinually. During this operation the gutta 
percha is precipitated in the state of a 
pasty mass, perfectly white. The desicca- 
tion of the gutta percha thus purified 
requires several weeks' exposure to the 
air, but may be accelerated by trituration 
in a mortar, which liberates moisture 
which it tends to retain. 

2. — White gutta percha is obtained by 
precipitating a solution of ordinary gutta 
percha in chloroform by alcohol, wash- 
ing the precipitate with alcohol, and final- 
ly boiling it in water, and molding into 
desired form while still hot. 

Cleaning. — This can be done by using 
a mixture of soap and powdered charcoal, 
polishing afterward with a dry cloth with 
a little charcoal on it. 

Hands. (See also Ink.) 

1. — Aniline Stains. — Wash with strong 
alcohol, or, what is more effectual, wash 
with a little bleaching powder, then with 
alcohol. 

2. — Nitrate of Silver Stains. — a. — Paint 
the blackened parts with tincture of 
iodine ; let remain until the black becomes 
white. The skin will then be red, but by 
applying ammonia the iodine will be 
bleached, leaving white instead of black 
stains of nitrate of silver. 

b. — Nitrate of silver stains may be re- 
moved by rubbing them with a weak so- 
lution of sulphydrate of ammonium or a 
strong solution of iodide of potassium. 

3. — Nitric Acid Stains. — Touch the 
stains with a solution of permanganate 
of potassium ; wash, rinse in dilute hy- 
drochloric acid, and wash again. 

Harness Cleaning. 

Unbuckle all the parts, and wash clean 
with soft water, soap and a brush. A 
little turpentine or benzine will take off 
any gummy substance which the soap 
fails to remove. Then warm the leather, 
and as soon as dry on the surface apply 
the oil with a paint brush or a swab. 
Neatsfoot oil is the best. 

Horsehair, Bleaching. 

If a pure white horsehair is required, 
the hair must be white to start with, as 
yellow or gray horsehair cannot be made 
pure white. First thoroughly wash in 
hot soap and water, then rinse well in 



[368] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Ink and Iron Mold) 



clean hot water. Allow to soak about 
12 hours in a solution of peroxide of hy- 
drogen made alkaline by ammonia. Lastly, 
wash in clean water, and dry slowly. 

Ink and Iron Mold. 

1. — Equal parts of cream of tartar and 
citric acid, powdered fine, and mixed to- 
gether. This forms the salts of lemon as 
sold by druggists. Directions for using : 
Procure a hot dinner plate, lay the part 
stained in the plate, and moisten with 
hot water ; next rub in the above powder 
with the bowl of a spoon until stains 
disappear ; then rinse in clean water, and 
dry. 

2. — Place the stained part flat in a 
plate or dish, and sprinkle crystals of 
oxalic acid upon it, adding a little water ; 
the stains will soon disappear, when the 
linen should be well wrung out in 2 or 
3 changes of clean water. 

3. — Dip the part in boiling water, and 
rub it with crystals of oxalic acid; then 
soak in a weak solution of chloride of 
lime, say 1 oz. to 1 qt. of water. Under 
any circumstances, as soon as the stain 
is removed the linen should be thoroughly 
rinsed in several waters. 

4. — The Journal de Pharmacie d^Anvers 
recommends pyrophosphate of soda for the 
removal of ink stains. This salt does not 
injure vegetable fiber, and yields colorless 
compounds with the ferric oxide of the 
ink. It is best to first apply tallow to 
the ink spot, then wash in a solution of 
pyrophosphate until both tallow and ink 
have disappeared. 

5. — Thick blotting paper is soaked in a 
concentrated solution of oxalic acid and 
dried. Laid immediately on a blot, it 
takes it out without leaving a trace be- 
hind. 

6. — To remove ordinary ink (tannogal- 
late of iron) stains, the following treat- 
ment is recommended : In many cases, 
lemon juice will often prove efiicacious. 

7. — If this fails, try an aqueous solu- 
tion of oxalic acid, 1 part, to 2 parts of 
water, and rub well with a soft cloth. 
Or use a solution of chloride of tin, 1 
part, to 3 parts of water ; or pure dilute 
muriatic acid, 1 part, to 10 parts of 
water. Apply with a camel's-hair brush, 
and then wash in cold water. 

8. — Where the colors of the fabric are 
affected by the above treatment, moisten 
the spots with fresh milk and cover with 
fine salt. This should be done before 
washing. 

9. — If the fabric is fine and delicate, 
the stained portions may be dipped 
in melted tallow and then pressed for 



(Ink and Iron Mold) 



some time between layers of warm pipe- 
clay. 

10. — Try a mixture of 2 parts of cream 
of tartar, and 1 part of powdered alum. 

11. — Tartaric acid is also recommended. 

12. — Oxalic acid can also be used, but 
is not recommended, as it is liable to de- 
stroy the fibers of the cloth. 

13. — Remove by thoroughly and repeat- 
edly moistening the spots with hydrogen 
dioxide solution containing some am- 
monia, and then dry, with exposure to 
light. 

14. — Black Ink Rust. — On white goods, 
warm solution of oxalic acid ; weak mu- 
riatic acid. On dyed tissues of cotton, 
repeated washings with citric acid, if the 
color is well dyed. Ditto of wool, same ; 
weak muriatic acid, if the wool is of the 
natural color. On silk, no remedy. 

15. — Bottles. — For cleaning ink bottles 
the best and quickest agent is oxalic acid, 
but it is a violent poison. Try shaking 
small nails, with water or vinegar, in 
them, and if this does not answer, use hy- 
drochloric acid, carefully washing out 2 
or 3 times after its application. 

16. — Copperplate Prints. — Paint the 
spots with a brush dipped in chloride of 
lime solution until the black spot turns 
a rusty brown ; then wash with water ; 
next put pulverized oxalic acid on the 
spot. Now, with another brush put a 
few drops of hydrochloric acid on the 
oxalic acid. The rusty spot turns yellow, 
and can be removed by washing with 
water. 

17. — Copying Inks. — Violet and other 
copying inks generally consist of a solu- 
tion of glue, glycerine (or other hygro- 
scopic substance) and a basic coloring 
matter. They can generally be removed, 
or decolorized, by treating with a mix- 
ture of alcohol and ammonia .880 (5:1) 
on silk goods ; and on white cotton and 
linen goods with a dilute solution of caus- 
tic soda or a 25% aqueous solution of 
ammonia. 

18. — Hands. — a. — Use ammonia water, 
muriatic acid, and plenty of water, al- 
ternately, assisted by pumice stone, if 
necessary. 

b. — For removing marking ink stains, 
iodine dissolved either with iodide of po- 
tassium or in alcohol, is used, followed 
by aqua ammonia. 

19. — Indelible Ink. — Stains made from 
nitrate of silver may be removed by 
moistening them with a brush dipped in 
a strong aqueous solution of cyanide of 
potassium, and then well washing the fab- 
ric in water. The cyanide solution is 
very poisonous. 



[369] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Ink and Iron Mold) 



20. — India Ink on Clothing. — India ink 
cannot be removed by any chemical 
means, as it is composed of minute parts 
of carbon held in suspension by water. 
Some of the ink may be removed by spon- 
ging. 

21. — India Ink on Paper. — To remove 
a blot, dip a camel's-hair brush in vs^ater 
and rub over the blot, letting the vs^ater 
remain on a few seconds ; then make as 
dry as you can with blotting paper, then 
rub carefully with india-rubber. Repeat 
the operation if not all removed. For 
lines, circles, etc., dip the ink-leg of your 
instruments in water, open the pen rather 
wider than the line, and trace over, using 
blotting paper and india-rubber, as for 
a blot. Applicable to drawing paper, trac- 
ing paper and tracing linen. If the sur- 
face is a little rough after, polish with 
your nail. 

22. — Marking Ink. — a. — Dissolve 1 oz. 
of cyanide of potassium in 4 oz. of water. 
This mixture is very poisonous, and 
should, therefore, be used with great cau- 
tion. Moisten the stained part of the 
garment with this solution by dipping it 
into it, or by means of a small brush, and 
in a few hours the stain will be oblit- 
erated. 

b. — To a solution of strong cyanide of 
potassium add a few grains of iodine. Re- 
peated applications will remove any stain 
caused by nitrate of silver. 

c. — Grimm, in the Polytechnisches No- 
tizMatt, proposes the following method for 
rerhoving indelible ink and other silver 
stains without the use of cyanide Of po- 
tassium : Chloride of copper is first ap- 
plied to the tissue ; it is next washed with 
hyposulphite of soda solution, and after- 
ward with water. It is said that this 
may be employed on colored woven cotton 
tissues. For white cottons and linens, di- 
lute solutions of permanganate of potash 
and hydrochloric acid, followed by the 
hyposulphite of soda and clear water, are 
preferable. 

d. — Wet with chloride of lime, and af- 
terward rinse in a little ammonia or so- 
dium of hyposulphite. 

e. — Rub with tincture of iodine, then 
wash with ammonia. 

23. — Paper. — a. — Take of chloride of 
lime, 1 lb., thoroughly pulverized, and 4 
qt. of soft water. The above must be 
thoroughly shaken when first put together. 
It is required to stand 24 hours to dis- 
solve the chloride of lime ; then strain 
through a cotton cloth, after which add 
a teaspoonful of acetic acid (No. 8 com- 
mercial) to every ounce of the chloride 
of lime water. The eraser is used by re- 



(Ink and Iron Maid) 



versing the penholder in the hand, dipping 
the end of the penholder in the fluid and 
applying it, without rubbing, to the word, 
figure or blot required to be erased. When 
the ink has disappeared absorb the fluid 
with a blotter. 

b. — Mix equal parts of oxalic and tar- 
taric acids in powder. When to be used, 
dissolve a little in water. It is poison- 
ous. 

c. — Oxalic acid, mixed with citric acid, 
may be used. 

d. — Equal parts of cream of tartar and 
citric acid in solution with water. 

e. — A more powerful one, a saturated 
solution of oxalic acid in water. 

f. — Cold aqueous or acetic acid solution 
of calcium hypochlorite, bleaching powder 
or eau de Javelle. 

g. — Immerse blotting paper or any sim- 
ilar material in a hot, concentrated solu- 
tion of citric acid, roll it into a pencil, 
and coat the larger portion of it with 
paper or lacquer. Moisten the eraser with 
water, and rub over the ink to be re- 
moved. Drop upon the ink spot a drop 
of water containing chloride of lime. The 
ink immediately disappears. 

h. — Take alum, 1 part; sulphur, 1 
part ; amber, 1 part ; potassium nitrate, 

1 part. Powder, and mix. Keep in well 
closed vials. A little of this powder, 
dropped on a fresh ink spot, or fresh writ- 
ing, and rubbed with a bit of cloth or 
blotting paper, removes the mark com- 
pletely. 

i. — The following makes a good "two 
solution" ink remover. Solution A: Cit- 
ric acid, 1 part ; concentrated borax so- 
lution, 2 parts ; distilled water, 16 parts. 
Dissolve the acid in the water, add the 
borax solution, and mix by agitation. So- 
lution B : Calcium chloride, 3 parts ; con- 
centrated borax solution, 2 parts ; water, 
16 parts. Add the calcium chloride to 
the water, shake well, and set aside for a 
week, at the expiration of which time de- 
cant the clear liquid, and to it add the 
borax solution. Directions for use : Sat- 
urate the spot with solution A, apply a 
blotter to take off excess of liquid, then 
apply solution B. When the stain has 
disappeared, apply the blotter, and wet 
the spot with clean water. Absorb this 
with a blotter, and repeat, applying water 

2 or 3 times (to remove residual chemi- 
cals) ; finally dry between 2 sheets of 
blotting paper. Spots removed by this 
agent never return, and cannot even be 
brought back by the use of chemicals. 

j. — An excellent formula, and one that 
few inks can resist, is as follows: (1) 
Mix in equal parts, potassium chloride, 



[370] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc, 



(Ink and Iron Mold) 



potassium hypochlorite and oil of pepper- 
mint. (2) Sodium chloride, hydrochloric 
acid and water, in equal parts. To use : 
Wet the spot with (1), let dry, then pen- 
cil it over lightly with (2), and rinse in 
clear water. 

k. — A good single mixture, which will 
answer for most inks, is made by mix- 
ing citric acid and alum in equal parts. 
If desired in a liquid form, add an equal 
part of water. In use, the powder is 
spread well over the spot and (if on cloth 
or woven fabrics) well rubbed in with the 
fingers. A few drops of water are then 
added, and also rubbed in. A final rins- 
ing with water completes the process. 

1. — Blotting paper which admits of 
completely removing from paper wet as 
well as dry ink spots, after moistening 
with water, is produced as follows : Dis- 
solve 100 parts of oxalic acid in 400 
parts of alcohol, and immerse porous 
white paper in this solution until it is 
completely saturated with it. Next hang 
the sheets up, separately, to dry, over 
threads. Such paper affords great ad- 
vantages, but its characteristic applica- 
tion is serviceable for ferric inks only, 
while aniline ink spots cannot be removed 
with it after drying. 

m. — Inking Over Erasures. — ^A corre- 
spondent of Machinery writes : "I en- 
close a piece of tracing cloth which I 
think would be of interest, as you will 
notice the lines have been erased in two 
places, and one of them polished over 
again, which makes a good surface to ink 
on, and does not catch the dirt as the 
unpolished part would. The polish is put 
on with French chalk or soapstone, and 
then rubbed down with a good clean white 
blotter. It is best to split the blotter 
to insure its being clean, and to have two 
grades of chalk, one hard and one soft, 
the latter to be used first, then the hard." 
24. — Printers' Ink. — a. — Put the stained 
parts of the fabric into a quantity of 
benzine, then use a fine, rather stiff brush, 
with fresh benzine. Dry, and rub bright 
with warm water and curd soap. The 
benzine will not injure the fabric or dye. 
b. — Place a thick pad of white blot- 
ting paper beneath the sheet of paper 
which is soiled ; then apply sulphuric 
ether with cotton wool, gently rubbing. 
Finally, apply white blotting paper to 
absorb the color. Continue the applica- 
tion of fresh ether, and repeat until all 
stains disappear. Do this away from a 
light. 

c. — Printers' ink is soluble in ether, oil 
of turpentine and benzine. Washing with 
warm caustic lyes is also recommended. 



(Instruments) 



[371] 



d. — This is not an easy matter. It is 
said, however, that it can be accomplished 
to a limited extent by means of ether or 
a solution of soap in water, naphtha, ben- 
zol, hot solutions in water of potassium 
or sodium hydroxide (caustic potash or 
soda). 

25. — Printing Pads, To Remove Aniline 
Ink from. — Saturate a sponge in water 
as hot as possible to bear the hand in, 
pass the wet sponge across the face of 
the pad, and the ink will disappear. Then 
rinse off the face with the sponge, dipped 
in cold water. Experience has also taught 
that when the print begins to get dim, 
if you will dampen the face of the pad 
with a sponge dipped in cold water, the 
ink becomes as bright as at first, and in 
this way a much larger number of let- 
ters may be pulled than if this process is 
not employed. 

26. — Red Ink. — a. — Stains of red ani- 
line ink may be removed by moistening 
the spot with strong alcohol acidulated 
with nitric acid. Unless the stain is pro- 
duced by eosine, it disappears without dif- 
ficulty. Paper is hardly affected by the 
process ; still, it is always advisable to 
make a blank experiment first. 

b. — Make a solution of 7 parts of so- 
dium nitrate and 15 parts of dilute sul- 
phuric acid in 500 parts of water ; apply 
to the spot of writing to be erased with 
a camel's-hair brush, and rinse carefully. 
29. — Wood. — a. — Mix 1 lb. of sulphuric 
acid and 2 qt. of water. Apply to the 
stain after scouring with sand. 

b. — Put a few drops of spirits of niter 
(nitric acid) in a teaspoonful of water, 
touch the spot with a feather dipped in 
the mixture, and, on the ink disappear- 
ing, rub immediately with a rag wetted 
in cold water, or it will leave a white 
mark. It should then be polished. 
Instruments. 

1. — Brass. — a. — If the instruments are 
very much oxidized, or covered with green 
rust, first wash them with strong soda 
and water. If not so very bad, this first 
process may be dispensed with. Then ap- 
ply a mixture of 1 part of common sul- 
phuric acid and 12 parts of water, mixed 
in an earthen vessel, and afterward pol- 
ish with oil and rotten stone, well scour- 
ing with oil and rotten stone, and using 
a piece of soft leather and a little dry 
rotten stone to give a brilliant polish. In 
future cleaning, oil and rotten stone will 
be found sufficient. 

b. — Take a strip of coarse linen, satu- 
rate with oil and powdered rotten stone, 
put around the tubing of instrument, a^^d 
work backward and forward ; polish with 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Instruments) 



dry rotten stone. Do not use acid of any 
kind, as it is injurious to the joints. To 
hold the instrument, get a piece of wood 
turned to insert in the bells ; fix in a 
bench vise. The piece of wood will also 
serve for taking out any dents you may 
get in the bells. 

c, — Oil and rotten stone for this pur- 
pose, though very efficacious, are objec- 
tionable on account of dirt, the oil find- 
ing its way to the pistons, and because 
the instrument cleaned in this manner so 
soon tarnishes. Dissolve some common 
soda in warm water, shred into it some 
scraps of yellow soap, and boil it till the 
soap Is all melted. Then take it from 
the fire, and when it is cool add a little 
turpentine and sufficient rotten stone to 
make a stiff paste. Keep it in a tin box, 
covered from the air, and if it gets hard, 
moisten a small quantity with water for 
use. 

2. — Drawing Instruments. — If the lac- 
quering is badly spotted, clean it off with 
strong alcohol, and then polish the brass 
or German silver with the following paste 
by means of flannel and a little water, 
and polish off with clean chamois leather 
or cotton cloth and a little whiting, after 
which you might revarnish with shellac 
dissolved in alcohol, colored with a lit- 
tle dragon's blood, which can be got from 
any apothecary : Soft soap, 3 oz. ; sweet 
oil, % oz. ; turpentine, % oz. ; powdered 
rotten stone, 4 oz. ; finest flour emery, 
1 oz. ; fine powdered crocus of antimony, 
% oz. Melt the soap, oil and turpentine 
together, add the powders, a little water 
to make a stiff paste, and mix well. 

3. — Rust. — a. — The following receipt is 
highly recommended by Kraft und Licht: 
Lay the instruments overnight in a sat- 
urated solution of chloride of tin. The 
spots of rust disappear by reduction. 
After their removal rinse the instruments 
well in clear water, and immerse them 
in a hot suds made with soda soap, and 
dry well. Though not absolutely neces- 
sary, yet it is advisable to give them an- 
other cleansing with pure alcohol and pol- 
ishing powder. 

b. — Another simple means for the re- 
moval of rust is common petroleum. Still 
another method is to grease them with 
paraffine oil. This is rather irksome with 
complicated instruments, and with nee- 
dles scarcely possible to do properly and 
effectively. The following substitute is 
recommended : 

c. — Make up a solution of 1 part of 
paraffine oil in 200 parts of benzine. In 
this dip the instruments, which have be- 
come thoroughly dry by lying in warm 



(Instruments) 



air. Work their movable parts, if they 
are forceps or scissors, when immersed, 
to allow the fluid to penetrate every crev- 
ice. Now place them upon a tray, in a 
warm place, to allow the benzine to evap- 
orate. Needles are simply thrown into 
the solution, allowed to remain a few 
minutes, the liquid drained off, and the 
needles left to dry by the natural volatil- 
ization of the residual benzine. 

d. — Brodie gives the following as an 
effective method (Jour. Brit. Dent. As- 
soc.) : "Fill a suitable vessel with a sat- 
urated solution of stannous chloride in 
distilled water. Immerse the rusty in- 
struments, and let them remain overnight. 
Rub dry with chamois after rinsing in 
running water, and they will be of a 
bright silvery whiteness." 

e. — If instruments are badly rusted, the 
best plan is to send them to a cutler or 
instrument maker and let him regrind 
and polish. If only superficially attacked, 
the following will answer admirably : Po- 
tassium cyanide, 16 parts ; levigated chalk, 
30 parts ; soap, shaved, 15 parts ; water, 
sufficient. Dissolve the soap in sufficient 
water to make, with the chalk, a thick 
paste, in which incorporate the cyanide. 
With this paste rub the blades well until 
the rust disappears and a polished sur- 
face is attained. The operation is ren- 
dered more rapid if the blades or objects 
be soaked in kerosene overnight, and the 
surface rust scraped off with anything 
that will not scratch the blades. Do not 
forget the deadly nature of the scouring 
paste, and take proper precaution to pro- 
tect the hands. Use an old stiff tooth 
brush in applying the paste. 

f. — ^A medical exchange recommends 
first rubbing with wood ashes and soft 
water, then soaking in a weak solution of 
hydrochloric acid in water (about 10 to 
15 drops to the fluid ounce) for a few 
hours, to remove the rust and grease ; 
then washing well in pure soft water. 
The next step is to place them in a bath 
consisting of a saturated solution of tin 
chloride. Let them remain 10 to 24 hours, 
according to the coating desired. When 
removed from the bath, wash them clean 
in pure water, and dry well. When fin- 
ished, the steel will appear as if nickel- 
plated. 

4. — Sterilizing Dental Instruments. — a. 
— Martin {Essentials of Surgery) rec- 
ommends the following treatment for all 
surgical instruments : Brush with a so- 
lution of carbolic acid (1.20) ; sterilize 
by roasting, boiling, or by storing for 1 
hour in a 1-20 carbolic solution. During 
the operation keep in a 1-40 carbolic solu- 



[872] 



Cleansingy Bleaching, Etc. 



(Iron and Steel) 



tion. To prevent rusting, boil in 1% so- 
lution of sodium carbonate. 

b. — A very effectual method is to place 
the instruments in metal boxes and heat 
in an ordinary oven (200° F.) for % to 
1 hour ; they may then be used dry. 

Iron and Steel. 

1- — Finishing and Polishing. — We now 
come to the means adopted for fin- 
ishmg and polishing steel and iron. Take, 
for instance, a surface of steel as an 
example. The square stem of a drilling 
instrument will form a very good subject. 
After it is roughed out and the work all 
done, it must be draw-filed, and this must 
be done with a superfine file, and the 
lines must be kept quite straight, other- 
wise it will require so much emery 
paper that the edges will lose the sharp 
angles which are the beauty of the work. 
Any ordinary workman can rub away 
with emery paper, but in so doing he 
may spoil the appearance of a piece of 
good work, and that without knowing it. 
To avoid this, the smoother and better it 
is filed the less paper will it require. To 
get the beautiful finish we see on the best 
work a piece of flour emery paper, well 
worn, and a little oil upon it, will be 
found the best thing to use, and when this 
has been well worked, to get the high 
polish, a piece of wood, flat upon the sur- 
face, with some fine crocus, will bring 
it up to this state; and if any deep 
scratches be there, you will at once ob- 
serve them, and to remove them, in all 
probability, it will have to be filed all 
over again. Now, to avoid all this loss 
of time, great care must be taken that the 
scratches are removed before any attempt 
!S made to polish. Having finished the 
work so far, many prefer to see it left 
straight; others, again, like to see it in 
some way ornamented. Now, there are 
several ways of doing this. First, then, 
to cross the surface. This is done by fold- 
ing a piece of emery paper tightly around 
a file, but the process is not the merely 



pushing it across the work and making a 
mark, but it requires some practice to 
produce a good pattern, and the wrist 
must take a kind of circular action ; and 
by doing this each line becomes, so to 
speak, connected, and makes a much bet- 
ter finish than a series of lines only. An- 
other process of finishing steel is to curl 
all over the surface with a piece of oil 
stone that will cut. This is a most dif- 
ficult thing to obtain, as very few stones 
will cut steel to leave the bright marks 
necessaiT to give it the appearance de- 
sired. When a piece of this is once ob- 



(Iron and Steel) 



tamed It is really a prize, and if it wears 
away it may be inserted as far as possible 
into a wooden handle. To use the stone, 
when It IS once obtained, is the next thing. 
This IS done by holding it firmly in the 
hand and moving it about in all direc- 
tions, like curling brass. There is no 
stated number or size of the curl, but 
this is quite a matter of taste, and must 
be left to the operator. Another way of 
finishing iron and steel is with the scraper, 
which IS used with both hands, and the 
work must be scraped in various direc- 
tions, but with regularity. Large sur- 
faces are sometimes done in this way. 
Lathe beds at times are done so, but we 
think this is somewhat out of character, 
as the fact of continually drawing the 
poppit head up and down the bed pro- 
duces a series of lines which looks most 
unsightly. Regarding all this, it is all a 
matter of taste, and the style of finish 
must be left to the operator. 

2. — Grinding. — The method generally 
employed by machinists in grinding and 
polishing either new or old work is to 
mix the polishing material with oil, usu- 
ally refuse machinery oil; in most cases 
this is a great mistake, and has caused 
the loss of time, patience and money. 
Take, for instance, the grinding to a true 
bearing of a stopcock, a valve seat, or a 
slide valve. There are few machinists but 
what have had more or less of that class 
of work to do, particularly in jobbing 
shops, and we seldom find one who uses 
the same method of accomplishing the job 
that is practiced in shops where that 
class of work is made a specialty. In 
fitting and grinding the plug into the bar- 
rel of a cock a little judgment and care 
will save a great deal of hard labor, and 
in no case should oil be mixed with any 
of the grinding material, for the follow- 
ing reasons : If fine emery, ground glass, 
or sand, is used with oil, it requires but 
a few turns of the plug in the barrel to 
break up the grains of the grinding ma- 
terial into very fine particles ; the metal- 
lic surfaces also grind off, and the fine 
particles of metal, mixing in with the 
grinding material and oil, make a thick 
paste of the mass. At this stage it is im- 
possible to grind or bring the metallic sur- 
faces to a bearing, as the gluey paste 
keeps them apart ; if more grinding stuff 
IS applied it will prevent the operator 
from seeing what part of the barrel and 
plug bears the hardest. Again, if the 
grinding material be distributed over the 
whole surface, the parts that do not bear 
will grind off as fast as the parts that 
touch hard, as the particles work freely 
[ 373 ] ^ 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Iron and Steel) 



between the surfaces ; should the barrel 
and plug bear equally all over when fitted, 
it requires more care than if it were a 
top or bottom bearing, as that part of 
the barrel and plug across the waterway 
grinds twice as fast as the other parts ; 
therefore, it should be kept the driest. 
Now this objection holds good in the 
grinding of valve seats or slide valves, to 
wit : the separation of the surfaces of 
the metal by a thick, pasty grinding ma- 
terial. In order to bring the surfaces to 
a perfect bearing rapidly, and with lit- 
tle labor, the following directions will be 
found worth a trial: To grind a stop- 
cock of any kind, first see that the plug 
fits the barrel before it is taken from the 
lathe. Run a half-round smooth file up 
and down the barrel to break any rings 
that may be in it ; a few rubs of a smooth 
file back and forth over the plug will 
break away any rings or tool marks on 
it. Wipe both parts clean. Use for grind- 
ing material fine molders' sand, sifted 
through a fine sieve. Mix with water in 
a cup, and apply a small quantity to the 
parts that bear the hardest. Turn rap- 
idly, pressing gently every few turns ; if 
the work is large, and the lathe is used, 
run slowly ; press and pull back rapidly 
to prevent sticking and ringing; apply 
grinding sand and water until a bearing 
shows on another part, then use no more 
new sand, but spread the old that has 
worked out, over the whole surface. Turn 
rapidly, pressing gently while turning ; 
withdraw the plug, and wipe part of the 
dirt ofE, and rub on the place a little 
brown soap ; moisten with water, and 
press the surfaces together with all the 
force at hand, turning at the same time. 
Remove the plug and wipe both parts 
clean ; next try the condition of the bear- 
ing by pressing the dry surfaces together 
with great force. If the parts have been 
kept closely together while grinding, and 
the plug has not rubbed against the low- 
er part of the barrel, the surfaces will be 
found bright all over and a perfect bear- 
ing obtained. If an iron barrel and a 
brass plug are used, or two kinds of brass, 
a hard and soft metal, soap should be 
used freely when finishing up, as the ten- 
dency to form rings is greater when two 
different metals are used. 

In grinding a slide valve which has 
been in use until hollow places have worn 
in the surface, emery mixed with water, 
or sand and water, will be found better 
than oil, unless a light body of oil, such 
as kerosene, is used. If water is used 
with the grinding material, soap should 
be rubbed on hollow places, and the grind- 

[ 



(Iron and Steel) 



ing stuff should be applied to the high 
parts in small quantities, keeping the low 
parts clean and dry until an even sur- 
face is obtained all over ; then the worn- 
out stuff should be used for finishing up. 
In polishing metal, oil that will gum up 
should not be used with the polishing 
material unless for a dead fine polish. 

3. — Pickling and Cleaning. — Castings 
that are to be machined require to have 
the scale and dross removed, and while in 
certain cases the sandblast is used for 
this purpose, the more common practice 
is to subject the castings to an acid 
"pickle." 

Iron castings are usually pickled with 
sulphuric acid or hydrofluoric acid, the 
former being most commonly used. The 
sulphuric acid pickling solution is usu- 
ally made up of 1 part of sulphuric acid 
to 10 parts of water. The sulphuric acid 
should always be poured into the water 
while the latter is being stirred. The 
reason for this is that a chemical reac- 
tion takes place which causes the bath 
to become quite warm ; but there is no 
dangerous ebullition if properly mixed. 
But if the water is poured upon the sul- 
phuric acid, the latter, being much heavier 
than water, remains at the bottom. When 
an attempt is made to stir the solution 
the water enters the acid in small streams, 
and is instantly raised to the boiling 
point, generating steam, which may cause 
an explosion. Such an accident would 
be likely to draw the concentrated acid 
over the workman, and result in serious 
burns. 

Sulphuric acid will not attack the sand 
or black oxide of iron forming the scale 
upon castings, but the sand and scale 
are porous, and the acid soaks through 
and attacks the iron under the scale. It 
finally dissolves a suflacient amount of 
iron under the scale to loosen the latter. 
When the workman sees that the scale 
is all loose, the castings should be re- 
moved and washed, preferably with^ hot 
water. If the castings are small, it^ is 
a good practice, after washing, to im- 
merse them in a soda solution for a short 
time in order to thoroughly neutralize any 
acid. 

One great objection to the use of sul- 
phuric acid as a pickling solution is that, 
if there are any soft or spongy spots m 
the iron the acid will penetrate these, 
and it would be practically impossible to 
wash it out or neutralize it in the soda 
bath. Any acid thus entrapped in^ the 
castings will continue to eat until it is 
changed to sulphate of iron or green vit- 
riol. This will tend to make the spongy 
374] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc, 



(Iron and Steel) 



or soft spots in the iron still worse, and 
may weaken the castings to a large ex- 
tent. If the acid has been used a num- 
ber of times, a large portion of it is 
converted into green vitriol, and hence the 
solution will not attack the iron. In 
this case it is necessary to add more acid 
to the bath, or else to throw away the 
old bath and make up a new one. 

While the workman may receive quite 
serious bums from sulphuric acid, it is 
not nearly as dangerous as hydrofluoric 
acid. The thin hydrofluoric acid will pen- 
etrate the skin and attack the flesh and 
bones underneath, and may result in very 
serious injuries. It will also attack the 
fingernails very readily ; but if used with 
care, it makes a pickling solution which 
has a number of advantages over sul- 
phuric acid. 

Hydrofluoric acid is commonly sold in 
three grades. The first contains 30% of 
acid, the second 48%, and the third 52%, 
the balance of the solution being water. 
The 30% solution is that usually em- 
ployed for pickling castings. One gallon 
of the 30% solution should be used to 
20 to 25 gal. of water. If it is desired 
to pickle more rapidly, less water may 
be used ; and if it is desired to get more 
use of the acid — that is, make it do more 
work — slightly more water may be used. 
Hydrofluoric acid does not act upon the 
iron to an appreciable extent, but attacks 
the sand and dissolves it. It also dis- 
solves the black oxide of iron. 

When castings are pickled in sulphuric 
acid the surface is left with a dull or 
black appearance. When pickled in hy- 
drofluoric acid the surface has a much 
whiter and often almost silvery appear- 
ance. The surface of castings pickled 
with hydrofluoric acid is also very much 
smoother than those pickled with sul- 
phuric acid. For this reason, hydrofluoric- 
acid pickling is used in almost all cases 
m which the parts are to be polished or 
nickelplated, and sulphuric-acid pickling 
only in cases where it is desired to re- 
move the scale so as to facilitate the 
machining of the castings. 

When pickling with hydrofluoric acid, 
the small castings may be put into the 
bath and the larger ones may have the 
acid poured over them, just as if working 
with sulphuric acid. The hydrofluoric- 
acid bath is always used cold, but should 
be kept above the freezing point. The 
bath can be used repeatedly by adding 
about one-third the original quantity of 
acid before introducing a new lot of cast- 
iDgs. If it is desired to keep the surface 
Of the castings bright after they are pick- 



(Iron and Steel) 



E375] 



led in hydrofluoric acid, they should be 
washed with hot water immediately after 
coming out of the acid, and should be 
left in the water until they are heated 
through. If this is done when the cast- 
ings are taken out of the water they will 
dry quickly from the heat which they 
have absorbed from the water. If the 
castings are washed in cold water they 
will remain wet for some time, and hence 
will rust. A little lime is frequently add- 
ed to the washing water which is used 
after hydrofluoric-acid pickling. 

When handling concentrated hydroflu- 
oric acid, the workman should always use 
rubber gloves. If any acid is dropped or 
splashed on the skin it should be washed 
off at once with water and dilute am- 
monia, and this will usually prevent any 
injury. The dilute hydrofluoric acid of 
the pickle bath will not attack the skin 
instantly, but the workman should never 
put his hands into this solution, as it 
will attack the hands to some extent, and 
will result in serious sores if he persists 
in handling the castings when wet with 
the pickling solution. The dilute sul- 
phuric-acid pickling solution will not in- 
jure the hands if it is spilled upon them ; 
in fact, its only effect is to make the skin 
coarse and rough. 

4. — Polishing and Protecting. — a. — Usu- 
ally, the article to be polished is first 
rubbed down with emery of gradually in- 
creasing fineness, after which the article 
is moistened with alcohol or water, and 
polished with Vienna lime, rouge or tin 
putty. 

b. — Use tin putty and hartshorn, tritur- 
ated m alcohol. Use with any soft leath- 
er. This is an excellent polish. 
^ c— -Take an ordinary bar of malleable 
iron, in its usual merchantable state, re- 
move the oxide from its surface by the 
application of diluted sulphuric acid, after 
which wash the bar in an alkaline solu- 
tion, then cover the entire bar with oil 
or petroleum. The bar is then ready for 
the chief process. A muffle surface is 
so prepared that a uniform, or nearly 
uniform, heat can be maintained within 
It, and in this furnace the bar is placed. 
Care must be taken that too great a heat 
IS not imparted to it, for on this depends 
the success of the operation. When the 
bar approaches a red heat, and when the 
redness is just perceptible, it is a certain 
indication that the proper degree has been 
attained. The bar is then at once re- 
moved and passed through the finishing 
rolls 5 or 6 times, when it will be found 
to have a dark, polished, uniform surface, 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Iron and Steel) 



and the appearance of Russian sheet 
iron. 

d. — Take a spongy ipiece of fig-tree 
wood and well saturate it with a mixture 
of sweet oil and finely powdered emery, 
and with this well rub all the rusty 
parts. This will not only clean the ar- 
ticle, but will at the same time polish 
it, and so render the use of whiting un- 
necessary. 

e. — Bright iron or steel goods (as pol- 
ished grates and fire irons) may be pre- 
served from rust in the following man- 
ner : Having first been thoroughly cleaned, 
they should be dusted over with pow- 
dered quicklime and thus left until want- 
ed for use. Coils of piano wire are cov- 
ered in this manner, and will keep free 
from rust for many years. 

f. — Dissolve % oz. of camphor and 1 
lb. of hog's lard, and take off the scum ; 
then mix with the lard as much black 
lead as will give the mixture an iron 
color. Rub the articles all over with 
this mixture and let them lie for 24 
hours; then dry with a linen cloth, and 
they will keep clean for months. 

g. — Table knives which are not in con- 
stant use should be put in a case con- 
taining a depth of about 8 in. of quick- 
lime. They are to be plunged into this 
to the top of the blades, but the lime 
must not touch the handles. 

h. — Steel bits that are tarnished, but 
not rusty, can be cleaned with rotten 
stone, common hard soap and a woolen 
cloth. 

i. — Finished Surfaces. — Oil is usually 
employed for polishing delicate instru- 
ments, which tends to soil those using 
them. Oil may be advantageously re- 
placed by a mixture of 3 parts of glycer- 
ine and 1 part of alcohol for large sur- 
faces. When small ones are to be treated, 
pure glycerine can be used. 

5. — Iron. — a. — You cannot keep the 
bright color of polished iron on the hot 
parts of an engine without constant at- 
tention and wiping with engine oil. Ox- 
alic acid may help the cleaning, but the 
acid left on the bright surface favors oxi- 
dation. For cleaning, use tripoli, rotten 
stone or pulverized pumice stone, with 
engine or kerosene oil. Neglected or dirty 
spots may be removed with a scraper and 
fine emery paper, and afterward rubbed 
with oil. Every part of bright work 
around an engine should be wiped with 
oil. Moisture immediately discolors a 
clean, bright surface. Polish the lubri- 
cator with rotten stone and oil only, and 
only when necessary. Too much polish- 
ing soon makes it look old from wear. 



(Iron and Steel) 



b.— Bright Polish Like Steel.— Blue 
vitriol, iy2 oz. ; borax, 1^^ oz. ; prussiate 
of potash, iy2 oz. ; charcoal, 1% oz. : 
salt, % pt. Pulverize, and dissolve iu 
1% qt. of hot water; add iy2 gal. of lin- 
seed oil ; mix well. Bring the iron or 
steel to the proper heat, and cool in this 
solution. 

c. — Brilliant Luster, To Give. — Pulver- 
ized arsenious acid, lYtz dr. ; elutriated 
bloodstone, 7^ oz. ; antimony trichloride 
(butter of antimony), 3% oz. Pour over 
these materials 5 pt. of 90% alcohol. Di- 
gest at a gentle heat, shaking frequently. 
When iron is polished with this fluid it 
precipitates upon it a thin film of anti- 
mony and arsenic, which protects the iron 
from oxidation, and also gives it a fine 
appearance. 

d. — Cement Wash for the Protection of 
Ironwork. — According to La Revue Tech- 
nique, coatings or coverings of cement 
have been employed by certain railway 
companies in France for some years past 
to protect the metallic portions of bridges 
crossing their lines from the rapid de- 
struction to which such ^-v^rts are liable 
by reason of oxidation, thro.i^rh being con- 
tinually exposed to the action of clouds 
of steam and gas, products of combus- 
tion escaping from the locomotives. For- 
merly the practice was to protect struc- 
tures that were most exposed to dete- 
rioration by providing sheet-metal guards, 
in the form of reversed channels, secured 
to beams in a direction parallel to the 
lines. At present, a coating of cement 
is used. To apply the cement, brush down 
the ironwork with a heather broom damp- 
ened with a rag or whitewash brush, and 
afterward apply two coats of Portland- 
cement wash, made rather thick, to which 
has been added a proportion of fine sharp 
sand. In Berlin, a coating of mortar 
containing one-third part of cement has 
likewise been successfully employed for 
preserving the parts of ironwork which 
are buried in the ground. 

e. — Keys, Keyrings, and Other Articles 
of Iron. — Finish them well with a dead 
smooth file, then mix some fine emery 
and oil together, hold the key in wood 
clamps, take some long strips of wash 
leather, dip in the above, and polish well 
every part until all scars disappear ; then 
tie 2 or 3 doz. on a piece of iron binding 
wire, put them in an iron box with leather 
scraps burnt and made into a fine pow- 
der, cover bottom of box % in. thick, 
spread out the keys on this, cover them 
up with the powder or leather dust, put 
a lid on, tie down, put in a slow fire 
until the box is red hot, soak about 20 



[376] 



Cleansing, Bleaching^ Etc. 



(Iron and Steel) 



minutes, then open the box, take out the 
keys quick, plunge them in oil — water 
makes them too brittle ; now repeat the 
polishing as before, with long leather 
strings dipped in the oil and emery, until 
all the black from the hardening is oflE 
every part ; then take them to the brush- 
ing frame, charge your brush well with 
flour of emery, keep turning the key in 
every direction until the polish begins to 
appear ; after this dip them in slaked 
lime, and get off every particle of grease. 
Take them to another brushing frame, the 
brush charged with crocus and water ; 
keep dipping the key in occasionally, and 
follow up process on the brush until the 
polish comes up well. To put the extra 
gloss or polish on, take the leather strings, 
as before, this time dipped in a mixture 
of putty powder and water ; work the 
string well over every part until a dark 
polish comes up. If you wish a higher 
polish, it is done by hand ; that is, girls 
dip their hands in the putty powder mix- 
ture above, and rub every possible part 
up with the palm of the hand, and this 
gives the beautiful polish that is upon 
them. 

f. — Plates, ..y^'ii^e, etc. — Boden recom- 
mends the following method of brighten- 
ing the surfaces of iron plates, wire, etc., 
as the result of numerous experiments 
made in the laboratory of the Industrial 
Museum at Munich : The object, what- 
ever it may be, just as it comes from the 
forge, is laid for the space of 1 hour in 
dilute sulphuric acid (1-20 part acid). 
The action of the acid may be increased 
by the addition of a little carbolic acid( ?). 
The forge scales are loosened by the ac- 
tion of the acid, and the object is then 
washed clean with water and dried with 
sawdust. Next, it is held for an instant 
in nitrous acid, the operator, of course, 
being on his guard against tlie nitrous 
fumes, washed again carefully, dried in 
sawdust, and rubbed over clean. Iron 
goods thus treated acquire a perfectly 
bright, pure surface, having a white 
glance, without the intervention of any 
mechanical process of polishing. 

g. — Pots, Iron. — Put a few ounces of 
washing soda (sodium carbonate) into 
the pot, fill with water, and boil until the 
inside looks clean. 

h. — Scale from Iron Caused by Heat. — 
Use by volume, sulphuric acid, 1 part ; 
nitric acid, 1 part ; water, 2 parts ; ap- 
plied warm. Either the acid or the iron 
may be heated. 

i. — Wrought Iron, To Polish. — Warm 
goods till they are unbearable to the hand, 
then rub with new, clean, white wax. 



(Iron and Steel) 



Heat the goods again so that the wax 
may spread on them ; then rub them over 
with a piece of serge. 

6. — Machinery, Tools, etc. — a. — Two or 
three cents' worth of paraffine, chipped 
fine, are added to 1 1. of petroleum in a 
stoppered bottle, and during 2 or 3 days, 
from time to time, shaken up until the 
paraffine is dissolved. To apply it, the 
mixture is well shaken, spread upon the 
metal to be cleaned, by means of a woolen 
rag or brush, and on the following day 
rubbed off with a dry woolen rag. 

b. — In a corked bottle, mix 20 parts 
of petroleum with 1 part of paraffine ; ap- 
ply the mixture by means of a rag or 
brush, and rub well the next morning 
with dry wool. 

c. — Oil of turpentine, 5 parts ; stearine, 
25 parts ; polishing red, 25 parts ; animal 
charcoal, 25 parts ; stir into spirit, and 
shake well until a homogeneous liquid 
mass has been obtained. This is applied 
with a brush, and the spirit allowed to 
evaporate. The surface is then rubbed 
with a mixture of 25 parts of red and 
45 parts of animal charcoal. 

d. — The chemical laboratory of the In- 
dustrial Museum of Batavia recommends 
a mixture of oil of turpentine, 15 parts ; 
oil of stearine, 25 parts ; jewelers' red, 
25 parts ; animal charcoal, of superior 
quality, 45 parts. Alcohol is added to 
this mixture in such quantity as to ren- 
der it almost liquid, then by means of a 
brush it is put on those parts that are 
to be polished. When the alcohol has 
dried, the remaining cover is rubbed with 
a mixture of 45 parts of animal char- 
coal and 25 parts of jewelers' red. The 
rubbed parts will become quite clean and 
bright. 

e. — Levigated rotten stone, 1 part ; iron 
subcarbonate, 3 parts ; oil _ of bitter 
almonds, to perfume ; olive oil, to make 
a paste. 

f. — Oxalic acid, 1 part ; jewelers' rouge, 
15 parts ; powdered rotten stone, 20 parts ; 
palm oil, 60 parts ; petrolatum, 4 parts. 

g. — The following paste is recommended 
for polishing machinery and iron or steel 
ware : Oil of turpentine, 5 parts ; paraf- 
fine, 25 parts ; finest emery, 25 parts ; 
fine powdered animal charcoal, 45 parts. 
The paste thus formed is thinned down 
with methylated spirit, then applied to 
the parts to be cleaned with a brush. 
When the spirit evaporates, the surface 
is well polished. 

h. — Friction Polish. — A good polish for 
iron or steel rotating in the lathe is made 
by using fine emery and oil, which is ap- 
plied by lead or wood clamps, screwed 



[377] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Iron and Steel) 



together. Three very good oils for lubri- 
cation are olive oil, sperm and neatsfoot. 
"i,— Steel— GlSiZQ Wheels for Finish- 
ing. — For hollow finishing, the following 
wheels are required : A mahogany wheel 
for rough glazing, a mahogany wheel for 
smooth glazing ; a lead wheel, or lap. For 
flat finishing: A bufE wheel for rough, 
a buff wheel for smooth, a bufE wheel for 
finishing. Lastly, a polisher. To make 
the glaze wheels: Get the spindles, and 
point them on each end ; then get a block 
of beech, and wedge it on the steel at 
one end with iron wedges, and turn it 
for the pulley for the band to run on. 
Take two pieces of flat mahogany, and 
glue and screw them together, so that 
the grain of one piece crosses the other, 
to prevent warping. Let it get thoroughly 
dry, and wedge it on the spindle and 
turn it true. The lead wheel is made 
the same way, but wider, and has a groove 
turned in the edge. The wheel is put into 
sand, and a ring of lead run around the 
edge ; it is then turned true. To make 
the bufE wheels, proceed as with the 
glaze, but to save expense, pine or deal 
wood will do as well as mahogany, only 
leave it about double the width of the 
glaze, which is about % in. wide by 12 
or 14 in. across. The bufE wheels are 
covered with glue, and then the leather 
is tacked on with tacks driven in about 
half way, so that they may be easily 
drawn out again. The leather is then 
turned true. The polisher is made the 
same way, but the size of the polisher 
must be a little less than any of the 
other wheels, say about 1 in. The buffi 
wheels are dressed by laying on a fine 
thin coat of clear glue, and rolling them 
around — No. 1 in superfine corn emery, 
No. 2 in smooth emery, No. 3 by making 
a cake of equal parts of mutton suet, 
beeswax and washed emery ; then it is 
held on the wheel while it is going 
around. The glaze wheels are dressed 
while using, by mixing a little of the em- 
ery with oil, and putting it on the wheel 
with a stick or the finger. The leather 
of the polisher is not covered with glue, 
but dressed with a mixture of crocus and 
water, not oil. Care must be taken to 
keep each wheel and substance to them- 
selves ; the work must be carefully wiped 
after each operation, and cleanliness must 
be studied above all things in using the 
polisher, as the slightest grease getting 
on it stops the polishing. 

a.— Polishing. — (1) Use bell-metal pol- 
ishers for arbors, having first brought up 
the surface with oilstone dust and oil and 
soft steel polishers; for flat pieces, use 



(Iron and Steel) 



a piece of glass for the oilstone dust, a 
bell-metal block for the sharp red stuft. 
and a white metal block for the fine red 
stuff. The polishing stuff must be well 
mixed up, and kept very clean; the pol- 
ishers and blocks must be filed to clean 
off the old stuff, and then rubbed over 
with soft bread; put only a little red 
stuff on the block, and keep working it 
until it is quite dry ; the piece will then 
leave the block quite clean ; use bread to 
clean off the surplus red stuff before using 
the brush. If the piece is scratched, put 
on some more red stuff, which must not 
be too wet, and try again. 

(2) The polish on flat steel pieces in 
fine watchwork is produced with oilstone 
dust, burnt Turkey stone, and a steel pol- 
isher, soft steel, bell metal, and sharp 
stuff, grain tin and glossing stuff. The 
metals are squared with a file, and vary 
in shape according to the work in hand. 

(3) Get an 18-gal. barrel and put an 
iron spindle through the two ends ; mount 
it on trestles in the same way as a but- 
ter churn, with a winch to turn it by ; 
cut a hole in the side by which to intro- 
duce the articles to be polished; have a 
tight-fitting cover to the hole; procure 
some worn-out casting pots or crucibles, 
such as used by founders, and pound them 
in an iron mortar until fine enough to 

pass through a sieve which will not al- 
low the steel articles to pass through. 
Put equal quantities of this grit, and ot 
the articles, in the barrel; fasten on the 
cover and turn the barrel for about an 
hour at the rate of about 50 turns a min- 
ute; take all out of the barrel and sift 
out the grit. If a finer polish than this 
is required, put them through another 
turning, substituting for the grit small 
scraps of leather, called mosings, which 
can be procured from curriers, fjid emery 
flour. Do not more than half fill tfie 

(4)' Wet Vienna lime to a paste. Ap- 
ply to buff", and finish dry. _ 

(5) Arsenious acid, 1% dr.; elutriated 
bloodstone, 11/2 dr. ; antimony trichloride. 
6 fl.dr. ; 90% alcohol, 1 pt. Digest at a 
gentle heat, shaking frequently. 

(6) Cutlery.— The burnishing of cutlery 
is executed by hand or vise burnishers; 
they are all made of fine steel, hardened, 
and well polished. The first kind have 
nothing particular in their construction; 
but vise burnishers are formed and mount- 
ed in a very different manner. <Jn„a 
long piece of wood, placed horizontally 
in the vise, is fixed another piece, as long, 
but bent in the form of a bow, the con- 
cavity of which is turned downward. 

378] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Ivory, Horn, etc.) 



These two pieces are united at one end 
of their extremities by a pin and a hook, 
which allows the upper piece to move 
freely around this point as a center. The 
burnisher is fixed in the middle of this 
bent piece, and it is made more or less 
projecting, by the greater or lesser length 
which is given to its base. The movable 
piece of wood, at the extremity opposite 
the hook, is furnished with a handle, 
which serves the workman as a lever. 
This position allows the burnisher to rest 
with greater force against the article to 
be burnished, which is placed on the fixed 
piece of wood. The burnisher has either 
the form of the face of a round-headed 
hammer, well polished to burnish those 
pieces which are plain or convex, or the 
form of two cones opposed at their sum- 
mits, with their bases rounded, to burnish 
those pieces which are concave or ring- 
shaped. 

(7) Dress Swords, etc.. Varnish for. — 
Gum sandarac, by weight, 15 parts ; small 
mastic, by weight, 10 parts; elemi, by 
weight, 5 parts; camphor, by weight, 3 
parts. Dissolve the whole over the water 
bath in sufiicient alcohol for the pur- 
pose. This varnish is used cold. It pre- 
serves the blade from rust, and is trans- 
parent. 

Ivory, Horn, Bones, Cleaning and Bleach- 
ing. ' 

Bones. — Dip the bones for a few min- 
utes in a boiling solution of 1 lb. of caus- 
tic soda in 1 gal. of water; then rinse 
them thoroughly in water, rubbing them 
down with fine pumice stone, and expose 
them until whitened with the vapor of 
burning sulphur largely diluted with air, 
finally rinsing in warm water. Bones 
may also be whitened by exposure in a 
weak solution of Javelle water. 

-ffom. — Besides hydrogen peroxide, 
horns can be bleached by immersing for 
a short time in water slightly mixed with 
sulphuric acid, chloride of lime, or chlo- 
rine, or they may be exposed in the moist 
state to the fumes of burning sulphur, 
largely diluted with air. 

Ivory. — The Pharmaceutische Zeitung 
recommends the first four methods. 

1- — Expose the ivory for 3 or 4 days 
to the action of sunlight, in a bath of 
turpentine oil. 

2.— Treat it alternately with a solution 
ot potassium permanganate (1:250) and 
oxalic acid (1:100), letting the ivory re- 
main in each solution for a half hour • 
then rinse well with water, and repeat 
the process a number of times. 

3. — Place the ivory in a hot mixture 



(Ivory, Horn, etc.) 



[379] 



of unslaked lime, bran and water; re- 
move after a very short interval, place 
in dry sawdust, and with the latter rub 
thoroughly; then expose to the air. 

4. — Place in very dilute sulphuric acid 
or in a solution of lime chloride, then 
wash off ; this is claimed to restore the 
white color. 

5. — To whiten old ivory, wipe it with 
flannel which has been wetted with es- 
sence of turpentine, then expose for sev- 
eral days to the sun. 

6. — First clean the ivory by boiling it 
with a paste composed of burned pumice 
stone and water. After cleansing, place 
the article under a glass vessel and ex- 
pose it to the sun's rays until it assumes 
its original whiteness. The ivory should 
be kept moist with water while bleaching. 
If the first operation does not succeed 
perfectly, it should be repeated. 

7. — Mix a thin lime paste and heat 
over a moderate fire. Place the ivory in 
this paste, and leave it until it bleaches 
white, after which remove the paste, dry, 
and polish. 

_ 8. — Dr. Artus's Process. — The ivory ar- 
ticles are placed in a solution containing 
111/^ oz. of carbonate of soda, in crystals, 
and 45% oz. of water, and allowed to 
remain in the solution for 2 days. The 
articles are then removed from the solu- 
tion, well washed in pure water, and then 
smeared for 5 or 6 days in a solution 
composed of 17 oz. of sulphite of soda 
and 45% oz. of water. At the end of 
5 or 6 days there should be added to the 
solution containing the articles 1 oz. of 
hydrochloric acid diluted with 5^/^ oz. of 
water. The vessel containing the liquid 
should then be covered, and left stand- 
ing for from 24 to 26 hours, after which 
the ivory may be taken out, washed in 
clean water, and dried. The quantities 
named in this book are sufiicient to 
bleach 22i^ ounces of ivory. A glass or 
porcelain vessel should be used, as the 
acid will act upon metallic vessels. A 
very fine polish may be put upon the 
ivory by the use of putty powder and 
water, applied by means of a rubber made 
ot an old felt hat. If the ivory articles 
are of a character to be placed in a lathe, 
they may be polished by the use of pul- 
verized pumice stone mixed with water 
after which the ivory should be heated 
by rubbing it, while revolving in the lathe, 
with a piece of linen or sheepskin, and 
when it has become hot it should then be 
rubbed with a little whiting mixed with 
ohve oil, then with a little drv whiting 
and finally with a piece of soft white rag. 
9- — Immerse for a short time in water 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Ivory, Horn, etc.) 



slightly mixed with sulphuric acid, chlo- 
ride of lime, or chlorine, or it may be 
exposed in the moist state to the fumes 
of burning sulphur, largely diluted with 
air. Ink stains may be removed by re- 
peatedly using a solution of caustic pot- 
ash in water. 

10. — Ivory that has become yellow by 
exposure can be whitened by washing in 
a solution composed of 1 oz. of nitric 
acid and 10 oz. of soft water ; apply with 
a rough brush ; cleanse thoroughly with 
clean water. 

11 — .Peroxide of hydrogen is used in 
Sheffield to bleach the inferior ivory for 
knife handles. The mode of procedure 
is as follows : Place, say, 2 qt. of the 
liquid in a stone pot, adding 4 oz. of 
liquid ammonia fort (880°), immerse the 
handles, and put over a common shop 
stove for 24 to 36 hours ; the handles 
are then taken out and gradually dried 
in the air, not too quickly, or they would 
split. The deep color of the ivory is 
removed, and a beautiful pearly white 
ivory results when polished. The ivory 
is previously treated with a solution of 
common soda to get rid of greasy matter 
and open the pores. 

12. — Antique works in ivory that have 
become discolored may be brought to a 
pure whiteness by exposing them to the 
sun under glasses. It is the particular 
property of ivory to resist the action of 
the sun's rays when it is under glass ; 
but when deprived of this protection to 
become covered with a multitude of mi- 
nute cracks. Many antique pieces of 
sculpture in ivory may be seen, which, 
although tolerably white, are, at the same 
time, defaced by numerous cracks. This 
defect cannot be remedied ; but in order to 
conceal it the dust may be removed by 
brushing the work with warm water and 
soap, and afterward placing it under 
glass. Antique works in ivory that have 
become discolored may be brushed with 
pumice stone, calcined and diluted, and, 
while yet wet, placed under glasses. They 
should be daily exposed to the action of 
the sun, and be turned from time to 
time, that they may become equally 
bleached ; if the brown color be deeper on 
one side than the other, that side will, 
of course, be for the longest time exposed 
to the sun. 

13. — To bleach ivory, place the ivory in 
a saturated solution of alum for an hour. 
Polish with a woolen cloth, and wrap in 
linen to dry. Also with peroxide of hy- 
drogen, to 1 pt. add 1 oz. of aqua am- 
monia. Warm, soak the ivory for 24 
hours, wipe, and polish with chalk. 



(Jewelry) 



14. — Peineman's Process of Bleaching 
Ivory which Has Turned Yellow. — Place 
the ivory in a saturated solution of alum, 
soak for 1 hour ; rub with a woolen cloth, 
and wrap in a linen cloth to dry. An- 
other method which is preferred by some 
is to prepare a thin paste with lime, 
heat over a fire; put the ivory in this 
paste and let it remain until it becomes 
white ; take out, dry and polish. 

15. — To bleach ivory handles of steel 
tools, protect the steel with a coat of wax 
or paraffine, and set the handles in a 
solution of chloride of lime, 1 part, to 
4 parts of water, for a day, more or less, 
then wash the handles with clean warm 
water, wipe and dry. If satisfactory, 
warm the metal part and wipe off the wax 
or paraffine. Another way is to dip the 
handles in a saturated solution of alum 
in water for from 1 to 3 hours, wash, 
wipe and dry. If the handles are not 
very dark, the latter way is preferable. 
For polishing the steel points, use putty 
powder (oxide of tin) on a buff wheel 
wet with alcohol. This will not stain 
the handles. 

16. — Piano Keys, Bleaching. — The rea- 
son piano keys turn yellow is because 
they absorb the grease from the fingers ; 
it will, therefore, be necessary to remove 
this. If a paste made from whiting and 
a solution of potash is laid on, and al- 
lowed to remain for about 24 hours, the 
ivories will be restored very nearly, if 
not quite, to their original color without 
removing them from the keys. 

17. — Smoke Stains. — Immerse in ben- 
zine ; if burned, there is no remedy. 

Jet. 

Remove all dust with a very soft brush, 
touch the jet with a bit of cotton mois- 
tened with a little good oil ; polish with 
wash leather. Clean with great care, as 
the jet is often brittle. 

Jewelry. 

1. — Common jewelry may be effectually 
cleaned by washing with soap and warm 
water, rinsing in cold water, dipping in 
spirits of any kind, and drying in warm 
boxwood sawdust. Good jewelry only 
needs washing Avith soap and water and 
polishing with rouge and a chamois 
leather. 

2. — Polishing Bar. — Refined town tal- 
low, 80 lb. ; sesquioxide of iron, 16 lb. ; 
oxalic acid, 1 lb. Powder the acid, mix 
with sesquioxide, and mold with the tal- 
low into bars, like soap. The sesqui- 
oxide must be quite free from grit, or 
it may scratch valuable work. It may 



[380] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Lace) 



be prepared by calcining equal amounts 
of oxalic acid and iron sulphate in a cru- 
cible for about 15 minutes with a good 
draught. 

3. — To Restore the Luster. — Take 1 oz. 
of cyanide of potassium and dissolve it in 
3 gills of water. Attach the article to be 
cleansed to a wire hook, immerse, and 
shake in the solution for a second or two, 
and remove, and wash in clean water, 
then in warm water and soap. Rinse 
again, dip in alcohol, and dry in boxwood 
sawdust. If the solution is kept, put 
it in a tightly corked bottle, and label 
poison conspicuously. One caution is 
necessary : Do not bend over the solu- 
tion so as to inhale the odor, nor dip the 
fingers in it ; if one of the articles drops 
from the hook, better empty the solution 
into another vessel. 

Knives, To Remove Stains. 

Cut a solid potato in two, dip one of 
the pieces in brick dust, such as is usu- 
ally used for knife cleaning, and rub the 
blade with it. 

Lace. 

1. — Black, To Revive. — a. — Make some 
black tea, about the strength usual for 
drinking, and strain it off the leaves. 
Pour enough tea into a basin to cover 
the quantity of lace, let it stand 10 or 
12 hours, then squeeze it several times, 
but do not rub it. Dip it frequently into 
the tea, which will at length assume a 
dirty appearance. Have ready some 
weak gum water, and press the lace gently 
through it ; then clap it for a quarter 
of an hour, after which pin it to a towel 
in any shape which you wish it to take. 
When nearly dry, cover it with another 
towel and iron it with a cool iron. The 
lace, if previously sound, and discolored 
only, will, after this process, look as 
good as new. 

b. — Wash the lace thoroughly in some 
good beer ; use no gum water ; clap the 
lace well, and proceed with ironing and 
drying, as in the former recipe. 

2. — Gold and Silver. — a. — Sew the lace 
in a clean linen cloth, boil it in 1 qt. of 
soft water and ^4 lb. of soap, and wash 
it in cold water. If tarnished, apply a 
little warm alcohol to the tarnished spots. 

b. — A weak solution of cyanide of po- 
tassium cleans gold lace well. 

c. — To Remove Mildew. — For this pur- 
pose, no alkaline liquors are to be used ; 
for while they clean the gold, they corrode 
the silk, and change or discharge its 
color. Soap also alters the shade, and 
even the species, of certain colors. But 



(Leather) 



alcohol may be used without any danger 
of its injuring either color or quality, 
and in many cases proves as effectual for 
restoring the luster of the gold as the 
corrosive detergents. But tliough the al- 
cohol is the most innocent material em- 
ployed for this purpose, it is not in all 
cases proper. The golden covering may 
be in some places worn off, or the base 
metal with which it has been alloyed may 
be corroded by the air, so as to have the 
particles of gold disunited, while the sil- 
ver underneath, tarnished to a yellow hue, 
may continue of a tolerable color ; so it 
is apparent that the removal of the tar- 
nish would be prejudicial, and make the 
lace less like gold than it was before. 

d. — To Wash. — It is placed overnight 
in urine, or wine, and washed. Take 
1^2 pt. of water and 1% pt. of whisky, 
and a little ground gum arabic and saf- 
fron. Apply with a brush when the laces 
are stretched on a table. 

Leather. 

1. — Mix well together 1 lb. of French 
yellow ocher and 1 dessertspoonful of 
sweet oil ; then take 1 lb. of pipeclay 
and % lb. of starch. Mix with boiling 
water ; when cold, lay on the leather ; 
when dry, rub and brush well. 

2. — Belts. — a. — If the belting is not 
brittle or rotten, a thorough wiping off 
of the excess of oil, and scraping the 
face with a sharp tool to take off the 
gummy matter, and finally wiping the 
inside with a little naphtha or gasoline 
upon a cloth, will generally restore the 
belt. The pulley should be cleaned also. 
If the belting has become weak and rot- 
ten it should be thrown away. 

b. — Belts dirty from drop oil and dust 
may be cleaned as follows : First wash 
the belts with warm water and soap, 
using a sharp, stiff brush ; and while 
still moist rub them with a solution of 
sal ammoniac, which saponifies tlie oil 
in them. Immediately thereafter the belts 
must be rinsed well with lukewarm water 
and then dried, with sufiicient tension. 
While they are still moist the belts are 
to be rubbed well on the inside, and less 
on the outside, with the following un- 
guent: 1 kgm. (2 lb. % oz.) of india- 
rubber, heated to 122° F., and mixed 
with 1 kgm. of rectified turpentine oil. 
After the solution is complete, 780 grams 
(27 oz.) of bright rosin are added, and 
when it is dissolved, 750 grams (2G% 
oz.) of yellow wax are added. This mix- 
ture, by diligent stirring, is mixed with 
3 kgm. (6 lb. 10 oz.) of fish oil and 1% 
kgm. (2 lb. 12 oz.) of tallow, previously 



[381] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Leather) 



dissolved in the former. In the further 
treatment of the belt, rub the inside only 
and the outside only the first time as 
stated. This unguent also replaces the 
tannin extracted from the leather, pre- 
vents the dragging of the belt, and im- 
parts elasticity to it. 

3. — Belts, Military. — First brush the 
belt over with a mixture of linseed oil, 
4 oz, ; precipitated oxide of zinc, 1 oz. ; 
dry over a stove at a heat not over 160° 
F. When thoroughly dry, roughen by 
means of pumice powder, and apply an- 
other coating. Dry as before, and var- 
nish with amber or copal varnish. 

4. — Carriage Tops. — Carriage tops that 
have faded and become gray can be re- 
stored by washing with a solution com- 
posed of 4 oz. of nutgalls, 1 oz. each of 
logwood, copperas, clean iron filings and 
sumach berries ; put all but the iron fil- 
ings and copperas in 1 qt. of the best 
white-wine vinegar, and heat nearly to 
the boiling point ; then add the copperas 
and iron filings ; let them stand for 24 
hours, and strain off the liquid ; apply 
with a sponge. This is equally good for 
restoring black cloths. 

5. — Enameled Leather tops that have 
been soiled by dust and rain should be 
washed with soft water and Castile or 
crown soap. Apply the water with a 
sponge, and then scrub with a moderately 
stiff brush ; cleanse with clean water, and 
dry with chamois. Never apply any kind 
of oil or top dressing without first clean- 
ing the leather. 

6. — Moldy Leather. — To clean moldy 
leather, remove the surface mold with a 
dry cloth, and with another cloth apply 
pyroligneous acid. 

7. — Russet Leather-Covered Mountings. 
— Remove all stains and dirt by rubbing 
the leather with a cloth and a little ox- 
alic acid, and restore the color and finish 
by the use of salts of lemon, applied 
with a woolen cloth. Rub the leather 
until a good polish is produced. 

8. — Ruhher-Covered Mountings. — Rub 
the covered, as well as the metallic parts, 
with a chamois and a little tripoli, and 
finish with a clean woolen cloth. 

9. — Morocco Leather. — Strain well over 
a board, and scour with a stiff brush, 
using tepid water and soft soap, made 
slightly acid with oxalic acid ; when done, 
unstrain the leather, and dry in a cool 
place. Do not saturate the leather, but 
keep the board inclined ; when dry, rub 
a little oil lightly over the surface with 
a rag. 

10. — Oil Spots. — a. — To remove oil 
stains from bather, dab the spot care- 



( Lenses) 



fully with spirits of sal ammoniac, and 
after allowing it to act for a while wash 
with clean water. This treatment may 
have to be repeated a few times, taking 
care, however, not to injure the color of 
the leather. 

b. — Sometimes the spot may be removed 
very simply, by spreading the place rather 
thickly with butter, letting this act for 
a few hours. Next scrape off the butter 
with the point of a knife and rinse the 
stain with soap and lukewarm water. 

11. — Polish for Leather Cases. — Eggs, 
5 only ; sperm oil, 6 dr. ; acetic acid, 
61/^ dr. ; glycerine, 6 dr. ; oil of turpen- 
tine, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 5 oz. ; water, enough 
to make 30 oz. Mix the oils, the acid 
and the glycerine, and add the mixture 
gradually, beating continuously, to the 
eggs, previously beaten light. Transfer 
to a suitable bottle ; dilute the alcohol 
with an equal volume of water, and add 
in small portions to the mixture, shaking 
after each addition. Lastly, add enough 
water to make 30 oz., and shake well. 

12. — Riding Saddles. — a. — If much 
soiled, wash the leather with a weak so- 
lution of oxalic acid and water, and when 
dry, with the watery portion of beef 
blood. The latter can be preserved by 
adding a little carbolic acid and keeping 
it in a bottle, tightly corked. 

b. — Brown saddles may be cleaned to 
look as well as new by the use of tepid 
water and crown soap ; if the latter can- 
not be had, use pure Castile soap. 

Leaves, To Bleach. 

Mix 1 dr. of chloride of lime with 1 
pt. of water, and add sufficient acetic acid 
to liberate the chlorine. Steep the leaves 
about 10 minutes, and until they are 
whitened ; remove them on a piece of 
paper and wash in clean water. 

Lenses. 

1. — If in either objective or eyepiece 
the lenses are not clean, the definition 
may be seriously reduced or destroyed. 
Finger marks upon the front lens of ob- 
jective, or upon eyepiece lenses, dust 
which in time may settle upon rear lens 
of objective or on eye lens, film which 
forms upon one or the other lens, due 
occasionally to the fact that glass is hy- 
groscopic, but generally to the exhalation 
from the interior finish of the mountings, 
and, finally, in immersion objectives, be- 
cause the front lens is not properly 
cleaned, or oil has leaked on to its rear 
surface, or air bubbles have formed in 
the oil between the cover glass and front 
lens. The latter two causes may totally 



[382] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Lenses) 



destroy all definition, no matter how ex- 
cellent the objective is or may have been. 

a. — Remedy. — Keep all lenses scrupu- 
lously clean. For cleaning, use v^ell 
washed linen (an old handkerchief) or 
Japanese lens paper. 

b. — Eyepieces. — To find impurities, re- 
volve the eyepieces during the observa- 
tion ; breathe upon the lenses, and wipe 
gently, with a circular motion, and blow 
ofiE any particles which may adhere. 

c. — Dry Objectives. — Clean front of 
lens as above. To examine rear and in- 
terior lenses, use a 2-in. magnifier, look- 
ing through the rear. Remove dust from 
rear lens with a camel's-hair brush. 

d. — Oil Immersion Objectives. — Invari- 
ably clean front lens, after use, with 
moistened linen or paper, and wipe dry, 

e. — In applying oil, examine the front 
of objective with a magnifier, and if there 
are any air bubbles remove with a pointed 
quill, or remove oil entirely and apply a 
fresh quantity. 

2. — Linen, especially, has the property 
of removing dirt and grease from glass, 
but it is difiicult to clean close up to the 
mount with a cloth, and for this purpose 
pith is most suitable. The best varieties 
of pith are obtained from rushes, the sun- 
flower or the elder tree. For cleaning 
large lenses, circular pieces of pith are 
glued side by side on a piece of cork, 
and this species of brush is passed over 
the surface of the lens without too much 
pressure. Avoid the use of polishing 
powder ; if the dirt cannot be removed 
by rubbingj liquids must not be used 
which are liable to attack the glass. Even 
water has some effect, as is well known, 
and should be used sparingly. Among 
liquids admissible for the removal of 
grease are mentioned alcohol, ether, and 
oil of turpentine. The latter is regarded 
as distinctly objectionable from its well- 
known disintegrating action on glass. 
Manifestly, from the risks well known 
to opticians, which are here pointed out, 
a prime element in the care of lenses is 
to guard them as fully as practicable 
from becoming dirty. This is more espe- 
cially important in the case of microscopic 
objectives. The lenses should never be 
touched with the fingers, the objective 
should be put away in its case when not 
in use, and stray particles of dust which 
may fall on the back lens removed by 
lightly brushing with a camel's-hair 
brush, which brush should be kept in a 
close box so as to accumulate no supply 
of dust itself. Japanese paper is prob- 
ably the best material with which to re- 
move fluids from immersion lenses. 

[ 



(Laundry — Bluing) 



3. — Rust, To Remove. — A lens some- 
times acquires a brown, rusty stain on 
the surface, which no amount of rubbing 
or cleaning will remove. By applying a 
paste composed of putty powder, or very 
fine rouge, and water, to the stains, and 
then rubbing briskly with either "the point 
of the finger or the side of the hand, 
every spot of rust or stain will be re- 
moved in a few minutes. This applies 
to photographic or other lenses, except 
the object" glass of a telescope, which 
would be irreparably damaged by such 
treatment. 

Laundry. 

1. — Bluing. — a. — Dissolve indigo sul- 
phate in cold water, and filter. 

b. — Dissolve good cotton blue (aniline 
blue 6 B) in cold water. 

c. — Dissolve fine Prussian or * Berlin 
blue with % part of oxalic acid in water ; 
or use ferrocyanide of potassium (1-12 
part) in place of oxalic acid. 

d. — Dissolve 7 oz. of yellow prussiate 
of potash in 2.1 pt. Of water. Make 
a solution of sesquichloride of iron which 
shall contain 1 part of the solid salt by 
weight to every 10 parts of water by 
weight. Take equal volumes of the two 
solutions, and add to each twice its vol- 
ume of cold concentrated solution of sul- 
phate of soda. Finally, mix the two so- 
lutions thus obtained. The solid Prus- 
sian blue will immediately precipitate. 
This may be put upon a filter and washed, 
being kept exposed to the air for per- 
haps 15 or 20 days. Tlie excess of sol- 
uble salts will first be washed away, and 
then the latter washings will dissolve the 
blue, forming a deep blue liquid, which 
may be used for preparations of bluing 
for clothing. It is, however, better to 
buy the soft Prussian blue than to at- 
tempt to prepare it on a small scale. One 
ounce of soft Prussian blue, powdered, 
and put into a bottle with 1 qt. of clear 
rain water, acidulated by i^ oz. of oxalic 
acid, is a good preparation. A very small 
portion suffices for a large amount of 
clothing. 

e.— Ball Blue.— The ball sold for laun- 
dry use consists usually, if not always., 
of ultramarine. The balls are formed by 
compression, starch or some other excipi- 
ent of like character, being added to ren- 
der the mass cohesive. Blocks of blue 
can, of course, be made by the same proc- 
ess. The manufacturers of ultramarine 
prepare balls and cubes of the pigment 
on a large scale, and it does not seem 
likely that there would be a sufficient 
margin of profit to justify the making 
883] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



( Laundry — Bluing ) 



of them in a small way from the pow- 
dered pigment. Careful experiments, how- 
ever, would be necessary to positively de- 
termine this. Ultramarine is of many 
qualities, and it may be expected that 
the balls will vary also in the amount 
of "filling" according to the price at 
which they are to be sold. As an illus- 
tration of the "filling" or diluting proc- 
ess, and a suggestion for experiment, we 
reprint the following : Ultramarine, 6 
oz. ; sodium carbonate, 4 oz. ; glucose, 1 
oz. ; water, a sufficient quantity. Make 
a thick paste, roll into sheets, and cut 
into tablets. The balls, in bulk, can be 
obtained only in large packages of the 
manufacturers, say barrels of 200 lb. ; 
but put up in 1-lb. boxes, they can be 
bought in cases as small as 28 lb. Where 
there is a trade for small packages there 
would apparently be a fair margin of 
profit in buying 28-lb. lots and putting 
them up in 1 and 2-oz. cartons. The 
term bag bluing simpljj indicates a solid 
blue, which, whatever its composition, is 
used by placing in a little bag, immers- 
ing this in water, and pressing out the 
liquid into the water to be blued. 

f. — A Disinfectant Laundry Blue. — 
Mix together 16 parts of Prussian blue, 2 
parts of carbolic acid, 1 part of borax, 
and 1 part of gum arable into a stiff 
dough. Roll it out into balls as large 
as hazel nuts, and coat them with gela- 
tine or gum to prevent the carbolic acid 
from escaping. 

g. — Liquid Washing Blue. — Water, 15 
parts; dissolve in this 1^2 parts of in- 
digo-carmine ; add % part gum arable. 

h.— Soluble Wash Bluing.— (1)— The 
following makes one of the best wash 
bluings known, and when prepared in 
quantity is very cheap : Dissolve 217 
parts of potassium ferrocyanide in 750 
parts of distilled water, and to the solu- 
tion add sufiicient water to make in all 
1,000 parts. In another vessel dissolve 
100 parts of ferric chloride in sufficient 
distilled water, and bring the solution up 
to 1,000 parts as before. Make a cold 
saturated solution of sodium sulphate in 
distilled water, and of the solution add 
2,000 parts to each of the two iron so- 
lutions (making 3.000 parts of each). 
Now add the chloride solution to the fer- 
rocyanide little by little, under constant 
stirring. After the last of the ferric 
chloride is added continue the stirring for 
some time. Filter oif the liquid and wash 
the residue on the filter with distilled 
water until the wash water comes off a 
deep blue color. After washing, spread 
the mass out to dry, either at ordinarv 

n 



( Laundry — Curtains ) 



temperature or by artificial heat. When 
dry, a lump of this substance, which is 
soluble Prussian blue, breaks with a fine 
bronze-colored fracture. It is completely 
and easily soluble in water, hot or cold. 
With the addition of a little mucilage it 
makes, when dissolved in water, a beau- 
tiful blue ink, and may be also used for 
hand-stamp ink. As a laundry bluing it 
leaves nothing to be desired either in cost 
or quality. 

(2).— Tablets of the First Quality.— 
Best (superfine) ultramarine, 40 parts; 
ordinary ultramarine, 20 parts ; sodium 
carbonate, 40 parts ; glucose, 12 parts. 
Mix, and make into tablets as directed 
further on. 

(3) — Inferior Tablets. — Ultramarine, 
second quality, 50 parts ; sodium carbon- 
ate, 50 parts ; glucose, 12 parts. Still 
cheaper bluing may be made by using 
less ultramarine and more sodium car- 
bonate, or by using cheaper coloring ma- 
terial (the so-called hlau-erde), but the 
above will answer for the best and sec- 
ond-class trade. The glucose is diluted 
with water to 16° Baume, and if the tab- 
lets are to be made quite hard, either 
gum arable, gelatine or dextrine should 
be added. As tablets made without any 
addition very easily contract moisture, 
an admixture of one or the other of the 
substances named is recommended. It is 
possible that cylinders might prove more 
acceptable than tablets. These should be 
wrapped in linen, or put into linen bags, 
so that in use the bag can be hung up 
in the water, thus giving a solution that 
will not need straining under any circum- 
stances. 

i. — Stick Bluing. — Aniline olue, soluble, 
1 av.oz. ; starch, powdered, 15 av.oz. : glu- 
cose syrup, sufficient. Mix the powders, 
and mix into a stiff paste with the liquid 
glucose, roll out into a thick sheet, and 
cut into cubes or roll into sticks, which 
are dried by a gentle heat. 

2. — Curtains. — a. — Shake every curtain, 
or hang them on a line and brush them 
down with a soft-haired brush. Prepare 
a soaking liquid by melting a small quan- 
tity of borax in warm water, soak for an 
hour or two, then squeeze between the 
hands to remove the superfluous water. 
Take some good soap and chip it in hot 
water, stir until all the soap is melted, 
and a fine lather produced. By this time 
the water will be moderately warm. Im- 
merse the curtains in this, pass them re- 
peatedly through the lathered water, or 
work them up and down. Rubbing should 
be avoided ; when absolutely necessary, 
do it gently and without a brush. Squeeze 
4] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Laundry — Curtains ) 



out the soapy water and rinse in plenty 
of soft warm water. Wring carefully. 
Curtains should be dried quickly. If in 
the country, they may be spread to dry 
on clean grass. Otherwise, curtains are 
always better for being stretched and 
pinned to wooden frames while drying. It 
is advisable to use cooked starch for cur- 
tains. Use good starch, mix it thorough- 
ly in warm water, which should be made 
to boil for 15 or 20 minutes. While cool- 
ing, add a very little indigo blue. This 
is only to be used for pure white cur- 
tains. The starch should be decidedly 
thick. Draw the curtains through the 
starch, squeeze out gently, and dry rap- 
idly. 

b. — Coloring. — Many persons prefer 
tinted curtains to pure white ones. If 
they have to be colored, do not put any 
blue in the starch, but use water that 
has been slightly tinted with coffee, for 
ecru curtains, tea for a more decided hue, 
or saffron for a yellow tint, for preparing 
the starch. A decoction of logwood may 
be used if you wish to give the curtains 
a delicate pink hue. 

c. — The basis of these coloring starches 
is thus prepared : Soak 1 lb. of good 
white glue for 12 hours, using just enough 
water to make it into a jelly ; dissolve 
this with boiling water, adding about 18 
to 19 lb. of Paris white ; add more water 
until the compound is diluted to the con- 
sistency of milk. This starch may be 
colored to taste. A little Prussian blue 
and vermilion (in the proportions of 2 
to 1) gives a fine lilac. Raw umber and 
a pinch of lampblack gives a gray. Ver- 
milion and red lead (in the proportion 
of 3 to 1) produces a tender rose. Indigo 
blue just tinted with vermilion gives a 
lavender. Chrome yellow and a pinch of 
Spanish brown gives lemon yellow. In- 
dian yellow and burnt sienna (in the 
proportion of 2 to 1) gives a buff hue. 
Experiments should be tried, as some of 
the colors look very badly if they are 
dark. 

3. — Linen. — a. — Bed Linen. — In a cir- 
cular, the surgeon-general of the German 
army, Colan, in Berlin, calls the atten- 
tion of heads of the garrison hospitals to 
a new cleaning method, which is to be 
employed in future, as thorough experi- 
ments have proved it to be of advantage. 
According to this method, petroleum is 
added to the water besides soap and soda, 
taking as many grams of it as there are 
liters of water used ; e.g., 30 grams of 
petroleum to 30 1. of water. This ad- 
mixture of petroleum does not only ad- 
mit of an easier cleaning, as well as less 

[ 



( Laundry — Shirts ) 



tear and wear on the linen, but the wash 
also retains its color, is thoroughly disin- 
fected, and the expenses are considerably 
reduced by a saving in soap. 

b. — Blistering, To Prevent. — Blistering 
is almost always due to bad starching, 
but occasionally to ironing the articles 
when too wet. Each article must be well 
starched through, and, when about to 
iron, damp it evenly, but do not wet it. 
Use a hot iron. Collars and cuffs that 
have to be turned down should be fixed 
in the proper shape immediately after 
each one is ironed, for then the starch 
is still flexible. 

c. — Scorched, To Restore Whiteness. — 
Vinegar, ^^ pt. ; fuller's earth, 2 oz. ; 
dried fowl's dung, 1 oz. ; soap, % oz. ; 
the juice of 2 large onions. Boil all 
these ingredients together to the consist- 
ency of paste ; spread the composition 
thickly over the damaged part, and if the 
threads be not actually consumed, after 
it has been allowed to dry on and the 
place has subsequently been washed once 
or twice, every trace of scorching will 
disappear. 

d. — Red-Bordered Towels and Napkins. 
— A little borax put in the water will 
prevent them from fading. 

4. — Shirts. — a. — (Chinese Method.) A 
rather thick starch paste is prepared by 
first beating up a handful of raw starch, 
usually corn starch, and 1 teaspoonful of 
fine rice flour with about 1 qt. of water, 
making a liquid of creamlike consistency. 
A certain quantity (determined alone by 
personal experience) is poured into a 
quantity of boiling water while the latter 
is violently stirred with a short wooden 
spatula. With this the portions of the 
linen to be dressed are well smeared, the 
linen moist from wringing, and the starch 
quite hot. Thus smeared, the pieces are 
laid aside for a few minutes, then rubbed 
well between the hands, so that the paste 
is well distributed in the fabric. The 
linen is then usually dried by artificial 
heat. When ready for ironing, the 
starched portions are dampened by means 
of a cloth dipped in raw starch water to 
which has been added a small quantity — 
about % oz. to the qt. of blood albumen — 
of clarified serum of bullock's blood. The 
proportion of starch in this water is usu- 
ally about as 1 to 50 of water. In iron- 
ing, the irons are first made very hot, and 
cooled somewhat, externally, just before 
using by momentarily plunging them into 
a pail of water. The irons commonly em- 
ployed are what are termed polishing 
irons — they have the posterior edge round- 
ed instead of angular, as in the ordinary 
385] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



( Laundrj' — Shirts ) 



smoothing or sadiron. Much of the fine 
gloss observed on shirts laundried by- 
Chinamen is accomplished by the skilful 
manipulation of this "rounded edge" over 
the work — a manipulation very difficult 
to describe in words. It is most labori- 
ous work for those not accustomed to it. 
It not only renders the surface glossy, 
but imparts easy flexibility to the heavily 
starched fabric otherwise not obtainable. 
Custom made shirts are usually laundried 
before delivery in trade at the factory, 
the ironing, in these cases, being largely 
performed by steam mangles, though some 
are hand-finished. The following recipe 
for a laundry starch is said to produce 
a very fine and lasting gloss on linen 
without the expenditure of the amount 
of labor in ironing usually requisite to 
produce a fair appearance : Corn stai'ch, 
1 oz. ; boiling water, 1% pt. ; bluing, q. s. 
To this, when it has cooled somewhat, is 
added, and thoroughly mixed in, about 
% oz. of the following preparation : Gum 
arable, 8 3-5 parts ; loaf sugar, 2% parts ; 
white curd soap, % part; water glass 
("A" syrup), 1 part; egg albumen, 4 
parts ; warm water, 20 parts. In pre- 
paring this, the first 3 ingredients are 
dissolved together in the water at boil- 
ing heat, the water glass is then added, 
and when the mixture has cooled down 
to about 150° F. the egg albumen is put 
in and the whole well beaten together. 

b. — Starch, 1 oz. ; paraffine, about 8 
dr. ; white sugar, 1 tablespoonful ; table 
salt, 1 tablespoonful ; water, q. s. Rub 
up the starch with soft water into a 
thick, smooth paste. Add nearly or quite 
1 pt. of boiling water, with the salt and 
sugar dissolved in it, and, having dropped 
in the parafiine, boil for at least half an 
hour, stirring to prevent burning. Strain 
the starch, and use while hot. Sufficient 
bluing may be added to the water, previ- 
ous to the boiling, to overcome the yel- 
lowish cast of the starch, if necessary. 
Spermaceti may be used in place of par- 
affine. Starched linen can only be prop- 
erly finished by hard pressure applied to 
the iron. 

c. — Glossed Shirt Bosoms. — Take 2 oz. 
of fine_ white gum arabic powder, put it 
in a pitcher, and pour on 1 pt. or more 
of water, and then, having covered it, let 
it stand all night. In the morning pour 
it carefully from the dregs into a clean 
bottle, cork, and keep it for use. A tea- 
spoonful of gum water stirred in a pint 
of starch, made in the usual way, will 
give to lawns, white or printed, a look 
of newness when nothing else can restore 
them, after they have been washed. 



( Laundry — Starch ) 



d.— Melt 21^ lb. of the very best Al 
paraffine wax over a slow fire. When 
liquefied, remove from the fire and stir 
in 100 drops of oil of citronella. Have 
some new round pie tins, place them on 
a level table, coat them slightly with 
sweet oil, and pour about 6 tablespoon- 
fuls of the enamel into each tin. The 
pan may be floated in water to cool the 
contents sufficiently to permit the mixture 
to be cut or stamped out with a tin cut- 
ter into small cakes about the size of a 
peppermint lozenge. Two of these cakes 
added to each pint of starch will cause 
the smoothing iron to impart the finest 
possible finish to muslin or linen, be- 
sides perfuming the clothes. 

e. — Take of white wax, 1 oz. ; sperma- 
ceti, 2 oz. ; melt them together with a 
gentle heat. When you have prepared a 
sufficient amount of starch in the usual 
way for a dozen pieces, put into it a 
piece of the polish about the size of a 
large pea ; using more or less according 
to large or small washings. Or thick 
gum solution (made by pouring boiling 
water upon gum arabic) may be used. 
One tablespoonful to a pint of starch 
gives clothes a beautiful gloss. 

5. — Starches. — a. — Relative Stiffening 
Strength of. — Starting with a pure starch 
obtained by maceration and infusion, and 
taking its stiffening power as 100, we 
obtain the respective value of other 
starches, thus : Pure, dry rice starch, 
100 ; rice starch No. 1, 95 ; rice starch 
No. 2, 91 ; pure dry maize starch, 87 ; 
corn starch, 85 ; rye starch, 81 ; buck- 
wheat starch, 81 ; oat starch, 80 ; acorn 
starch, 80 ; wheat starch, 80 ; barley 
starch, 78 ; Bermuda arrowroot, 75 ; Na- 
tal arrowroot, 73 ; pure potato starch, 68 ; 
potato farina, 65. 

b. — Rub 1 oz. of best potato starch up 
with a little cold water, so as to reduce 
all the lumps ; add 1 tablespoonful of 
best loaf sugar, an equal quantity of 
dextrine, a little soluble indigo, and a 
lump of pure paraffine about the size of 
a nutmeg. Then add 1 pt. of boiling 
water, and boil, with occasional stirring, 
for half an hour (not less). The starch 
should be strained through a linen cloth 
before using. 

c. — To Improve Starch. — To each bowl 
of starch add 1 teaspoonful of Epsom 
salts, and dissolve in the usual way by 
boiling. Articles starched with this will 
be stififer, and will be rendered, to a cer- 
tain degree, fireproof. To use corn starch, 
boil to a smooth paste, cool, and starch 
the goods ; dry quickly. Before ironing, 
dampen down in thin, raw (unboiled) 
386] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



( Laundry — Starch ) 



starch water. A little gum arable or 
pure white wax is often added to the 
boiled starch to afford a fine gloss. Iron 
in the usual way, with a common sad- 
iron ; then dampen slightly with a clean 
cloth and the starch (raw) water, and 
polish briskly with a polishing iron. 

d. — Black Starch. — Add to the starch 
a certain amount of logwood extract be- 
fore the starch mixture is boiled. The 
quantity varies according to the depth of 
the black and the amount of starch. A 
small quantity of potassium bichromate 
dissolved in hot water is used to bring 
out the proper shade of black. In place 
of bichromate, black iron liquor may be 
used. It comes ready prepared. Prepa- 
rations of this kind are used in various 
industries. 

e. — Gloss, Cold Water. — Powdered bo- 
rax, 25 parts ; paraflfine, 2 parts ; pow- 
dered starch, 73 parts. Melt the wax, 
and pour on the borax in a warm mortar ; 
mix well, and finally add the starch. 

f. — Gloss, Liquid. — (1) Gum arable 
and borax, 1 oz. of each, are dissolved 
in 10 oz. of water ; white wax and sper- 
maceti, 1 oz. of each, are melted, and, 
while liquid, are rubbed with the solution 
of borax and 10 drops of oil of cloves 
to make an emulsion, mixing them thor- 
oughly. A teaspoonful of this mixture 
in 1 pt. of starch gives a fine polish. It 
may also be applied after starching, by 
rubbing over the starch with a cloth and 
then polishing with the iron. 

(2) Borax, 2% oz. ; gum -arable, 2% 
oz. ; spermaceti, 2% oz. ; glycerine, 6% 
oz. ; distilled water, 2% pt. A few drops 
of some sweet-scented essence. Add 6 
spoonfuls of lustrine to 6% oz. of boiling 
starch. 

(3) Borax, saturated solution, 2 parts; 
tragacanth mucilage, 1 part ; mix ; 1 
tablespoonful to 1 pt. of starch. 

(4) The Seifcnfahrikant gives the fol- 
lowing for polishing shirt bosoms, col- 
lars, etc. : Gum arable, 4 parts ; borax, 
4 parts ; glycerine, 6 parts ; spermaceti, 
3 parts ; water, 60 parts. 

(5) A. Dissolve white wax, 5.0%, in 
ether, 20.5%, and add alcohol, 75% ; 
shake before using. B. Heat until melted, 
in a pot, 1 kgm. of wax and 1 kgm. of 
stearine, as well as a few drops of an 
essential oil. To the hot liquid add, with 
careful stirring, 250 grams of ammonia 
lye of 10%, whereby a thick, soft mass 
results immediately. Upon further heat- 
ing the same turns thin again, where- 
upon it is diluted with 20 1. of boiling 
water mixed with 100 kgm. of starch, 
and poured into molds. 

[ 



( Laundry — Starch ) 



(6) Powdered starch, 30 parts; pow- 
dered borax, 15 parts ; stearine, 1 part ; 
alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve 
the stearine in alcohol, mix the solution 
with the starch, and leave exposed until 
the alcohol evaporates ; then add the 
borax. 

(7) Water, 70 gal.; fine wheat starch, 
80 lb. ; farina, 20 lb. ; heavy magnesia, 
10 lb. ; white curd soap, 6 lb. ; sperma- 
ceti, 5 lb. ; Japan wax, 5 lb. ; crystal 
carbonate of soda, 2 lb. ; ultramarine blue, 
Yo lb. Dissolve the blue in the water ; 
then melt the soap, spermaceti and wax, 
and add the soda, stirring well. Next 
mix starches and magnesia, free from 
lumps, with water ; add others, and boil 
until thoroughly mixed. Then run 
through a strainer. 

(8) Powdered starch, 2 dr.; powdered 
gum arable, 1% dr. ; powdered borax, 1 
dr. ; glycerine, % dr. ; water, 2 oz. Dis- 
solve the gum arable in the water, fol- 
lowed by the borax and the glycerine ; 
then incorporate the starch, rubbing up 
to a homogeneous mixture, which should 
be strained afterward to exclude any 
lumps ; add 1 tablespoonful of this mix- 
ture to 1 qt. of starch. 

(9) The Apotheker Zeitimg recom- 
mends the following : Pour 250 grams of 
water over 5 grams of powdered gum trag- 
acanth until the powder swells uniform- 
ly ; then add 7-50 grams of boiling water, 
dissolve 50 grams of borax in it, and stir 
50 grams of stearine and 50 grams of tal- 
cum into the whole. Of this fiuid, add 
14 1. to 1 1. of boiled starch, or else the 
ironing oil is applied by means of a 
sponge on the starched wash, which is 
then ironed. 

(10) Glycerine, 2 fl.dr. ; oil of turpen- 
tine, 2 fl.dr. ; borax, 2 dr. ; starch, 2 oz. ; 
water, 12 fl.oz. Rub down the starch 
with water to a smooth paste and add 
the remainder of the water, in which the 
borax has been previously dissolved ; then 
add the .srlvoerine and oil of turpentine. 

(11) Water, 14 pt. ; turpentine, 4 pt. ; 
Japan wax, 3 pt. : lemon rosin, 4 oz. ; 
borax. 4 oz. ; white curd soap, 4 oz. Dis- 
solve the wax (sliced) and rosin in the 
turpentine ; boil the soap and borax in 
the water ; mix all, and churn well until 
amalgamated. 

(12) A. Melt 5 parts of stearic acid, 
add 5 parts of absolute alcohol, and trit- 
urate the mixture with 95 parts of wheat 
starch. Starch prepared with this mix- 
ture takes easily a fine polish. The pol- 
ishing irons should be thoroughly cleaned 
immediately after use. B. Spermaceti, 
1% oz. ; gum arable, 1% oz. ; borax, 1% 

387] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



( Laundry — Starch ) 



oz. ; glycerine, 4^/^ oz. ; distilled water, 
1% pt. Boil half the water, and add the 
borax and spermaceti to it. Separately 
dissolve the gum in the remainder of the 
water and glycerine. Strain, and mix 
thoroughly with the warm mixture. This 
is a good gloss for cold-water starch ; 1 
wineglassful of it is used with 4 oz. of 
dry starch. 

g. — Gloss Powder. — (1) Gum arable, 
powdered, 3 parts ; spermaceti wax, 6 
parts ; borax, powdered, 4 parts ; white 
corn starch, 8 parts. Mix intimately in 
the powder form by sifting through a 
sieve several times. As the wax is in a 
solid form, and does not readily become 
reduced to powder by pounding in a mor- 
tar, the best method of reducing it is 
to put the wax into a bottle with some 
sulphuric or rectified ether, and then al- 
low the fluid to evaporate. After it has 
dissolved the wax, as the evaporation pro- 
ceeds, the wax will be deposited again in 
the solid form, but in fine, thin flakes, 
which will easily break down to a pow- 
der form when rubbed up with the other 
ingredients in a cold mortar. To use, add 
4 teaspoonfuls per pound to all dry starch, 
and then make the starch in the usual 
way as boiled starch. 

(2) Spermaceti, 1 oz. ; borax, 1 oz. : 
starch, 4 oz. Reduce the spermaceti to 
a fine powder by the aid of a little alco- 
hol, and mix with the powdered borax 
and starch. 

(3) Starch, by weight, 1,044 parts; 
borax, by weight, 9 parts ; common salt, 
by weight, 1 part ; gum arable, by weight, 
8 parts ; stearine, by weight, 20 parts. 

(4) Bleached carnauba wax, 30 parts; 
powdered French chalk, 20 parts ; white 
Castile soap, 12 parts. Shave the soap, 
and melt with the wax ; stir in the chalk 
while cooling. 

(5) Soap flakes, 44 lb.; powdered bo- 
rax, 5 lb. ; powdered French chalk, 4 lb. 
Spread the flakes out, sift borax and 
chalk over, moving about, to well and 
evenly distribute. Any kind of white 
soap may be utilized by first reducing to 
a granular form, then passing through a 
pair of rollers to form flakes. 

(6) Powdered borax, 8 oz. ; potato 
starch, 1 oz. Take 1 teaspoonful with 
each heaped tablespoonful of ordinary 
starch used. 

(7) Borax, 24 parts; farina, 21 parts; 
white dextrine, 20 parts ; white soap, 3 
parts. A tablespoonful of this is required 
for 1 lb. of starch. 

(8) White wax, 2 oz. ; spermaceti, 4 
oz. ; stearine, Vo oz. ; ultramarine blue, 3 
gr. Melt together, and let cool. For do- 



( Laundry — Washing Prep. ) 

ing up 1 doz. shirts, put a piece the size 
of a hazelnut in the hot starch, and mix. 
The boiling water serves to emulsify the 
waxy substance of the mixture. Finish 
with a hot iron the usual way. 

(9) Boric acid, 5 parts; borax, 3 
parts ; stearine, 1 part ; white beeswax, 1 
part. Put into a capsule, add suflBcient 
of a solution of sodium hydrate (liquor 
sod. , causticus) of 20° B., and boil until 
a homogeneous liquid is obtained ; then 
evaporate to dryness under a low heat. 
The dry product is then mixed with the 
finest rice starch, in the proportion of 
1 part to 10 parts of starch. This pro- 
duces the so-called "Glanzstarke" used in 
the finest German laundries. Properly 
prepared, and properly applied, the prep- 
aration leaves nothing to be desired, 
either in the polish or stiffness of the 
laundry clothing. 

h. — Linen Polishing Block. — Bleached 
carnauba wax, 30 lb. ; powdered French 
chalk, 21 lb. ; powdered Castile soap, 
white, 12 lb. ; citronella, 2% oz. Convert 
the soap and wax into shavings, melting 
at a gentle heat ; then stir in the chalk 
and citronella oil when a little cooler ; 
then pour out into a mold to set. 

i. — Uninflammable Starch. — Sodium 
tungstate, 2 oz. ; borax, in powder, 2 oz. ; 
starch, 6 oz. 

6. — WasJiing Preparations. — a. — Brick. 
— Water, 54 parts ; sodium hydrate, 38.21 
parts ; sodium biborate, 6.61 parts ; so- 
dium silicate, 1.70 parts. 

b. — Cream. — I. First quality white soft 
soap, 320 parts ; pulverized Castile soap, 
80 parts ; oil of sesame, 20 parts ; well 
purified, and perfumed with 5 parts of 
lemon-peel oil. II. Potash soft soap, 250 
parts ; best soda soap, 120 parts ; olive 
oil and water, each, 60 parts; potash, 7 
parts. III. Oil soap, 60 parts ; dry soap 
powder, 30 parts ; honey and rose water, 
15 parts, as much as necessary to obtain 
a fine foaming product. IV. Lard, 8 
parts ; cocoanut oil, 2 parts ; saponified in 
a water bath with 41/4 parts of 40% pot- 
ash lye, colored pink, and scented with 
rosewood oil and with oil of bergamot. 
V. Best lard, 30 parts ; oil of sesame, 6 
parts ; melted together ; and to this fat. 
at a temperature of 100° F., 3 parts of 
40% caustic potash lye, previously mixed 
with 1 part of water, is added in a thin 
stream ; after which 14 parts of 40% 
caustic potash lye are stirred in, in the 
same manner. The soap mass is then 
heated in a water bath of moderate tem- 
perature, in which, while stirring, com- 
plete saponification is effected. 

c. — Liquids. — (1) Take 5 lb. of bar 



[388] 



Cleansing^ Bleaching, Etc. 



( Laupdty — Washing Prep. ) 

soap, shavp fine- and add 1 qt. of lye, % 
oz. of pearJ'^sti, dissolved over a slow fire. 
When dissoivfcC, put into a vessel prepared 
for it to stand in ; then add i^ pt. of tur- 
pentine, 1 gill of hartshorn ; stir well, 
and it i-^ ready for use. 

(2) Dissolve V2 lb. of soda in 1 gal. 
of boiUng water, and pour upon it ^4 
lb, of lime. After this has settled, cut 
up 10 oz. of common bar soap and strain 
the solution upon it, and mix perfectly. 
Great care must be taken that no parti- 
cles of lime are poured upon the soap. 
Prepare the mixture the evening before 
washing. Directions : To 10 gal. of 
water add the above preparation when the 
water is boiling. Each lot of linen must 
boil half an hour, and the same liquid 
will answer for three batches of clothes. 
The white clothes must be put in soak 
overnight, and if the collars and wrist- 
bands are soaped and rubbed slightly, so 
much the better. Clean cold water may 
be used for rinsing. Some prefer boiling 
them for a few moments in clean bluing 
water and afterward rinsing in cold 
water. 

(3) The following compound is said 
greatly to facilitate the washing of 
clothes : Dissolve 2 lb. of bar soap in 
about 3 gal. of water as hot as the hand 
can bear ; add 1 tablespoonful of turpen- 
tine and 3 tablespoonfuls of ammonia ; 
stir, and steep the clothes in this for 3 
hours, keeping the vessel tightly covered. 
Then wash the clothes in the usual way. 
The soap and water may be used a sec- 
ond time, in which case a teaspoonful of 
turpentine and the same amount of am- 
monia must be added. This treatment is 
calculated to save much labor in cleans- 
ing summer clothes stained by fruit, etc. 

(4) The German washerwomen use a 
mixture of 2 oz. of turpentine and 1 oz. 
of spirits of ammonia, well mixed togeth- 
er. This is put into a bucket of warm 
water in which 1^ lb. of soap has been 
dissolved. The clothes are immersed for 
24 hours, and then washed. The cleans- 
ing is said to be greatly quickened, and 
2 or 3 rinsings in cold water remove the 
turpentine smell. 

(5) Borax is valuable for laundry use, 
instead of soda. Add a handful of it, 
powdered, to about 10 gal, of boiling 
water, and you need use only half the 
ordinary allowance of soap. For laces, 
cambrics, etc., use an extra quantity of 
the powder. It will not injure the texture 
of the cloth in the least. 

(6) The following was recommended 
in a German medical journal as being the 
most efficient and least harmful : Soda 



( Laundry — Washing Prep. ) 

(sodium hydrate), 150 parts; rosin, 75 
parts ; white soap shaved up, 50 parts ; 
alum, in coarse powder, 50 parts ; sodium 
carbonate, commercial, 290 parts ; sodium 
or potassium silicate, 290 parts ; water, 
600 parts. Bring the water to a boil, and 
in it dissolve the silicate and add the 
rosin. As soon as solution takes place 
add the remaining substances, A table- 
spoonful is said to be sufficient for an 
"ordinary wash," You can easily de- 
termine the quantity necessary by a few 
experiments, 

(7} Sodium carbonate, in concentrated 
solution, rendered caustic by agitation 
with slaked lime. Must be used with 
discretion. 

(8) Alcohol, 8 parts; oil of turpentine, 
8 parts ; strongest solution of ammonia, 
1 part. Mix. Use 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls 
to 1 pt. of soft soap or 1 lb. of hard soap. 
The clothes should be soaked overnight, 
if possible, before using this mixture ; but 
if soaked an hour or two it will aid much, 

(9) Washing fluid for fine linen, laces, 
etc. : Borax, 1 part ; water, 160 parts. 
For crinoline, or any stiff fabric, in- 
crease the quantity of borax to 6 oz. 

(10) Nottingham washing liquor: 
Water, 42 parts ; white soap, 8 parts ; 
potassium carbonate, impure, 1 part. 

(11) Hull washing liquor: Yellow 
soap, 3 parts ; water, 256 parts ; strongest 
solution of ammonia, 8 parts, 

(12) Yorkshire wash : Strongest solu- 
tion of ammonia, 1 part ; common water, 
16 parts, 

(13) Silicate of soda or potash, or 
water glass, is in itself a good detergent. 
It is added to cheap soaps to permit the 
retention of large quantities of water in 
the finished product. When dissolved in 
hot water it forms a solution which 
unites with certain kinds of soap very 
readily (curd soap, yellow soap, and 
soaps containing rosin). Probably a use- 
ful washing liquor could be made from 
this substance. 

(14) The following, according to 
Charles Boettiger, in the Revue de chimie 
industrielle, is the formula for preparing 
an article vv^hich, it is claimed, cleans at 
one washing, and without the use of scrub- 
bing boards, brushes, etc., all kinds of 
wash goods, and is absolutely harmless 
to all species of fabrics, linen, woolen, 
cotton, etc. : Potassium hydrate, 8 
grams ; alcohol, 20 grams ; olein, 24 
grams; glycerine (or vaseline), 2 grams; 
turpentine, 4 grams ; ultramarine, 2 
grams ; water, 100 1. Mix, Take of the 
mixture sufficient for the laundry in hand, 
put it into the wash kettle and add about 



[389] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



( Laundry — Washing Prep. ) 



one-third of the amount of lye ordinarily 
used for the wash ; mix, and bring to a 
boil, and let boil for 2 hours. The cloth- 
ing will be found absolutely clean. Boil- 
ing may be avoided, if, instead of cold 
water, a warm suds be employed, and the 
clothing be scrubbed or beaten. We un- 
derstand that 60 grams of the mixture 
is to be used for every 100 1., and more 
or less in proportion for any amount more 
or less than that. 

(15) Jackman's washing compound: 
Sal soda, 6 lb. ; borax, 1 lb. ; dissolve in 
1 gal. of boiling water. When cold, add 
1-3 lb, of potassium carbonate, 3 oz. of 
liquid ammonia, 4 spoonfuls of alcohol. 
Boil for 5 minutes % lb. fresh, unslaked 
lime in 1 gal. of water. Draw off the 
clear fluid when thoroughly settled ; add 
to this the other ingredients, with 9 gal. 
of cold water. Directions for using : Soak 
the clothes overnight, after rubbing soft 
soap on the dirty places. In the morn- 
ing, add % pt. of the compound, % pt. 
of soap and 4 gal. of hot water. Boil 
not more than 5 minutes, and turn into 
a tub, putting into your boiler the same 
mixture as before. Wring the clothes into 
this, and boil again 10 minutes ; suds, 
blue, and hang them out to dry. Should 
the wristbands or parts that are very 
dirty need a little rubbing, it should be 
done while the mixture is boiling. 

(16) Javelle water, used for turning 
white the dirtiest linen, and removing 
stains, is composed of bicarbonate of soda, 
4 lb. ; chloride of lime, 1 lb. Put the soda 
into a kettle, over the fire, add 1 gal. 
of boiling water, let it boil from 10 to 
15 minutes, then stir in the chloride of 
lime, avoiding lumps. Use when cool. 
This is good for removing fruit stains 
from white underwear. 

(17) Peerless washing fluid: Ground 
soap bark, 8 oz. ; borax, 4 oz. ; concen- 
trated potash lye, 1 lb. ; white bar soap 
(ivory), % lb.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz. ; 
ammonia water, 1 pt. ; oil of sassafras, 
% oz. ; boiling water, 1 gal. Shave the 
soap and dissolve in the boiling water ; 
add the soap bark and borax, stirring 
them well together frequently for half a 
day, then strain, and add the concentrated 
lye, oils and ammonia water, shaking 
them well together. A tablespoonful for 
each gallon of water in which the clothes 
are put to soak. 

d. — Powder. — (1) A German soap jour- 
nal gives the following processes : Figged 
(soft) soap, 25 lb. ; linseed-oil soap, 20 
lb. ; soda ash, 65 to 70 lb. The above 
are crutched together, whereby the mix- 
ture becomes heated : the mass is then 



(Laundry — Washing Prep.) 

turned with a spade, at short intervals, 
until it disintegrates in small pieces. 
After cooling, it is rubbed through a fine 
sieve, and the powder is then ready to 
be packed. This process is recommended 
for small businesses, as it requires no 
mill to be used. 

(2) For large quantities the boiling 
process is better adapted, but it requires 
the use of a mill. Here is the formula : 
Red oil, 350 lb.; soda lye, 40° B., 140 
lb. ; soda ash, 70 lb. ; water, 280 lb. After 
saponifying the above, and shutting off 
the heat, add 350 lb. of soda ash by con- 
stant crutching. By continuing the crutch- 
ing a gritty mass is obtained, which is 
run into a wooden, tin-lined box about 
12 in. high, and there still crutched till 
cold. Recently, soap powder has been 
brought on the market with an odor of 
ammonia, turpentine, and sometimes also 
perfumed. These ingredients may be in- 
corporated while stirring in the box. On 
cooling, the now very solid mass must be 
ground in the mill and sifted. Powder 
carefully made in this way, it is said, 
does not expand while stored, and the 
bursting of the packages is not to be 
feared. 

(3) A cheaper powder is made by the 
same process from the following : Palm 
kernel oil, 135 lb. ; palm oil, 20 lb. ; soda 
lye, 40° B., 100 lb.; water, 800 lb.; to 
which are added soda ash, 1,050 lb. 

(4) Gathmann (American soaps) says 
that washing powders usually sold to the 
consumer as soap powders may be de- 
scribed in a general way as mixtures of 
powdered soap with about its own weight, 
more or less, of carbonate of soda. Some 
special brands are made which, in addi- 
tion, contain other detergent agents, such 
as carbonate of ammonia, sal ammoniac 
or borax, while still others are found to 
which filling, in the form of talc, silex, 
etc., has been added. The soap itself may 
have been made by any of the processes 
known — cold, half boiled, or boiled, set- 
tled or boiled down — and the stock used 
may have been any fat, or mixture of 
fats, according to the grade of the wash- 
ing powder to be made. It is thus seen 
that beyond being either principally or 
entirely a mixture of soap and soda, these 
powders have little in common with each 
other. Here are some typical formulas : 

(5) Hager, in Phar. Gentralhalle, gives 
the following 9 analyses : 

(a) The so-called English Washing 
Crystal is an impure, half effervescent 
crystallized soda, containing a large pro- 
portion of sulphate of soda and common 
salt. 



[390] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Laundry — Soap Powders) 

(b) Under the name of Washing Crys- 
tals, simply a filtered solution of borax 
and soda has been introduced. 

(c) The English Patent Cleansing 
Crystal Washing Powder is a half ef- 
florescent soda, containing about 25% of 
Glauber's salts. 

(d) The Washing and Cleansing Crys- 
tals are pure crystallized soda, with 1 to 
2% of borax. 

(e) Krimmelbein's Wool Washing 
Composition is a mixture of 35 parts of 
dried soda, 10 parts of soap powder and 
10 parts of sal ammoniac. 

(f) Ward's Wool Washer is a mixture 
of 90 parts of effloresced soda crystals 
with 10 parts of soap powder. 

(g) The Universal Washing Powder 
(Henkel's) is a water glass containing 
soda, with a small percentage of tallow 
soap and starch powder. 

(h) Hudson's Soap Extract is a mix- 
ture of crystallized soda and soda soap, 
containing water (soap 14.3, anhydrous 
soda 80, and water 55). 

(i) A washing powder for the finest 
white linen is a powdery mixture of 90 
parts of effloresced soda with 10 parts of 
hyposulphite of soda and 2 parts of 
borax. 

(6) Heat soluble soda glass, 5,000 
parts, and mix intimately with calcined 
soda, 2,000 parts. The resulting hard 
mass is broken up in a pounding ma- 
chine. 

(7) Soluble soda glass, 2,500 parts; 
calcined soda, 3,500 parts ; powdered bo- 
rax, 300 parts ; powdered soap, 400 parts ; 
potato starch, 300 parts. 

(8) Powdered soda crystals, 8,000 
parts ; powdered water glass, 2,000 parts. 

(9) Hard soap, 5 parts; soda ash, 3 
parts ; sodium silicate, 2 parts ; borax, 
1 part. 

(10) Yellow soap, 12 parts; pearlash, 
3 parts ; palm oil, 2 parts. 

(11) Hard soap, 4 parts; sal soda 
(crude sodium carbonate), 3 parts; so- 
dium silicate, 2 parts. 

(12) Boraxine. (a) Sodium carbo- 
nate, partially effloresced, 2 parts ; soda 
ash, 1 part. 

(b) Sodium carbonate, partially ef- 
floresced, 6 parts ; soda ash, 3 parts ; yel- 
low soap, 1 part. 

(c) Sodium carbonate, partially efflor- 
esced, 3 parts ; soap bark, 1 part. 

(d) Sodium carbonate, partially efflor- 
esced, borax and yellow soap, equal parts 
of each. 

The following directions are given in 
an article on this subject in Der Seifen- 
fairikant: "A very good powder can be 



(Laundry — Soap Powders) 



made from 100 parts of crystal soda, 25 
parts of dark yellow rosin curd soap and 
5 parts of soft soap. The two latter are 
placed in a pan, along with half the soda 
(the curd soap being cut into small 
lumps), and slowly heated, with contin- 
ual crutching, until they are thoroughly 
melted, without, however, beginning to 
boil. The fire is then drawn, and the 
remaining soda crutched in until it, too, 
is melted, this being efEected by the resid- 
ual heat of the mass and pan. The mass 
will be fairly thick by the time the soda 
is all absorbed. After leaving a little 
longer, with occasional stirring, the con- 
tents are spread out on several thin sheets 
of iron in a cool room, to be then turned 
by the shovel at short intervals, in order 
to further cool and break down the mix- 
ture. The soap will then be in a friable 
condition, and can be rubbed through the 
sieve, the best results being obtained by 
passing through a coarse sieve first and 
one of finer mesh afterward. With these 
ingredients a fine yellow-colored powder 
will be obtained. White stock soap may 
also be used, and, if desired, colored with 
palm oil or the same colorings as are used 
for toilet soaps. The object of adding 
soft soap is to increase the solubility and 
softness of the powder, but the proportion 
used should not exceed one-third of the 
hard soap, or the powder will be smeary 
and handle moist. The quality of the 
foregoing product is good, the powder be- 
ing stable, and not liable to ball, even 
after prolonged storage ; neither does it 
wet the paper in which it is packed, nor 
swell up, and therefore the packets retain 
their appearance. In making ammonia- 
turpentine soap powder the ammonia and 
oil of turpentine are crutched into the 
mass shortly before removing it from the 
pan, and if the powder is scented — for 
which purpose oil of mirbane is mostly 
used — the perfume is added at the same 
stage." 

(13) London Soap Powder: Yellow 
soap, 6 parts ; soda crystals, 3 parts ; 
pearlash, 1% parts ; sulphate of soda, l^/^ 
parts ; palm oil, 1 part. These ingredi- 
ents are combined as well as possible 
without any water, and they are spread 
out to dry, and then ground into coarse 
powder. They are adapted to hard waters, 
as their excess of carbonated alkali neu- 
tralizes the lime in the water. 

(14) Pearl Soap Powder: Curd soap, 
powdered, 4 parts; sal soda (crude so- 
dium carbonate), 3 parts; sodium sili- 
cate, 2 parts. Dried as much as possible, 
and intimately mixed. 

Wringers, To Fasten Rolls on. — 1. — > 



[391] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Linoleum) 



Clean shaft thoroughly between tlie shoul- 
ders or washers, where .the rubber goes 
on. 

2. — Give shaft a coat of copal varnish 
between the shoulders, and let it dry. 

3. — Give shaft a coat of varnish and 
wind shaft tightly as possible with 5-ply 
jute twine at once, while varnish is green, 
and let it dry for about 6 hours. 

4. — Give shaft, over the twine, a coat 
of rubber cement, and let it dry for about 
6 hours. 

5. — Give shaft, over the twine, a second 
coat of rubber cement, and let it dry for 
about 6 hours. 

6. — Remove washer on the short end 
of shaft, also the cogwheel, if the shaft 
has cogs on both ends. 

7. — See that the rubber rolls are al- 
ways longer than the space between the 
washers, wh«re the rubber goes on, as 
they shrink or take up a little in putting 
on the shaft. 

8. — Clean out the hole or inside roll 
with benzine, using a small brush or swab. 

9. — Put the thimble or pointer on the 
end of shaft that the washer has been 
removed from, and give shaft, over the 
twine and thimble, another coat of ce- 
ment, and stand the same upright in a 
vise. 

10. — Give the inside or hole of roll a 
coat of cement with a small rod or stick. 

11. — Pull or force the roll on the shaft 
as quickly as possible, with a jerk, then 
rivet the washer on with a cold chisel. 

12. — Let roll stand and get dry for 2 
or 3 days before using same. Cement for 
use should be so thick that it will run 
freely ; if it gets too thick, thin it with 
benzine or naphtha. 

Lead. To Polish. 

Use jeweler's rouge on a chamois skin. 

Linoleum and Oilcloth. 

1. — Wash the linoleum with a mixture 
of equal parts of milk and water, wipe 
dry, and rub in the following mixture 
by means of a cloth rag : Yellow wax, 
5 parts ; turpentine oil, 11 parts ; var- 
nish, 5 parts. As a glazing agent, a so- 
lution of a little yellow wax in turpentine 
oil is also recommended. Other polish- 
ing agents are : 

a. — Palm oil, 1 part ; paraffine, 18 
parts ; kerosene, 4 parts. 

b. — Yellow wax, 1 part ; carnauba wax, 
2 parts ; turpentine oil, 10 parts ; ben- 
zine, 5 parts. 

c. — Rub them once in 3 months with 
boiled linseed oil. Put on a very little. 



(Machinery) 



and rub it well in with a rag, and pol- 
ish with a piece of old silk. 

2. — Wash with a large, soft woolen 
cloth and lukewarm or cold water ; dry 
thoroughly' with a soft cloth, and after- 
ward polish with milk or a weak solu- 
tion of beeswax in spirits of turpentine. 
Never use a brush or hot water or soap, 
as either will be apt to bring off the 
paint. 

3. — To Renovate. — Dissolve 2^^ lb. of 
paraffine and 1 gal. oil of turpentine by 
the aid of a gentle heat, and apply with a 
sponge or piece of flannel, while warm. 
Let it remain on the oilcloth twenty-four 
hours ; then polish with flannel. This so- 
lution not only renovates, but preserves 
the cloth. It has been used on oilcloths 
which have been down 4 years, and they 
look as good as new. The same prepara- 
tion may also be used on painted floors. 
When rubbed with flannel it will have a 
beautiful gloss, equal to varnish. 

4. — Treatment of Newly Laid Lino- 
leum. — The furniture should never be 
rolled or skidded about, but lifted and 
carried from place to place ; moreover, 
under the feet of heavy pieces on castors, 
small bits of linoleum should be placed. 
The proper way to cleanse a linoleum 
flooring is first to sweep off the dust and 
then wipe up with a damp cloth. Sev- 
eral times a year the surface should be 
well rubbed with floor wax. Care must 
be taken that the mass is well pulverized 
and free from grit. Granite linoleum 
and figured coverings are cleansed with- 
out the application of water. A floor 
covering which has been treated from the 
beginning with floor wax need only be 
wiped off daily with a dry cloth, either 
woolen or felt, and afterward rubbed well 
with a cloth well filled with the mass. 
It will improve its appearance, too, if it 
be washed several times a year with warm 
water and a neutral soap. 

Liquors, Alkaline. 

Try a little ammonia or the juice of a* 
lemon. If the color is destroyed, noth- 
ing can be done. 

Machinery. 

1. — Blotting paper has been found very 
efficacious in the removal of grease. 

2. — On machines greased with fat oils, 
the oil resinifies upon long idleness of the 
parts, so that their running is rendered 
very hard, especially for hand power. Re- 
greasing with oil does not do much good, 
and a thorough cleaning of the resinified 
places, bearings, eccentrics, shafts, etc., 
is necessary. Petroleum is known to have 



[392] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Marble) 



been used for dissolving the resinified oils, 
but is only useful for easily accessible, 
smooth parts, and even here w^ith consid- 
erable difficulty. In cases where there are 
hollows, oil holes, grooves, etc., rubbing 
with petroleum is insufficient. In such 
cases a strong soda solution is recom- 
mended. Take about 10 to 15 grams of 
caustic soda or 100 grams of soda for 
each liter of water, cause the solution to 
boil, immerse the parts to be cleaned in 
this and bathe them in it for some time ; 
or, what is still better, boil them with it. 
The success will be so pronounced that 
only a rinsing and drying remains neces- 
sary to clean the machine parts. For 
small shops this mode of cleaning is 
doubtless the best. 

Marble. 

Discolored. — 1. — Frequently, when mar- 
ble is exposed, as in a cemetery, where 
it is more or less sheltered by trees, it 
is disfigured by lichens and other vege- 
table growth. In many instances this 
growth has died and become brown or 
black in color. All such discolorations 
may be readily removed by soda lye of 
moderate strength, about 5%. That 
which is rotted is dissolved, and the re- 
mainder is soon disintegrated. The fol- 
lowing directions answer well : A box 
of concentrated lye, containing about 12 
oz. of caustic soda, is dissolved in a 2-gal. 
bucket of water. Spread this over the 
stone with a small, cheap scrubbing brush 
made with vegetable fiber, preferably pro- 
vided with a handle, so as to avoid get- 
ting the lye upon the hands, the clothes 
or the shoes. After 10 minutes or more 
pour water over the stone to wash off 
most of the lye, and then rub it a little 
with the brush, using some sand, if neces- 
sary, and the stain will be removed. Of 
course, this liquid has no effect upon the 
stone itself, and is most easily washed 
away. So far as the wash falls upon 
the ground, it will improve rather than 
harm any grass or other plants. Should 
the lye remain upon the skin, it may oc- 
casion an ugly sore. If splashed upon the 
clothing, the prompt application of a so- 
lution of sal ammoniac will prevent cor- 
rosion of the goods. 

2. — If the marble is merely worn, and 
not stained, acids should not be used. 
Wash the surface with a mixture of fine- 
ly powdered pumice stone and vinegar, 
and leave it for several hours ; then brush 
it hard, and wash it clean. When dry, 
rub with whiting and wash leather. 

3. — Soft soap, 4 parts ; whiting, 4 
parts ; sodium bicarbonate, 1 part ; copper 

[ 



(Marble) 



sulphate, 2 parts ; boil the whole together 
for 15 minutes. Mix thoroughly, and rub 
over the marble with a piece of flannel, 
and leave it on for 24 hours ; then wash 
it off with clean water, and polish the 
marble with a piece of flannel or an old 
piece of felt. 

4. — Soft soap, % lb. ; whiting, i/i lb. ; 
carbonate of soda, 1 oz.; make into a 
paste, and rub over the marble ; wash it 
off after 24 hours. 

5. — Sodium carbonate, 2 oz. ; chlori- 
nated lime, 1 oz. ; water, 14 oz. Mix well, 
and apply the mixture (magma and 
liquid) to the marble with a cloth, rub- 
bing well in, and finally rubbing dry. It 
may be necessary to repeat the opera- 
tion. 

6. — Oxgall, 1 part; saturated solution 
of sodium carbonate, 4 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 1 part ; pipeclay, enough to form 
a paste. 

7. — Wash the marble thoroughly with 
soda and warm water to remove any 
grease, then apply oxalic acid by laying 
a piece of white cotton cloth, saturated, 
upon the spots for a short time. If it 
destroys the polish, repolish with oxide 
of tin and water applied with a cloth. 
If the stains are not deep, rub the sur- 
face only with oxalic acid and water, 
upon a small piece of cloth, quickly, and 
wash to free the marble of acid. To 
give the marble a gloss, rub with chalk 
wet with water. 

8. — Cover the soiled part with, a paste 
of quicklime moistened with a strong, 
aqueous solution of sal soda for several 
hours ; then remove the paste, wash the 
parts thoroughly, and polish, if necessary. 

9. — Pure beeswax, 10 parts ; japan gold 
size, 2 parts ; spirit of turpentine, 88 
parts. Dissolve, and apply in small quan- 
tities, by rubbing with a piece of flannel. 
If the marble to be cleaned is white, white 
wax may be used in making the prepara- 
tion. 

10. — Powdered pumice, 1 oz. ; prepared 
chalk, 2 oz. ; dried carbonate of soda, 1 
oz. Mix, and make into a paste with 
equal parts of water and glycerine. It is 
used by rubbing a moist rag on the sur- 
face of the paste and then applying to 
the marble surface, and finally washing 
off with soap and water. 

11. — Grease and Oil. — a. — Prepare a 
thin pulp of Spanish white, mix with 
benzine or petroleum ether, spread the 
mixture over the marble, and allow it to 
remain there, covered with a damp cloth, 
for 6 or 8 hours. If the spots are old, 
the process must be repeated several 
times. If benzine alone does not pro- 
393 ] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Marble) 



duce the desired result, a little chloro- 
form should be added. To polish the 
slabs, use a mass of washed emery and 
tin putty, spread on a linen rag. 

b. — To remove oil stains, apply com- 
mon clay, saturated with benzine. If the 
grease has remained in long, the polish 
will be injured, but the stain will be re- 
moved. 

c. — Use a mixture of equal parts of 
whiting, sodium bicarbonate and water. 
Apply with a sponge or cloth, rub well, 
and clean off with water. This is very 
useful around the fountain where cream 
has been used. 

d. — To extract oil from marble or stone, 
soft soap, 1% parts ; fuller's earth, 3 
parts; potash, I14 parts; boiling water to 
mix. Apply to the grease spots, and let 
it remain 2 or 3 hours. 

12.^— Zroii Mold or Ink Spots. — Dissolve 
% oz. of butter of antimony and 1 oz. 
of oxalic acid in 1 pt. of rain water ; add 
enough flour to bring the mixture to a 
proper consistency. Lay it evenly on the 
stained part with a brush, and after it 
has remained for a few days wash it off 
and repeat the process if the stain be not 
wholly removed. 

13. — Boil your marble in a strong so- 
lution of caustic soda, then take out and 
rub well. Soon all the stains will come 
out. 

14. — Match Staiits. — Spots from sul- 
phur and phosphorus, caused by lucifer 
matches, can be extracted from marble 
by carbon bisulphide ; or take 2 parts of 
common soda, 1 part of pumice stone and 
1 part of finely powdered chalk ; sift it 
through a fine sieve, and mix it with 
water ; then rub it well all over the mar- 
ble, and the stains will be removed ; then 
wash the marble over with soap and 
water, and it will be as clean as it was 
at first. 

15. — Petroleum. — Soda, 2 parts ; finely 
powdered pumice stone, 1 part ; finely 
powdered lime, 1 part ; made into a paste 
with water. This is rubbed on the spots, 
allowed to remain a few minutes, and 
then washed off with soap and water. 

16. — Ointment Slabs and Greasy Mor- 
tars. — These are easily and thoroughly 
cleaned by rubbing with ordinary news- 
paper wrung out in hot or cold water. 

17. — Polishing. — Where the marble has 
been exposed to the weather, or has been 
more than commonly damaged, it may 
be necessary to repolish it. Rub it first 
with sharp sand ; apply a second, and 
finally a third sand, of increasing fine- 
ness, after which use tripoli or pumice. 
The final polish is imparted by the use 

C 



(Marble) 



of tin putty or putty powder. A plate 
of iron is generally used for rubbing with 
the coarse sand ; with the fine sand or 
emery a leaden plate is used ; and for the 
powdered pumice a piece of smooth- 
grained pumice is employed. For the 
final polishing, coarse linen or bagging 
is used, wedged tightly into an iron plan- 
ing tool. All of these substances are 
used while a stream of water trickles over 
the surface of the stone. The putty pow- 
der referred to is a binoxide of tin, ob- 
tained by treating metallic tin with nitric 
acid, when the metal is converted into 
hydrated metastannic acid, which, when 
it is heated, becomes anhydrous. It is 
in this condition that it is known as put- 
ty powder. In practice, putty powder is 
mixed with alum, sulphur and other sub- 
stances, the mixture used being depend- 
ent upon the nature of the stone to be 
polished. 

18. — Rust. — Muriatic acid will remove 
iron rust from a marble or porcelain 
bowl. If the bowl can be made hot, the 
stain will yield to the acid more quickly 
than when the surface is cold. Fill the 
bowl or tub with hot water and then 
empty ; moisten the spot with the acid, 
pour boiling water over it, and it will dis- 
appear. When all the stains have been re- 
moved, rinse with ammoni? and water ; 
then rinse thoroughly with cold water. 
Work as quickly as possible with marble, 
as the acid is apt to dissolve it. Some- 
times a stain which looks like rust, but 
is not, will not yield to this treatment, 
but will disappear if rubbed with wood 
alcohol. 

19. — Soda Fountain Care. — The action 
of acids, viz., sulphuric, carbonic, citric, 
phosphoric, lactic, etc., or the fumes emit- 
ting therefrom, employed in carbonating 
and dispensing soda water, _ attacking 
marble, is very injurious to its polish ; 
the front of the apparatus, marble slabs, 
etc., exposed to the spattering of soda 
water in which one or more of these acids 
are present, should be immediately rinsed 
with water and afterward rubbed quickly 
with a clean, soft cloth until perfectly 
dry. Frequent applications of pure olive 
oil to black or fancy marbles, rubbed 
vigorously with a soft, smooth fabric, will 
assist toward retaining their original ap- 
pearance. Under no circumstances should 
oil or soap be applied to onyx, Italian 
white, French blue or Bardillo marbles. 
Stone of this description should be washed 
frequently with pure water and after- 
ward rubbed briskly with a clean chamois 
until it assumes a glossy appearance. A 
saturated solution of beeswax in turpen- 
394] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Metals) 



tine, rubbed into the pores of highly 
colored marble showing signs of dimness, 
and afterward removed by rubbing it 
smartly with a soft, smooth cloth, will 
restore its original luster. Light-colored 
marbles, and especially onyx, should be 
kept dry and bright by burnishing the 
surface frequently with a clean chamois. 
To prevent Belgium black marble from 
turning gray, it should be oiled, and 
rubbed freely at least once a week. By 
keeping the pores of marble filled with 
oil a film is formed over the surface, 
which becomes almost impervious to the 
action of acids, etc. 

20. — Stovepipe Drippings. — Cover with 
a thick layer of powdered French chalk, 
previously well moistened with benzine. 
Then cover over to prevent evaporation 
of the benzine. After 5 to 6 hours the 
chalk and benzine are removed and a 
fresh layer applied, and this is contin- 
ued until the spots have disappeared. If 
the benzine is not successful, a little chlo- 
roform may be added, but no acid should 
be used, as it acts upon the marble. 

21.— White MarUe.—a.—GosLt it with 
gum arable and expose to the sun. When 
it peels off, wash with water, or make 
a paste with fuller's earth and hot water, 
cover the spots therewith, and let it dry 
on ; and next day scour off with soft 
soap. The luster can be restored by rub- 
bing with a dry cloth. 

b. — Oxgall, 1 oz. ; lye, 1 gill ; turpen- 
tine, 1% tablespoonfuls ; mix, and make 
into a paste with pipeclay ; put the paste 
over the stain, and let it remain for sev- 
eral days. 

Matting. 

Wash with water in which bran has 
been boiled, or in weak salt and water ; 
dry it well with a cloth. 

To Remove Grease from Matting. — 
Wet a nail brush in slightly salted water, 
rub on Castile soap, and scrub the place. 
Have the water boiling. Continue to 
scrub with soap till the spot disappears. 
Wash with clean cloth, and rub dry. Al- 
ways rub lengthwise of the grain. 

Metals. (See also Brass and Copper; 
Iron and Steel; Nickel; Rust; Sil- 
ver; in this chapter.) 
1. — The preparation of polishes, sim- 
ple as it seems, is an art, and, like every 
other, requires a certain amount of prac- 
tical experience as well as a knowledge 
of the materials entering into the com- 
position of the polishing mixture used, 
and of their preparation for use. To 
attain a high and uniform grade of pol- 

[ 



(Metal Polishing) 



ish, the materials must be reduced to a 
very fine and uniform powder. One sin- 
gle grain of the material larger or sharp- 
er than the rest will produce scratches 
that interfere with the finish given the 
metal. The substances in general use are 
prepared chalk, rotten stone, tripoli and 
emery. For the finest work, jewelers' 
rouge is employed. Substances like em- 
ery are most useful for the harder met- 
als ; they scratch too much to be used 
to any extent on gold or silver. All should 
be run through a fine sieve before being 
used. 

2. — Cloths, Polishing. — These are un- 
dyed velveteen, in the stage of manufac- 
ture known as "dressed off." They may 
be improved by soaking in a solution of 
ammonia or a saturated solution of hy- 
posulphite of soda, then dried. Polishing 
tissue was thin paper, saturated with am- 
monia solution and dried ; it is now ob- 
solete. 

3. — Jewelers' Polishing Bar. — Refined 
tallow, 80 lb. ; sesquioxide of iron, 16 lb. ; 
oxalic acid, 1 lb. Powder the acid, mix 
with the sesquioxide, and mold with the 
tallow into bars, like soap. The sesqui- 
oxide must be quite free from grit, or it 
may scratch valuable work. It may be 
prepared by calcining equal amounts of 
oxalic acid and iron sulphate in a cru- 
cible for about 15 minutes, with a good 
draught. 

4. — Jewelers' Rouge. — To make sure of 
your jewelers' rouge being free from dust 
and grit, prepare it fresh, as follows : 
Make a solution of iron sulphate (cop- 
peras), and another of oxalic acid. Add 
the latter to the former, as long as it 
throws down a precipitate. Filter off the 
liquid, and wash the residue on the filter 
with repeated charges of water, and dry. 
When dry, place in a suitable container, 
and heat gently. It soon ignites, and 
burns until only an impalpable powdpj* 
is left. This is the polishing material. 
The infusorial earth must be freed from 
sand, grit, etc., and reduced, by grinding, 
to a condition similar to that of the iron 
peroxide. The rotten stone and acid must 
also be powdered. If care and attention 
be given to these details, you can scarcely 
fail to get good results. 

5. — Liquid Polish. — Sometimes it is de- 
sirable to have a liquid polish for metals. 
Properly speaking, there can be no such 
thing, as the polishing process depends, 
as we have already pointed out, on the 
attrition of fine particles of some sub- 
stance a little harder than the metal. The 
powders used can be, and frequently are, 
employed in a moist condition, and they 
395] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Metal Polishing) 



may be suspended in water by shaking. 
A mixture of whiting and ammonia water 
is frequently used in cleaning metals, the 
ammonia acting as a solvent of some 
kinds of dirt. It is best, however, to re- 
move grease, etc., before beginning the 
polishing process, and the effects of strong 
alkalies on the hands are not pleasant. 
It is true that the acids, by their chemi- 
cal action, i-emove rust and dirt from 
metallic surfaces without the aid of any 
of these hard, fine powders, but they gen- 
erally remove also a portion of the met- 
als themselves each time they are applied. 
A weak solution in water of any of the 
strong mineral acids, or even of citric 
or oxalic acid, might be found useful in 
a number of instances, but could not be 
recommended for general use. 

a. — Prepared chalk, 2 parts ; water of 
ammonia, 2 parts ; water, sufficient to 
make 8 parts. The ammonia saponifies 
the grease usually present. It must be 
pointed out that the alkali present makes 
the preparation somewhat undesirable to 
handle, as it will affect the skin if al- 
lowed too free contact. 

b. — Malt vinegar, 4 gal. ; lemon juice, 1 
gal. ; paraffine oil, 1 gal. ; kieselguhr, 7 
lb. ; powdered bath brick, 3 lb. ; oil of 
lemon, 2 oz. Well mix. 

c. — Kieselguhr, 56 lb. ; paraffine oil, 3 
gal. ; alcohol, 1% gal. ; camphorated 
spirit, % gal. ; turpentine oil, % gal. ; li- 
quid ammonia fort., 3 pt. Pour the am- 
monia into the oil, alcohol and turpentine, 
add the camphorated spirit, and mix with 
the kieselguhr. To prevent setting, keep 
well agitated during filling. The color may 
be turned red by using a little sesquioxide 
of iron and less kieselguhr. Apply with 
a cloth, and, when dry, use another clean 
cloth, or a brush. 

d. — Precipitated chalk, 30 parts ; am- 
monia water, 30 parts ; alcohol, 45 parts ; 
water, 200 parts. For polishing silver 
and other metals. 

e. — Dried sodium carbonate, 1 part ; 
soap, 4 parts ; flour of emery, 25 parts ; 
water, enough to make a paste. 

f. — Prepared chalk, 8 oz. ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 1 oz. ; water of 
ammonia, 2 dr. 

g. — Peroxide of iron (jewelers' rouge) 
20 parts ; rotten stone, 20 parts ; infuso- 
rial earth, 20 parts; oxalic acid, 1 part; 
palm oil, sufficient ; vaseline, sufficient ; oil 
of mirbane. sufficient to perfume. Pulver- 
ize, and mix. so proportioning the palm 
oil and vaseline that you have a liquid 
sufficiently "thick" to hold the powders 
in suspension. 

h. — Naphtha. — (1) A mixture of equal 



(Metal Polishing) 



parts of sperm oil, paraffine oil and naph- 
tha is said to make a good cleaner for 
metals, and is a lubricant as well. 

(2) Venice tripoli, 1 lb.; Spanish 
whiting, 1 lb. ; powdered pumice, 8 oz. ; 
kerosene, 3 oz. ; crude oleic acid, 3 oz. ; 
crude petroleum jelly to make a paste. 
Naphtha might be used in place of the 
kerosene. When naphtha or benzine is 
used there is always more or less dan- 
ger from fire. They evaporate rapidly 
on exposure to the air, and unless the 
polish containing them is used at once, 
or is kept in a tightly closed container, 
they will probably be entirely lost. 

i. — Star Metal Polish. — Powdered trip- 
oli, 3 oz. : tartaric acid, 1 dr. ; powdered 
pumice, % oz. ; gasoline, 14 fl.oz. Shake 
well, and apply with a woolen cloth until 
the dirt is removed ; then polish with 
chamois. 

j. — Tripoli, 9 kgm. ; infusorial earth, 9 
kgm. ; Japanese wax, 5 kgm. ; olein, 12 
kgm. ; benzine, 90 kgm. 

k. — Fulmenol. — Chalk, 100 kgm. ; olein, 
64 kgm. ; ammonia water, 38 kgm. ; alco- 
hol, denatured, 49 kgm. ; benzine, 49 kgm. 

1. — Rotten stone, 16 av.oz. ; paraffine, 
8 av.oz.; kerosene (coal oil), 16 fl.oz.; 
oil of mirbane, enough to perfume. Melt 
the paraffine, incorporate the rotten stone, 
add the kerosene and the oil of mirbane 
when cold. 

m. — Oxalic acid, % av.oz. ; rotten stone, 
10 av.oz.; kerosene (coal oil), 30 fl.oz.; 
paraffine, 2 av.oz. Pulverize the oxalic 
acid, and mix it with the rotten stone ; 
melt the paraffine, add to it the kerosene, 
and incorporate the powder ; when cool, 
add oil of mirbane or lavender, to per- 
fume. 

n. — Pumice, 2 av.oz. ; rotten stone, 2 
av.oz. ; iron carbonate, 2 av.oz. ; paraffine, 
2 av.oz. ; gasoline, 16 fl.oz. Mix the pum- 
ice, rotten stone and iron ; pass through 
a fine sieve to remove all grit ; melt the 
paraffine, and pour into the gasoline ; to 
this solution now add the powder, with 
shaking, to thoroughly incorporate the 
same. 

o. — Levigated rotten stone, 2 oz. ; iron 
subcarbonate, 6 oz. ; oil of mirbane, 
enough to flavor ; oleic acid or cotton-seed 
oil, sufficient to bring the mixture to the 
right co'^sistency. 

p. — Rotten stone, 8 oz. ; oxalic acid, 2 
oz. ; cotton-seed oil, 3 oz. ; benzine, enough 
to bring the mixture to the consistency de- 
sired. 

q. — Bohemian tripoli powder, 1 lb. ; 
Spanish whiting, 1 lb. ; commercial red 
oxide of iron, ^ lb. ; common petroline, 
burning oil, 1 oz. ; glycerine, q. s. ; water. 



[396] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Metal Polishing) 



q. s. ; oil of citronella, ^ oz. Thoroughly 
mix the powders, then add the petroline, 
etc. 

r. — Meyer's Putz Cream. — Oleine, 
white, 10 kgm. ; stearine, 5 kgm. ; kiesel- 
guhr, extra white, elutriated, 20 kgm. ; 
turpentine oil, 20 kgm. ; benzine or petro- 
leum (high boiling), 25 kgm.; spirit, 
90%, 5 kgm. ; spirit of sal ammoniac, 
0.960 sp. gr., 6 kgm. ; water, 5 kgm. All 
polishing agents may be perfumed with 
mirbane oil, amylacetate, ordinary lav- 
ender oil or safrol. 

0. — Pastes and Pomades. — a. — Melt 5 
lb. of lard or yellow vaseline, and mix 
with 1 lb. of fine rouge. 

b. — Melt together 2 lb. of palm oil and 
2 lb. of vaseline, and stir in 1 lb. of rouge, 
1/^ lb. of tripoli and 1 oz. of oxalic acid. 

c. — Buff Color. — Petroleum jelly, 42 
lb. ; refined paraffine wax, 14 lb. ; pow- 
dered bath brick, 14 lb. ; powdered pipe- 
clay, 14 lb. ; powdered pumice, 2 lb. ; yel- 
low ocher, 2 lb. ; oleic acid, 1 lb. ; oil of 
cassia, 3 oz. Melt the wax and jelly, 
stir in the others, and grind as before. 

d. — Putz Pomades. — The Journal der 
Goldschmiedelctmste gives the first 3 for- 
mulae following for polishing pomades : 

(1) Anhydrous sodium carbonate, 5 
parts ; tallow soap, 20 parts ; levigated 
emery, 100 parts ; water, 100 parts. Mix, 
put on the water bath, and heat, under 
constant agitation, until a smooth, homo- 
geneous paste has been obtained. 

(2) Jewelers' rouge, 1 part; petrola- 
tum, 1 part ; oil of mirbane, q. s. to per- 
fume. Mix intimately. 

(3) Oil of turpentine, 1 part; levi- 
gated emery, finest, 1 part ; jewelers' 
rouge, 2 parts ; petrolatum, 2 parts ; oil 
of mirbane, q. s. Rub up together to a 
homogeneous pomade. 

(4) Rotten stone, 1 part; iron subcar- 
bonate, 3 parts ; lard oil, enough. 

(5) Iron oxide, 10 parts ; pumice stone, 
32 parts ; oleic acid, enough. 

(6) Soap, cut fine, 16 parts; precipi- 
tated chalk, 2 parts ; jewelers' rouge, 1 
part ; cream of tartar, 1 part ; water, 
enough. Dissolve the soap in the small- 
est quantity of water over a water bath ; 
add the other ingredients to the solution 
while still hot, stirring all the time, to 
make sure of complete homogeneity ; pour 
the mass into a box with shallow sides, 
and afterward cut into cubes. 

(7) Petrolatum, 42 parts; refined par- 
aflSne, 14 parts ; powdered bath brick, 14 
parts ; powdered pipeclay, 14 parts ; pow- 
dered pumice, 2 parts ; oleic acid, 1 part. 

(8) Dried sodium carbonate, 5 parts; 
soap, 20 parts ; levigated emery, 100 



(Metal Polishing) 



[397] 



parts ; water, 100 parts. Mix, put on a 
water bath, and heat, under constant agi- 
tation, until a smooth, homogeneous paste 
has been obtained. 

(9) Emery flour, 50 parts; jewelers' 
rouge, 50 parts ; mutton suet, 40 parts ; 
oleic acid, 40 parts. Melt the suet and 
oleic acid together over a water bath, and 
when thoroughly mixed remove from the 
fire ; when cooled, but still soft, add the 
powders, and rub until they are evenly 
distributed throughout the mass. 

(10) Ferric oxide, 8 oz. ; pavafiine, 2 
oz. ; lubricating oil, 6 oz. ; oleic acid, 1 
oz. Melt the paraffine with the lubri- 
cating oil and mix with the ferric cxide, 
previously well levigated ; then add the 
oleic acid. 

(11) Mix equal parts of jewelers' 
rouge and petrolatum. 

(12) Stearine, 8 to 9 parts; mutton 
suet, 32 to 38 parts ; neatsfoot oil, 2 to 
2.5 parts ; jewelers' rouge, finest levigated, 
20 parts ; levigated calcium carbonate, 40 
to 60 parts. Melt the suet, stearine and 
oil together. 

(13) Quartz sand, powdered and levi- 
gated, 20 parts ; jewelers' rouge, finest 
levigated, 30 parts ; vaseline, 50 parts. 
Mix. Instead of quartz sand, levigated 
infusorial earth may be used. 

e. — Dehydrated soda, 5 parts ; curd 
soap, 20 parts ; emery flour, 100 parts. 
To be stirred together in a water bath, 
with 100 parts of water, until of soft 
consistency. 

f. — Turpentine, 1 part ; emery flour, 1 
part ; Paris red, 2 parts ; vaseline, 2 parts. 
Mix well, and perfume. 

g. — Stearine, 8 to 9 parts ; mutton suet, 
32 to 38 parts ; stearine oil, 2 to 2.5 parts. 
Melt together, and mix with Vienna chalk, 
in fine powder, 48 to 60 parts ; Paris red, 
20 parts. 

h. — Red Polishing Paste, Acid. — Rotten 
stone, 30 lb. ; bath brick, powder, 28 lb. ; 
red ocher, 26 lb. ; emery flour, 14 lb. ; 
crocus martis, 14 lb. ; oxalic acid, IOV2 
lb. ; petroleum jelly, 50 lb. ; mineral oil, 
1^ gal. ; citronella oil, 6 oz. Powder the 
oxalic acid, and mix with the earthy mat- 
ters by running through sieves ; then 
grind up with the greases. Some bases 
absorb more oil than others, and if the 
paste is rather stiff add more oil or jelly. 
The correct consistency for metal paste 
should be that of butter in winter. If 
softer, it will ooze out during the hot 
weather, but will not become so soft as 
butter does, as the earthy matters keep 
in the grease to a large extent. 

i. — Red Polishing Paste, Without Acid. 

-A, C. peroxide (sesquioxide of iron), 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Metal Polishing) 



40 lb. ; Venetian red, dry, 36 lb, ; palm 
oil, 20 lb. ; petroleum jelly, 20 lb. ; min- 
eral lubricating oil, i/^ gal. ; mirbane oil, 
4 oz. Melt the palm oil, mineral oil and 
jelly ; stir in the peroxide and red, add 
scent, then grind. Some pastes are not 
ground, but simply mixed together, caus- 
ing them to sweat when tinned ; more- 
over, they do not look so well as those 
put through the mill, 

j. — Sharp Polishes. — The following may 
be used on dirty brasses, copper articles, 
etc.: (1) Quartz sand, powdered and 
levigated, 20 parts ; Paris red, 30 parts ; 
vaseline, 50 parts. Mix intimately and 
make a pomade. (2) Emery flour, finest 
levigated, 50 parts ; Paris red, 50 parts ; 
mutton suet, 40 parts ; oleic acid, 40 
parts. Mix. 

k.— White Paste.— (1) Tallow, 36 lb.; 
white mineral jelly, 20 lb. ; non-gritty 
chalk, 30 lb. ; levigated flint, 4 lb. ; pow- 
dered pumice, 3 lb. ; oxalic acid, 2i/^ lb. 
Melt the tallow and jelly, powder the acid, 
mix well with the pumice, flint and chalk ; 
mix all, and grind. 

(2) White petroleum jelly, 90 lb.; 
kieselguhr, 30 lb. ; refined paraflane wax, 
10 lb. ; refined chalk or whiting, 10 lb. ; 
soda hyposulphite, 8 lb. Melt wax and 
jelly, stir in others, and grind. It is an 
undecided point as to whether a scented 
paste is better than one without per- 
fume. The latter is added merely to hide 
the nasty smell of some of the greases 
used, and it is not very nice to have 
spoons, etc., smelling, even tasting, of mir- 
bane, so perhaps citronella is best for 
this purpose. It is likely to be more pure. 
The dose of scent is usually at the rate 
of 4 oz. to the cwt. 

7. — Powders. — a. — Kieselguhr, 80 parts ; 
tin oxide, 30 parts ; pipeclay, 30 parts ; 
tartaric acid, 3 parts. 

b. — Kieselguhr, 28 parts ; pipeclay, 10 
parts ; sodium hyposulphite, 3 parts ; fer- 
ric oxide, 2 parts. 

c. — Chalk, 10 av.oz. ; white bole, 4 
av.oz. ; lead carbonate, 5 av.oz. ; magne- 
sium carbonate, 1 av.oz. ; iron oxide, 1 
av.oz. This mixture is best adapted to 
brass and copper. 

d. — Calcined magnesia, 8 av.oz. ; jew- 
elers' rouge, 8 av.oz. This mixture is 
recommended for polishing gold ; it should 
be used dry. 

e. — Magnesium carbonate, 4 av.oz. ; 
chalk, 4 av.oz. ; jewelers' rouge, 7 av.oz. 

f. — Palm oil, 16 av.oz. ; petrolatum, 16 
av.oz. ; jewelers' rouge, 8 av.oz. ; tripoli, 
7 av.oz. ; oxalic acid, 160 gr. 

g. — Hard Metals. — Science, Arts and 
Nattire gives the following : Infusorial 



(Metal Polishing) 



earth, 80 parts ; tin oxide, 30 parts ; pipe- 
clay, 30 parts ; tartaric acid, 3 parts. 
Powder and mix. 

h. — Kieselguhr, 28 parts ; pipeclay, 10 
parts ; sodium hyposulphite, 3 parts ; fer- 
ric oxide, 2 parts. 

i. — Kieselguhr, 42 lb. ; putty powder, 14 
lb.; pipeclay, 14 lb.; tartaric acid, l^/^ 
lb. Powder the acid, mix well with the 
others. This is styled "free from mer- 
cury, poisonous mineral acids, alkalies, or 
grit." It may be tinted with 12 oz. of 
oxide of iron, if desired. 

j. — Kieselguhr, 28 lb. ; powdered pipe- 
clay, 10y2 lb. ; flake white, 7 lb. ; soda 
hyposulphite, 3 lb. ; iron oxide, 2 lb. Fine- 
ly powder, and mix well. 

k. — Carbonate magnesia, 5 lb. ; calcium 
carbonate, 5 lb. ; ferric oxide, 8% lb. ; mix 
thoroughly. 

1. — Carbonate of magnesia, 5 lb. ; elu- 
triated colcothar, 6 oz. 7 dr. 

m. — A very useful polishing powder for 
metals and glass is made of very finely 
ground glass mixed with a small propor- 
tion of dried soda ash. 

8. — Preserving the Polish on Bright 
Surfaces. — a. — Take 2% oz. of rosin and 
from 15 to 20 oz. of lard ; melt slowly 
together, stirring until cool. The mix- 
ture is used when semi-fluid. It may be 
thinned by coal oil or benzine. Put on 
a bright surface, even thinly, it will pre- 
serve the polish, and it can be readily 
rubbed off. 

b. — Gutta percha, 8 lb. ; mutton suet, 
16 lb. ; beef suet, 24 lb. ; neatsfoot oil, 
11^ gal. ; rape oil, % gal. Melt and dis- 
solve thoroughly ; color with a little rose 
pink ; add oil of thyme or other perfume. 
When cold, rub on the surface of bright 
steel, iron, brass, or other metal requir- 
ing protection from rust. 

9. — Soaps. — a. — Liquid curd soap, 20 to 
25 lb., intimately mixed with about 30 
lb. of fine chalk and i/^ lb. of Venetian 
red. 

b. — Liquid cocoanut-oil soap, 26 lb., 
mixed with 12 lb. of tripoli and 1 lb. each 
of alum, tartaric acid and white lead. 

c. — Melted cocoanut oil, 25 lb., saponi- 
fied with 12 lb. of soda lye of 38 to 40° 
B., after which 3 lb. of rouge, 3 lb. of 
water and 2 oz. of ammonia are crutched 
in. 

d. — Powdered pipeclay, 112 lb. ; tallow 
soap, 16 lb. ; tartaric acid, IV^ lb. Grind 
until pasty ; afterward press into blocks 
by the machine. 

e. — Levigated flint, 60 lb. ; whiting, 52 
lb. ; tallow, 20 lb. ; caustic soda, 5 lb. ; 
water, 2 gal. Dissolve the soda in the 
water and add to the tallow ; when sa- 



[398] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Metal Polishing) 



ponified, stir in the others, pressing as 
before. 

f. — Saponified cocoanut oil, 56 lb. ; 
kieselguhr, 12 lb. ; alum, 5% lb. ; flake 
white, 51^ lb. ; tartaric acid, 1% lb. Make 
as before. 

g. — Tallow soap, 98 lb. ; liquid glycer- 
ine soap, 14 lb. ; whiting, 18 lb. ; levigated 
flint, 14 lb. ; powdered pipeclay, 14 lb. 

h. — Stir into 37^ lb. of liquid cocoa- 
nut-oil soap 3 lb. of tripoli and 1^ lb. 
each of alum, tartaric acid and white 
lead. 

i. — Cocoanut oil, 40 lb., stirred into 20 
lb. of lye of 38 to 40°. When the mix- 
ture is bright add 5 lb. of colcothar mixed 
with 5 lb. of water. Put in finally 2 oz. 
1 dr. of spirit of sal ammoniac. 

j. — Shave finely 11 lb. of cocoanut soap, 
add some water, and melt ; add 13 oz. 2 
dr. of chalk, 6 oz, 4 dr. each of alum, 
tartaric acid and white lead; stir vig- 
orously. 

k. — Hard Polishing Soap. — Cocoanut 
oil, 10 lb.; solution of soda, 23°, enough; 
tripoli powder, 2 lb. ; alum, 1 lb. ; cream 
of tartar, 1 lb. ; whiting, 1 lb. Set the 
oil with a sufficient quantity of the soda 
solution, and boil the mixture until it is 
ready to form jelly. When this soap has 
sufficiently solidified, stir in the other in- 
gredients, all previously reduced to the 
finest powder, and intimately mixed. Pour 
the mixture into suitable molds and allow 
it to harden. 

1.— Pink Tablets.— XX pale soap, 112 
lb. ; powdered pipeclay, 40 lb. ; soda hy- 
posulphite, 6 lb. ; rose pink, 4 lb. Grind 
and press as before. Another way of col- 
oring is to add a little peroxide of iron, 
or make a solution of aniline in water. 
The rose pink should be pure wood color ; 
if the color has been given to it by ani- 
lines, these may fade or change. 

m. — Soft Polishing Soap. — Colcothar, 8 
oz. ; ammonium carbonate, 5^/^ oz. ; cocoa 
soap, 6% lb. ; water, enough. Wash the 
colcothar (which is the dark-red iron per- 
oxide known to painters as Indian red) 
6 or 8 times in water, and dry it. Dis- 
solve the soap in sufficient water to make 
a viscid liquid. Reduce the ammonium 
carbonate to a fine powder and rub it and 
the colcothar into a paste with a little 
water. Gradually add the soap solution, 
stirring constantly. Keep the product in 
stone jars, well covered. 

10. — Tuhe Polish. — A new form of pol- 
isher is put up in cylindrical cardboard 
"push-up" cases, like cosmetique. These 
tubes are quite inexpensive, and they 
would have only to be filled with the 
composition and labeled, when they 

[ 



(Mildew) 



would be ready for sale. Tallow, 10 lb. ; 
lard, 10 lb. ; Japan wax, 10 lb. ; iron ox- 
ide, 8 lb. ; soda hyposulphite, 1 lb. Melt 
the first three and stir in the other two, 
mixed together beforehand. This is of a 
red color. 

Mildew. (See also Lace.) 

1. — Hypochlorite of alumina is said to 
be one of the best remedies. Moisten 
with water, rub well into the cloth, mois- 
ten again with dilute sulphuric acid (1 
to 20), and after half an hour rinse thor- 
oughly in soft water and then in water 
containing about 1 oz. to the gallon of 
sulphite or hyposulphite of soda. A.stifE 
brush may be advantageously employed in 
applying the hypochlorite. 

2. — Cotton Goods. — a, — If the goods 
are colored, soak for 24 hours or more 
in sour milk or buttermilk, then rinse 
in water, and wash in strong soapsuds. 
If the goods are white, moisten the spots 
repeatedly with Javelle water diluted 
with volumes of water ; rinse well, then 
wash in strong soapsuds, not too hot. 

b. — Well mix together 1 spoonful of 
table salt, 2 spoonfuls of soft soap, 2 
spoonfuls of powdered starch, and the 
juice of a lemon. Lay this mixture on 
both sides of the stain with a painter's 
brush, and then lay the article on the 
grass, day and night, until the stain dis- 
appears. 

3. — Linen. — a. — Take soap, and rub it 
well ; then scrape some fine chalk, and rub 
that also in the linen ; lay it on the grass ; 
as it dries, wet it a little, and the stain 
will come out at once. 

b. — Two tablespoonfuls of soft soap and 
the juice of a lemon. Lay it on the spots 
with a brush, on both sides of the linen. 
Let it lie a day or two till the stains 
disappear. 

c. — Wash clean, and take every particle 
of soap off; then put the linen into a 
galvanized bath or tub full of clean cold 
water ; procure a little chloride of lime, 
and tie it up in a muslin bag or piece 
of muslin, dissolve the lime in lukewarm 
water by squeezing the bag, then pour 
the water among the clothes. Stir, and 
leave them for 24 hours, but do not put 
too much lime in, or you will rot the 
clothes ; then well rinse in clean, cold 
water. 

4. — Preiiention. — Housekeepers are 
often greatly troubled and perplexed by 
mildew from damp closets and from rust. 
By putting an earthen bowl or deep plate, 
full of quicklime, into the closet, the lime 
will absorb the dampness and also sweeten 
and disinfect the place. Rats, mice, and 
399] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Nickel) 



many bugs that are apt to congregate in 
damp places have a dislike to lime. As 
often as the lime becomes slaked throw 
it on the compost heap, if in the country, 
or into the ash barrel, if in the city. 

5. — Silk. — Get a piece of flannel, dip 
it into whisky, and well rub the place 
marked ; then iron on the wrong side, 
taking care to put a piece of damp cot- 
ton cloth between the iron and the silk, 
and iron on the cotton cloth, which will 
prevent the silk assuming a shiny, glazed 
appearance. 

Nickel. 

1.— To clean nickelplated objects, dip 
them for a second or two in a 2% solution 
of sulphuric acid, rinse in running water, 
and finally with a mixture, in equal 
parts, of distilled water and alcohol. Dry 
in sawdust. 

2. — Polish. — a. — Ordinary rouge is used 
by nickelplaters as a polish. 

b. — Another preparation, said to be an 
excellent one, is made by mixing i^ oz. 
of quicksilver and 2 oz. of chalk. To 
use, add a small quantity of alcohol, and 
polish with a chamois skin. These pol- 
ishes do not restore the plating, however, 
and if the nickeling be worn off, the only 
thing to do is to have the articles re- 
plated. 

c. — Use chalk mixed with tallow. 

d. — Equal parts of precipitated iron 
carbonate and prepared chalk, or take 
quicksilver with chalk, i^ oz., and pre- 
pared chalk, 2 oz., and mix them. When 
used, add a small quantity of alcohol, and 
rub with chamois leather. 

e. — Rouge with a little fresh lard or 
lard oil, on a wash leather or piece of 
buckskin. Rub the bright parts, using 
as little of the rouge and oil as possible; 
wipe off with a clean rag slightly oiled. 
Repeat the wiping every day, and polish- 
ing as often as necessary. 

3. — Rust, Protection. — In putting away 
a bicycle for the winter, every part should 
be thoroughly cleaned from dirt, the run- 
ning parts duly oiled, and the bright parts 
wiped with a mixture of vaseline and 
parafiine (2 parts of vaseline to % part of 
paraffine), to which add % pt. of finely 
ground quicklime by heating and stirring ; 
apply warm, by wiping all the nickel 
parts, and wrapping them in paper which 
has been coated on one side by the mix- 
ture, very thin, which will keep off rust 
and dampness. The japanned parts and 
saddle should also be nicely covered with 
wrapping paper to keep off dust, which 
injures the japan by long contact. 

4. — Rust, Removal. — First cover the 



(Paint) 



objects with grease, and in 3 or 4 days 
rub them with a rag soaked in ammonia. 
This will dissolve the rust without at- 
tacking the nickel. If the rust resists 
this treatment, apply a little chlorhydric 
acid, and immediately afterward rub with 
a cloth, so that the nickeling may not be 
affected. Then wash, dry well, and 
polish. 

Nitric Acid Stains. 

These yellow stains can be removed 
either from the skin or from brown or 
black woolen garments by moistening the 
spots for a while with permanganate of 
potash and rinsing with water. A brown- 
ish stain of manganese remains, which 
may be removed from the skin by wash- 
ing with an aqueous solution of sulphur- 
ous acid. If the spots are old, they can- 
not be entirely removed. 
Oil Stains. 

Immerse the goods in a soap bath, 
wTiich should be kept at nearly a boiling 
temperature. If the stains are fresh, 
smear them with tallow or lard, and after- 
ward rub the goods with soap in cold 
water. Benzine or turpentine is also 
sometimes successfully used in removing 
oil stains. 

Oils and Fats, Bleaching. 

1. — Many plans of decolorizing oils are 
in vogue : Exposure to sunlight in large 
white glass bottles ; the oil soon becomes 
colorless, but acquires an almost rancid 
flavor. 

2. — Agitation, with 2% of a solution 
of permanganate of potash, bleaches ef- 
fectually, but also leaves a bad flavor. 

3. — The oil is first agitated with water 
containing gum, and to the emulsion thus 
formed is added coarsely crushed wood 
charcoal ; the whole is then slowly 
warmed to a degree not reaching 212° 
F. (100° C), and when cold the oil is 
dissolved out by ether or petroleum spirit, 
and the latter is recovered by distilla- 
tion ; the result is good. 

Opals, To Restore the Polish. 

By rubbing with oxide of tin or putty 
powder on a piece of chamois skin, wet ; 
finish with refined chalk, also on chamois 
skin, wet, then wash the opal with a soft 
brush and water. With a little care this 
may be done without taking it from the 
setting. 

Paint. 

1. — Brushes and Vessels. — a. — The 
cleaning of the brushes and vessels in 
which the varnish or oil paint has dried 



[400] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Paint) 



is usually done by boiling with a soda 
solution. This frequently spoils the 
brushes or cracks the vessels, if of glass ; 
besides, the process is rather slow and 
dirty. A much more suitable remedy is 
amyl acetate, which is a liquid with a 
pleasant odor of fruit drops, used main- 
ly for dissolving and cementing celluloid. 
If amyl acetate is poured over a resini- 
fied oil-paint brush, the varnish dissolves 
almost immediately, and though ever so 
hard and dry, the brush is again rendered 
serviceable at once. If necessary, the 
process is repeated. For cleaning vessels 
shake the liquid about in them, which 
softens the paint so that it can be readily 
removed with paper. In this manner 
much labor can be saved. The amyl ace- 
tate can be easily removed from the 
brushes, etc., by alcohol, oil of turpen- 
tine or varnish. Most agents for remov- 
ing varnish and oil from paint coatings 
owe their efficacy to the presence of caus- 
tic alkalies. But since the latter exer- 
cise a destructive action upon bodies of 
organic origin, the preparations contain- 
ing caustic alkalies can only be employed 
to a limited extent, and with the greatest 
care. They do not only have a decom- 
posing influence upon the wood fiber, but 
their use is also quite dangerous, owing 
to their strong caustic effect upon the 
human skin. It has been found that the 
unpleasant by-effects of the caustic alkali 
can be completely obviated, while the dis- 
solving power for the dry varnish and 
oil-paint layer is yet materially increased, 
if a mineral oil is emulsified in the solu- 
tion of the caustic alkalies. In order to 
maintain the oil lastingly in emulsion, the 
easily mobile mass is mixed with a suffi- 
cient quantity of an indifferent body, 
such as brickdust, powdered pumice 
stone, sawdust, etc ; thus a form highly 
suitable for application, as that of a 
paste, is obtained. This paste constitutes 
a very efficacious and durable paint re- 
mover, which may be applied moist on 
any surface, and exercises no deleterious 
action upon the fibers of the wood and 
the human skin. For producing the new 
paint remover proceed as follows : Dis- 
solve 20 kgm. of caustic soda (98%) in 
100 1. of water, mix the solution with 
20 kgm. of mineral oil, and stir, in a ket- 
tle provided with a mechanical stirrer, 
until the emulsion is complete. Now add, 
with stirring, 20 kgm. of sawdust, and 
pass the whole through a paint mill to 
obtain a uniform intermixture. 

b. — When a paint brush is stiff and 
hard through drying with paint on it, put 
some turpentine in a shallow dish and 

i 



(Paint) 



set on fire. Let it burn for a minute, un- 
til hot, then smother the flames and work 
the pencil in the fingers, dipping it fre- 
quently into the hot spirits. Rinse all 
paint brushes, pencils, etc., in turpentine, 
grease with a mixture of sweet oil and 
tallow, to prevent them from drying hard, 
and put them away in a close box. 

c. — To soften brushes that have be- 
come hard, soak them 24 hours in raw 
linseed oil and rinse them out in hot tur- 
pentine, repeating the process till clean ; 
or wash them in hot soda and water and 
soft soap. 

2. — Clothing: Paint, Varnish and Rosin 
Stains. — a. — For white or colored cotton 
and woolen goods, oil of turpentine or 
benzine, followed by soapsuds. For silk, 
benzine, ether, soap ; hard rubbing is to 
be avoided. For all kinds of fabrics 
chloroform is best, but must be carefully 
used. 

b. — Stains of paint or varnish, after be- 
ing softened with olive oil or fresh but- 
ter, may generally be removed by the 
same means as ordinary grease spots. 

c. — Saturate the spots with a solution 
of equal parts of turpentine and spirits 
of ammonia ; wash out with strong soap- 
suds. 

d. — Paint stains that are dry and old 
may be removed from cotton or woolen 
goods with chloroform. First cover the 
spot with olive oil or butter. 

e. — Professor Snellal recommends an 
emulsion of 2 parts of ammonia with 1 
part of turpentine ; moisten a rag with 
the solution and rub the spot well. 

3. — Dissolving and Removing Coatings 
of Paint, Varnish and Lacquer. — a. — A 
firm of English manufacturers have dis- 
covered that certain vegetable fatty acids 
have the property of softening and re- 
moving hardened paints and varnish, re- 
ports the Chemist and Druggist, and that 
this property is greatly increased in co- 
operation with the solvent properties of 
already well-known solvents. It is mixed 
in various ways : Arachic acid, 18 parts ; 
benzine, 42 parts ; methyl alcohol, 40 
parts. 

b. — Palmitic acid (vegetable) , 25 parts ; 
benzine, 35 parts ; amyl acetate, 40 parts. 
The solutions are applied with a brush in 
the ordinary way. 

c. — Scraping or burning paint off is ex- 
tremely laborious, and too slow for gen- 
eral purposes. A more thorough and ex- 
peditious way is by chemical process, 
using for that purpose a solution of soda 
and quicklime in equal proportions. The 
solution may be made as follows : The 
soda is dissolved in water, the lime is 
401] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Paint) 



then added, and the solution is applied 
with a brush to the old paint. A few mo- 
ments are sufficient to remove the coats 
of paint, which may be washed off with 
hot water. The oldest paint may be re- 
moved by a paste of the soda and quick- 
lime. The wood should be afterward 
washed with vinegar or an acid solution 
before repainting, to remove all traces of 
the alkali. 

d. — Wet the place with naphtha, re- 
peating as often as is required; but fre- 
quently, one application will dissolve the 
paint. As soon as it is softened, rub the 
surface clean. Chloroform, mixed with a 
small quantity of spirit ammonia, com- 
posed of strong ammoniac, has been em- 
ployed very successfully to remove the 
stains of dry paint from wood, silk, and 
other substances. 

e. — Acetone, 3 oz. ; fusel oil, 3 oz. ; 
wood alcohol, 6 oz. ; gasoline, 4 oz. ; car- 
bon bisulphide, 2 oz. Mix. 

f.— Caustic soda (98%), 1 lb.; starch, 
2 oz. ; china clay, 2 oz. ; warm water, 2 
lb. ; cold water, 2 lb. Dissolve the soda 
in the warm water, and stir the starch 
and clay well together, adding the cold 
water, a little at a time, until all is used. 
When the soda solution gets cold add it 
to the other mixture and stir to a smooth 
paste. This is used by applying to the 
paint and allowing it to remain for a 
few minutes, when paste and paint may 
be removed with a scraper or old brush. 
The wood should then be washed with 
clean water, and if that does not remove 
the soapy feel (or taste), another wash- 
ing with water and vinegar should be 
given. 

g. — A. Eberson, in Revue des Produits 
Chimiques, gives the following process for 
the complete removal, without injury to 
the surface to which they are applied, of 
old, hard paint, varnish, etc. : Make a 
mixture of alcohol, 55 parts ; benzol, 20 
parts ; carbon bisulphide, 25 parts ; wax, 
5 parts. This makes a sticky mass, that 
is applied to the surface of the paint or 
varnish, and soon softens the latter in 
such a manner that it may be scratched or 
scraped off. The amount of wax em- 
ployed depends on the desired consist- 
ency of the mixture, and is added only 
to prevent the too rapid evaporation of 
the carbon bisulphide and benzol. The 
alcohol may be supplanted by 30 parts 
of wood spirit (methyl alcohol) and 25 
parts of acetone. The wax is first dis- 
solved in a mixture of the carbon bisul- 
phide, benzol and acetone, and the alcohol 
is added to the solution. A similar mode 
of proceeding should be followed in the 

[ 



(Paint) 



first instance, dissolving the wax in the 
benzol and carbon bisulphide, and adding 
the alcohol afterward. Instead of wax, 
paraflSne or ceresine may be employed as 
a preventive of evaporation. The opera- 
tion of softening is accelerated by the ad- 
dition of oil or fats. 

4. — Woodwork, Walls, etc. — a. — To 
clean paint, provide a plate with some of 
the best whiting to be had ; have ready 
some clean warm water and a piece of 
flannel, which dip into the water and 
squeeze nearly dry ; then take as much 
whiting as will adhere to it, and apply it 
to the painted surface, when a little rub- 
bing will instantly remove any dirt or 
grease. After which wash the part well 
with clean water, rubbing it dry with a 
soft chamois. Paint thus cleaned looks 
as well as when first laid on, without any 
injury to the most delicate colors. It is 
far better than using soap, and does not 
require more than half the time and labor. 

b. — To clean paint, take 1 oz. of pul- 
verized borax, 1 lb., small pieces, of best 
brown soap, and 3 qt. of water ; let sim- 
mer till the soap is dissolved, stirring 
frequently. Do not let it boil. Use with 
a piece of old flannel, and rinse off as 
soon as the paint is clean. This mixture 
is also good for washing clothes. 

c. — Dissolve ^ oz. of glue and a bit of 
soft soap the size of a walnut in about 
3 pt. of warm water, and with a well- 
worn whitewash brush well scrub the 
work, but not sufiicient to get off the 
paint, and rinse with plenty of cold, 
clean water, using a wash leather ; let 
dry itself. Work done in this manner 
will often look equal to new. 

d. — First take off all the dust with a 
soft brush and a pair of bellows. Scour 
with a mixture of soft soap and fuller's 
earth, and use lukewarm water. If there 
are any spots which are extra dirty, first 
remove these by rubbing with a sponge 
dipped in soap and water. Commence 
the scouring at the top of the door or 
wainscot, and proceed downward, and dry 
with a soft linen cloth. When cleaning 
paint, it is always better to employ two 
persons, one to scour and the other to 
rub dry. 

e. — The specifications of an English 
patent call for lemons, or other acid 
fruit, 2 lb. ; hydrochloric acid, 1 lb. ; 
water, 4 lb. These are mixed, boiled to 
a thick paste, and incorporated with ox- 
alic acid, 2 lb., and black treacle, 3 lb. 
When cold, butyric acid, 1 fl.oz., or other 
grease-dissolving acid, is stirred in, and 
the whole made up to 1 gal. with water. 
The composition is applied to the painted, 
402 ] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Panama Hats) 



varnished or polished surface, left for a 
sufficient time, and then washed off. 

f. — The following receipt is designed 
for painted objects that are much soiled. 
Simmer gently on the fire, stirring con- 
stantly, 30 grams of pulverized borax and 
450 grams of brown soap of good qual- 
ity, cut in small pieces, in 3 1. of water. 
The liquid is applied by means of flannel, 
and rinsed off at once with pure water. 

g, — When painted work is badly discol- 
ored, put a tablespoonful of ammonia 
water into 1 qt. of moderately hot water, 
and with the aid of flannel wipe off the 
surface. Rubbing is not necessary. When 
the discoloration is not great, the follow- 
ing method is preferable : With a piece 
of clean flannel wet with clean warm 
water, and then squeezed nearly dry, take 
up as much whiting, of the best quality, 
as will adhere, apply this, with moderate 
rubbing, to the painted work, and after- 
ward wash the surface with clean water 
and rub it dry with chamois leather. This 
method is superior to the use of soap, re- 
quires but half the time and labor, and 
leaves the surface cleaned, looking as good 
as new. It will not injure the delicate 
colors. 

Paintings. 

To clean an oil painting, take it 
out of its frame, lays a piece of cloth, 
moistened with rain water, on it, and 
leave it for a while to take up the 
dirt from the picture. Several appli- 
cations may be required to secure a 
perfect result. Then wipe the picture 
very gently with a tuft of cotton wool 
damped with absolutely pure linseed oil. 
Gold frame may be cleaned with a freshly 
cut onion ; it should be wiped with a soft 
sponge wetted with rain water, a few 
hours after the application of the onion, 
and must finally be wiped with a soft 
rag. Valuable paintings should be taken 
to an expert, as cleaning and restoring 
requires special knowledge, and damage 
is likely to result from inexperienced 
handling. 

Panama Hats, Bleaching and Cleaning. 

1. — To bleach Panama hats, wash the 
goods clean, and, while slightly damp, ex- 
pose to the fumes of burning sulphur in 
a closed vessel. To color 1 doz. hats, take 
12 lb. of logwood, 1 lb. of sulphate of 
iron and % lb. of verdigris. Digest the 
logwood for some time. Add the sul- 
phate of iron and verdigris. Dip the hats 
in the bath several times and hang in the 
open air. By the peroxidizement of the 
iron with the atmospheric oxygen the 
hats will be more completely blackened. 

[ 



(Paper) 



When fully dried wash in running water. 

2. — To clean a Panama hat which has 
become stained by perspiration, the Na- 
tional Druggist recommends the follow- 
ing process : Apply first sodium hypo- 
phosphite, in a strong solution, liberally. 
The best plan is to immerse the hat in 
the solution, and shortly afterward im- 
merse it in one of oxalic acid. After 
the stain has disappeared, which it will 
do in the course of an hour or two, rinse 
the hat in clear water first, and after- 
ward in water carrying a little glycerine. 
Then let it dry, and send it to the hatter 
to be blocked. The object of the second 
rinsing is simply to make the hat supple. 

3. — Subject to a good scrubbing with 
Castile soap and warm water ; use a nail 
brush to get the dirt away. Place in the 
hot sun to dry, and in the course of 2 
or 3 hours it will be ready for use. A 
little glycerine added to the rinsing water 
entirely prevents the stiffness and brit- 
tleness acquired by some hats in drying, 
while a little ammonia in the wash water 
materially assists in the scrubbing proc- 
ess. Ivory, or, in fact, any good white 
soap, will answer as well as Castile. It 
is well to rinse a second time, adding the 
glycerine to the water used the second 
time. Immerse the hat completely in the 
rinse water, moving it about to get rid of 
traces of the dirty water. When the hat 
has been thoroughly rinsed, press out the 
surplus water, using a Turkish bath 
towel for the purpose, and let it rest on 
the towel when drying. 

Paper. 

1. — Grease Spots from Printed Paper 
or Manuscript, Lithographs, Copper En- 
gravings, etc. — a. — Place the soiled sheet 
inside a book, if it is not already bound 
in a book. Then sprinkle the spot uni- 
formly on both sides with finely sifted, 
warmed white bole, half a line thick, put 
the book in a press, or weight it down 
with stones. In 24 hours clean the spot 
carefully and sprinkle it again with fresh, 
warm bole, which must likewise be left 
for 24 hours in contact with the spot. 
The latter will then have entirely dis- 
appeared. A thick paste prepared from 
burnt magnesia or white bole, with ben- 
zol or benzine, is also very useful for re- 
moving grease spots from paper or clothes. 
It is applied to the spot, and, when dry, 
brushed and scraped off, after which no 
trace of the spot will be found. 

b. — Benzol-magnesia is an excellent 

medium for the removal of grease spots 

from paper. Calcined magnesia is mixed 

with sufficient pure benzol until a mass 

403] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



( Paper ) 



is obtained that is, after some time, fri- 
able. A little of this substance is care- 
fully rubbed with the finger on the grease 
spot and the small crumbs of magnesia 
shaken off. Fresh spots usuallj' disappear 
at once, older ones after a short time, 
especially if the benzol-magnesia is ap- 
plied 3 or 4 times and then shaken off. 
The benzol-magnesia must be kept in glass 
bottles with well-ground-in glass stop- 
pers. 

c. — Press powdered fuller's earth lightly 
upon the greasy spot and allow it to soak 
out the grease. 

d. — Hannett says the spots may be re- 
moved by washing the part with ether, 
chloroform or benzine, and placing be- 
tween white blotting paper, then passing 
a hot iron over. 

e. — A more expeditious, and thought by 
some the best way, is to scrape fine pipe- 
clay, magnesia or French chalk on both 
sides of the stain, and apply a hot iron 
above, taking great care that it is not 
too hot, 

f. — After gently warming the paper, 
take out all the grease you can with blot- 
ting paper and a hot iron, then dip a 
brush into essential oil of turpentine, 
heated almost to ebullition, and draw it 
gently over both sides of the paper, which 
must be kept warm. Repeat the opera- 
tion until all is removed, or as often as 
the thickness of the paper may render 
necessary. When all the grease is re- 
moved, to restore the paper to its former 
whiteness dip another brush in ether, 
chloroform or benzine, and apply over the 
stain, especially the edges of it. This 
will not affect printers' or common writ- 
ing ink. 

g. — Lay on a coat of india-rubber solu- 
tion over the spot and leave it to dry. 
Afterward remove with a piece of ordi- 
nary india-rubber. Any operation with 
ether, chloroform or benzine should never, 
be conducted by candle light, as their va- 
por is apt to kindle even at several feet 
from the liquid. The recipe "e" will re- 
move grease from colored calf. Even if 
the spot be on the under side of the leath- 
er, it may thus be clearly drawn right 
through. 

h. — Apply a solution of pearlash (in 
the proportion of 1 oz. of pearlash to 1 
pt. of water) to oil-stained drawing paper. 

2. — Iodine Stains. — Apply a solution 
of pure sodium hyposulphite and then 
strong ammonia water, by means of blot- 
ting paper ; remove excess by pressing be- 
tween sheets of bibulous paper moistened 
with water, and dry between clean, warm 



(Parchment) 



(dry) blotting pads. Iodine stains may 
also be removed by alcohol. 

3. — Mildew Stains. — Soak 1 oz. of gela- 
tine for some hours in 1 pt. of water, and 
1 oz. of white soap scraped in the same 
quantity of water; mix the two solutions, 
and boil till dissolved. Dissolve 1 dr. of 
alum in 2 oz. of water, and add it to the 
above. When the mixture is cold decant 
the solution from all sediment. Spread 
the above over the damaged paper with 
a stout feather. If the paper be in a 
very bad state a second coat may be ap- 
plied. A little spirits of wine added to 
the solution tends to keep it good. 

4. — Oil Stains. — Use pipeclay mixed 
with water. Allow it to remain on the 
spot for several hours. 

Papier Mache. 

1. — Linseed oil, % pt. ; old ale, Mi pt. ; 
the white of 1 egg ; spirits of wine, 1 
oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 1 oz. ; well shake 
before using. A little to be applied to the 
face of soft linen pad and lightly rubbed 
for a minute or two over the article to be 
restored, which must afterward be pol- 
ished off with an old silk handkerchief. 
This will keep any length of time if well 
corked. Invaluable for delicate cabinet 
work. 

2. — Wash with water, dredge with flour, 
and polish with a dry flannel cloth. 

3. — Rub thoroughly with a paste made 
of wheat flour and olive oil. Apply with 
a bit of soft flannel or old linen, rubbing 
quite strongly ; wipe off, and polish by 
rubbing with an old silk handkerchief. • 

Paraffine. | 

The crude paraffine is filtered, and 
boiled for 2 hours with 5% of its weight 
of sodium sulphide and sufficient water. 
It is allowed to cool, so that the mass 
swimming on the top may become com- 
pact, and be removed ; it is then washed 
with river water, pressed, and afterward 
dissolved in 20% amyl alcohol, the paraf- 
fine being left as a pasty and pliable 
mass. It must remain for a time, and 
then be strongly pressed after filtering 
through bone black. 

Parchment. 

Cleansing. — 1. — Blood Stains from 
Parchment. — a. — Blood stains should have 
been removed in the process of manufac- 
ture, as in the finished parchment they 
may not be amenable to any of the ordi- 
nary methods of treatment. In the man- 
ufacture of the finer classes of leather, 
such as calf for bookbinders, and various 
skins for glovemakers, also of parchment 



[404] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Parchment) 



or vellum, after the unhairing process, 
and before dressing, the skins are sub- 
jected to a bath of dog's putrid dung 
mixed with tepid water. This mixture 
is said to remove all fat, grease, and 
other stains. Manufacturers have tried 
to find a substitute for this unpleasant 
mixture, but have not succeeded. It is 
thought that the bacteria created by the 
putrefaction has some special effect not 
to be otherwise obtained. 

b. — The following may also be tried : 
Immerse the parchment in a solution of 
acetic acid and gently rub the stained 
parts, while wet, with lump pumice, on 
a flat board ; then bleach with chloride 
of lime. This is said to render the parch- 
ment white enough for bookbinding pur- 
poses. The parchment may also be sub- 
jected to a bath of salt of lemon (equal 
parts of citric acid and cream of tartar). 
These acids may have on the parchment 
a hardening effect, which is, of course, 
detrimental, so caution must be observed 
in their use. 

c. — Animal parchment, or vellum, as the 
heavier qualities are called, should always 
be carefully treated, as it is very liable 
to become stained. In the manufacture 
of parchment it is almost impossible to 
remove the natural blood stains, and 
when these are very apparent it is not 
unusual for the manufacturers to treat 
the skin with some whitening substance 
of a chalky nature to hide the blem- 
ishes. When the skin is damped with 
water this white substance is washed off, 
and the original stains appear. Should 
this happen, it will be advisable not to 
attempt to remove the stains, as this will 
only make matters worse. Possibly, how- 
ever, the water or sponge used for damp- 
ing may not have been clean, and sur- 
face stains may have been caused. In 
this case, make a weak solution of oxalic 
acid in water, and with a clean sponge 
go carefully over the entire skin. But 
first ascertain whether the colors or ink 
will be damaged by washing. To do this, 
with the tongue touch some part of the 
parchment having a large amount of 
color, lay a piece of white blotting pa- 
per over the damped portion, and rub it 
with the thumbnail ; if, on being lifted, 
the blotting paper is found to be clean, 
the work may be washed. But if the 
color comes away on the blotting paper, 
the washing should not be proceeded with. 
In any case, great care must be taken ; 
the work must not be rubbed with the 
sponge, but this is passed swiftly over 
the entire surface, taking care that one 



(Pearl) 



portion does not get more washing or 
damping than another. 

2. — Grease Stains from Parchment. — 
Grease stains can be removed with ben- 
zine. Make a small pad of cotton wool, 
saturate it with the spirit, and rub quick- 
ly and lightly over the entire surface of 
the parchment. When it has dried off, 
the grease stains should have disappeared. 
If not, repeat the operation, and be care- 
ful not to rub hard, as this spoils the 
surface. 

3. — Paint Marks from Parchment. — 
Put some benzine on a piece of flannel 
and apply to the skins, taking up the 
paint as soon as it is soft, and not smear- 
ing it over the skin. Finish with a lit- 
tle soap and water ; finally, rub the skin 
with glycerine. 

4. — Tea Stains from Parchment. — Tea 
stains are very difficult to remove from 
parchment. Try oxalic acid, and if this 
fails, it would seem hopeless to try fur- 
ther. The parchment may be dyed one 
color ; this would help to hide the stains. 
Make a weak solution of permanganate 
of potash and wash the leaves over care- 
fully with a sponge. This will give a 
good brown color, not unlike the tea 
stain. When all the leaves have been 
treated on one side, and are dry, turn 
the book over and treat the other side 
in a similar manner. Parchment is a 
very troublesome material to wash, owing 
to the greasy nature of the surface, and 
also to its liability to cockle when dry- 
ing. If each leaf could be pinned down 
to a board when applying the stain, and 
allowed to dry while still pinned down, 
the job would look better. 

5. — To clean parchment, immerse in so- 
lution of acetic acid, and gently rub the 
stained parts, while wet, on a flat board, 
with lump pumice ; then bleach it with 
chloride of lime. This process was rec- 
ommended in the English Mechanic. It is 
not very successful, but it makes it white 
enough for bookbinding. It has, however, 
the objectionable qualities of not making 
the parchment flexible, and, when dried, 
it is as hard as a board, and it has no 
gloss like the virgin parchment. On no 
account must the parchment be washed 
in very hot water, or held before a fire, 
as it will shrivel up in a most provoking 
manner. 

Pearls, To Clean. 

Soak them in hot water in which bran 
has been boiled with a little cream of tar- 
tar and alum, rubbing gently between the 
hands when the heat will admit of it. 
When the water is cold renew the appli- 



[405] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Prints) 



cation till any discoloration is removed, 
rinse in lukewarm water ; lay them on 
white paper in a dark place to cool. 

Petrolatum Stains from Clothing. 

Petrolatum stains may be removed from 
clothing, it is claimed (Merck's Report), 
by means of the following solution : Pow- 
dered soap, 1 part ; aniline, 1 part ; water, 
10 parts. The spots are moistened with 
the liquid, and, after 5 to 10 minutes, 
washed with clean water. If necessary, 
a second application is made. 

Pewter Articles. 

The cleaning of articles of this metal 
is accomplished with hot lye of wood 
ashes and fine sand. Pour the hot lye 
upon the tin, throw on sand, and rub 
with, a hard woolen rag, hat felt, or 
whisk, until all particles of dirt have 
been dissolved. To polish pewter plates, 
it is well to have the turner make simi- 
lar wooden forms fitting the plates, and 
to rub them clean this way. Next they 
are rinsed off with clean water and placed 
on a table with a clean linen cover, on 
which they are left to dry without being 
touched, otherwise spots will appear. This 
scouring is not necessary so often if the 
pewter is rubbed off with wheat bran 
after use and cleaned perfectly. New 
pewter is polished with a paste of whit- 
ing and brandy, of which a little is used, 
rubbing the dishes with it until the mass 
becomes dry. 

Precious Stones. 

Wet, precipitated sulphur, moistened 
with alcohol. A mixture of 1 part of 
washed flowers of sulphur and 2 parts of 
fine washed tripoli powder is also adapt- 
ed for this purpose. The mixture, by 
means of a soft leather, is rubbed on the 
precious stones. Places that are not ac- 
cessible by means of the chamois can be 
treated with a small brush, a second 
brush being employed to remove the dust. 
If the gems are set in silver the sulphur 
must be omitted. 

Prints. 

Cleansing. — 1. — Age Stains from Prints. 
— Mere age stains can be removed from 
engravings by placing the latter in- a shal- 
low tray (a tea tray, for instance) con- 
taining water, and exposing them to the 
rays of the sun till bleached, when they 
should be allowed to dry naturally. When 
dry they can be ironed with a hot iron, 
over several folds of linen, to take out all 
creases, etc. 

2. — Damp Stains from Prints. — Stains 
caused by damp, etc., are removed by the 

I 



(Putty) 



following method : Cover the engraving 
in a glazed earthenware tray with clean 
rain water till the paper is saturated ; then 
pour off the water and substitute a solu- 
tion of chloride of lime strained through 
muslin. The moment the stain disappears 
pour the solution away, and rinse the en- 
graving in clean water. Then dry, and 
insure smoothness by stretching the paper. 

3. — Grease Stains from Prints. — a. — 
To remove grease stains, lay a sheet of 
muslin in a tea tray, and on the sheet 
lay the engraving. Take the whole into 
the open air and with a soft wash-leather 
pad well sponge the yellow stain with 
petroleum spirit or spirit of wine. Do 
not in any case attempt to do this in- 
doors, or near artificial light, as the spir- 
its are highly inflammable. When the 
stain has been removed lift the muslin 
and engraving together from the dish* to 
a table and cover the face with blotting 
paper, placing over this a sheet of brown 
paper, and then a sheet of calico. This 
done, turn the whole over, remove the 
muslin back, replace with blotting paper, 
brown paper and calico, and submit the 
whole to gentle pressure until dry. 

b. — Lay the engraving between several 
folds of clean blotting paper and pass a 
hot iron over it. Continually change the 
paper and repeat the ironing. 

4. — Ink Marks from Engravings. — Dis- 
solve 3 oz. of washing soda in 20 oz. of 
water, and mix with a solution of chloride 
of lime, 2 oz. in 20 oz. of water ; after 
mixing, filter. Now take 2 or 3 oz. of 
the above solution and 10 oz. of water, 
and soak the engraving in it for about 
15 minutes ; remove, and soak in dilute 
hydrochloric acid (1 part of acid to 10 
parts of water) for the same length of 
time ; again remove, and wash for 1 hour 
in running water ; then dry. 

Putty. 

1. — It is well known that common put- 
ty becomes exceedingly hard with age, 
which renders the removal of glass from 
sashes peculiarly difficult. A practical 
man tells us that he thinks himself lucky 
if he can take out one pane out. of three 
without breakage. It is stated, however, 
that the putty may be softened by using 
a paste of caustic potassa, easily pre- 
pared by mixing the caustic alkali, or 
even carbonate of potash or soda, with 
equal parts of freshly burnt quicklime, 
which has previously been sprinkled with 
water, so as to cause it to fall into pow- 
der. This is then mixed with water to 
a paste, and is spread on the putty to 
be softened. Where one application is 
406] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Ropes) 



not sufficient it is repeated. In order to 
prevent the paste from drying too quickly, 
it is well to mix it with less water, adding 
some soft soap instead. 

2. — Take pearlash, 1 lb. ; quicklime, 3 
lb. ; slake the lime in water, then add 
the pearlash, and make the whole the con- 
sistency of paint. Apply it to both sides 
of the glass and let it remain 12 hours, 
when the putty will be so softened that 
the glass may be removed with ease. 

3. — Soft soap, rubbed on pretty thick, 
and allowed to stand about 12 hours or 
more, will soften putty so that it can be 
cut out quite easily with a knife. 

Putty Powder. — Put tin, as pure as 
possible, into a glass vessel — a wineglass 
does very well when making small quan- 
tities — and pour in sufficient nitric acid 
to cover it. Great heat is evolved, and 
care must be taken not to inhale the 
fumes, as they are poisonous. When 
there is nothing left but a white powder, 
it is heated in a Hessian crucible to'drive 
ofE the nitric acid. 

Rags, Polishing. 

1. — Saturate woolen stuff with a solu- 
tion composed of 3 oz. 4 dr. of Castile 
soap dissolved in 14 oz. of water; to* this 
solution add 22 dr. of tripoli. Color with 
coralline. 

2. — Serviettes magiques, for polishing 
articles of metal, consist of a pure wool 
fabric saturated with soap and tripoli, 
and dyed with a little coralline. They are 
produced by dissolving 4 grams of Mar- 
seilles soap in 20 grams of water, adding 
2 grams of tripoli, and saturating a piece 
of cloth 70 cm. long and 10 cm. wide with 
it, allowing to dry. 

3. — In 20 oz. of water dissolve 4 oz. 
of soap, and gradually add 2 oz. of pum- 
ice stone or finely powdered emery. 

4. — ^^Infusorial earth may be used with 
advantage. Saturate the best unbleached 
muslin with this paste. Color with a lit- 
tle aniline red, if desired. 

Ropes, Preservation. 

1. — The ropes should be dipped, when 
dry, into a bath containing 20 grams of 
sulphate of copper per liter of water, and 
kept in soak in this solution for 4 days, 
afterward being dried. The ropes will 
thus have absorbed a certain quantity of 
sulphate of copper, which will preserve 
them from the attacks of animal para- 
sites and from rot. The copper salt may 
be fixed in the fiber by a coating of tar 
or by soapy water. For tarring the rope, 
it is best to pass it through a bath of 



(Rouge) 



boiled tar, hot, drawing it through a 
thimble to press back the excess of tar, 
and suspending it afterward on a staging 
to dry and harden. In the second method 
the rope is soaked in a solution of 100 
grams of soap per liter of water. The 
copper soap thus formed in the fiber of 
the rope preserves it from rot even better 
than the tar, which acts mechanically to 
imprison the sulphate of copper, which* is 
the real preservative. It is not stated 
whether the copper treatment is equally 
serviceable with dressed as with plain 
hemp ropes. 

2. — To preserve wire rope laid under- 
ground, or under water, coat it with a 
mixture of mineral tar and fresh slaked 
lime, in the proportion of 1 bu. of lime to 
1 bbl. of tar. The mixture is to be boiled, 
and the rope saturated with it while hot ; 
sawdust is sometimes added to give the 
mixture body. Wire rope exposed to the 
weather is coated with raw linseed oil or 
with a paint composed of equal parts of 
Spanish brown or lampblack with linseed 
oil. 

Rosin, To Bleach. 

Rosin is bleached by melting in a suit- 
able vessel, at a temperature of not more 
than 600°, and passing steam through 
the fluid mass. The steam and rosin are 
then condensed in a receiver and the prod- 
uct dried. Carbonic acid, or a mixture 
of carbonic acid and nitrogen or hydro- 
gen gas, are introduced sometimes, to per- 
fect decolorization. Rosin oil is one of 
the products of destructive distillation of 
rosin, the residuum being tar. 

Rouge for Buff Wheels. 

The rouge employed by machinists, 
watchmakers and jewelers is obtained by 
directly subjecting crystals of sulphate 
of iron or copperas to a high heat, by 
which the sulphuric acid is expelled and 
the oxide of iron remains. Those portions 
least calcined, when ground, are used for 
polishing gold and silver. These are of 
a bright crimson color. The darker and 
more calcined portions are known as 
"crocus," and are used for polishing brass 
and steel. Others prefer for the produc- 
tion of rouge the peroxide of iron pre- 
cipitated by ammonia from a dilute solu- 
tion of sulphate of iron, which is washed, 
compressed until dry, then exposed to a 
low red heat and ground to powder. Of 
course, there are other substances besides 
rouge which are employed in polishing, as 
powdered emery, kieselguhr, carborundum, 
rotten stone, etc. 



[407] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc, 



(Rust) 



Rust. (See also Marble, Nickel, Tin, 
Windows.) 

Metals. — 1. — Drawing Instruments, Re- 
moving Rust from. — a. — Use fine emery 
paper and crocus cloth. 

b. — Mix 10 parts of tin putty, 8 parts 
of prepared buck's horn and 25 parts of 
90% alcohol to a paste. Cleanse the ar- 
ticles with this, and finally rub with soft 
blotting paper. 

2. — Gun Barrels, Grease for Anointing, 
to Prevent Rust. — Make an ointment of 
corrosive sublimate and lard. It is said 
that this will protect gun barrels from 
rust on the seashore. 

3. — Iron and Steel, Rust Preventives. 
— a. — Caoutchouc oil is said to have 
proved efiicient in preventing rust, and 
to have been adopted by the German 
army. It only requires to be spread with 
a piece of flannel, in a very thin layer, 
over the metallic surface and allowed to 
dry up. Such a coating will afford se- 
curity against all atmospheric influences 
and will not show any cracks under the 
microscope after a year's standing. To 
remove it, the article has simply to be 
treated with caoutchouc oil again, and 
washed after 12 to 24 hours. 

b. — A solution of india-rubber in ben- 
zine has been used for years as a coating 
for steel, iron and lead, and has been 
found a simple means of keeping them 
from oxidizing. It can be easily applied 
with a brush, and is as easily rubbed off. 
It should be made about the consistency 
of cream. 

c. — All steel articles can be perfectly 
preserved from rust by putting a lump of 
freshly burnt lime in the drawer or case 
in which they are kept. If the things 
are to be moved (as a gun in its case, 
for instance), put the lime in a muslin 
bag. This is especially valuable for speci- 
mens of iron when fractured, for in a 
moderately place the lime will^ not 

want renewing ror many years, as it is 
capable of absorbing a large quantity of 
moisture. Articles in use should be placed 
in a box nearly filled with thoroughly 
pulverized slaked lime. Before using them 
rub well with a woolen cloth. 

d. — The following mixture forms an ex- 
cellent brown coating for protecting iron 
and steel from rust : Dissolve 2 parts of 
crystallized iron chloride, 2 parts of an- 
timony chloride and 1 part of tannin in 
4 parts of water, and apply with a sponge 
or rag, and let dry. Then another coat 
of the paint is applied, and again another, 
if necessary, until the color becomes as 
dark as desired. When dry, it is washed 



(Rust) 



with water, allowed to dry again, and 
the surface polished with boiled linseed 
oil. The antimony chloride must be as 
nearly neutral as possible. 

e. — Put about 1 qt. of fresh slaked lime, 
y2 lb. of washing soda and i/^ lb. of soft 
soap in a bucket ; add sufficient water to 
cover the articles ;'''^put in the tools as 
soon as possible after use, and wipe them 
up next morning, or let them remain un- 
til wanted. 

f. — Soft soap, with about half its 
weight of pearlash ; 1 oz. of the mixture 
in about 1 gal. of boiling water. This 
is in every-day use in most engineers' 
shops in the drip cans used for turning 
long articles bright in wrought iron and 
steel. The work, though constantly moist, 
does not rust, and bright nuts are im- 
mersed in it for days till wanted, and 
retain their polish. 

g. — Melt slowly together 6 or 8 oz. of 
lard to 1 oz, of rosin, stirring till cool ; 
when it is semi-fluid it is ready for use. 
If too thick, it may be further let down 
by coal oil or benzine. Rubbed on bright 
surfaces, ever so thinly, it preserves the 
polish effectually, and may be readily 
rubbed off. 

h. — To protect metals from oxidation — 
polished iron or steel, for instance — the 
requisite is to exclude air and moisture 
from the actual metallic surface ; where- 
fore, polished tools are usually kept in 
wrappings of oiled cloth and brown paper, 
and, thus protected, they will preserve a 
spotless face for an unlimited time. When 
these metals come to be, of necessity, ex- 
posed, in being converted to use, it is 
necessary to protect them by means of 
some permanent dressing, and boiled lin- 
seed oil, which forms a lasting film or 
covering as it dries on, is one of the best 
preservatives, if not the best. But in 
order to give it body it should be thick- 
ened by the addition of some pigment, 
and the very best — because the most con- 
genial — of pigment is the ground oxide of 
the same metal ; or, in plain words, rust- 
ed iron reduced to an impalpable powder, 
for the dressing of iron or steel, which 
thus forms the pigment of red oxide paint. 

i. — Slake a piece of quicklime with just 
water enough to cause it to crumble, in 
a covered pot, and while hot add tallow 
to it and work into a paste, and use this 
to cover over bright work; it can be 
easily wiped off. 

j. — Olmstead's varnish is made by melt- 
ing 2 oz. of rosin in 1 lb. of fresh, sweet 
lard, melting the rosin first and then add- 
ing the lard, and mixing thoroughly. This 
is applied to the metal, which should be 



[408] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Rust) 



warm, if possible, and perfectly cleaned ; 
it is afterward rubbed off. TTiis has been 
well proved and tested for many years, 
and is particularly well suited for plan- 
ished and Russian iron surfaces, which 
a slight rust is apt to injure very seri- 
ously. 

k. — Use ferroline or white zapon lac- 
quer. 

1. — Mix whiting and linseed oil togeth- 
er to form a paste. Put a coat on the 
iron. It is easily removed, and will pre- 
vent rusting. 

m. — Thick lubricating petroleum, or 
solid paraffine, applied to the slightly 
warmed iron, is one of the best preserva- 
tives ; in some cases a transparent var- 
nish of copal or shellac is preferable. The 
main point is to clean the iron properly 
before the application, from all traces of 
rust, by means of brushing and a min- 
eral acid, to wash it well, and to neu- 
tralize all remaining traces of acid with 
potash lye, or with lime or some other 
alkali ; then clean and dry thoroughly, 
and apply your oil, paraffine or varnish. 

n. — Boiled linseed oil will keep polished 
tools from rusting if it is allowed to dry 
on them. Common sperm oil will pre- 
vent them from rusting for a short pe- 
riod. A coat of copal varnish is fre- 
quently applied to polished tools exposed 
to the weather. Woolen materials are 
the best for wrappers for metals. 

o. — Iron and steel goods of all descrip- 
tions are kept free from rust by the fol- 
lowing : Dissolve % oz. of camphor in 
1 lb. of hog's lard, take off the scum, 
and mix as much black lead as will give 
the mixture an iron color. Iron and 
steel, and machinery of all kinds, rubbed 
over with this mixture, and left with it 
on for 24 hours, and then rubbed with 
a linen cloth, will keep clean for months. 
If the machinery is for exportation, it 
should be kept thickly coated with this 
during the voyage. 

p. — Antimony chloride, 9 parts ; crys- 
tallized iron chloride, 9 parts ; tannin, 
41/^ parts, in 18 parts of water. Apply 
with a sponge, or rag, let it dry, apply 
again, if necessary. This mixture forms 
a brown coating on the article. When 
dry, wash with water ; let it dry, then 
polish with boiling linseed oil. 

q. — A compound of grease and zinc fil- 
ings is found to be an excellent prevent- 
ative against rust for iron bolts inserted 
in wood. It is used to line the bolt hole. 

r. — A correspondent sends us the fol- 
lowing suggestions : "I have tried many 
things, but found nothing better than 
boiled linseed oil to protect instruments 

[ 



(Rust) 



and tools (files, saws, guns, etc.) from 
rusting. It even works best with a ket- 
tle used for heating water for bathing. 
Wipe the metal with a cloth dipped in 
the oil, and let it dry, which will re- 
quire only a few minutes. If it is un- 
necessary to have the metal bright and 
shining, you need not scour it before the 
application of the oil ; this will combine 
with the rust, and form a firm, durable 
coating. 

s. — Rub over with a mixture of tallow 
or lard and thick white-lead paint. 

t. — To keep iron goods of any kind, and 
especially those parts of machines which 
are made of steel or iron, from rusting, 
take % oz. of powdered camphor, and 
melt it before the fire in 1 lb. of good 
lard. To give it a dark color, add as 
much fine black lead as is necessary to 
produce the desired effect. Clean the 
ironwork, and smear it over with this 
preparation. After this it should be al- 
lowed to remain untouched for 24 hours, 
when the grease should be removed by 
wiping the ironwork with a soft cloth. 

u. — Vaseline is an excellent preserva- 
tive. Buy by the can, and apply with 
a brush. 

4. — Iron, Protection from Rust. — a. — 
Otto Hering, of Berlin, has lately pat- 
ented a method for producing basic oils 
to protect iron from rust. The oil is 
made to contain in solution certain basic 
substances. Either the oil (fatty or min- 
eral) may be saturated with ammonia gas 
at the ordinary temperature, or organic 
bases can be dissolved in it. In practice, 
a combination of these two plans is ad- 
visable, the ammonia gas being put into 
the oil after the organic bases. An ad- 
vantage claimed for this new rust pro- 
tector is that it contains no moisture, and 
is mixed with bodies able to check any 
tendency to rust formation at the outset. 

b, — Barff's Process. — A pa ^^nted proc- 
ess employed for the p^r«t..^cLion or the 
surfaces of iron from rust, effected by 
artificially coating them with a film of 
magnetic oxide. The iron is first heated 
to redness, and steam passed over it. The 
iron decomposes the steam, liberating oxy- 
gen, which latter immediately attacks the 
iron, forming magnetic or black oxide, 
FesO,. 

c. — Bright Iron Articles. — The medium 
in question is produced from the follow- 
ing substances : Zinc white, 30 kgm. ; 
lampblack, 2 kgm. ; tallow, 7 kgm. ; vase- 
line, 1 kgm. ; olive oil, 3 kgm. ; varnish, 
1 1. Boil together % hour and add % 1. 
of benzine and % 1- of turpentine, stir- 
ring the mass carefully and boiling for 
409] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Rust) 



some time. The finished pastelike sub- 
stance can be readily removed with a rag 
without the use of solvents. 

d. — Underground Iron. — Cotton-seed or 
linseed oils, 1 lb. ; coal tar, 1 lb. ; sul- 
phur, 1 lb. ; heat separately ; mix thor- 
oughly, and heat to 300° F. for about 1 
hour, at the end of which time it becomes 
pasty. Heat the metal to which it is 
applied. 

5. — Iron, Removal of Rust. — a. — A 
simple and effective way of cleaning rust- 
ed iron articles, no matter how badly 
they are rusted, consists in attaching a 
piece of ordinary zinc to the articles, and 
then letting them lie in water to which 
a little sulphuric acid is added. They 
should be left immersed several days, or 
a week, until the rust has entirely dis- 
appeared, the time depending on how 
deeply they are rusted. If there is much 
rust, a little sulphuric acid should be 
added occasionally. The essential part 
of the process is that the zinc must be 
in good electrical contact with the iron. 
A good way is to twist an iron wire tight- 
ly around the object, and connect this 
with the zinc. Besides the simplicity of 
this process, it has the great advantage 
that the iron itself is not attacked in the 
least so long as the zinc is in good elec- 
trical contact with it. Domestic Engi- 
neering says that when there is only a 
little rust, a galvanized-iron wire wrapped 
around the object will take the place of 
the zinc, provided the acid is not too 
strong. The articles will come out a 
dark gray or black color, and should then 
be washed thoroughly and oiled. The 
method is specially applicable to objects 
with sharp corners or edges, or to files 
and other articles on which bufiing wheels 
ought not to be used. The rusted iron 
and the zinc make a short-circuited bat- 
tery, the action of which reduces the rust 
back to iron, this action continuing as 
long as any rust is left. 

b. — Iron articles thickly coated with 
rust may be cleaned by allowing them to 
remain in a nearly saturated solution of 
chloride of tin from 12 to 14 hours. 

c. — Rust remover : Ground pumice, 30 
grams ; oleic acid, 20 grams ; tallow, 2 
grams ; paraffine, 4 grams. The last 
three ingredients are melted together and 
the powdered pumice is slowly stirred in. 

6. — Nickelplated Articles, To Remove 
Rust from. — Cover the stains with oil or 
grease for a few days, and then remove 
the rust by rubbing with a little ammo- 
nia. If this does not remove the rust, 
try very dilute hydrochloric acid. When 
dry, polish with tripoli or whiting. 



(Rust) 



7. — Rust Prevention in General.— a.' — 
Melt together 125 parts of lard and 20 
parts of camphor, to which a little graph- 
ite is added. After thorough cleaning, 
the mass is rubbed on and allowed to re- 
main 24 hours. 

b. — A mixture of petrolatum and kero- 
sene oil is said to be an excellent appli- 
cation for protecting the surface of the 
metal. 

c. — For polished metal use the follow- 
ing : Rosin, 35 parts ; talc, in powder, 
500 parts ; lard, 250 parts ; yellow wax, 
130 parts ; olive oil, 130 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 130 parts. Mix the rosin, lard, 
wax and oil, and melt at a low tempera- 
ture ; when melted, stir in the talc, and 
after removing from the fire add the tur- 
pentine, with constant stirring. 

d. — Camphor, % oz. ; dissolve in melted 
lard, 1 lb. ; take off the scum, and mix in 
as much black lead as will give it an 
iron color ; clean machinery, and smear 
with compound ; after 24 hours remove 
with a soft linen cloth. 

8. — Rust Removal in General. — a. — 
Cover the metal with sweet oil, well 
rubbed in, and allow to stand for 48 
hours ; smear with oil, applied freely with 
a feather or piece of cotton wool, after 
rubbing the steel ; then rub with unslaked 
lime, reduced to as fine a powder as pos- 
sible. 

b. — Immerse the article to be cleaned 
for a few minutes until all dirt and 
rust is taken off, in a strong solution of 
potassium cyanide, say about % oz. in 
a wineglassful of water ; take out, and 
clean it with a toothbrush, with some 
paste composed of potassium cyanide, Cas- 
tile soap, whiting and water, mixed into 
a paste of about the consistency of thick 
cream. 

9. — Steel, Removal of Rust. — a. — 
The following solution, according to the 
National Druggist, may be applied by 
means of a brush, after having removed 
any grease by rubbing with a clean, dry 
cloth : Stannic chloride, 100 grams, are 
dissolved in 1 1. of water ; this solution 
is next added to one containing 2 grams 
of tartaric acid dissolved in 1 1. of water, 
and, finally, adding 20 c.cm. of indigo 
solution diluted with 2 1. of water. After 
allowing the solution to act upon the 
stain for a few seconds it is rubbed clean, 
first with a moist cloth, later with a dry 
cloth. To restore the polish, use is made 
of silver sand and jewelers' rouge. 

b. — Immerse the article to be cleaned 
for a few minutes until all dirt and rust 
are taken off, in a strong solution of 
cyanide of potassium, say about ^ oz. in 



[410] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Rust) 



a wineglassful of water ; take out, and 
clean it with a tooth brush, with some 
paste composed of cyanide of potassium, 
Castile soap, whitening and water ; these 
last are mixed in a paste about the con- 
sistency of thick cream. 

c. — To remove rust from small hollow 
castings, dip in dilute sulphuric acid (1 
part of commercial acid to 10 parts of 
water). Wash in hot lime water, and 
dry in a tumbler in dry sawdust. 

d. — Immerse the articles in kerosene 
oil ; allow them to remain for some time. 
This will loosen the rust so it will come 
off easily. 

e. — To remove rust from steel, cover 
the metal with sweet oil, well rubbed in ; 
48 hours afterward rub with finely pul- 
verized unslaked lime. 

f. — Cover the rusted part with oil or 
fat, let it remain 3 hours, then wipe off 
with a cloth ; take 2 dr. of caustic potash 
and 4 oz. of opodeldoc ; rub on the mix- 
ture, and let it remain 10 minutes ; rub 
off with a dry cloth. Or, cover the rusted 
parts with sweet oil, well rubbed in, and 
next day cover with finely powdered un- 
slaked lime ; polish with this until the 
rust disappears. Or, take % oz. of em- 
ery powder, 1 oz. of soft soap, mixed, 
and well rub in. 

g. — Whiting, by weight, 9 parts ; oil 
soap, by weight, 6 parts ; cyanide of po- 
tassium, by weight, 5 parts ; water, by 
weight, 60 parts. Dissolve the soap in 
the water, over the fire, and add the 
cyanide ; then, little by little, add the 
whiting. If the compound is too thick, 
which may be due either to the whiting or 
the soap employed, add a little water un- 
til a paste is made which can be run 
into an iron or wooden mold. This will 
remove rust from steel and give it a good 
polish. 

h. — Rosin, 35 parts ; powdered talc, 500 
parts ; lard, 250 parts ; yellow wax, 130 
parts ; olive oil, 130 parts ; oil of turpen- 
tine, 130 parts. Mix the rosin, lard, wax 
and oil, and melt at a low temperature. 
When melted, stir in the talc, and, after 
removing from the fire, add the turpen- 
tine, with constant stirring. 

i. — Rust Paper for Fine Steel. — Wash 
some pumice in water, powder it fine, 
and mix linseed-oil varnish with the pow- 
der. Apply several coatings of this mix- 
ture with a brush to good, firm paper, 
and after the paper has been dried in the 
air pass it between smoothing rollers. The 
following cleaning powder is also recom- 
mended : Mix 16 parts by weight of tin 
putty with 8 parts of prepared harts- 
horn, and rub the mixture to a paste 



(Rust) 



with 32 parts of alcohol. The mixture 
can then be used for cleaning steel arti- 
cles. Very rusty steel and iron articles 
should first be washed with hydrochloric 
acid, diluted with an equal quantity of 
water, and afterward with pure water, 
then dried, coated with oil, left for a few 
days, and finally cleaned with the clean- 
ing powder already described. Finely 
powdered emery, with a little olive oil, 
can also be recommended. 

10. — Steel Instruments, Small, To Keep 
from Rusting. — a. — Clean frequently ; 
after using, clean with dry chamois leath- 
er and wipe off with an oiled rag. 

b. — For this purpose the Lancet con- 
fidently recommends a mixture of equal 
parts of carbolic acid and olive oil, 
smeared over the surface of the instru- 
ments. This plan is much used by medi- 
cal officers in the navy, and is found to 
preserve the polish and brightness of the 
steel, however moist and warm the cli- 
mate may be. 

11.— Steel Wire, To Protect from Rust. 
— Try the following : Dissolve % oz. of 
camphor in 2 oz. of 90% alcohol, and 
mix this with 2 pt. of fine sperm oil. Al- 
low the wire to remain in contact with 
this mixture, heated to 180° F., for half 
an hour ; then rub off excess with a soft 
cotton cloth. 

12. — Stoves, To Prevent from Rusting. 
— Apply kerosene with a cloth. This will 
prevent stoves from rusting during the 
summer. Also an excellent material to 
apply to all iron tools used about a farm. 

13. — Tools, To Keep from Rusting. — 
a. — Put % lb. of soft soap in a pail and 
add 1 pt. of freshly slaked lime ; sufli- 
cient water to cover the articles. Place 
the tools in this mixture as soon as pos- 
sible after they are used. Wipe them the 
next morning. 

b. — Apparatus for Coating Laboratory 
Tools. — Metallic tools and other articles, 
particularly those consisting of iron or 
steel, which are used in laboratories or 
other workshops where acid vapors are of 
frequent occurrence, may be protected 
from rust with a black shining coat, 
which resists acids, and is but little af- 
fected even by a low red heat, in the fol- 
lowing manner : Have a sheet-iron box 
large enough to hold all the tools, etc., 
to be coated, and provided with a false 
bottom of wire netting. Underneath this 
is placed a layer of crushed coal (black- 
smith's coal) about 1 cm. deep; then 
place the tools, which must be entirely 
free from rust, clean and polished, upon 
the wire net. The box is then covered 
and set on a strong fire, which causes the 



E4113 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Rust) 



coal to give off tarry constituents, and 
the heat continued until the bottom of 
the box is at a red heat. When all evo- 
lution of gas has ceased the box is al- 
lowed to become cold, and the tools are 
taken out, and will be found covered with 
a beautiful glossy coat. Tongs, shears, 
pincers, etc., so coated, keep in good con- 
dition for months, even in places where 
the air is constantly mixed with acid va- 
pors. 

c. — To keep tools from rusting, take % 
oz. of camphor and dissolve it in 1 lb. of 
melted lard'; take off the scum, and mix 
in as much fine black lead (graphite) as 
will give it an iron color. Clean the tools, 
and smear with this mixture. After 24 
hours rub clean with a soft linen cloth. 
The tools will keep clean for months un- 
der ordinary circumstances. 

Textiles. — 1. — Stains. — By adding 2 
parts of cream of tartar to 1 part of oxal- 
ic acid, ground fine, and kept dry in a bot- 
tle, you will find, by applying a little of 
the powder to rust stains while the arti- 
cle is wet, that the result is much quicker 
and better. Wash out in clear warm 
water to prevent injury to the goods. 

2. — Dissolve potassium bioxalate, 200 
parts, in distilled water, 8,800 parts ; add 
glycerine, 1,000 parts, and filter. Mois- 
ten the rust or ink spots with this solu- 
tion ; let the linen, etc., lie for 3 hours, 
rubbing the moistened spots frequently, 
and then wash out well with water. 

3. — Soften the spots with a solution of 
1 part of ferrocyanide of potassium, 500 
parts of water and 1 part of concentrated 
sulphuric acid ; then wash out with soft 
water, and remove the stains, which, by 
this time, will have become blue, by a so- 
lution of potash. 

4. — Soak the stains in a solution of tin 
chloride, and rinse immediately with much 
water. The tin salt is much more reli- 
able in removing iron rust, and quicker 
in its action, than oxalic acid, unless the 
stains are soaked in a solution of the lat- 
ter, contained in a tin spoon, when the 
stains disappear in a short time. 

5. — Iron Rust. — a. — This may be re- 
moved by salt mixed with a little lemon 
juice. 

b. — Salts of lemon, mixed with warm 
water, and rubbed over the mark, will, 
most probably, remove the stains. 

c. — Throw on the stain a small quan- 
tity of the dry powder of magnesia, rub- 
bing it slightly in with the finger, leav- 
ing it there for an hour or two, and then 
brushing it off, when it will be found 
that the stain has quite .disappeared. 

d. — Fresh ink and the soluble salts of 

[ 



(Satins) 



iron produce stains which, if allowed to 
dry, and especially if afterward the ma- 
terial has been washed, are difficult to ex- 
tract without injury to the ground. When 
fresh, such stains yield rapidly to a treat- 
ment with moistened cream of tartar, 
aided by a little friction, if the material 
or color is delicate. If the ground be 
white, oxalic acid, employed in the form 
of a concentrated aqueous solution, will 
effectually remove fresh iron stains. 

Sailcloth. 

1. — Impregnation. — Sailcloth, allowed 
to lie about in a wet condition, or rolled 
up wet, will begin to rot, and the spots 
cannot afterward altogether be removed 
by washing, and not even by chlorine. If 
dried in the stretched condition, the cloth 
will not spoil. This can be done on a 
fully manned boat, but not always on 
other crafts. Soap and brush, applied 
at once, will do some good. There is 
also a mistaken idea that rinsing in fresh 
water and drying in the sun will prevent 
mischief. To avoid all trouble, the sail- 
cloth should be impregnated. The weaver's 
glue has first to be removed, which is 
accomplished by boiling a roll of about 
6 pieces in malt or also in caustic soda. 
In the latter case, every packet must have 
a fresh lye, but the subsequent washing 
in dilute hydrochloric acid does not call 
for a renewal of the bath every time. 
The cloth is dried hanging, as in all sub- 
sequent operations ; there is more shrink- 
age on a cylinder. For impregnation, a 
solution of alum and phenylate of lime 
is recommended. The impregnated cloth 
passes between two rolls, the upper of 
metal, the lower of paper. Finally comes 
the fixing with soda silicate. Gruene 
has found the treatment to answer well, 
and the cloth remains soft. If, after two 
years or so, a repetition of the impreg- 
nation should appear advisable, the cloth 
may simply be dipped in phenylate of 
aluminum, 

2. — Bleacliing. — Use a solution of chlo- 
ride of lime in water, in which the sail 
may be immersed for a short time and 
then thoroughly washed and dried in the 
sun. This will whiten it. 

Satins. 

1. — Satins may be cleansed with a weak 
solution of borax or benzine, when greasy. 
Care should be taken to sponge moder- 
ately and lengthwise, not across, the fab- 
ric ; iron on the wrong side only. White, 
cream and pink satins may be treated in 
the same way as colored silks. 

2. — BUch. — Boil 3 lb. of potatoes to a 
412] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Sheepskin) 



in 1 qt. of water; strain through a 
sieve, and brush the satin with it on a 
board or table. The satin must not be 
wrung, but folded down in cloths, for 3 
hours, and then ironed on the wrong side. 

Screws, Rusting. 

To prevent screws employed to join ma- 
chinery from becoming fixed and difficult 
to remove from oxidation, the Moniteur 
Industrielle recommends a mixture of oil 
and graphite, and says it will effectually 
prevent screws from becoming fixed, and 
protect them for years from rust. The 
mixture facilitates tightening up, and is 
an excellent lubricant, and reduces the 
friction of the screw in its socket. Car- 
bon, of which graphite is largely com- 
posed, is the best known lubricant. 

Seaweed. 

Soak in distilled water for about a day 
and a night to soften and remove salt, 
then put it for 12 hours in a solution 
of 1 part bisulphite of soda to 10 parts 
of water ; at the expiration of this time 
mix 1 part of sulphuric acid with 5 parts 
of water and add 1 part of this to the 
first solution, which has the seaweed in it. 
Let remain a few hours longer, then soak 
in several changes of clean water and 
dry slowly. 

Sheepskin. 

1. — Aprons, etc. — If stained by grease 
or paint, it will be necessary to first take 
out these stains, by placing the skin on 
a clean board and applying, with rubbing, 
the following mixture : Benzine, 15 fl.oz. ; 
chloroform, 2 fl.dr. ; ether, 2 fl.dr. ; alco- 
hol, 4 fl.dr. Mix. When the stains are 
removed then apply the following mix- 
ture : Potassium bitartrate, 1 av.oz. ; 
alum, powder, % av.oz. ; oxalic acid, i/^ 
av.oz. : sour milk, 16 fl.oz. Mix. Apply 
this mixture with a clean woolen rag, 
and rub into the skin until quite dry ; 
then dust on the skin some finely pow- 
dered pipeclay, and brush off the excess 
of the adherent powder. 

2. — Rugs and Mats. — Wash while fresh, 
in strong soapsuds, first picking from the 
wool all the dirt that will come out. A 
little paraffine, 1 tablespoonful to 3 gal. 
of water, will aid in removing the im- 
purities. Continue to wash the skin in 
fresh suds till it is white and clean. Then 
dissolve % lb. each of salt and alum in 
3 pts. of boiling water, put into it water 
enough to cover the skin, which should 
soak in the solution 12 hours, and then 
be hung on a line to drain. When near- 
ly dry, nail it, wool side in, on a board. 



(Silk) 



or the side of a barn, to dry. Rub into 
the skin 1 oz. each of pulverized alum 
and saltpeter, and if the skin is large 
double the quantity. Rub for an hour 
or two. Fold the skin sides together, 
and hang away for 3 days, rubbing 
it every day, or till perfectly dry. Then 
with a blunt knife clear the skin of im- 
purities, rub it with pumice or rotten 
stone, trim it into shape, and you have 
a door-mat that will last a lifetime. If 
it is to be dyed, have a shallow vessel 
as large as the skin, in which to prepare 
the dye, so that the skin can be laid wool 
side down smoothly into the vessel, that 
all parts may be equally immersed in 
the dye. This should not be more than 
1 in. deep, otherwise the skin might be 
injured by the hot dye. After coloring, 
again stretch the skin to dry, and then 
comb with a wool or cotton card. 

3. — Dissolve 1 bar of soap in 2 gal. of 
boiling water; put 2 qt. of this into a 
tub or pan containing about 2 gal. of 
warm water. First rub out the dirt and 
grease spots with the strong soap liquor, 
or, if necessary, with fuller's earth ; then 
put the rug or mat into the tub contain- 
ing the weak soap liquor, and well wash 
and punch it. Throw away this first li- 
quor, and mix another lot with the same 
proportions of warm water and dissolved 
soap, and again well wash the rug ; and 
so continue until it is perfectly clean. 
Then rinse well in cold water to take out 
all the soap, and afterward in cold water 
in which a small quantity of blue has 
been dissolved. This blue water will only 
be required for white skins. After this 
has been done the mat or rug should be 
wrung out, shaken, and hung up to dry 
with the skin side toward the sun, but not 
when the heat is scorching, or the skin 
will become hard and brittle. It should, 
while drying, be frequently shaken and 
hung up, first by one end and then by 
the other. 

Show Cases, To Polish. 

A good polishing powder consists of 
rock alum, burned and finely powdered, 
5 parts ; levigated chalk, 1 part ; mix ; ap- 
ply with a dry brush. 

Silk. 

1. — Bleaching. — a. — The articles to be 
bleached must be freed from all mechani- 
cally adhering dirt, grease, etc. This is 
effected, according to the nature of the 
article, and of the impurities to be re- 
moved, by means of soap, ammonia, sul- 
phuret of carbon, ether, or alcohol. These 
cleansing agents must then be entirely re- 



[413] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Silk) 



moved, either by washing or evaporation. 
A bleach bath is then made up with the 
peroxide of hydrogen, either alone or 
along with small traces of ammonia or 
of soda lye. The silks are simply laid 
in this liquid and left to steep as may be 
required. The process is accelerated by 
heat not exceeding 77° F., and by the 
light of the sun. Tlie bleaching process 
may last from 2 to 14 days. When it is 
completed the silks are rinsed in con- 
densed steam water and carefully dried. 

b. — In China, silks are scoured with 
carbonate of potash or of soda, but this 
method has been nearly abandoned in Eu- 
rope on account of the amount of care 
and attention it requires. From 10 to 12 
lb. of carbonate of soda are required for 
100 lb. of raw silk. The scouring bath is 
not allowed to get hotter than 185° F., 
and the process may last from 60 to 90 
minutes. The action is considered to have 
gone far enough when the threads give 
a kind of crackling sound if rubbed with 
the fingernail. Two or three washings 
with lukewarm water complete the proc- 
ess. The loss is rarely below 18%, and 
may rise to 28%. 

c. — Caustic soda is used in very weak 
solutions for coarse kinds of silk. From 
3 to 4 lb. of solid caustic is sufiicient for 
100 lb. of silk. It is dissolved in about 
300 gal. of water at 140°, and the yarns 
are worked for 30 minutes, and then 
washed. The loss does not exceed 12%. 

d. — A lye of white soap is made by 
boiling in water 30 lb. of soap for every 
100 lb. of silk intended to be bleached, 
and in this the silk is steeped till the 
gum in the silk is dissolved and sepa- 
rated. The silk is then put into bags 
of coarse cloth and boiled in a similar 
lye for an hour. By these processes it 
lo^es 25% of its original weight. The 
silk is then thoroughly washed, and 
steeped in a hot lye composed of IV^ lb. 
of soap and 90 gal. of water with a 
small quantity of litmus and indigo dif- 
fused. After this it is carried to the sul- 
phuring room ; 2 lb. of sulphur are sufii- 
cient for 100 lb. of silk. When these 
processes are not sufiiciently successful it 
is washed with clear hard water, and 
sulphured again. 

e. — Scouring with Soap. — This is pre- 
eminently the best method, since it pre- 
serves and even increases the valued prop- 
erties of silk, such as feel, brilliancy, etc. ; 
the soap used, however, should always be 
of the best quality. In the north of Eu- 
rope, soft potash soaps, generally made 
from linseed oil, are used ; in the south, 
hard soda soaps, made from olive and 

[ 



(Silk) 



other oils, are preferred. Of late years, 
soap made from oleic acid has been more 
and more employed. Those soaps are to 
be preferred which wash off best and leave 
an agreeable odor. In general, those 
made from oleic acid and linseed oil wash 
off best ; then follow the soaps made from 
olive oil, suet, etc, (containing stearic 
and margaric acids) ; last, and worst in 
this respect, comes palm-oil soap, which, 
on this account, has been almost entirely 
given up, notwithstanding its agreeable 
odor. For scouring silks which are to 
be subsequently dyed, oleic-acid soap may 
be recommended ; but for those destined 
to remain white, a good olive-oil soap 
is best. In the latter case, two opera- 
tions are necessary, "ungumming" {de- 
gommage) and "boiling." For "ungum- 
ming," a boiling solution of 33 lb. of soap 
to 100 lb. of silk is used, the yarn being 
worked in this from % to % hour. Prev- 
ious to placing the silk in this bath, how- 
ever, it should be softened in a weak so- 
lution of soda crystals, or, better still, 
of hydrochloric acid, and should be 
washed. For "boiling," the same bath 
may be used (if not too strongly charged 
with silk glue), except for the purest 
whites, or when the raw silk is colored ; 
in these cases a fresh bath is imperative. 
The yarn is lifted from the ungumming 
bath and allowed to drain ; the hanks are 
then wrung, sewn up in coarse hempen 
bags or "pockets," and boiled, during 2 
or 3 hours, with a solution of 17 lb. of 
soap per 100 lb. of silk. The yarn is 
then rinsed in a weak, tepid solution of 
soda crystals, to avoid the precipitation 
of any fatty compounds on the silk, after 
which it is rinsed in cold water. For 
Japanese and Chinese silks the loss may 
vary from 18 to 22% ; for European silks, 
25 to 27%, 

2. — Cleansing. — a. — No silks look well 
after washing, no matter how carefully 
it may be done, and, therefore, it should 
never be resorted to without absolute ne- 
cessity. It is recommended to sponge 
faded silks with warm water and soap, 
and then to rub them with a dry cloth 
on a fiat board, after which to iron them 
on the inside with a smoothing iron. 
Sponging a little with spirits will also 
improve old black silks. The ironing may 
be done on the right side, with thin paper 
spread over them to prevent glazing. 

b. — Soft soap, % lb. ; brandy, 2 tea- 
spoonfuls ; proof spirit, 1 pt. ; water, 1 
pt. ; mix well together. Apply with a 
sponge on each side of the silk, taking 
care not to crease the silk. Rinse 2 or 8 
times, and iron on the wrong side, putting 
414] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Silk) 



a piece of thin muslin between the silk 
and the iron. 

c. — Black. — To bullock's gall add boil- 
ing water sufficient to make it warm, and 
with a clean sponge rub the silk well on 
both sides ; squeeze it well out, and pro- 
ceed in like manner. Rinse it in spring 
water, and change the water until per- 
fectly clean. Dry it in the air, and pin 
it out on a table ; but first dip the sponge 
in glue water and rub it on the wrong 
side ; then dry before a fire. 

d. — White. — White silk is best cleaned 
by dissolving curd soap in water as hot 
as the hand can bear and passing the silk 
through and through, handling it gently, 
and rubbing any spots till they disap- 
pear. The silk should then be rinsed in 
lukewarm water and stretched by pins 
to dry. 

3. — Grease. — Rub the spots on the silk 
lightly and rapidly with a clean, soft cot- 
ton rag dipped in chloroform, and the 
grease will immediately disappear with- 
out injuring the color of the silk. Re- 
peat the operation, if necessary. Be care- 
ful to rub the article rapidly and lightly, 
then finish with a clean, dry cloth. If 
these precautions are not taken a slight 
stain is apt to be the result. Very highly 
rectified benzine, such as is prepared by 
first-class druggists, will also immediate- 
ly remove grease from the most delicate 
colored silks. 

4. — Handkerchiefs, To Keep White. — ■ 
In washing silk handkerchiefs, care should 
be used to prevent their turning yellow. 
A silk handkerchief should never be boiled, 
nor have soap rubbed upon it. Make a 
lather of finely shredded white soap and 
hot water. Clean the handkerchiefs, and 
rinse them in plenty of cold water to 
thoroughly remove all the soap. Press 
out all the moisture possible, and dry 
quickly in the sun, ironing them while 
they are still damp, but not wet. 

5. — Renovating Black Silk. — The French 
process is to use a weak solution of coffee 
water. Do not wet the silk too much, 
and restore the luster by careful rubbing 
with a soft silk handkerchief. White silks 
can be cleared with a dry powder formed 
of fine starch and a little laundry blue. 
Rub over the tissue, and dust out thor- 
oughly. Bread crumbs or chalk should 
be used for pink or cream-colored silks. 
Silks may be ironed on the wrong side 
with a moderately hot iron, or on the 
right side (to give the fine luster) if 
well protected by two folds of slightly 
damped muslin. 



(Silver) 



[415] 



Silk Hats. 

When a silk hat becomes wet, or from 
other causes has lost its smoothness and 
gloss, cleanse it carefully from all dust, 
then with a silk handkerchief apply pet- 
rolatum evenly, and smooth down with 
the same handkerchief until it is dry, 
smooth and glossy. This will make a 
silk hat look as good as new. 

Silver. 

1. — In cleaning silver plate, or any pol- 
ished metallic surface, it is very essential 
to keep the polishing material, as well as 
the rubbing cloths, chamois, etc., in a 
close box, where they cannot be contam- 
inated with dust. One single grain of 
sand may produce a scratch that hours 
of faithful labor cannot obliterate. When 
this happens the injured article must be 
sent to the jeweler to have the scratch 
burnished out. 

2. — Silver articles discolored by sul- 
phureted hydrogen may be cleaned by 
rubbing them with a boiling saturated so- 
lution of borax. Another good prepara- 
tion is a solution of caustic potash with 
some bits of metallic zinc. 

3. — Ammonium carbonate, 1 oz. ; water, 
4 oz. ; Paris white, 16 oz. ; mix well, and 
apply by means of soft leather. 

4. — Rouge (very fine) and prepared 
chalk, equal parts ; use dry. 

5. — Whiting (fine), 2 parts; white ox- 
ide of tin, 1 part ; calcined hartshorn, 1 
part. 

6. — A fresh concentrated solution of 
hyposulphite of soda will dissolve at once 
the coat of sulphide of silver, which is 
the cause of the blackness produced by 
mustard, eggs, etc., or anything contain- 
ing sulphur. 

7. — Egg Stains. — Rub with common 
salt. A pinch taken between the thumb 
and finger, and rubbed on the spot with 
the end of the finger, will usually remove 
the darkest egg stain. 

8. — Frosting Polished Silver. — Put them 
into a bath of nitric acid diluted with an 
equal volume of distilled water, and let 
remain for a few minutes. A better ef- 
fect may be given by dipping the article 
frequently into the bath until the requisite 
degree of frosting has been attained. Then 
rinse, and place for a few moments in 
a strong bath of potassium cyanide, re- 
move and rinse. The fingers must not 
be allowed to touch the article during 
either process. It should be well held 
with wooden forceps or clamps. 

0. — Ink Stains. — Silver articles in do- 
mestic use, and especially silver or plated 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Silver) 



inkstands, frequently become badly stained 
with ink. These stains cannot be removed 
by ordinary processes, but readily yield 
to a paste of calcium chloride and water. 
Javelle water, when at hand, may be 
used instead. 

10. — Jewelry, Filigree. — To restore the 
original color when tarnished by wear, or 
shop-worn, first wash the articles in a so- 
lution of 1 fl.oz. of liquid potassa in 20 
fl.oz. of water, rinse, and then immerse 
in a mixture of salt, 1 part ; alum, 1 part ; 
saltpeter, 2 parts ; dissolved in water, 4 
parts. Let them remain for 5 minutes ; 
wash in cold water and dry with chamois 
leather. 

11. — Liquid Polish. — a. — Prepared 
chalk or whiting, 2 oz. ; water of am- 
monia, 2 oz. ; water, enough to make 
8 oz. 

b. — Oxalic acid, 1 oz, ; crocus martis, 
2 oz. ; whiting, 4 oz. ; water, to make 1 pt. 
Mix, and shake before using. This prepa- 
ration may be used dry (omitting the 
water), or applied with a little oil, with 
rubbing, and rubbed dry with whiting. 

c. — Mix 8 oz. of prepared chalk, 2 oz. 
of turpentine, 1 oz. of alcohol, 4 dr. of 
spirits of camphor and 2 dr. of water 
of ammonia. Apply vv^ith a sponge, and 
allow to dry before polishing. 

d. — Cyanide of potassium, 8 oz. ; alco- 
hol, 1 oz. ; water of ammonia, 1 oz. ; blue 
vitriol, % oz. ; Glauber's salts, 1 oz. ; soft 
water, 2 gal. Immerse the silverware in 
the bath for a few minutes, rinse with 
clear water, and polish with chamois skin 
or flannel. 

e. — Levigated chalk, 2 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 4 parts ; stronger ammonia water, 
4 parts ; water, 10 parts. Mix the am- 
monia and oil of turpentine by agitation, 
and rub up the chalk in the mixture. Fi- 
nally, rub in the water gradually, or 
mix by agitation. Three parts each of 
powdered tartaric acid and chalk, with 1 
part of powdered alum, make a cheap and 
quick silver-cleaning powder. 

12. — Ornaments. — Make a strong solu- 
tion of soft soap and water, and in this 
boil the articles for a few minutes ; 5 
minutes will usually be enough. Take 
out, pour the soap solution into a basin, 
and as soon as the liquid has cooled down 
sufficiently to be borne by the hand, with 
a soft brush scrub the articles with it. 
Rinse in boiling water, and place on a 
porous substance (a bit of tiling, a brick, 
or unglazed earthenware) to dry. Fi- 
nally, give a light rubbing with a cham- 
ois. Articles thus treated look as bright 
as new. 

13. — Plated Ware. — a. — Take equal 



(Silver) 



parts of precipitated subcarbonate of 
iron and prepared chalk. 

b. — An impalpable rouge may be pre- 
pared by calcining the oxalate of iron. 

c. — Take quicksilver with chalk, ^ oz., 
and prepared chalk, 2 oz. ; mix them. 
When using, add a small quantity of spir- 
its of wine, and rub with chamois leather. 
Not recommended. 

d. — Put sulphate of iron into a large 
tobacco pipe ; place it in a fire for a 
quarter of an hour ; mix with a small 
quantity of powdered chalk. This powder 
should be used dry. 

e. — The following makes a liquid polish 
for silver plate: Cyanide of potassium, 
3 to 4 dr. ; nitrate of silver, 8 to 10 gr. ; 
water, 4 oz. Apply with a soft brush, 
wash the object thoroughly with water, 
dry with a soft linen cloth, and polish 
with chamois skin. Neither whiting nor 
powder of any kind should be used for 
cleaning and polishing ; they only waste 
and scratch the silver. 

f. — Take 2 oz. of hartshorn powder and 
boil it in 1 pt. of water ; soak small 
squares of damask cloth in the liquid, hang 
them up to dry, and they will be ready 
for use, and better than any powders. 

g. — Add by degrees 8 oz. of prepared 
chalk, in fine powder, to a mixture of 2 
oz. of spirits of turpentine, 1 oz. of al- 
cohol, % oz. of spirits of camphor and 
2 dr. of aqua ammonia ; apply with a 
sponge, and allow it to dry before pol- 
ishing. 

h. — Mix together 1 oz. of fine chalk, 2 
oz. of cream of tartar, 1 oz. of rotten 
stone, 1 oz. of red lead and % oz. of 
alum ; pulverize thoroughly in a mortar. 
Wet the mixture, rub it on the silver, 
and when dry rub off with a dry flannel 
or clean with a small brush. 

i. — An excellent preparation for polish- 
ing plate may be made in the following 
manner : Mix together 4 oz. of spirits of 
turpentine, 2 oz. of 90% alcohol, 1 oz. 
of spirits of camphor and % oz. of spirits 
of ammonia. To this add 1 lb. of whiting, 
finely powdered, and stir till the whole is 
of the consistency of thick cream. To 
use this preparation, with a clean sponge 
cover the silver with it so as to give it 
a coat like whitewash. Set the silver 
aside till the paste has dried into a pow- 
der, then brush it off, and polish with 
chamois leather. A cheaper kind may be 
made by merely mixing 90% alcohol and 
whiting together. 

j. — Dissolve 2 dr. of potassium cyanide 
and 5 gr. of silver nitrate in 2 oz. of 
water. Apply with a soft brush ; dry 
with a cloth and with chamois skin. 



[416] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Silver) 



k. — A thin coating of collodion may 
be used to prevent tarnish vs^here the sil- 
ver is to be stored for any length of 
time. 

1. — French Plate Powder. — (1) Mix 
jewelers' rouge with carbonate of mag- 
nesia, 1 to 12. 

(2) Putty powder, finely powdered, 2 
oz. ; levigated chalk, 10 oz. 

(3) Equal parts of common salt, alum 
and cream of tartar ; dissolve in hot water 
and boil the plate in it. 

14. — Pomade. — a. — Mix thoroughly 4% 
parts of vaseline with a few drops of es- 
sence of mirbane (nitrobenzole) ; add to 
this, by stirring, 1^2 parts of elutriated 
chalk, 11/^ parts of burnt hartshorn, 1% 
parts of pulverized ossa sepia (cuttle- 
bone). The mixture should be of the 
consistency of butter. 

b. — Fine chalk, % lb. ; pipeclay, 3 oz. ; 
white lead, 2 oz. ; magnesia (carbonate), 
% oz. ; jewelers' rouge, % oz. 

15. — Powders. — a. — The best polish for 
silverware — that is, the polish that, while 
it cleans, does not too rapidly abrade the 
surface — is levigated chalk, either alone 
or with some vegetable acid, like tartaric, 
or with alum. The usual metal polishes, 
such as tripoli (diatomaceous earth), 
finely ground pumice stone, etc., cut away 
the surface so rapidly that it requires 
but a few cleanings to wear through or- 
dinary plating. About as good a formula 
for rapid polishing, of which we have any 
practical knowledge, is as follows : White 
lead, 5 parts ; levigated chalk, 20 parts ; 
magnesium carbonate, 2 parts ; aluminum 
oxide, 5 parts ; silica, 3 parts ; jewelers' 
rouge, 2 parts. Each of the ingredients 
must be reduced to an impalpable pow- 
der, mixed carefully, and sifted through 
silk several times to secure a perfect mix- 
ture, and to avoid any possibility of leav- 
ing in the powder anything that might 
scratch the silver or gold surface. This 
may be left in the powder form, or in- 
corporated with soap, made into a paste 
with glycerine, or other similar material. 
The objection to mixtures with vaseline 
or greasy substances is that, after clean- 
ing, the object must be scrubbed with 
soap and water ; while with glycerine, 
simple rinsing and running water instant- 
ly cleans the object. 

b. — Caustic ammonia, 5 parts ; water, 
200 parts ; sodium hyposulphite, 20 parts ; 
ammonium chloride, 10 parts. 

c. — Sodium hyposulphite has been rec- 
ommended by Messrs. Tiffany & Co. Use 
with water. 

d. — Have ready a basin containing 
equal parts of oil of vitriol and water; 



(Silver) 



make the article white in a gas flame 
(not white heat, but a snowy white, 
which it will assume after exposure to 
the flame), then plunge it into the pickle, 
and there leave it for ^i hour; then dry 
in boxwood sawdust. Applied to solid 
ware only. 

e. — Heat to a dull red (if there is no 
lead present), allow to cool, and when 
cold, boil in a pickle of water acidulated 
with sulphuric acid (30 parts of water 
to 1 part of acid) until perfectly white; 
take out, swill in clean water, and bur- 
nish the prominent parts ; dry in hot box- 
wood sawdust. 

f. — Commence by cleaning off any kind 
of dirt which the surfaces of the silver 
articles have contracted while making, as 
that would entirely spoil the burnishing. 
For this purpose, take pumice powder, 
and with a brush, made very wet in 
strong soapsuds, rub the various parts 
of the work, even those parts which are 
to remain dull, which, nevertheless, re- 
ceive thus a beautiful white appearance ; 
wipe with an old linen cloth and proceed 
to the burnishing. 

g. — A few drops of nitrobenzol are add- 
ed to 40 parts of vaseline (common) ; 50 
parts of whiting are now stirred in, to- 
gether with 10 parts of burnt hartshorn 
and 10 parts of very finely powdered cut- 
tlebone ; mix thoroughly. 

h. — Finest whiting, 15 parts ; soda, 1% 
parts ; citric acid, % part. Reduce to 
a fine powder. Use by moistening the 
powder with water. 

i. — Use a burnisher, wet with soapy 
M^ater. Silver can also be polished with 
Vienna lime. 

16. — Preservation. — Silverware may be 
kept bright and clean by coating the ar- 
ticles (warmed) with a solution of col- 
lodion diluted with alcohol. 

17. — Soaps. — a. — For the very finest 
silverware the following is recommended : 
Good .white or yellow soap, finely shaved, 
80 parts ; burnt magnesia, 18 parts ; jew- 
elers' rouge, finest levigated, 2 parts ; 
water, sufficient. Dissolve the soap in the 
smallest possible quantity of water by 
the aid of heat ; then incorporate the 
other ingredients. This will keep silver- 
ware, not badly stained, in the highest 
possible condition. 

b. — For ordinary polishing purposes the 
following is recommended : Good white or 
yellow soap, shaved fine, 80 parts ; tripoli, 
8 parts; alum (ammonia), 4 parts; tar- 
taric acid, 4 parts ; lead carbonate, 4 
parts ; water, sufficient. 

c. — Good white or yellow soap, shaved 
fine, 100 parts-; levigated putty powder, 4 



[417] 



Cleansing, BleacJdng, Etc. 



(Silver Nitrate Stains) 



parts ; ammonium carbonate, 8 parts ; lev- 
igated chalk, 16 parts. If you desire to 
color the soap, rose pink answers very 
well. Care must be taken in the prepa- 
ration of levigated chalk to avoid scratch- 
ing fine silverware. 

d. — Soap, 25 parts ; tin oxide, 1 part ; 
ammonium carbonate, 2 parts ; chalk, 4 
parts. The tin oxide and the chalk must 
be entirely free from grit, or the silver 
will, of course, be scratched. 

18. — Tarnish. — a. — Silver which has 
become much tarnished may be restored 
by immersion in a warm solution of 1 
part of cyanide of potassium to 8 parts 
of water. (This mixture is extremely 
poisonous.) Washing well with water, 
and drying, will produce a somewhat 
dead white appearance, which may be 
quickly changed to a brilliant luster by 
polishing with a soft leather and rouge. 

b. — If only slightly tarnished, the fol- 
lowing is the most suitable method : Pre- 
pare a mixture consisting of 3 parts of 
best washed and purified chalk and 1 part 
of white soap ; add water until a thin 
paste is formed ; rub with a dry brush ; 
continue the rubbing until the articles are 
quite bright. 

c. — Whiting, mixed with caustic am- 
monia (spirit of sal ammoniac) to form 
a paste, may be used. This mixture is 
very effective in cleaning silver, but is 
attended with the disadvantage that it has 
a very unpleasant smell and strongly ex- 
cites the lachrymal glands. 

Silver Nitrate Stains. 

1, — In the manipulation of the nitrate 
of silver bath solutions in photography, the 
operator frequently receives stains of the 
salt upon his clothing which are not very 
attractive in appearance. Stains or marks 
of any kind made with the above silver or 
bath solutions may be promptly removed 
from the clothing by simply wetting the 
stain or mark with a solution of bichro- 
mate of mercury. The chemical result is 
the change of the black-looking nitrate of 
silver into chromate of silver, which is 
whiter, or invisible on the cloth. Bi- 
chromate of mercury can be obtained at 
the drug stores. 

2. — Sodium sulphite, 1 oz. ; chloride of 
lime, % oz. ; water, 2 oz. Mix. Use a 
nail brush. 

3. — Dip the fingers into a strong solu- 
tion of cupric chloride. In about a min- 
ute the silver will be converted into a 
chloride, and may then be washed off with 
hyposulphate of soda solution. 

4. — The immediate and repeated appli- 
cation of a very weak solution of cyanide 



(Sponges) 



of potassium (accompanied by thorough 
rinsings in clean water) will generally 
remove these without injury to the col- 
ors. 

5. — Bichloride of mercury, 5 grams ; 
ammonium chloride, 5 grams ; distilled 
water, 40 grams. Apply the mixture to 
the spots with a cloth, then rub. This 
removes, almost instantaneously, even an- 
cient stains on linen, cotton or wool. Skin 
stains, thus treated, become whitish yel- 
low, and soon disappear. 

Silver Stains from Fabrics. 

1. — Moisten the spots with water, and 
then rub them lightly with a solution pre- 
pared by dissolving 1 pt. of mercuric 
chloride and 1 pt. of ammonium chloride 
in 8 pt. of distilled water. 

2. — a. — Moisten the spot with a solu- 
tion of chloride of copper until the spot 
has disappeared, then wash, first with 
hyposulphite of soda and then with 
water. 

b. — Prepare a solution of permanga- 
nate of potash, add hydrochloric acid to it, 
apply to the spot, and then wash it again 
with hyposulphite of soda, and finally with 
water. 

Sponges. 

Bleaching. — 1. — ^As is well known, chlo- 
rine and its compounds cannot be used 
for bleaching sponges, as they impart a 
yellow color to the latter, which, in ad- 
dition, become hard and lose their fine 
texture. The method now generally em- 
ployed is a water solution of sulphurous 
acid, and requires from 6 to 8 days and 
considerable manipulation. According to 
the latest researches made in Germany, 
the bleaching of sponges can be performed 
more conveniently and expeditiously by 
means of bromine dissolved in water. As 
is well known, 1 part of bromine requires 
30 parts of water to dissolve it, and thus 
a concentrated solution can easily be ob- 
tained by dropping a few drops of the 
former into a bottle of distilled water and 
shaking it. The sponges are submerged 
in this solution, and after the lapse of 
a few hours their brown color changes 
to a lighter one, the dark red bromine 
solution changing at the same time to 
light yellow. By treating the sponges^ to 
a second immersion in a fresh solution 
they acquire the desired light color in a 
short time. They are improved still more 
if finally dipped in dilute sulphuric acid 
and washed with cold water. It seems 
strange that such closely allied bodies as 
chlorine and bromine should act so dif- 



[418] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Sponges) 



ferently toward the coloring matter in 
sponges. 

2. — Saturate in 1 qt, of buttermilk for 
24 hours and rub between the hands. 

3. — Soak in dilute muriatic acid (1 part 
of acid to lYz parts of water) for 12 
hours, wash well with water to remove 
the lime, then immerse it in a solution 
of 2 lb. of hyposulphite in 12 lb. of water 
to which 2 lb. of muriatic acid has been 
added a moment before. After it is suf- 
ficiently bleached, remove, wash again, 
and dry. 

4. — Soak for several days in cold water, 
renewing the water and squeezing the 
sponges occasionally. Then wash in warm 
water, and put into cold water acidulated 
with hydrochloric acid. Next day take 
out, and wash thoroughly in soft water ; 
then immerse in an aqueous sulphurous 
acid (sp. gr. 1.034) for a week. After- 
ward wash in plenty of water, squeeze, 
and allow to dry in the air. 

5. — Soak in dilute hydrochloric acid to 
remove the lime, then wash in water, and 
place for 10 minutes in a 2% solution 
of potassium permanganate. Their brown 
appearance on removal from this is due 
to the deposition of manganous oxide, 
which may be removed by steeping for 
about 2 minutes in a 3% solution of ox- 
alic acid to which a little sulphuric acid 
has been added. As soon as the sponges 
appear white they are washed out in 
water to remove the acid. Very dilute 
sulphuric acid may replace the oxalic 
acid. 

6. — First wash in tepid water and then 
in a solution of hydrochloric acid (5 c. c. 
per liter = 5 fl.dr. per 7 pt. ) , which frees 
the pores from carbonate of lime ; next 
immerse for 24 hours in a solution com- 
posed of 5 parts of hydrochloric acid in 
100 parts of water, with the addition of 
6 parts of hyposulphite of soda. 

7. — The sponges are first washed in 
clean water and then immersed for 24 
hours in a solution of 9 1. of water and 
1 1. of chlorhydric acid. They are then 
washed again and immersed in the follow- 
ing solution : Water, 10 1. ; bromine, 40 
grams. In 24 hours the blackest and 
dirtiest sponges become perfectly white. 

8. — Prepare two solutions according to 
the appended formulas: (a) Potassium 
permanganate, 25 grams; pure water, 1 
pt. (b) Sodium hyposulphite, 2 oz. ; hy- 
drochloric acid, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pt. Dis- 
solve the hyposulphite in the water, add 
the acid, let stand 24 hours, and decant 
from the sediment. The solution should 
be made in the open air, care being taken 
not to inhale the fumes that arise. Free 



(Spotting, Stains) 



the sponges from sand and other extra- 
neous matter first, by beating and then 
washing thoroughly with water. Squeeze 
them as dry as possible and then im- 
merse them in the solution of perman- 
ganate, allowing them to remain in the 
liquid a few moments, or until they ac- 
quire a dark brown color. After removal 
from this solution dip the sponges, a few 
at a time, into the hyposulphite prepa- 
ration, allow them to become thoroughly 
saturated, and then remove and wash in 
water until the odor of the solution is 
entirely removed. Squeeze out, and when 
nearly dry immerse in a solution of % 
oz. of glycerine to 1 pt. of water, and 
finally dry in the shade. Care should be 
taken not to expose the sponges to the 
action of either bath longer than is actu- 
ally necessary, to effect the desired ob- 
ject. While the substance of the sponge 
is said to be but slightly affected, if at 
all, by this treatment, prolonged exposure 
will be injurious. 

Cleansing. — 1. — The sponges are first 
washed in wann water which contains 
about 20 drops of sodium hydrate solu- 
tion to the liter ; this is followed by clean 
water ; then they are immersed in bro- 
mine water and exposed to the sun until 
white, after which they are washed in 
water which contains 20 drops of sodium 
hydrate solution to the liter, followed then 
by clean water. They should be dried 
quickly in the sun, if possible. 

2. — Common salt, 4 oz. ; ammonium 
carbonate, 2 oz. ; water, 4 pts. Soak the 
sponge in this solution for an hour or 
two, and rinse in clean water. 

Spotting, or Stain Removal. 

Spotting should be done in a well light- 
ed room, and the reagents employed may 
be applied by a glass wash bottle or with 
a small glass pipette or a piece of glass 
rod. It is sometimes necessary to heat 
a small portion of the fabric under treat- 
ment ; this is best done with a small steam 
jet with a vulcanite or other non-con- 
ducting holder, fitted to a flexible metal- 
lic steam pipe. The agents employed in 
spotting must be very carefully selected, 
as they must not affect the color or col- 
ors of the fabrics ; the fibers must not 
be injured in strength or appearance, and 
no sweal mark or stain must remain after 
the original stain has been removed. 
Whenever possible, organic solvents must 
be employed, as they are less liable to 
affect the colors, and they have no dele- 
terious effect upon the fibers. In em- 
ploying inorganic liquids or solutions, it 
must be borne in mind that acids have 



[419 3 



Cleansing, Bleaching^ Etc. 



(Stains) 



an injurious action upon vegetable fibers, 
and alkalies upon animal fibers ; whereas 
vegetable fibers will withstand the action 
of alkalies, and animal fibers will with- 
stand acids. 

The principal organic solvents em- 
ployed in spotting are : Acetone, alco- 
hol (methylated spirit), amyl acetate, 
amyl alcohol, aniline, benzine, benzol, 
carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, ether, 
turpentine. These liquids ai'e employed 
alone oi* in combination. 

Of inorganic substances (in fact, of 
all spotting agents) the most useful is 
water — hot or cold. A very large num- 
ber of stains can be removed by its use — 
e.g., blood stains, food stains, etc. The 
stained place is laid upon a clean cloth, 
or, if possible, is stretched upon two 
closely fitting concentric rings (such as 
are employed in darning by machine, 
etc.). The stained place is carefully 
sponged with cold or warm water, care 
being taken to avoid the use of more 
water than is absolutely necessary ; after 
the removal of the stain the place is 
rubbed as dry as possible with a dry 
cloth to avoid the production of sweal 
mark in dyeing. With silk fabrics, a 
small quantity of acetic acid is used in 
the water ; this preserves the scroop and 
luster of the fabric. 

Articles from which stains have been 
removed by organic solvents can be dried 
off at once ; but if there is a possibility 
of a sweal mark remaining, the goods 
can be rinsed through benzine in all cases 
where the spotting agent is soluble in 
benzine. Care must be exercised in using 
very mobile solvents, such as ether, 
as they will very readily spread over a 
considerable area of the fabric, carrying 



(Stains) 



with them in solution some of the sub- 
stance which is to be removed, making 
the small stain into a very much larger 
one. After treatment with solvents the 
fabric should be carefully rubbed with 
a dry cloth to avoid the production of 
a well-defined edge to the area which has 
been treated. It must be made to merge 
gradually into the surrounding fabric, 
so as to be imperceptible, or practically 
so. 

Where mineral acids have been em- 
ployed on cotton or linen goods, or on 
fabrics containing these fibers, the place 
must be sponged with a weak solution 
of sodium acetate; which produces the 
sodium salt of the mineral acid and lib- 
erates acetic acid, which is quite harm- 
loss. This treatment is safer than mere- 
ly sponging with water, which does not 
always remove all traces of sulphuric 
acid. All inorganic spotting agents em- 
ployed in stain removal must be thor- 
oughly removed by sponging with water, 
and in all cases (as with organic sol- 
vents) care must be taken to prevent a 
circular mark being left on the fabric. 

After the removal of a stain it is some- 
times found that the color of the fabric 
has been discharged or reduced, or, in 
many cases, the stained place is found, 
on examination, to be a spot where scent 
or other colorless liquid has discharged 
the color of the fabric. In such cases 
the color may sometimes be revived by 
sponging with acetic acid. If this has 
no effect, the dried fabric may be care- 
fully touched up with a suitable solution 
of color in benzine. 

As a convenient form for reference, 
the methods which have been indicated 
are given in tabulated form, as follows : 



REMOVAL OF STAINS AND GREASE SPOTS 



NATURE OF STAIN. 



SILK GOODS. 



WOOLEN GOODS. 



COTTON AND LINEN 



Grease, oil, wax. 
Paint. 



Enamel. 



Varnish 
Varnish 



(oil), 
(rosin), 



Varnish (shellac), 



Benzine, benzol (see also 
Paints and Iron Mold). 

Ether, aniline, acetone, ni- 
trobenzine, chloroform, 
carbon tetrachloride. 

As paint, or with a mix- 
ture of acetone and amyl 
acetate. 

As paint. 

Aniline, or methylated spir- 
it, or carbon tetrachlo- 
ride and a little meth- 
ylated spirit. 

Methylated spirit alone, or 
with carbon tetrachlo- 

[420] 



As silk goods. 
As silk goods. 



As silk goods. 
As silk goods. 



As silk goods. As silk goods. 



As silk goods. As silk goods. 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Stains) 



(Stains) 



NATURE OF STAIN. 



REMOVAL OP STAINS AND GREASE ^VOT^— Continued 

SILK GOODS. WOOLEN GOODS. COTTON AND LINEN 

GOODS. 



Sealing wax. 
Tar and pitch. 

Blood. 



Sugar, glue, etc. 

Fruit, tea, coffee, 
wine, beer. 



Iron mold. 



Methylated spirit. 

Benzine, benzol, aniline, or 
ether. 

Water, followed by solu- 
tion of neutral soap in. 
methylated spirit. 

Water. 

White Silk. 

Water, followed by potas- 
sium permanganate and 
removal of the brown 
stain produced with sul- 
phurous acid. 

Colored SilTc. 

Water, followed by sul- 
phurous acid, or hydro- 
gen peroxide, if the col- 
ors are fast to these re- 
agents ; otherwise, meth- 
ylated spirit and soap. 

Aqueous solution of oxalic 
acid. 



Cream of tartar and citric 
acid. 
Ink stains. 

(1) Marking ink Solution of potassium cy- 

( silver). anide. 

Marking _ ink Aniline ; or a solution of 
(aniline benzine soap in chloro- 
black). form. 

(2) Copying pad Methylated spirit and am- 

inks. monia. 



(3) Writing inks. Dilute mineral acids or ox- 
alic acid. 



Grass stains. 



Color stains (sub- 
stantive and ba- 
sic). 



Scorch stains. 



Ether, or soap in methyl- 
ated spirit. 

White Goods. 

Decroline (or other stable 
hydrosulphite) and acet- 
ic acid, or methylated 
spirit and ammonia, or 
hydrogen peroxide. 
Colored Ooods. 

As above, if colors are not 
affected thereby. 

Potassium permanganate, 
followed by sulphurous 
acid, or hydrogen perox- 
ide. 



As silk goods. 
As silk goods. 

As silk goods. 



As silk goods. 
As silk goods. 



As silk goods. 
As silk goods. 

Water, followed by 
sodium hypochlo- 
rite. 

As silk goods. 
White Goods. 

Water, followed by 
sodium hypochlo- 
rite. 



Colored Goods. 
Aqueous soap so- 
lution and am- 
monia. 



As silk goods. Titanous chloride, 
with or without 
hydrochloric acid. 
Oxalic acid. 



As silk goods. As silk goods. 
As silk goods. As silk goods. 



As silk goods. 



As silk goods. 



As silk goods. 



As silk goods. 



As silk goods, or, 
on white goods, 
dilute caustic 
soda. 

Acetic or formic 
acid, followed by 
dilute mineral 
acids or oxalic 
acid. 

As silk goods. 

White Goods. 
Titanous chloride 
(warm). 



Colored Goods. 
Titanous chloride 
(cold and di- 
lute). 
Hydrogen per- Hydrogen peroxide 
oxide. or sodium hypo- 

chlorite. 



[421] 



Cleansingy Bleaching^ Etc, 



(Straw) 



Stones. 

1. — To remove grease from stone steps 
or passages, pour strong soda and boiling 
laot water over the spot, lay on it a lit- 
tle fuller's earth, made into a thin paste 
with boiling water, let it remain all night, 
and if the grease be not removed repeat 
the process. Grease may sometimes be 
taken out by rubbing the spot with a 
hard stone — not hearthstone — using sand 
and very hot water, with soap and soda. 

2. — Mildew or Mold. — Try a little 
strong aqueous solution of caustic soda. 
It should remain 10 minutes in contact 
with the stone, which, after washing with 
water, should be well rubbed with a stiff 
brush or broom. 

Straw and Chip. 

1. — Bleaching. — a. — The articles, hav- 
ing been previously washed, may be placed 
for an hour in a weak chloride of lime 
water, and then hung out on a line to 
dry slowly. The chloride of lime water 
should be made by mixing 1 part (by 
weight) of chloride of lime with 20 parts 
of water, agitating the mixture with a 
stick until all the particles of chloride 
of lime are thoroughly broken up, allow- 
ing the mixture to settle, and pouring off 
the clear portion from the dregs for use. 

b. — On a small scale, with such an ar- 
ticle as a straw hat, a bonnet, a basket, 
etc, the following method may be fol- 
lowed : The straw, having been well 
washed with weak soda lye, is rinsed in 
plenty of clean water, lightly shaken, etc. ; 
remove superfluous moisture, and place, 
supported on a stick, under a large glazed 
earthenware pan turned upside down. A 
very small pipkin, capable of holding 
about % pt., is now placed on the fire, 
and about % oz. of roll brimstone placed 
in it. When the brimstone is all melted 
a light is applied to it, so as to cause 
it to catch fire. The pipkin, with the in- 
flamed sulphur, is now placed under the 
glazed pan in such a position as not to 
scorch the article to be bleached. The 
spaces between the pan and the table or 
floor on which it rests must be carefully 
closed with damp cloths placed around to 
prevent the escape of the sulphurous-acid 
gas produced by the combustion of the 
sulphur. In about 2 hours the pan may 
be removed, when the straw will be found 
nicely bleached. 

c. — Expose to the fumes of burning sul- 
phur in a close chest or box, or by im- 
mersing it in a weak solution of chloride 
of lime, and afterward washing it well 
in water. Water, strongly acidulated 



(Straw) 



with oil of vitriol or oxalic acid, is also 
used for the same purpose. Straw may 
be dyed with any of the simple liquid 
dyes. 

d. — To Give a Luster. — ^An ammoniacal 
solution of bleached lac is employed by 
some makers. 

2. — Hats. — Bleaching and Cleaning. — 
a. — Pat a small quantity of salts of, sor- 
rel, or oxalic acid, into a clean pan, and 
pour on it sufficient scalding water to 
cover the bonnet or hat. Put the bonnet 
or hat into this liquor, and let it remain 
in it for about 5 minutes ; to keep it cov- 
ered, hold it down with a clean stick. Dry 
in the sun or before a clear fire. Or, hav- 
ing first dried the bonnet or hat, put it, 
together with a saucer of burning sul- 
phur, into a box with a tight-closing lid. 
Cover it over to keep in the fumes, and 
let it remain for a few hours. The dis- 
advantage of bleaching with sulphur is 
that the articles so bleached soon become 
yellow, which does not happen to them 
when they are bleached by oxalic acid. 

b. — Wash in warm soap liquor, well 
brushing them both inside and out ; then 
rinse in cold water, and they are ready 
for bleaching. 

c. — Sodium bisulphite, 10 dr. ; tartaric 
acid, 2 dr. ; borax, 10 dr. Mix, Moisten 
a small quantity of the powder and ap- 
ply it with a tooth brush to the hat. 

d. — Barium peroxide (hydrated), 83 
grams; sodium bisulphate, powder), 17 
grams ; borax, 8 grams. Mix with water 
and apply. 

e. — The following appeared in the 
Western Druggist: Tartaric acid, 2 dr. 
Put up in wax paper. Dissolve in 1 ta- 
blespoonful of water, and apply with a 
tooth brush, and, when clean, rinse off 
with warm water and put aside to dry. 

f. — Hats made of natural (uncolored) 
straw, which have become soiled by wear, 
may be cleaned by thoroughly sponging 
with a weak solution of tartaric acid in 
water, followed by water alone. The hat, 
after being so treated, should be fastened 
by the rim to a board by means of pins, 
so that it will keep its shape in drying. 

g. — Sponge the straw with a solution of 
sodium hyposulphite, 10 grams ; glycerine, 
5 grams; alcohol, 10 grams; water, 75 
grams. Lay aside in a damp place for 24 
hours, then apply : Citric acid, 2 grams ; 
alcohol, 10 grams ; water, 90 grams. If 
the hat has become much darkened in 
tint by wear, it will probably be neces- 
sary to expose it to the action of a more 
pronounced bleaching agent, such as given 
under "c." 

h. — White Manila. — Sprinkle with wa- 



[422] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Tannin) 



ter and expose to the fumes of burning 
sulphur in a tight box. 

i.— To Finish or Stiffen.— (1) After 
cleaning and bleaching, white bonnets 
should be stiffened with parchment size. 
Black or colored bonnets are finished with 
a size made from the best glue. Straw 
or chip plaits, or leghorn hats and bon- 
nets, may also be cleaned, bleached and 
finished as above. 

(2) Stiffen by the application of a lit- 
tle gum water, and press on a block with 
a hot iron to bring them back into shape. 

(3 If a waterproof stiffening is re- 
quired, use one of the varnishes for which 
formulas follow : Copal, 450 parts ; san- 
darac, 75 parts; Venice turpentine, 40 
parts ; castor oil, 5 parts ; alcohol, 800 
parts. 

(4) Shellac, 500 parts; sandarac, 175 
parts ; Venice turpentine, 50 parts ; cas- 
tor oil, 15 parts ; alcohol, 2,000 parts. 

(5) Shellac, 750 parts; rosin, 150 
parts ; Venice turpentine, 150 parts ; cas- 
tor oil, 20 parts ; alcohol, 2,500 parts. 

(6) Shellac, 4 oz. ; sandarac, 1 oz. ; 
gum thus, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 1 pt. In this 
dissolve aniline dyes of the requisite color, 
and apply. For white straw, white shel- 
lac must be used. 

Tallow. 

1. — Bleaching and Hardening. — In a 
copper boiler put i/^ gal. of water and 
100 lb. rendered tallow ; melt over a slow- 
fire, and add, while stirring, 1 lb. of oil 
of vitriol, previously diluted with 12 lb. 
of water ; afterward, 1/4 lb. of bichromate 
of potassa, in powder ; and lastly, 13 pt. 
of water, after which the fire is suf- 
fered to go down, when the tallow will 
collect on the surface of the dark green 
liquid, from which it is separated. It 
is then of a fine white, slightly greenish 
color, and possesses a considerable degree 
of hardness. 

2. — Cleansing and Bleaching. — ^Dissolve 
1 lb. of alum in 2 gal. of water ; the water 
should be boiling. Now add 20 lb. of tal- 
low, and continue to boil for about an 
hour, skimming frequently. Strain through 
stout muslin and allow it to harden. 

Tannin, Walnut Shells. 

White cottons and linens : Javelle wa- 
ter (liquor sodse chlorinatse), warm chlo- 
rine water, concentrated solution of tar- 
taric acid. Colored goods or silks : chlo- 
rine water, diluted according to the tis- 
sue and color, each application to be fol- 
lowed by washing with water. 



(Tar, Pitch, etc.) 



Tapestry, Ancient. 

Dissolve a bar of soap in 1 gal. of boil- 
ing water ; when cold, put 1 qt. of this 
dissolved soap in 1 gal. of cold water. 
Have ready at hand some pieces of soft 
flannel, a soft brush, a piece of wash 
leather, and some clean, dry sheets. First, 
Avell brush with a hard, long-haired clothes 
brush, taking care to remove all the dust 
from the corners ; for this latter purpose 
it is better to use a small, pointed brush 
and a pair of bellows. If the tapestry is 
on the wall, begin to clean it at the top, 
but do not clean more than one square 
yard at a time. Dip a piece of flannel 
into the soap liquor, squeeze it out gen- 
tly, and well rub it into the tapestry to 
make it lather, and well brush with a 
soft brush. Then wring the flannel out 
of the soap liquor, and dry the square 
with the soapy flannel and the wash leath- 
er, and afterward dry with the sheets. 
The tapestry is to be dried with the soap 
in it, for on no account must it be rinsed. 
Dissolve 4 oz. of tartaric acid in 1 pt. of 
boiling water, and put it into a pan con- 
taining 2 gal. of cold water. Dip a clean 
sponge into this acid water, squeeze it, 
and then well rub it into the spot you 
have just cleaned and dried. When this 
has been done it must be again well dried 
with the sheets before being left. And 
so proceed, a square yard at a time, until 
the whole is cleaned. The soap liquor 
must be thrown away and a fresh lot 
mixed, as often as it becomes dirty. When 
the tapestry has all been cleaned, and it 
is quite dry, take a lump of pipeclay and 
well rub it into it, and then brush it with 
a clean clothes brush. This last process 
takes out the soap and spirits, and also 
brightens the colors. Keep a good fire in 
the room while you are cleaning the tap- 
estry. 

Tar, Pitch, Axle Grease, etc. 

1. — White goods : Moisten the goods, 
wipe the spots with a sponge dipped in oil 
of turpentine, cover them with filter pa- 
per, and pass a hot iron over them several 
times ; finally wash the goods in warm 
soap water. Colored cotton and woolen 
goods : Moisten the goods, spread the spot 
with grease, soap it in thoroughly, allow 
the soap a few minutes to act, and wash 
alternately in oil of turpentine and hot 
water. If this does not work, cover the 
spot with the yolk of an egg that has been 
mixed with some oil of turpentine, and al- 
low it to dry. Scratch off and wash it 
out thoroughly with hot water. Then 
finally wash the goods in water to which 



[423] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Tin) 



some hydrochloric acid has been added, 
and rinse out thoroughly in clear river 
water. 

2. — Tar and pitch produce stains easily 
removed by successive applications of spir- 
its of turpentine, coal-tar naphtha and 
benzine. If they are very old and hard, 
it is well to soften them by lightly rub- 
bing with a pledget of wool dipped in 
good olive oil. The softened mass will 
then easily yield to the action of the other 
solvents. Rosins, varnishes and sealing 
wax may be removed by warming and ap- 
plying strong alcohol. Care must always 
be taken that, in rubbing the material to 
remove the stains, the friction shall be 
applied the way of the stuff, and not in- 
differently, backward and forward. 

3. — On white goods, soap and oil of tur- 
pentine, alternating with streams of wa- 
ter. Colored cottons and woolens, rub in 
with lard, let lie, soap, let lie again, and 
treat alternately with oil of turpentine 
and water. Silks the same, more care- 
fully, using benzine instead of oil of tur- 
pentine. Freshly made tar stains can be 
removed by rubbing with lard and washing 
with soap and water. 

Tiles. 

Rub well first with smooth brick or 
pumice, to remove the injured surface, 
and then, after an addition of red ocher 
to give uniform color, when clean, dry, 
and free from holes, etc., pour over the 
floor a sufficiency of common oil of olives, 
such as they use in Italy everywhere for 
this purpose, seeing that the floors of all 
houses in that country are composed of 
tiles, which are either oiled simply or ce- 
mented smoothly, and painted over with 
patterns in imitation of carpet or mosaic. 

Tin. 

All kinds of tins, molds, measures, etc., 
may be cleaned by being well rubbed with 
a paste made of whiting and well water. 
They should then be rubbed with a leath- 
er, and any dust remaining on them 
should be removed by means of a soft 
brush. Finally, they must be polished 
with another leather. Always let the in- 
side of any vessel be cleaned first, since 
in cleaning the inside the outside always 
become soiled. For very dirty or greasy 
tins, grated bath brick and water must 
be used. Petroleum or paraffine and pow- 
dered lime, whiting, or wood ashes, will 
scour tins with the least labor. 

Rust Prevention. — Cleanse them, wipe 
quite dry, and place them near the fire. 
With this precaution, tinware will last a 
much longer time than usual. 



(Varnish) 



Tin, To Polish. — 1. — Vienna lime, ap- 
plied with a linen rag. 

2. — Use whiting and water with a 
chamois skin. 

3. — A fine finish can be given to tin by 
burnishing, the burnisher being wet with 
oxgall diluted with water. Wash with 
water containing a trace of tartar, and 
dry. 

Tobacco Pipes. 

A very simple and effective plan. Cut 
% in. from the end of an ordinary cork 
and fit it tightly into the bowl of the 
pipe. Then with a knife cut a hole 
through the cork wide enough to admit 
the nozzle of a water tap with a little 
pressure ; turn on the water gently until 
the flow through the stem is sufficiently 
strong, and let it run until the pipe is 
clean. 

Varnish and Oil Colors. 

1. — Clothing. — On white or colored lin- 
ens, cottons or woolens, use rectified oil 
of turpentine, alcohol, lye, and then soap. 
On silks, use benzine, ether and mild soap, 
very cautiously. 

2. — Furniture and Floors. — ^Where oil 
colors or varnish are to be removed from 
the surface of floors or furniture, it is 
usual to treat them with soda. As a rule, a 
solution of ordinary washing soda is em- 
ployed, and applied cold. This, in time, 
accomplishes its task, but its action is 
slow and not very efficient. A far better 
way is to use caustic soda, which can be 
bought in iron cans, and use the solu- 
tion hot. With a hot lye of this sort oil 
color can be removed in a few minutes, 
and varnishes nearly as rapidly. As the 
solution attacks the skin, it should be 
applied with a cotton or hemp swab. A 
bristle brush is useless for the purpose, 
as the bristles dissolve almost immediately 
in the lye, leaving nothing but the handle 
of the brush, while cotton or hemp is not 
affected. When the wood is clean it should 
be well washed with water. The strong 
soda lye darkens the color of oak, but 
if this be objectionable, it can easily be 
corrected by Jbrushing the wood over with 
dilute muriatic acid, washing it thorough- 
ly as soon as the color is satisfactory, and 
finishing with a weak solution of soda 
to neutralize the last traces of acid. In 
applying the acid, neither cotton nor hemp 
can be used, as they are quickly destroyed, 
but bristle brushes are not affected un- 
less they are bound with iron. In gen- 
eral, care should be taken never to use 
muriatic acid in rooms or workshops 



[424] 



Cleansing y Bleaching , Etc. 



(Vellum) 



where iron tools are lying about, as the 
vapor, even from dilute acid, is quickly 
diffused through the rooms, and attacks 
all iron or steel that it can reach. The 
best way is to make all acid applications 
in the open air. It is hardly necessary 
to say that cotton or linen clothes should 
be worn in using the soda lye, as a drop 
of lye, fallij^g on woolen cloth, immedi- 
ately makes a hole. 

3. — Funnels and Measures. — a. — Fun- 
nels and measures used for measuring 
varnishes, oils, etc., may be cleaned by 
soaking them in a strong solution of lye 
or pearlash. 

b. — Another mixture for the same pur- 
pose consists of pearlash with quicklime 
in aqueous solution. The measures are 
allowed to soak in the solution for a short 
time, when the resinous matter of the 
paint or varnish is easily removed. 

c. — A thin coating of petroleum lubri- 
cating oils may be removed, it is said, by 
the use of naphtha or petroleum benzine. 

Veils. 

1. — Black. — Pass them through a warm 
liquid of bullock's gall and water; rinse 
in cold water ; then take a small piece 
of glue, pour boiling water on it, and 
pass the veil through it; clap it, and 
frame to dry. 

2. — White. — Put the veil in a solution 
of white soap and let it simmer % hour ; 
squeeze it in some warm water and soap 
until quite clean. Rinse it from soap, 
and then in clean cold water in which is 
a drop of liquid blue. Then pour boil- 
ing water upon 1 teaspoonful of starch, 
run the veil through this, and clear it 
well by clapping it. Afterward, dry it 
out, keeping the edges straight and even. 

Vellum. 

1. — Benzine is applied with a sponge. 
It will remove almost every stain, and 
does not destroy the texture in the least, 

2. — The following method, if carried 
out carefully, will restore dirty vellum to 
its original condition. Place the vellum 
on a board, and damp it well with a 
sponge, water being applied to both sides. 
The vellum will then get limp and will 
stretch. With the dressed side uppermost 
on the board, drive tacks well in around 
tbe four edges, pulling the vellum out- 
ward meanwhile as tightly as possible. Al- 
low the vellum to dry naturally, when it 
will be found that all the creases have 
disappeared. To remove any obstinate 
dirt or stains, after the vellum has be- 
come dry, and while it is still tacked to 



(Velvets) 



the board, wash it with a weak solution 
of oxalic acid, say a pennyworth of acid 
dissolved in 1 pt. of water. It may be 
stated that in all skins of vellum there 
are transparent patches and certain natu- 
ral marks, w^hich, of course, will not be 
removed. (See Parchment.) Vellum 
must not be touched with glass pa- 
per, as this would spoil it completely. 
If it is thin, and is intended for a book 
cover, it should be lined with white pa- 
per. This is best done by again tacking 
it on the board with the undressed side 
uppermost, pasting the paper, placing it 
down, and rubbing it thoroughly, after- 
ward allowing it to dry in this position. 

3. — Cleaning Vellum of Banjo. — Slight- 
ly slacken the bracket screws, then rub the 
head with a flannel and cold water ; a lit- 
tle soap should be used, if necessary ; 
tighten up the head again while still 
damp. 

Velvets, Velveteens and Plush. 

1. — Silk and cotton velvets, velveteens 
and plush, when stained or generally 
soiled through wear and exposure, may 
be either cleaned or dyed. Slightly soiled 
fabrics should be brushed to get rid of 
dust, and then be sponged with a weak 
solution of borax or benzine. When very 
much soiled they will have to be dipped 
in a bath of benzine, weakened by the 
addition of a little water. The drying 
should not be too rapid, but thorough. 
The pile must be brushed quickly the 
right way. But previous to brushing the 
pile the back of the fabric must be stiff- 
ened. Prepare a strong solution of gum 
arable in warm water. On taking the 
velvet or plush out of the bath, dry it, 
and then brush the back all over with the 
gum. This stiffens the fabric, and pre- 
vents the pile getting loose. When dry, 
turn over the velvet on the right side and 
brush it smartly, so that the pile lies 
upright, and in the proper direction. If 
this precaution of stiffening the back is 
not observed the brushing will only do 
harm. If stiffened, the pile remains firm, 
and can be easily brushed up. In the 
case of figured and parti-colored velvets, 
this precaution should never be omitted, 
or the design will be spoiled. Velvet dress 
trimmings that are faded and greasy may 
be made to appear like new material by 
judiciously following the above directions. 

2. — Mix 2 tablespoonfuls of liquid am- 
monia and 2 tablespoonfuls of warm wa- 
ter, and put it on the velvet with a stiff 
brush, rubbing it well into the pile, so as 
to take out all stains and creases. 

3. — To Raise the Pile. — a. — Clean 4t 



[425] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Violin Bows) 



with the usual solvent, then hold the 
wrong side over steam arising from boiling 
water until the pile rises ; or dampen 
lightly the wrong side of the plush and 
hold it over a pretty hot oven, not hot 
enough to scorch, however; or make a 
clean brick hot, place upon it a wet cloth, 
and hold the plush over it, and the steam 
will raise it. 

b. — Cover a hot iron with a wet cloth, 
lay the velvet or plush over it, and beat 
carefully with a clothes brush. Lay the 
stuff on a smooth place and do not touch 
until it is quite dry. 

Violins. 

1. — Use soap and water, but avoid its 
running through the *'f" holes. Clean the 
interior with dri/ rice. Do not use spirit. 

2. — Moisten the soiled parts with salad 
oil, then mix the same oil and spirits 
of wine together in a basin, trying its 
strength first on a part of the neck or 
scroll, then with a piece of white linen 
rag dipped in the oil and spirit rub the 
soiled parts ; keep shifting the rag as it 
gets dirty ; it will take several days to 
do, but keep the parts well soaked where 
dirty, with oil, after every rubbing ; but 
by no means scrape it. 

3. — Ordinary Paraffine Oil. — Slightly 
saturate a rag of soft silk, and proceed 
to wash your violin therewith. The ef- 
fect is almost magical ; the paraffine dis- 
solves the crust of dirt and rosin and 
cleans the varnish without injuring. 

4. — For the outside, a strongish solu- 
tion of washing soda, applied with a piece 
of flannel. If you find the soda removes 
the varnish (as it does with some oil var- 
nishes), use soap and water and then 
parafiine. When clean, rub with linseed 
oil. Spirits of wine removes the old rosin 
at once, but sometimes takes the varnish 
with it. For the inside, get a handful of 
rice, steep it in a solution of sugar and 
water for 5 minutes, strain off, and nearly 
dry the rice till just sticky. Put in at 
soundholes and shake till tired. This will 
pick up all dirt ; then turn out. 

Violin Bows. 

1. — Take a small piece of flannel, wet 
it, cold process, well rub it with best yel- 
low soap, double it ; holding the hair gen- 
tly between the finger and thumb, rub 
gently till clean, using plenty of soap ; 
rinse the flannel, wipe off, and then wipe 
dry with a piece of calico or linen ; in 
an hour afterward it will be ready for the 
rosin. 

2. — A solution of borax and water. 

[ 



(Wall Paper) 



Wall Paper. 

1. — To remove all stains or marks, 
where people have rested their heads, from 
wall papers, mix pipeclay with water to 
the consistency of cream, lay it on the 
spot, and allow it to remain till the fol- 
lowing day, when it may be easily re- 
moved with a penknife or brush. 

2. — If not very dirty, the paper of any 
room will be much improved by brushing 
it over in straight lines with a soft broom 
covered with a clean, soft cloth ; if, how- 
ever, the paper be much soiled, very stale 
bread is the best thing to clean it with. 

3. — The following has been recommend- 
ed : Mix together 1 lb. each of rye flour 
and white flour into a dough, which is 
partially cooked and the crust removed. 
To this 1 oz. of common salt and % oz. 
of powdered naphthaline are added, and 
finally 1 oz. of corn meal and % oz. of 
burnt umber. The composition is formed 
into a mass of the proper size to be 
grasped in the hand, and in use it should 
be drawn in one direction over the sur- 
face to be cleaned. 

4. — A method recommended by a practi- 
cal painter and decorator is to take a soft, 
flat sponge, being careful that there are 
no hard and gritty places in it, then get 
a bucket of new, clean, dry wheat bran 
from the mill or feed store. To use it, 
hold your sponge flat side up, and put 
a handful of bran on it ; then quickly 
turn against the wall, and rub the wall 
gently and carefully with it ; then repeat 
the operation. Hold a large pan, or 
spread down a drip cloth to catch the 
bran as it falls, but never use the same 
bran twice. Still another way is to use 
Canton flannel. The best way to use it 
is to get, say, 3 yards, and then cut it 
in strips, lengthwise, a foot wide ; then 
roll a strip around a stick 10 in. long, 
so as to have the ends of the stick covered. 
Have the stick not more than 1 in. in 
diameter. Have the cottonous or nap side 
of the cloth outside. Commence and 
wipe ; when the cloth gets soiled, unroll 
that much and make a roll of it ; wipe 
again, and repeat. Have your second or 
soiled roll turn in toward the first or 
clean roll. Hold them together with the 
thumb and finger. In this way you can 
change places on the cloth when soiled 
and roll the soiled place in, which will 
enable you to use the whole face of the 
cloth. To take out a grease spot requires 
careful manipulation. First take several 
thicknesses of brown wrapping paper and 
make a pad ; place it against the grease 
spot, and hold a hot flatiron against it, 
426 J 



Cleansing, Bleaching^ Etc. 



(Wall Paper) 



to draw out the grease, which will soak 
into the brown paper. Be careful to 
have enough layers of brown paper to 
keep the iron from scorching or discolor- 
ing the wall paper. If the first applica- 
tion does not take out nearly all the 
grease, repeat with clean brown paper or 
a blotting pad. Then take an ounce vial 
of washed sulphuric ether and a soft, fine, 
clean sponge, and sponge the spot care- 
fully until all the grease disappears. Do 
not wipe the place with the sponge and 
ether, but dab the sponge carefully against 
the place. A small quantity of ether is 
advised, as it is very inflammable. 

5. — There are several ways by which 
wall paper can be cleaned so that it looks 
almost as good as new. Take a loaf of 
bread, stale, but not too hard, and cut 
off one crust ; then, taking it in one hand, 
rub the paper gently with the exposed 
surface. When the bread looks soiled cut 
off a very thin slice and proceed with the 
work. It is best to rub up and down on 
the paper, and clean each place thor- 
oughly before leaving it. 

6. — Another way is to take a loaf of 
bread, and, after removing the crust, soak 
it in cloudy household ammonia. It must 
be so wet that one can work it in the 
hands into a ball. Rub the paper lightly 
with it, and as the ball becomes soiled 
on the outside knead it until a clean sur- 
face is exposed. This will remove the 
dirt and smoke, and freshen the paper 
wonderfully. 

7. — Another plan is to make a soft 
dough of coarse brown flour mixed with 
water; it should be stiff enough to han- 
dle easily. The paper can be rubbed with 
it as in the former method. 

8. — When there are grease spots on the 
paper, lay coarse brown paper over them 
and pass a hot iron over. Fresh paper 
may be needed several times if the spot 
is large. When there are spots from 
which the color has been removed, they 
can be made to look as good as new by 
the use of water-color paints. The de- 
sign should be traced first, and the filling 
then put in with the paints. 

9. — Four oz. of pumice stone, in fine 
powder, are thoroughly mixed with 1 qt. 
of flour, and the mass is kneaded with 
water enough to form a thick dough. This 
dough is formed into rolls about 2 in. in 
diameter, and 6 or 8 in, long ; each one 
is sewed up in a piece of cotton cloth 
and then boiled in water for from 40 to 
50 minutes — long enough to render the 
dough firm. After cooling, and allowing 
the rolls to stand for several hours, the 
outer portion is peeled off, and they are 



(Wheels, Polishing) 



then ready for use, the paper being rubbed 
with them as in the bread process. 

10. — Tapestry Papers. — Prepare a firm 
paste with 1 part of powdered pumice 
stone, 6 parts of wheat flour and a sufl&- 
cient quantity of water ; make of this 
paste cylinders from 2 to 2% in. in di- 
ameter and 7 or 8 in. long. Inclose these 
in muslin, sewed as tight as possible, and 
then put the rollers in a vessel contain- 
ing boiling water, and continue the boiling 
for three-quarters of an hour. Take them 
out, and leave at rest for 12 hours in a 
cool spot. Then take off the covering. 
They may be employed for rubbing the 
papers to be cleaned. 

Walls, Smoky. 

^ Brush well, wash with a strong solu- 
tion of pearlash, rinse at once with clear 
water ; then give the walls, when dry, a 
thin coat of fresh slaked lime with con- 
siderable alum, dissolved in hot water, 
added. After this is dry, apply whiting 
in good size. There are a number of 
preparations on the market for cleaning 
walls which have become discolored, but 
most of them seem to be held as a trade 
secret. A _ small dirt spot can often be 
removed with a "dry cleaner" such as is 
used by artists to clean up their draw- 
\ugs. Grease spots can sometimes be re- 
moved by flooding that portion of the wall 
w-ith benzine ; then apply blotting paper 
and rub with a hot flat-iron. Great care 
must be taken, however, that no fire is 
brought in immediate contact with the 
benzine as it is very explosive and in- 
flammable. This plan should only be used 
to remove isolated spots and is not adapted 
for wholesale cleaning. 

Water, Polishing. 

Whiting, 9 oz. 5 dr. ; alcohol, 1 lb. ; 
ammonia, 1 oz. 3 dr. Shake well together. 

Wax. 

Melt the wax in a jar, and put into it 
powdered nitrate of soda (Chili saltpe- 
ter), in the proportion of 1 oz. to the lb. 
of wax ; afterward add, by degrees, 2 oz. 
to the lb. of sulphuric acid, diluted with 
10 times its weight of water, keeping the 
wax warm and stirring the while. Let 
it stand a short time, and then fill up 
the jar with hot water, and allow the 
whole to cool. The wax should then be 
white. Afterward wash with water to re- 
move any nitric acid that may remain, as 
it would make the wax yellow. 

Wheels, Polishing. ■ 

Turn some wood wheels of various sizes 
and cover them on the face and edge with 



[427] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Windows) 



leather of various qualities ; wash leather 
for use with rouge, and a coarser kind 
for use with emery, pumice, etc. The 
leather can be fastened with glue. The 
best wheels are made by punching disks 
of leather, cloth, etc., and then screwing 
these disks tightly together on a mandril ; 
but these take a large quantity of ma- 
terial. Some things can be polished very 
well with plain wood wheels. Small glass- 
grinding jobs, for instance, can be easily 
polished with two wood wheels, one for 
pumice and water and another for rouge 
and water. Make your wheels of a size 
and shape to suit the work you have in 
hand. A few circular brushes are very 
useful. 

Whiting, To Make Into a Polishing 
Cake. 

1. — Use plaster of paris or dental plas- 
ter. Mix with water and apply with a 
rag. 

2. — Balls. — Whiting can be pressed into 
balls after moistening it with thin, gum 
water. 

Wickerwork. 

Make a solution of 1 part of chloride 
of lime with 20 parts of water ; well mix, 
then let stand, and run off the clear liquid 
into a wooden tub. Dip the baskets in 
this and let them stay half an hour ; re- 
move them from this solution, then dip 
in hydrochloric acid and water (1 to 20) ; 
let remain % hour, then wash in plenty 
of water, and let dry in a cool, shady 
place. 

Windows. (See also Household For- 
mulas. ) 
1. — Frost. — In a number of experiments 
in removing ice or congelation of water 
from window panes, 14 methods were 
used. In shops where there are so-called 
"box windows" the congealing was most 
apparent, and in some where there was 
a comparatively dry heat the windows 
were not materially affected. The reme- 
dies are given in the order of their effi- 
cacy : 1, flame of an alcohol lamp ; 2, 
sulphuric acid ; 3, aqua ammonia ; 4, 
glycerine ; 5, aqua regia ; 6, hydrochloric 
acid ; 7, benzine ; 8, hydriodic acid ; 9, 
boric acid ; 10, alcohol ; 11, nitric acid ; 
12, cobalt nitrate ; 13, infusion of nut- 
galls ; 14, tincture of ferrous sulphate. 
By the use of an alcohol lamp — which, of 
course, has to be handled with great care 
— ^the results were immediate, and the 
effect more nearly permanent than by any 
other of the experiments. The sulphuric- 
acid application was made with a cotton- 
cloth swab, care being taken not to allow 



(Windows) 



any dripping, and so with all other acids. 
The effect of the aqua ammonia was al- 
most instantaneous, but the window was 
frosted again in a short time. With the 
glycerine there were very good results — 
but slight stains on the window, which 
were subsequently easily removed. 

2. — Paint and Putty. — Put sufficient 
saleratus into hot water to make a strong 
solution, and with this saturate the paint 
which adheres to the glass. Let it remain 
until nearly dry, then rub it off with a 
woolen cloth. 

3. — Polishing Paste. — Castile soap, 2 
oz. ; boiling water, 3 oz. Dissolve, and 
add the following, in fine powder : Pre- 
cipitated chalk, 4 oz. ; French chalk, 3 
oz. ; tripoli, 2 oz. Mix, and reduce with 
water to the consistency desired, 

4. — Powder. — a. — A good cleaning pow- 
der for show windows and mirrors is pre- 
pared by moistening calcined magnesia 
with pure benzine, so that a mass is 
formed sufficiently moist to let a drop 
form when pressed. The mixture has to 
be preserved in glass bottles with ground 
stoppers in order to retain the easily vol- 
atile benzine. A little of the mixture is 
placed on a wad of cotton and applied 
to the glass plate. Do not use near a 
fire or light, as the benzine vapor is very 
inflammable and explosive. 

b. — Mix 1 part of olive oil, 1 part of 
ammonia, 2 parts of lime and 1 part of 
water to a thick paste. 

5. — Rust. — Try a mixture of 30 parts 
of water with 7 parts of hydrochloric acid 
and a trace of iodine. Rub the plate 
with a linen rag moistened with the fluid, 
and then polish. 

6. — Washing. — a. — Wash the glass in 
the usual manner with water containing 
about % oz. of concentrated ammonia 
water to a pailful of water — not more, 
for fear of removing the paint or varnish 
from the woodwork. While the glass is 
wet, and without rinsing, go over the en- 
tire surface with a weak solution of hy- 
drochloric acid, prepared by adding to a 
pailful of fresh water 2 or 3 oz. of strong 
muriatic acid. Tliis neutralizes the am- 
monia and the alkali in the glass, and 
forms some soluble chlorides which aid 
in the polishing. Finally, dry and polish 
with a clean cloth. The acid will have 
no ill effects upon paint or varnish upon 
the window frames, nor even upon un- 
painted woodwork. If metal window 
frames hold the glass, the acid is liable 
to attack these, and should be avoided, or 
used cautiously. A weaker acid would be 
advisable in this case. 

b. — In washing windows, a narrow- 



[428] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Wood) 



bladed wooden knife, sharply pointed, will 
take out the dust that hardens in the 
corners of the sash. Dry whiting will 
polish the glass, which should first be 
washed with weak black tea mixed with 
a little alcohol. Save the tea leaves for 
the purpose. 

c. — Procure a wash leather of conveni- 
ent size and some "paperhanger's" can- 
vas ; 2 yd., divided into 3 pieces, will be 
a nice size to work with. Have the cut 
sides hemmed, and they will last a long 
v/hile. When it is desired, use one ; boil 
or soak for an hour or so in a solution 
of soda and water, then wring out, and 
rinse in as many courses of clean water 
as you like; then partially dry (practice 
will enable you to judge), fold to a con- 
venient size, and it will be ready for use. 
The soda solution will now be cool enough 
for the leather (if too hot it will shrivel 
the leather) ; wash in the same manner, 
and wring superfluous moisture out ; then 
wash the glass thoroughly with it and 
plenty of elbow grease, and polish off with 
the canvas. 

d. — Window polishing paste is made of 
90 parts of prepared chalk and 5 parts 
each of white bole and Armenian bole, 
rubbed together into a smooth paste with 
50 parts of water and 25 parts of alco- 
hol. This paste is to be rubbed on the 
window, allowed to dry, and then rubbed 
ofE with cloths. 

Wood. 

1. — Bleaching. — In most cases, the 
staining of wood may be effected so as to 
produce very bright colors without any 
previous preparation, as, generally speak- 
ing, the mordants employed have a bleach- 
ing action on the wood. But in many 
cases, in consequence of the quality of 
the wood under treatment, it must be 
freed from its natural colors by a pre- 
liminary bleaching process. To this end 
it is saturated as completely as possible 
with a clear solution of 17i/4 oz. of chlo- 
ride of lime and 2 oz. of soda crystals in 
10% pt. of water. In this liquid the 
wood is steeped for half an hour, if it 
does not appear to injure its texture. 
After this bleaching it is immersed in a 
solution of sulphurous acid to remove all 
traces of chlorine, and then washed in 
pure water. The sulphurous acid which 
may cling to the wood in spite of washing 
does not appear to injure it, or alter the 
colors which are applied. 

2. — Furniture, How to Improve the 
Appearance of. — Mr. G. J. Henkels, of 
Philadelphia, Pa., suggests that when the 
polish on new furniture becomes dull it 



(Wood) 



can be renewed by the following process : 
Take a soft sponge wet with clean cold 
water, and wash over the article. Then 
take a soft chamois skin and wipe it 
clean. Dry the skin as well as you can 
by wringing it in the hands, and wipe 
the water off the furniture, being careful 
to wipe only one way. Never use a dry 
chamois skin on varnished work. If the 
varnish is defaced, and shows white 
marks, take linseed oil and turpentine in 
equal parts, shake them well in a phial, 
and apply a very small quantity on a 
soft rag until the color is restored ; then 
with a clean, soft rag wipe the mixture 
entirely off. In deeply carved work the 
dust cannot be removed with a sponge. 
Use a stiff-haired paint brush instead of 
a sponge. The cause of varnished furni- 
ture becoming dull, and the reason why 
oil and turpentine restore its former pol- 
ish, it will be appropriate to explain. The 
humidity of the atmosphere and the action 
of gas cause a bluish-white coating to 
collect on all furniture, and show con- 
spicuously on bright polished surfaces, 
such as mirrors, pianos, cabinet ware and 
polished metal. It is easily removed as 
previously directed. The white scratches 
on furniture are caused by bruising the 
gum of which varnish is made. Copal 
varnish is composed of gum copal, linseed 
oil and turpentine or benzine. Copal is 
not soluble in alcohol, as other gums are, 
but is dissolved by heat. It is the foun- 
dation of varnish, as the oil is used only 
to make the gum tough, and the turpen- 
tine is required only to hold the other 
parts in a liquid state, and it evaporates 
immediately after its application to fur- 
niture. The gum then becomes hard and 
admits of a fine polish. Thus, when the 
varnish is bruised, it is the gum that 
turns white, and the color is restored by 
applying the oil and turpentine. If the 
mixture is left on the furniture it will 
amalgamate with the varnish, and become 
tough. Therefore, the necessity of wiping 
it entirely off at once. To varnish old 
furniture, it should be rubbed with pul- 
verized pumice stone and water to take 
off the old surface, and then varnish with 
varnish, reduced, by adding turpentine, to 
the consistency of cream. Apply with a 
stiff-haired brush. If it does not look 
well, repeat the rubbing with pumice 
stone, and, when dry, varnish it again. 
For a crack, a worm-eaten hole, or a deep 
flaw, prepare the proper dust, by the ad- 
mixture of brick dust in flour (also kept 
ready), or whiting or ocher, or any re- 
quired tint. Then take well cooked glue, 
and on a house plate stir it in slowly, 



[429] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Wood) 



while hot, with sufficient powder for your 
work. Dab the hole or crack with your 
glue brush, then with a putty knife stir 
about the mixture on the plate, taking 
care you have the right color. When sure 
on this point, take some of the cement on 
the end of the knife and insert it in the 
desired place. Then use as much press- 
ure as you possibly can with the blade, 
and keep smoothing at it. Sprinkle a 
little of the dry powder on the spot. 
When thoroughly dry, sandpaper the sur- 
face with an old used piece, so as not to 
abrade the joint. You can then varnish 
the mending. Where weevil and wood 
worms have devoured the furniture, cau- 
tiously cut out the part till a sound place 
is reached. Poison the wood with a solu- 
tion of sulphate of copper injected into 
the hollow. Let it dry. Cut an angular 
piece of same wood from your board, and 
with a sharp chisel make a suitable aper- 
ture for its reception. Fix it with glue. 
When thoroughly dry, work with carving 
tools or rasp and glass, scraping till the 
new bit of work exactly matches the old. 

3. — Heat Stains from Polished Wood. — 
Fold a sheet of blotting paper a couple 
of times (making 4 thicknesses of the 
paper), cover the place with it, and put 
a hot smoothing iron thereon. Have 
ready at hand some bits of flannel, also 
folded, and made quite hot. As soon as 
the iron has made the surface of the wood 
quite warm remove the paper, etc., and 
go over the spot with a piece of paraffine, 
rubbing it hard enough to leave a coat- 
ing of the substance. Now with one of 
the hot pieces of flannel rub the injured 
surface. Continue the rubbing, using 
freshly warmed cloths, until the white- 
ness leaves the varnish or polish. The 
operation may have to be repeated. 

4. — Mahogany, Spots on. — Stains and 
spots may be taken out of mahogany with 
a little aquafortis and water, or oxalic 
acid and water, rubbing the part by means 
of cork, till the color is restored, observ- 
ing afterward to wash the wood well with 
water, and to dry and polish as usual. 

5. — Odors of Wood and Mold. — a. — ^To 
free chests and trunks from evil-smelling 
and other odors, paint them several times 
with a solution of shellac according to the 
following directions : To assure a pleas- 
ing color to the inside of the box, simi- 
lar to gold varnish, we should recom- 
mend that the shellac solution be thinned 
down with 1 or 2 parts of alcohol for 
the first coat ; after that the coats may 
be laid on with the original varnish. At 
least one coat is advisable for all chests, 
except such as contain pulverized spices. 



(Wool) 



since the varnish often becomes tacky in 
these. The varnish is made up of 1 kgm. 
of shellac, 1 kgm. of alcohol from 90 to 
95% pure, 50 grams of boracic acid and 
50 grams of castor oil. Pour the alco- 
hol over the shellac, and dissolve it by 
frequent turning of the vessel. The bo- 
racic acid and castor oil may now be 
added. This varnish is well adapted for 
the covering of stationary boxes. For this 
purpose it is well to give the articles 1 
or 2 coats of linseed oil, after which 3 
coats of the varnish will be sufficient. 

b. — The surfaces of the boxes, wooden 
vessels, etc., affected should be coated 
with the following mixture : Acetic ether, 
100 parts ; formaldehyde solution, 6 
parts ; phenol, 4 parts ; tincture of euca- 
lyptus leaves, 60 parts. The boxes to be 
then exposed in the open air to the sun. 

6. — Polish for Removing Stains. — Alco- 
hol, 98%, 1 pt. ; ground rosin, % oz. ; 
gum shellac, 1^/^ oz. After the rosin and 
shellac cut in the alcohol, mix in 1 pt. of 
linseed oil, and give the whole a good 
shaking. Apply with a cloth or newspa- 
per, and polish with a flannel after apply- 
ing the solution. 

7. — Polished Wood. — An encaustic com- 
posed of wax, sal soda and a good soap, 
is excellent for cleaning and polishing at 
the same time. Shave the wax and the 
soap, and dissolve them in boiling water ; 
stir frequently, and add the soda. When 
the wax and soap are thoroughly dissolved 
place the mixture in a vessel which can 
be closely covered, and stir constantly till 
cool. This mixture will remove ink from 
polished surfaces, and may be satisfac- 
torily applied to marbles, bricks, furni- 
ture, tiles and floors. 

8. — Varnished Wood. — a. — Make a mix- 
ture of equal parts of linseed oil, alco- 
hol and oil of turpentine, and with this 
mixture moisten a flannel rag ; rub the 
spots well, and in a few moments they 
will vanish ; then polish off with a bit of 
soft blotting paper. 

b. — Mix powdered chalk with soda or 
potash lye. 

Wool. 

1. — Bleaching. — A writer in the Chem- 
iker Zeitung recommends the use of the 
commercial peroxide as containing small 
quantities of barium phosphate, giving 
better results than the chemically pure 
article. The wool is macerated in the 
peroxide, diluted with about 5 times_ its 
volume of water, and rendered perceptibly 
alkaline by the addition of ammonia, for 
from 6 to 10 hours, with frequent stir- 
ring. Although the color is permanently 



C430] 



Cleansing, Bleaching, Etc. 



(Wool) 



destroyed by the peroxide, the wool re- 
tains a slight yellow tinge, which may be 
masked by the addition of a little methyl 
violet, either in the bath, or separately 
afterward. After the wool has been freed 
from the liquid, the bleaching is then 
completed by exposure to the sunlight. 

2. — Cleansing. — a. — The liquid used for 
washing must be as hot as possible. 

b. — For the removal of greasy dirt, 
sweat, etc., borax is of so little value 
that its application would be mere waste. 
Soap lye alone is better, but the prefer- 
ence must be given to soap lye along with 
ammonia. This mixture works wonders 
by quickly dissolving dirt from particular 
parts of underclothing which are hard to 
cleanse. It raises and revives even bright 
colors, and is altogether excellent, 
white woolen goods there is nothing which 
even approaches borax. Soap lye and 
borax, 1 teaspoonful of borax to each 
quart of soap lye — if the second lye is too 
soapy it may be diluted with a little hot 
water — applied boiling hot, give white 
woolens a looseness and a dazzling white- 
ness which they often do not possess when 
new. 

c. — If shrinking is to be entirely avoid- 
ed, the drying must be accelerated by re- 
peatedly pressing the woolens between 
soft cloths. In no case should woolens 
be let dry in the sun, as in this case they 
become dry and hard. They are best dried 
in a moderate current of air, and in cold 
weather in a warm place not too near the 
stove. 

d. — For colored goods there should be 
prepared a lye of 7 qt. of soft water and 
2 oz. of the best soft soap, the quantities 
being, of course, modified according to 
judgment and the dirtiness of the arti- 
cles. The soap is dissolved over the fire, 
and the lye, properly stirred up, is di- 
vided into two vessels, to one of which 
is added a teaspoonful of ammonia for 
each quart of lye. The woolens must be 
entered at a heat which the hand cannot 
bear, and the fabric must, consequently, 
be turned and pressed with smooth wood- 
en stirrers. They are then pressed out 



(Zinc) 



as far as posssible, and transferred to the 
second lye, containing no ammonia, and 
which by this time has become so cool 
that the articles can be pressed by hand, 
but no twisting or wringing must take 
place. They are then pressed between 3 
or 4 soft, dry towels till the latter no 
longer become wet. 

e. — After 2 or 3 lots of woolens have 
thus been washed the lye must be heated 
again — the first lot being put aside to 
settle, the second being made first — with 
the addition of ammonia or borax, as the 
case may be, and fresh lye made for the 
second. 

f. — Shawls. — White woolen shawls will 
not always stand washing successfully. A 
safe way to clean such an article is to 
brush all the dust out, spread it on a 
table, then sprinkle over it a quantity of 
finely ground white starch (rice or po- 
tato, not wheat) ; fold up the shawl into 
a square, powdering liberally between 
each fold. The shawl should be put away 
for several hours, and then be opened and 
dusted. The starch will have absorbed all 
the grease that may have been present, 
and collected the dust. If such shawls 
are very dirty they may be pressed be- 
tween two damp blankets before the starch 
is put on. Gray and light blue woolen 
shawls may be treated in the same way, 
only using slightly blued starch instead 
of pure white starch. The shawls must be 
well shaken to get rid of the powder. 

Zinc. 

1. — To clean zinc, mix 1 part of sul- 
phuric acid with 12 parts of water ; dip 
the zinc into it for a few seconds, then 
rub with a cloth. 

2. — Zinc articles, if small, can be 
cleaned by being pickled in hydrochloric 
acid with water added, till the articles are 
nicely cleaned, in about 3 minutes, with- 
out being too strongly attacked, then 
washed and dried. Large articles like re- 
frigerators are cleaned by being rubbed 
with a swab dipped in raw spirits, then 
washed with water, and finished with 
whiting. 



[4313 



CHAPTER VIII 



COLOEIJ^G OF METALS 



CLEANING, DIPPING AND PICK- 
LING 

Articles may be cleansed from dirt by 
washing with water and brushing wnth 
white sand, pumice, whiting, etc. Grease 
and fatty matter, as well as lacquer on 
old work, may be best removed by boil- 
ing in a hot solution of caustic potash or 
soda, contained in a cast-iron pot. After 
boiling for some time they should be re- 
moved, and, if not perfectly clean, it 
may be necessary to scour with fine sand, 
swill in water, and again suspend in the 
solution. 

Aluminum. 

Articles of aluminum are cleaned in a 
very dilute solution of potash, when the 
surface assumes a bright appearance ; 
wash well with warm water and dry with 
a warm cloth. Aluminum alloys are treat- 
ed like copper alloys. 

Copper and Its Alloys. 

Copper, brass, bronze, etc., become oxi- 
dized in ordinary moist air, and, in con- 
sequence of the simultaneous presence of 
carbonic acid, may become gradually con- 
verted into carbonates. In fact, the 
brownish-black to bluish-green deposit 
often seen on copper, brass and bronze 
goods is a mixture of oxide and carbon- 
ate of copper mixed with oxygen com- 
pounds of zinc or tin, respectively, when 
the copper is present as an alloy of these 
metals. 

Dipping in Nitric Acid, Common Salt 
and Soot. — Brass, and similar articles, 
after cleaning in pickle, are rinsed in 
water, well shaken and drained, then 
dipped in a bath consisting of 100 parts 
of nitric acid, 1 part of common salt and 
1 part of calcined soot. This mixture 
attacks the metal with great energy, and, 
therefore, it should only remain in it a 
few seconds. The volume of acid should 
be 20 times that of the articles immersed 
in it, to prevent undue heating and too 
rapid weakening of the acid. When re- 
moved, the articles should be quickly 
rinsed in water to prevent the production 



of nitrous fumes. They then present a 
fine luster, varying from red to golden 
yellow and greenish yellow, according to 
the composition of the alloy. 

Whitening Bath. — 1. — This consists of 
old nitric acid, sulphuric acid, common 
salt and raw soot. Pour into a stoneware 
vessel a certain quantity of old nitric 
acid and add twice the volume of com- 
mercial sulphuric acid. Allow the mix- 
ture to stand till the next day. The cop- 
per nitrate of the old nitric acid is con- 
verted into copper sulphate, which crys- 
tallizes against the sides of the vessel. 
Decant the clear liquid into another ves- 
sel and add 2 to 3% of common salt and 
an equal quantity of calcined soot. This 
mixture is less active than the acids used 
for a bright luster. The bath may be 
strengthened, when necessary, by the ad- 
dition of nitric acid and sulphuric acid. 

2. — Another dipping liquid may be made 
with equal parts of nitric acid and sul- 
phuric acid mixed with 40 times their 
bulk of water and allowed to cool, then 
adding a quantity of common salt equal 
to about one-fifth that of the strong acid 
present. 

3. — Or the following may be used : 
Nitric acid, li/^ lb. ; sulphuric acid, 2 
lb. ; common salt, 10 gr. 

4. — Dead Dipping. — To the above in- 
gredients add a mixture of the following 
if a dead surface is desired : Nitric acid, 
1 lb. ; strong sulphuric acid, % lb. ; com- 
mon salt, 5 gr. ; zinc sulphate, 20 gr. The 
longer the articles remain in this dip the 
deader will be the surface. They are then 
thoroughly swilled and dried as quickly as 
possible. Or previous to swilling with 
water they may be momentarily dipped in 
the bright dipping liquid. 

5. — Another liquid for dead dipping 
may be made of 1 volume of a concen- 
trated solution of potassium bichromate 
and 2 volumes of a concentrated hydro- 
chloric acid. The articles should be left 
in this solution for some hours, then well 
swilled in several wash waters. If, how- 
ever, they are left exposed to the air for 
some time without lacquering or further 
treatment, they become coated with a film 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[ 433 1 



Coloring of Metals 



(Aluminum) 



of oxide. Dead-dipped articles, while 
waiting to be bronzed or lacquered, may 
be kept from oxidizing by immersing in 
clean water to which half its volume of 
alcohol has been added. In the case of 
copper alloys, such as brass, the surface 
color will depend not only on the original 
composition of the alloy, but also on the 
length of time it has been exposed to the 
action of the acid. The zinc is oxidized 
more rapidly than the copper, so that the 
effect of dipping in nitric acid or other 
oxidizing liquid is to increase the relative 
quantity of copper on the surface, and to 
give to the alloy a richer appearance and 
a deeper color. When it is desired to 
clean very small articles, and not to ap- 
preciably alter the composition, they may 
be dipped in a solution of 5 parts of po- 
tassium cyanide dissolved in 95 parts of 
water. 

Iron and Steel. 

For cleaning iron articles generally, a 
cold mixture of about 20 measures of 
water and 1 measure of sulphuric acid 
is frequently used ; but a better liquid is 
composed of 1 gal. of water, 1 lb. of sul- 
phuric acid, with 1 or 2 oz. of zinc dis- 
solved in it ; to this is added ^^ lb. of 
nitric acid. This mixture leaves the iron 
quite bright, whereas dilute sulphuric 
acid alone leaves it black, or of a differ- 
ent appearance at the edges. It should be 
scoured with sharp sand and brushed with 
a steel scratch brush. 

Lead, Tin, and their Alloys. 

These metals are cleaned to remove dirt 
and grease, as with other metals, by 
means of a caustic alkali solution, and 
brushing with sand, etc. 

ALUMINUM 
Aluminum, To Blacken. 

White arsenic, 1 oz. ; sulphate of iron, 
1 oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 12 oz._; water, 
12 oz. When the arsenic and iron are 
dissolved by the acid add the water. The 
aluminum to be blackened should be well 
cleaned with fine emery powder, and 
washed, before immersing in the black- 
ening solution. When the deposit of black 
is deep enough, dry off with fine sawdust 
and lacquer. 

Coppering. 

1. — Sulphate of copper, 30 parts ; cream 
of tartar, 30 parts ; soda, 25 parts ; water, 
1,000 parts. It suffices to plunge the ar- 
ticles to be coppered in this bath, but 
they have to be well cleaned previously. 

2. — By means of a battery : Phosphate 



(Brass) 



of sodium, 50 parts; cyanide of potas- 
sium, 50 parts ; cyanide of copper, 50 
parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. 

BRASS 

1. — The following is one of the compo- 
sitions that turn out a rich color : Lake 
copper, 1 lb. ; tin, 1 oz. ; zinc, % oz. ; 
lead, 1/^ oz. Time, 7 to 20 minutes, ac- 
cording to thickness of castings. 

2. — Another method is with chloride 
of platinum. For this purpose they are 
first heated to redness, and then dipped 
in a weak solution of sulphuric acid. Aft- 
erward they are immersed in dilute ni- 
tric acid, thoroughly washed in water, and 
dried in sawdust. To effect a uniformity 
in the color they are plunged in a bath 
consisting of 2 parts of nitric acid and 1 
part of rain water, where they are suf- 
fered to remain for several minutes. 
Should the color not be free from spots 
and patches, the operations must be re- 
peated until the desired effect is pro- 
duced. 

Black. 

1. — A very good black color can be ob- 
tained on brass by a solution of copper 
nitrate, 50 parts ; water, 100 parts. If 
the work is too large for immersion, it 
is heated, and the solution is applied by 
means of a paint brush, when the heat- 
ing is continued until the surface is dry. 
It is then gently rubbed with a linen pad 
and brushed with or immersed in a solu- 
tion of potassium sulphide, 10 parts; 
water, 100 parts; hydrochloric acid, 5 
parts. Immersion of the work in the li- 
quid produces much better results, and, 
after draining off the superfluous liquid 
it is heated on a hot plate or over a clean 
fire till dry. We have obtained more uni- 
form results by using a solution about 
three times more dilute than the preced- 
ing solution of copper nitrate, viz. : Cop- 
per nitrate, 100 parts ; water, 600 parts. 
The heating process must not be contin- 
ued longer than is necessary to convert 
the whole of the green salt which forms 
on drying into the black copper oxide. 
A good black can be thus produced on 
brass in this way without recourse to the 
second pickling in potassium sulphide, but 
this second pickling is probably advan- 
tageous in fixing the color. 

2. — A solution of nitro-muriate of plat- 
inum will blacken brass quicker than any- 
thing else ; but possibly 2 oz. of corrosive 
sublimate, dissolved in 1 qt. of vinegar, 
will act quickly enough. This solution is 
brushed over the brass, allowed to remain 
till the latter is black, and then wiped 



[ 434 ] 



Coloring of Metals 



(Brass) 



off and the brass cleaned and black- 
leaded. 

3. — A very good black varnish may be 
made by mixing a small quantity of pure 
lampblack with rather thick brass lac- 
quer, using as little lampblack as pos- 
sible. Another varnish may be made by 
fusing 3 lb. of asphaltum, and, when 
melted, adding i^ lb. of shellac and 1 gal. 
of oil of turpentine. 

4. — If merely wanted to black it, brush 
on a mixture of best vegetable black and 
French polish. This will give a nice dead 
black, or modify the deadness by the addi- 
tion of polish. 

5. — Make a strong solution of nitrate 
of silver in one dish and of nitrate of 
copper in another. Mix the two together 
and plunge the brass into the mixture. 
Remove and heat the brass evenly until 
the required degree of dead blackness is 
obtained. 

6. — Black Bronze for Brass. — Dip the 
article, bright, in nitric acid, rinse the 
acid off with clean water, and place it in 
the following mixture until it turns black : 
Hydrochloric acid, 12 lb. ; sulphate of 
iron, 1 lb. ; pure white arsenic, 1 lb. It 
is then taken out, rinsed in clean water, 
dried in sawdust, polished with blacklead, 
and then lacquered with green lacquer. 

7. — Take 1 pt. of strong vinegar, 1 oz. 
of sal ammoniac, % oz. of alum, ^ oz. 
of arsenic, and dissolve them in the vine- 
gar, and the compound is fit for use. We 
know brass founders who have been in 
the habit of using this for several years, 
and where the metal is good it is seldom 
found to fail. 

8. — The dead black on optical instru- 
ments is produced by dipping in a solu- 
tion of chloride of platinum. To make 
this, take 2 parts of hydrochloric acid, 1 
part of nitric acid, mix in a glass bot- 
tle, and put in as much platinum foil as 
the acid will dissolve when placed in 
warm sand bath ; or, to hasten the solu- 
tion, heat to nearly the boiling point of 
the acids; % oz. of nitric acid and 1 oz. 
of hydrochloric acid will absorb about 30 
gr. of platinum, but in order to neutralize 
the acid it is better to have a surplus of 
platinum. Dip the article or brush in 
the chloride. 

9. — Lustrous Black. — Mix equal parts 
of copper sulphate and sodium carbonate. 
These solutions must be hot. Wash the 
precipitate as it lies on the filter paper, 
and dissolve immediately in ammonia ; 
there should be an excess of ammonia. 
Dilute the solution with water (^4), and 
add a small quantity of plumbago, 20 to 
50 gr., depending on the amount of solu- 



( Brass) 



tion used; then heat to 100° F. The 
brass articles must be thoroughly cleaned, 
and left in this bath until they are black ; 
wash well in water and dry in sawdust. 
Prepare only as much solution as is want- 
ed for immediate use. 

10. — Blue-black. — Copper carbonate, 7 
oz., is dissolved in l^^^ qt. of strong am- 
monia. A precipitate is formed, and the 
solution is diluted with 1 qt. of water. 

11. — Optical Instruments and Other 
Brass Work. — For dead black for inside 
of tubes, use alcoholic shellac varnish and 
lampblack, equal parts by weight, and 
thin with enough alcohol to make it flow 
freely with the brush. 

Blue. 

1. — The following solution gives the 
brass first a rosy tint and then colors it 
violet and blue : Sulphate of copper, 435 
gr. ; hyposulphite of soda, 300 gr. ; cream 
of tartar, 150 gr. ; water, 1 pt. Upon 
adding to the last solution 800 gr. of am- 
moniacal sulphate of iron and 300 gr. of 
hyposulphite of soda there are obtained, 
according to the duration of the immer- 
sion, yellowish, orange, rosy, then bluish 
shades. Upon polarizing the ebullition, 
the blue tint gives way to yellow, and 
finally to a pretty gray. Silver, under the 
same circumstances, becomes very beau- 
tifully colored. 

2. — Upon leaving the brass objects im- 
mersed in the following mixture, con- 
tained in corked vessels, they at length 
acquire a very beautiful blue color : Liver 
of sulphur, 15 gr. ; ammonia, 75 gr. ; 
water, 4 oz. 

Bronzing. 

1. — Freshly precipitated arsenious sul- 
phide is dissolved in ammonia, and anci- 
monious sulphide is added until a dark 
yellow color is produced. Heat the solu- 
tion carefully to about 95° F. Leave the 
articles in the bath until they have ac- 
quired a dark-brown color, and develop 
the color by scratch-brushing. 

2. — Ordinary gas fittings are pickled ; 
but if you want to get a good bronze you 
can use either a solution of nitrate of sil- 
ver or bichloride of platinum. The arti- 
cles will require blackleading after being 
bronzed, and should be warmed before be- 
ing dipped into the bronzing solution. 

Brown. 

1. — Iron scales, ^ lb. ; muriatic acid, 
% lb.; arsenic, % oz. ; zinc (solid), % 
oz. Keep the zinc in only while it is in 
use. 

2. — With the following solution all the 
435] 



Coloring of Metals 











(Brass) 










(Brass) 




















BronziBg 


Brass by Simple 


Immersion 










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a 
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1 

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Color 








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pt. dr. dr. 


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1 5 


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Brown and every 


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Brown and every 


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Brown and every 


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In preparation of No. 5, liquid must be brought to a boil, and cooled. In using 
No. 13, the heat of the liquid must not be under 180°. No. 6 is slow in action. The 
action of the others is, for the most part, immediate. — [English pint, 20 oz. — Ed.] 



shades of brown from orange brown to 
cinnamon are obtained : Chlorate of pot- 
ash, 150 gr. ; sulphate of copper, 150 gr 
water, 1 qt. 

3. — For dark brown : Chlorate of pot 
ash, 75 gr. ; salt of nickel, 150 gr. ; water, 
10 oz. 

4. — For yellow brown : Salt of nickel 
75 gr. ; sulphate of copper, 75 gr. ; chlo 
rate of potash, 75 gr. ; water, 10 oz. 

Curling. 

This fine finish is often seen on fine 
optical brass work. Remove all scratches, 
and give a high polish by using files, em- 
ery paper, Ayr stone, and at last fine 
rotten stone. Keep wet with water, and 
produce the curling with the aid of a 
pointed stick of charcoal. The motion 
should be circular. 

1. — To improve the appearance of brass, 
tombac and copper goods, they are usu- 
ally dipped. For this purpose they are 
first immersed in diluted oil of vitriol 
(brown sulphuric acid), proportion 1 to 
10 ; next in a mixture of 10 grams of red 
tartar, 10 grams of cooking salt, % 1. of 
sulphuric acid, as well as % 1- of aqua 
fortis (only for a moment), rinsing off 
well in water and drying in sawdust. For 
obtaining a handsome matt gold color. 



1-20 part of zinc vitriol (zinc sulphate) 
is still added to the pickle. 

2. — A good "dip" for cast brass is sul- 
phuric acid, 1 qt. ; nitric acid, 1 qt. ; 
water, 1 qt. 

Dulling Brass. 

Take 1 part, by weight, of iron rust, 1 
part of white arsenic, and 12 parts of 
hydrochloric acid ; mix. Clean the brass 
thoroughly, and apply with a brush until 
the color desired is obtained ; then oil 
Avell, dry, and lacquer. 

Frosting. 

If old work, it should be washed or 
boiled in potash to remove the lac- 
quer, then pickled in water to which a 
little nitrous acid has been added. It is 
now dipped in strong nitrous acid (mind 
your fingers), washed quickly in hot wa- 
ter, and dried in sawdust. The bright 
parts should now be burnished. To fin- 
ish : Heat the work on a stove till it 
is as hot as you can hold it, and then 
lacquer. This must be done as soon as 
possible, or it will tarnish. 
Gold. 

1. — When gilding is of an inferior color 
it is sometimes necessary to use some 
process to improve the color. There must 
always be a suflBcient coating of gold 



[436] 



Coloring of Metals 



(Brass) 



upon the article to withstand the action 
of the materials employed. This condi- 
tion being fulfilled, the artificial coloring 
processes may be applied with advantage, 
and gold surfaces of great beauty ob- 
tained. Sulphate of copper, 2 dwt. ; 
French verdigris, 4 dwt. 12 gr. ; sal am- 
moniac, 4 dwt. ; niter, 4 dwt. ; acetic acid, 
about 1 oz. The sulphate of copper, sal 
ammoniac and niter are first pulverized 
in a mortar, then the verdigris is added, 
and well mixed with the other ingredi- 
ents. The acetic acid is then poured in, 
a little at a time, and the whole worked 
up together, when a thin mass of a blu- 
ish-green color will result. The article 
to be colored is to be dipped in the mix- 
ture and then placed on a clean piece of 
sheet copper, which is next to be heated 
over a clear fire until the compound as- 
sumes a dull black color ; it is now al- 
lowed to cool, and is then plunged into 
a tolerably strong sulphuric-acid pickle, 
which soon dissolves the coloring salts, 
leaving the article a fine gold color. Rinse 
well in hot water to which a small quan- 
tity of carbonate of potash should be 
added ; next brush with warm soap and 
water, then rinse in hot water. 

2. — Finely powder a small quantity of 
sal ammoniac, and moisten with soft wa- 
ter. Heat the article to be colored over 
a charcoal fire and rub over with this 
mixture ; then dry with bran and whiting. 

3. — Wash the brasswork with roach 
alum dissolved by boiling in strong lye, 
in the proportion of 1 oz. of alum to 1 pt. 
of lye, and when dry rub with fine tripoli. 
Either of these processes will give to brass 
the appearance and brilliancy of gold. 

4. — Gold lacquer for undipped brass is : 
Alcohol, 4 gal. ; turmeric, 3 lb. ; gamboge, 
3 oz. ; sandarac, 7 lb. ; shellac, li/^ lb. ; 
turpentine varnish, 1 pt. 
Green. 

1. — Verditer green, 4 oz. ; salt, 4 oz. ; 
wine vinegar, 4 qt. ; sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; 
alum, 1 oz. ; French berries, 16 oz. The 
ingredients should be boiled together. 

2. — Sulphate of copper, 120 gr. ; hydro- 
chlorate of ammonia, 30 gr. ; water, 1 qt. 

3. — Dissolve 2 oz. of nitrate of iron 
and 2 oz. of hyposulphite of soda in 1 pt. 
of water. Immerse the articles in the 
bronze till of the required tint, as almost 
any shade from brown to red can be ob- 
tained ; then well wash with water, dry, 
and brush. One part of perchloride of 
iron and 2 parts of water, mixed together, 
and the brass immersed in the liquid, 
gives a pale or deep olive green, ac- 
cording to the time of immersion. If 
nitric acid is saturated with copper, and 



(Brass) 



[437] 



the brass dipped in the liquid and then 
heated, it assumes a dark green. If well 
brushed, it may be lacquered with pale 
gold lacquer, or else polished with oil. 

4. — The repeated applications of alter- 
nate washes of dilute acetic acid and ex- 
posure to the fumes of ammonia, will give 
a very antique-looking green bronze ; but 
a quick mode of producing a similar ap- 
pearance is often desirable. To this end 
the articles may be immersed in a solu- 
tion of 1 part of perchloride of iron in 
2 parts of water. The tone assumed dark- 
ens with the length of immersion. 

5. — The articles may be boiled in a 
strong solution of nitrate of copper. 

6. — Lastly, they may be immersed in 
a solution of 2 oz. of nitrate of iron and 
2 oz. of hyposulphite of soda in 1 pt. of 
water. Washing, drying and brushing 
complete the process. 
Iridescence. 

.1- — To give beautiful iridescence to 
nickel, brass or copper fixtures, prepare 
a solution of 1 part of lead acetate to 3 
parts of sodium hyposulphite in 48 parts 
of water, and into this plunge the articles 
and let stand. Remove from time to time, 
and as soon as the requisite depth of 
color is obtained rinse off, and let dry 
spontaneously. The iridescence is very 
beautiful, and quite lasting. 

2. — a. — Cream of tartar, 75 gr. ; sul- 
phate of copper, 75 gr. ; water, 10 oz. 

b. — Hyposulphite of soda, 225 gr. ; wa- 
ter, 5 oz. Mix. 
Mottling. 

The brass is first polished to the re- 
quired degree, and if it is a fine surface 
the mottled appearance is imparted by 
rubbing over it, with a gyratory motion, 
a Scotch gray stone moistened with wa- 
ter. If the work is not very fine, a piece 
of fine emery paper may be used in the 
same way. If it is coarse, a dead smooth 
file may be used. 
Olive Green. 

1. — Copper sulphate, 8 parts; sal am- 
moniac, 2 parts ; water, 100 parts. Boil, 
and leave the articles suspended in it un- 
til the proper color is reached. 

2. — Muriatic acid, 1 oz. ; nitric acid, 
1% oz. ; add palladium or titanium. Dis- 
solve the metal, and add 1 gal. of pure 
soft water to each pint of the solution. 

3. — Pale Deep Olive Green Bronze. — 
Perchloride of iron, li^ parts; water, 3 
parts. Mix, and immerse the brass. 
Patina. 

1. — ^This beautiful color was originally 
produced by axticles being exposed for a 



Coloring of Metals 



(Brass) 



long time to the action of the atmos- 
phere. The green color is largely imi- 
tated by either of the following methods : 
Copper carbonate is triturated with san- 
darac varnish. This affords the cheapest 
and poorest imitation, and is largely used 
in painting the little iron castings which 
are so largely sold in Rome for souvenirs. 
2. — Copper, 30 grams ; concentrated 
nitric acid, 60 grams ; acetic acid, 6%, 
600 grams ; ammonium chloride, 11 
grams ; ammonia water, 20 grams. The 
copper is dissolved in the nitric acid, and 
as soon as solution is effected the other 
ingredients are added. The solution must 
be allowed to stand several days before 
using. The objects to be coated are either 
dipped into the solution for a moment or 
the solution is applied to the surface by 
means of a brush. They are then al- 
lowed to dry, and are finally covered with 
a thin coat of linseed oil. 

Red. 

After a long ebullition in the following 
solution we obtain a yellow-brown shade, 
and then a remarkable fire red : Chlo- 
rate of potash, 75 gr. ; carbonate of nickel, 
30 gr. ; salt of nickel, 75 gr. ; water, 10 



Silver. 

1. — Take 1 part of chloride of silver 
(the white precipitate which falls when 
a solution of common salt is poured into 
a solution of nitrate of silver of lunar 
caustic), 3 parts of pearlash, 1 part of 
whiting, and 1% parts of common salt, 
or 1 part of chloride of silver and 10 
parts of cream of tartar, and rub the 
brass with a moistened piece of cork 
dipped in the powder. 

2. — Cream of tartar, 23 parts ; tartar 
emetic, 2 parts ; dissolve in 500 parts of 
hot water ; add to this, hydrochloric acid, 
25 parts ; powdered or fine granulated tin, 
621^ parts ; powdered antimony, 15 parts. 
Heat to boiling ; dip in the articles to be 
coated. Boil for ^ hour. The brass 
will have a hard, durable silver-white 
coating. 

Steel Blue. 

1. — Dissolve 3 dr. of antimony sulphide 
and 4 oz. of calcined soda in ly^ pt. of 
water. To this add 5% dr. of kermes. 
Filter, and mix this solution with 5^/^ dr. 
of tartar, 11 dr. of sodium hyposulphite 
and 1% pt. of water. If polished sheet 
brass is placed in the warm mixture, it 
will assume a beautiful steel-blue color. 

2. — The brass, laid in a leaden vessel 
containing hydrochloric acid and a little 



(Bronzing) 



arsenic acid, assumes iridescent tints, and 
may be removed when the desired shade 
of blue is obtained. 

Steel Gray. 

Antimonic sulphide and fine iron fil- 
ings, 1 part of each ; hydrochloric acid, 
3 parts ; water, 3 or 4 parts. 

Verde. 

Antique finish for copper and brass is 
fully described in Scientific American 
Supplement 1665. 

Violet. 

1. — Hyposulphite of soda, 1 lb. 2 oz., 
is dissolved in 1 gal. of water. In an- 
other gal. of water dissolve 6 oz. of lead 
acetate (crystallized). Mix the two so- 
lutions together, and heat from 170 to 
180°. Clean the articles thoroughly, and 
leave them in the solution until the proper 
color is reached. 

2. — A beautiful violet is obtained by 
immersing the metal for an instant in a 
solution of chloride of antimony and rub- 
bing it with a stick covered with cotton. 
During this operation the brass should 
be heated to a degree just tolerable to the 
touch. 

3. — Buttons. — Heat the brightly pol- 
ished buttons to 140° F., and moisten by 
means of a pad of cotton wool with a 
solution of chloride of antimony. 

White. 

1. — The following gives, in the first 
place, a red which passes to blue, then 
to pale lilac, and finally to white : Orpi- 
ment, 75 gr. ; crystallized sal soda, 150 
gr. ; water, 10 oz. 

2. — In 2 gal. of water dissolve 3 lb. of 
cream of tartar and 4 lb. of very finely 
divided tin are added. This bath can 
also be used for copper. 

BRONZING 

Antique Bronzes. — In order to give new 
bronze castings the appearance and patina 
of old bronze, various compositions are 
employed, of which the following are the 
principal ones : 

1. — Vinegar, 1 1. ; sal ammoniac, 8 
grams ; potassium bioxalate, 1 gram. 

2. — Water, 120 grams ; copper sulphate 
solution, 80 grams (d = 1.46) ; sal am- 
moniac, 10 grams ; cream of tartar, 3 
grams ; sea salt, 60 grams. 

3. — Vert Antique. — a. — Vinegar, 1 1. 
copper sulphate, 16 grams ; sea salt 
32 grams ; sal ammoniac, 32 grams ; moun 
tain green (Sanders green), 70 grams 



[438] 



Coloring of Metals 



(Bronzing) 



chrome yellow, 30 grams ; ammonia, 32 
grams. 

b. — Vinegar, 1 I. ; copper sulphate, 16 
grams ; sea salt, 32 grams ; sal ammoniac, 
32 grams ; mountain green, 70 grams ; 
ammonia, 32 grams. 

c. — To obtain darker vert antique, add 
a little plumbago to the preceding mix- 
tures. 

4. — Vert a I'eau. — Vinegar, 1 1. ; sal 
ammoniac, 50 grams ; ammonia, 50 grams ; 
mountain green, 70 grams ; chrome yel- 
low, 30 grams. 

For bronzing, immerse the object in 
any of the foregoing mixtures, or cover it 
rapidly with a soft brush. The object 
will turn more or less green according 
to the length of time it is immersed or 
has been under the action of the fluid. 
The excess of the fluid is removed by 
means of a long-haired brush, and after 
that the article is allowed to dry for 24 
hours. A second or even third coating 
may be applied, if necessary, in order to 
obtain darker shades. The bronze is fin- 
ished by an energetic brushing with wax 
or olive oil or a mixture of both. 

Rust Prevention. — Free from grease or 
other dirt by scouring. Dry, and expose 
to the fumes of a mixture, in equal parts, 
of hydrochloric and nitric acids, at a 
temperature of from 550 to 650° F. for 
3 to 4 minutes. Let cool, rub over with 
vaseline, and heat until the vaseline com- 
mences to decompose. This will protect 
from rust, but for appearance sake, the 
treatment with vaseline should be re- 
peated. This gives a deep bronze hue, 
which may be varied by changing the pro- 
portion of the acids. 

Size for Bronze Powder. — To 1 pt. of 
methylated finish add 4 oz. of gum shel- 
lac and % oz. of gum benzoin. Put the 
bottle in a warm place and agitate it oc- 
casionally. When the gums are dissolved 
let it stand in a cool place 2 or 3 days 
to settle ; pour off the clear portion and 
reserve for finest work, using the sedi- 
ment, which, by the addition of more al- 
cohol, may be made workable, when 
strained, for first coat or coarser work. 
Add the bronze (q. s.) to this, and apply 
to the clean, smooth, warm iron, using a 
soft brush. Repeat, after drying, if neces- 
sary. Thin with alcohol, if necessary, to 
avoid wrinkles and brush marks. Var- 
nish over all. 

Steel. — Methylated spirits, 1% pt. ; gum 
shellac, 6 oz. ; gum benzoin, % oz. Set 
the bottle in a warm place ; shake occa- 
sionally. When dissolved, decant the 
clear liquid for fine work ; strain the dregs 
through muslin. Mix with the varnish 

[ 



(Copper) 



in quantities to suit, 6 oz, of powdered 
bronze green, varying the color with yel- 
low ocher and lampblack as desired. Ap- 
ply the varnish to the articles after clean- 
ing and warming them ; give them two 
coats. 

COPPER 
1. — To Color Copper and Nickelplated 
Objects. — The Journal des Applications 
Electriques says that 11 different colors 
may be communicated to well cleaned cop- 
per and 8 to nickelplated objects, by 
means of the following bath : Acetate of 
lead, 300 gr. ; hyposulphite of soda, 600 
gr. ; water, 1 qt. After the salts are dis- 
solved the solution is heated to ebulli- 
tion and the metal is afterward immersed 
therein. At first a gray color is obtained, 
and this, on the immersion being con- 
tinued, passes to violet, and successively 
to maroon, red, etc., and finally to blue, 
which is the last color. As the substances 
that enter into the composition of the so- 
lution cost but a few cents, the process 
is a cheap one. It is especially applicable 
in the manufacture of buttons. 

Blacking. 

1. — To give a copper article a black 
covering clean it with emery paper, heat 
gently in a Bunsen or a spirit flame, im- 
merse for 10 seconds in a solution of 
copper filings in dilute nitric acid, and 
heat again. 

2. — A new blacking fluid has been in- 
vented by M. Mazure. According to 
Cosmos, this liquid has the following for- 
mula : Bismuth chloride, 1 part ; mer- 
cury bichloride, 2 parts ; copper chloride, 
1 part ; hydrochloric acid, 6 parts ; alco- 
hol, 5 parts ; water, 50 parts. Mix. To 
use this fluid successfully the articles to 
be blacked or bronzed must be clean, and 
free from grease. It may be applied with 
a brush or a swab, or, better still, the 
object may be dipped into it. Let the 
liquid dry on the metal, and then place 
the latter into boiling water, and main- 
tain the temperature for half an hour. If 
the color is then not as dark as desired, 
repeat the operation. After getting the 
desired color the latter is fixed and much 
improved by placing for a few minutes 
in a bath of boiling oil, or by coating 
the surface with oil and heating the ob- 
ject until the oil is driven off. 

3. — To color copper black, immerse the 
object, previously well cleaned, in the fol- 
lowing and let remain for from 30 to 45 
minutes, and afterward wash well : An- 
timony chloride, 15 parts ; alcohol, 125 
parts ; hydrochloric acid, sufficient to dis- 
solve. Mix. The less of the acid that 
439] 



Coloring of Metals 



(Copper) 



is used the better the result. This process 
deposits a coating of antimony. 

4. — Plunge the object in nitric acid, 
remove, and heat to a dull red. Deposits 
a coating of copper oxide. 

5. — Plunge the copper, pi'eviously well 
cleaned, into the following : Acid, arsen- 
ious, 2 parts ; hydrochloric acid, 4 parts ; 
sulphuric acid, 1 part ; water, 24 parts. 
Mix. Causes a deposit of arsenic. 

6. — Dull Black. — Brush over the cop- 
per with a solution of platinum chloride 
diluted with 5 times its bulk of water. 
When thoroughly dry, rub off with an 
oiled flannel rag. 

7. — Enameled Copper. — Clean the cop- 
per thoroughly with sand and sulphuric 
acid, then apply the following mixture : 
White arsenic, 3 parts ; hydrochloric acid, 
6 parts ; sulphuric acid, 1% parts ; water, 
36 parts. 
Bluing. 

1. — Dip the article in a solution of 2 
oz. of liver of sulphur and 2 oz, of chlo- 
rate of soda in 1,000 oz. of water. 

2. — Dip the article in a solution of fer- 
rocyanide of potassium very strongly acid- 
ulated with hydrochloric acid. 

3. — Stir the article about constantly in 
a solution of liver of sulphur in 50 times 
its weight of water. 
Bronzing. 

1. — A dilute solution of ammonium sul- 
phide, used cold, yields very beautiful ef- 
fects, as shown by the following results : 
This solution works very well for copper, 
but it is not suitable for brass. The so- 
lution works well either hot or cold, 
strong or dilute. The colors depend more 
upon the manipulation of the process than 
upon either temperature or density. Col- 
ors may be obtained ranging from a neu- 
tral crimson through brown and steel gray 



(Copper) 



to black. This solution may be used for 
bronzing work which is too large to im- 
merse in the solution, by moistening it 
with a sponge or cloth, then allowing the 
articles to stand exposed to the air till 
they are dry, when they may be scratch- 
brushed and the moistening repeated if 
the color is not deep enough, or the bronz- 
ing not uniformly distributed. When the 
right tint is attained the articles should 
be thoroughly washed, first with warm 
water, then with cold water, and finally 
dried out in sawdust and brushed with a 
wax brush. 

2, — Having thoroughly cleaned and pol- 
ished the surface of the specimen, with a 
brush apply the common crocus powder, 
previously made into a paste with water. 
When dry place it in an iron ladle, or on 
a common fire shovel, over a clear fire, 
for about 1 minute, and when sufficiently 
cool polish with a plate brush. By this 
process a bronze similar to that on tea 
urns is produced. 

3. — By substituting finely powdered 
plumbago for crocus powder in the above 
process a beautiful deep color is produced. 

4. — Rub the metal with a solution of 
potassium sulphide (liver of sulphur, old 
name), then dry. This produces the ap- 
pearance of antique bronze very exactly. 

5. — Dissolve 2 oz. of verdigris and 1 oz. 
of sal ammoniac in 1 pt. of vinegar, and 
dilute the mixture with water until it 
tastes but slightly metallic, when it must 
be boiled for a few minutes and filtered 
for use. Copper medals, etc., previously 
thoroughly cleaned from grease and dirt, 
are to be steeped in the liquor at the 
boiling point, until the desired effect is 
produced. Care must be taken not to keep 
them in the solution too long. When 
taken out they should be carefully washed 
in hot water and well dried. 



Bronzing Fluids for Copper by Simple Immersion 





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^ 


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li 


.a 

%r6 


Color. 


5 


tZ 


ftCD 


ft 


'^ c5 




niM 


fto 


re 




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m 








pt. 


dr. 


oz. 


dr. 


dr. 


dr. 


oz. 


dr. 


oz. 


dr. 






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Brown and every shade to black. 




5 






. . 




. . 


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. . 




Dark brown drab. 






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2 


Dark brown drab. 








2 






1 








Bright red. 




, , 






1 




1 








Red and every shade to black. 












1 










Steel gray at 180°. 



[440] 



Coloring of Metals 



(Browning) 



Browning of Metals. 

1. — Scour brightly with fine glass pa- 
per, heat over a clear fire, then brush over 
with a solution prepared as follows : 
Copper acetate (cryst.), 5%; ammonium 
chloride, 7% ; acetic acid, diluted, 3% ; 
distilled water, 85%. Then rub with 1 
part of wax cut in 4 parts of turpentine. 

2. — The following solution has been 
recommended for producing a reddish- 
brown color, which becomes paler on heat- 
ing: Dissolve 1 part of copper acetate 
in 16 parts of water; then add sufficient 
ammonia to give a deep blue solution, and 
add 2 parts of potassium sulphide, 3 parts 
of ammonia, and 10 parts of water. Cop- 
per acetate, 60 gr. ; water, 2 fl.oz. ; am- 
monia, till the solution is blue ; potassium 
sulphide, 120 gr. ; ammonia, 3 fl.dr. ; 
water, 1^/4 A-oz. This solution gave pre- 
cisely the same results as with potassium 
sulphide and water, so that the other con- 
stituents appear to be useless. The reac- 
tion on copper is instantaneous, but brass 
is simply tarnished. 

3. — A very beautiful and pleasing color 
of a light brown shade may be quickly 
produced by a mixture of 1 part copper 
sulphate, 1 part zinc chloride and 1 part 
water. The above forms a paste which 
is applied to the article and allowed to 
dry on it. It is then well washed with 
water, when a uniform color is obtained. 
This would be one of the most valuable 
colors if it were permanent, but, unfortu- 
nately, it is changed by the action of light 
to a dark green, almost black. This 
change also occurs when the bronze is 
coated with a film of transparent lacquer, 
and although we have tried several meth- 
ods for preventing the change, no suit- 
able remedy has yet been discovered. 

Gray. 

1. — Bluish Gray. — Suspend the object 
in the following at an almost boiling heat : 
Sodium sulphide, 1 part ; antimony sul- 
phite, 1 part ; water, 12 parts. Mix. Let 
remain until the desired tint is obtained, 
wash rapidly with water, and dry. 

2. — Pinkish Gray. — A dark color on 
copper may be obtained by immersion, or 
by painting the following liquid on the 
articles : Arsenic oxide, 120 gr. ; hydro- 
chloric acid, % fl.oz. ; sulphuric acid, 60 
fl.gr. ; water, 3 fl.oz. The solution works 
quickly both on copper and brass, but does 
not produce a pure black on either ; the 
deposit of arsenic has a dark-gray color, 
which becomes lighter on scratch -brush- 
ing. If copper is dipped momentarily 
into the solution it receives a very thin, 



(Oxidizing Copper and Brass) 

film of arsenic, which, on scratch-brush- 
ing, presents a pinkish-gray color. 

3. — Reddish Gray. — Potassium sul- 
phide, 14 part; water, 99% parts. A cop- 
pered ash-tray received a reddish-gray 
color. The remarks made with regard to 
the ammonium sulphide solution apply 
also to potassium sulphide. The color 
may be modified in the manipulation of 
the working of both solutions. 

Green. 

Sodium chloride, 37 parts ; ammonia 
water, 75 parts ; ammonium chloride, 37 
parts ; strong wine vinegar, 5,000 parts. 
Mix, and dissolve. Apply to the object 
to be treated with a camel's-hair pencil. 
Repeat the operation until the desired 
shade of green is reached. 

Bluish Green. — 1. — After using the first 
formula (for green) pencil over with the 
following solution : Ammonium chloride, 
40 parts ; ammonium carbonate, 120 
parts ; water, 1,000 parts. Mix, and dis- 
solve. 

2. — Corrosive sublimate, 25 parts; po- 
tassium nitrate, 86 parts ; borax, 56 
parts ; zinc oxide, 113 parts ; copper ace- 
tate, 220 to 225 parts. Mix, and heat 
together on the surface of the object un- 
der treatment. 

Bronze Green Dip. — Wine vinegar, 2 
qt. ; verditer green, 2 oz. ; sal ammoniac, 2 
oz. ; alum, 1 oz. ; salt, 2 oz. ; alum, ^^ oz. ; 
French berries, 8 oz. ; boil the ingredients 
together. 

Olive Green. — Cover with a solution 
of iron and arsenic in hydrochloric acid. 
Polish with lead minium, warm, and cov- 
er w'ith the folloT»7ing varnish : Gum gut- 
ta, 1 part ; yellow ocher, 1 part ; alcoholic 
varnish, 1 part. Mix. 

Yellow-Green. — 1. ^ — Oxalic acid, 5 
parts ; ammonium chloride, 10 parts ; 
acetic acid, 30% dilution, 500 parts. Mix, 
and dissolve. Use as above indicated. 

2. — The following will produce the same 
result : Potassium oxalate, acid, 4 parts ; 
ammonium chloride, 16 to 17 parts ; vine- 
gar containing 6% of acetic acid, 1,000 } 
parts. Mix, and dissolve. Use as before. 

Oxidizing. 

1. — Copper and Brass. — Immerse the 
articles in a solution of 2 oz. of nitrate 
of iron and 2 oz. of hyposulphite of soda 
to ] pt. of water, until the desired shade 
of oxidation is acquired ; then wash, dry, 
and brush. 

2. — Platinum Solution. — Dissolve suffi- 
cient platinum in aqua regia, and careful- 
ly evaporate the resulting solution (chlo- 
ride of platinum) to dryness. The dried 



[441] 



Coloring of Metals 



(Gold) 



mass may then be dissolved in alcohol, 
ether, or water, according to the effect 
which it is desired to produce, a slightly 
different effect being produced by each of 
the solutions. Apply the solution of plat- 
inum with a camel's-hair brush, and re- 
peat the operation as often as may be 
necessary to increase the depth of tone. 
A single application is frequently suffi- 
cient. The ethereal or alcoholic solution 
of platinum must be kept in a well stop- 
pered bottle, and in a cool place. The 
aqueous solution of platinum should be 
applied hot. 



Red. 

1, — To redden copper, hang it for from 
a few minutes to an hour, according to 
the shade wanted, in a 5 to 10% solu- 
tion of ferrocyanide of potassium in wa- 
ter. By adding a little hydrochloric acid 
to the solution the color given to the cop- 
per may be made to assume a purple 
shade. On removing the copper dry it in 
the air, or in fine sawdust ; rinse, and 
polish with a brush or chamois leather, 
after drying it again. 

2. — Royal Copper Finish. — The copper 
coloring is termed royal copper from its 
intense red color. It is produced by dip- 
ping in a solution of 2 dr. of sulphide 
of antimony, 1 oz. of pearlash to 1 pt. of 
water, or by boiling the copper articles 
for 15 minutes in a strong solution of tar- 
tar and water. 

Silver. 

Nitrate of silver, GO gr. ; common salt, 
40 gr. ; cream of tartar, 7 dr. This will 
be ready for application when mixed and 
moistened with a little water. 

Steel Gray. 

1. — Potassium sulphide, V2 part ; water, 
99% parts. A coppered ash tray assumed 
a dark steel-gray color after immersion in 
this solution. 

2. — Dip the copper articles, which must 
be previously cleaned and pickled, into a 
heated solution of hydrochloric acid and 
antimony chloride. 

GOLD 

This operation consists of imparting a 
color to gold articles after every other 
process has been completed. Its object 
is to give to alloyed gold all the appear- 
ance of fine gold itself, by dissolving out 
the base metal from the surface of the 
articles and leaving a facing of gold of 
a deep, rich color. Two distinct modes 
of coloring are adopted by jewelers, 
termed, respectively, dry coloring and wet 

[ 



(Gold) 



coloring. The latter is most frequently 
practiced, as the former cannot well be 
applied to gold inferior to 18 carat. 

Dry Coloring. 

This term is applied to the coloring 
process when no liquids are used as con- 
stituents of the mixture. The ingredi- 
ents used are : Potassium nitrate, 8 oz. ; 
common salt, 4 oz. ; alum, 3 oz. These 
substances are ground to a fine powder, 
well mixed, and placed in a previously 
heated blacklead color pot, of the sarae 
dimensions as that described for use in 
wet coloring, but the same pot must not 
be employed for dry coloring as has been 
used for the wet process. It is well to 
get the pot nearly red hot before placing 
the color in it. The mixture must then 
be constantly stirred with an iron rod. 
It will first boil up as a greenish liquid, 
then solidify, and afterward boil up a 
second time, and become thoroughly fused, 
having a brownish-yellow color. At this 
stage the work, which has been previously 
annealed and dipped in dilute aquafor- 
tis, is dipped in the color, being sus- 
pended on a silver or platinum wire, the 
latter being preferred, and kept in mo- 
tion for about a minute and a half, then 
immersed in boiling water containing a 
little aquafortis. The immersion and 
swilling are again repeated, when the ar- 
ticles possess a beautiful color. They 
are then washed in hot water containing 
a little potash, and finally dried in warm 
boxwood sawdust. In dry coloring, the 
work should be as highly polished as pos- 
sible previous to the coloring, for the 
brighter it is the better will be the final 
color. The time given above is only in- 
tended as a general guide, as some work 
will color much quicker than others, and 
the time can only be arrived at by expe- 
rience. The following mixtures have been 
recommended for coloring : 

Process. — 1. — Potassium nitrate, 8 oz. ; 
common salt, 4 oz. ; alum, 4 oz. 

2. — Sal ammoniac, 4 oz. ; potassium ni- 
trate, 4 oz. ; borax, 4 oz. 

Wet Coloring. 

The ingredients of the mixture employed 
in this process have a powerfully solvent 
action on the base metal with which the 
gold is alloyed, and a weaker action on 
the gold itself, so that the article loses 
weight in direct ratio ,to the length of 
time it is submitted to the coloring proc- 
ess, and this loss is greater as the gold is 
lower in quality. Gee states that the 
coloring is hastened, and the loss ^ in 
weight reduced to a minimum, by using 
442] 



Coloring of Metals 



(Gold) 



old coloring liquid, and he assumes that 
the dissolved gold is, to some extent, de- 
posited again on the article, because the 
loss in weight of some common qualities 
of gold was found to be Tery little, and 
the amount of gold . recovered from the 
spent coloring liquid very small indeed. 
This statement is in accord with the well- 
known fact that in any liquid in which 
a metal, say copper, is electropositive to 
the metal in solution, say gold, the latter 
IS deposited on the former. The following 
has been supplied by an experienced Bir- 
mingham jeweler, which he has found to 
be effective : Potassium nitrate, 12 oz. ; 
common salt, 6 oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 3 
oz. The nitrate and salt are pounded to a 
fine powder, and placed in a previously 
warmed plumbago crucible about 8 by 7 
in., then stirred with a wooden spoon 
for a minute or two. The acid is then 
added, with about 1 oz. of boiling water, 
and the mass constantly stirred until it 
boils up to the top of the pot. The work, 
which has been previously cleansed in hot 
potash or soda solution, is then suspend- 
ed in the coloring liquid by means of a 
silver or platinum wire for about one 
minute, then well swilled in boiling water. 
A little more water is added to the color 
pot, and wlien the liquid boils up the 
work is again immersed for another min- 
ute, and swilled in boiling water as be- 
fore. This operation of dipping and swil- 
ling IS repeated several times, the color- 
ing liquid being weakened by adding water 
before each immersion, until the desired 
appearance is attained. The work is 
finally well washed in hot water and dried 
m boxwood sawdust. The whole process 
takes 5 to 7 minutes. The colored work 
IS next scratch-brushed, on a lathe, with 
a revolving brush made of very fine brass 
wire, and having stale beer dropping on 
It. If the coloring has been properly con- 
ducted, a beautiful rich and dead color 
will be produced. 



Process. — 1. — 

Potassium nitrate 8 14 15 

Common salt 4 7 7 

Alum 4 7 7 

Hydrochloric acid. ....... 2 1 

Water in each case 



14 

7 



2.— The following is a useful mixture 
tor removing tarnish from colored gold 
articles which have been kept in stock for 
some time: Bicarbonate of soda, 2 oz. ; 
chloride of lime, 1 oz. ; common salt 1 
oz. ; water, 16 oz. Well mix the above 
ingredients, and apply with a soft brush. 



(Iron and Steel) 



[443] 



IRON AND STEEL 
Blacking. 

Blue Black. — Clean the object thor- 
oughly, remove every trace of grease, then 
cover with the following: Copper sul- 
phate, 8 parts ; nitric acid, 15 parts ; al- 
cohol, 30 parts; water, 125 parts. Mix, 
and dissolve. Let dry on, and when quite 
dry rub with a woolen cloth. 

Brilliant Black. — Boil together: Sul- 
phur, 1 part ; oil of turpentine, 10 parts. 
While boiling, spread in a very light coat- 
ing, by means of a pencil, over the sur- 
face, and heat in the flame of an alco- 
hol lamp until black. 

Gun Metal— For blacking gun barrels : 
Solution of nitric acid, 2 oz. ; tincture 
of iron, 4 oz. ; alcohol, 3 oz. ; sweet 
spirits of niter, 1 oz. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; 
rain water, li^ pt. Scour the barrel 
smooth ; remove all grease with lime, then 
coat freely with the mixture with a piece 
of sponge, but not so as to run about the 
barrel. Let stand in a cool place for 
about 10 hours, then remove to a warm 
room, and let stand till dry, when the 
rust will fly off and not be sticky or 
streaky. The barrels are not dry, and 
must stand until quite dry, or the result 
will be a red barrel. The scratching must 
be done with lard, then boil for about 10 
minutes; take out, and wipe inside and 
out; let stand till cool, -then scratch to 
remove the dead rust; wipe with a clean 
rag, then coat with the mixture lightly; 
let It stand till dry. Scratch, boil, etc 
as in first coat, for 6 coats, when the bar- 
rels may be finished by oiling. 

Bluing. 

Gun Me^aZ.—l.— Revolver.— Sometimes 
the steel is heated to a light gray color, 
allowed to cool, and reheated until blue, 
(a) Get as high a polish as possible on 
the part which you want to blue, (b) 
Get an iron box made (thin sheet iron). 
If for the chamber only, say about 6 in. 
square; no need for rivets; just doubled 
together, (c) Pound up some wood char- 
coal-fill your box with it; put the box 
on a fire (any fire) ; stir up the charcoal 
now and again, till you find it is partly 
Ignited. Now put your chamber into the 
box of partly ignited charcoal ; put it in 
about midway, so as to have as much heat 
at the bottom as at top and sides, (d) 
Have handy a handful of dry powdered 
lime and a piece of tow or cotton waste • 
you will want a small pair of tongs, or 
other means of lifting your article out 
ot the box. When you put the article in 
the box place it again on the fire. Now 



Coloring of Metals 



(Iron and Steel) 



you must pay attention to it; lift it out 
about every 10 minutes, and don't stand 
looking at it, but at once rub it with the 
tow dipped in the lime. As quickly as 
possible put back into the charcoal. Don't 
let your charcoal get too hot ; when you 
see it getting very hot lift the box ofE 
the fire and stand it in any convenient 
spot ; replace on fire again, if necessary. 
Now, the following is important : Your 
chamber, in a short time, gets of a purple 
color, then bright blue. It is very tempt- 
ing to leave off at this bright blue. Don't. 
This first blue is no good ; at least no 
good where the article has to be rubbed 
and cleaned. Continue. The bright blue 
will depart, leaving your chamber nearly 
as before you put it in the box. Don't 
forget every 7 or 10 minutes to take out 
the article and rub it with the tow and 
dry lime. It must not be kept long in 
the air. Presently you should obtain a 
rich dark blue. Finally, when blued, let 
it cool, then oil (any oil). 

2. — Gun Barrels. — a. — To stain, dis- 
solve 41/^ oz. of hyposulphite of soda in 
1 qt. of water, also 1% oz. of acetate of 
lead in 1 qt. of water. Mix the two solu- 
tions and bring to a boil in a porcelain 
dish or stone pot. Clean the gun barrel 
free from grease, oil or varnish, warm 
the barrel, and smear with the hot solu- 
tion, using a piece of sponge tied to a 
stick. When color develops, wash, and 
wipe dry ; finish with boiled linseed oil. 

b. — Heat evenly in a muffle until the 
desired blue color is raised, the barrel 
being first made clean and bright with 
emery cloth, leaving no marks of grease 
or dirt upon the metal when the bluing 
takes place, and then allow to cool in the 
air. It requires considerable experience 
to obtain an even, clear blue. 

Without Heat. — 1. — Clean every part 
carefully, and apply nitric acid, 1 part, 
diluted with 10 parts of water, until a 
blue film is produced on the surface. Then 
wash with warm water, dry, and wipe 
with linseed oil. 

2. — Solution of potassium ferrocyanide 
and water, 1 : 200 ; solution of ferric chlo- 
ride, 1 : 200. Mix the two solutions, and 
dip. 

3. — Antimony trichloride, 25 parts ; ni- 
tric acid, fuming, 25 parts ; hydrochloric 
acid, 50 parts. Apply with a rag, and 
rub, until the proper color is obtained, 
with a piece of green oak. 

Iron. — Dissolve 140 grams of sodium 
hyposulphite in 1 1. of water, add a so- 
lution of 35 grams of lead acetate in 1 1. 
of water, and lay the perfectly bright 
irou objects ia the liquid. 



(Iron and Steel) 



Removing Blue from Steel. — To leave 
it as clean as before coloring, try acetic 
acid, or a solution of tin chloride (stan- 
nous chloride). 

Steel. — 1. — Try the following : Scour 
the steel with a small quantity of a strong 
aqueous solution of soda, rinse in water, 
warm, and brush over with a solution of 
^ oz. of chloride of iron dissolved in 5 
oz. of water, and let it dry ; then apply 
in the same manner a solution of 1-5 of 
an ounce of pyrogallic acid in 1 oz. of 
water ; dry, and brush. Does not wear 
well without lacquering. The blue ox- 
ide is sometimes imitated by using a thin 
alcoholic shellac varnish, colored with an- 
iline blue or Prussian blue. 

2. — The articles to be blued should have 
their surfaces cleaned and polished. They 
may be then heated in fine, clean wood 
ashes to a temperature of from 500 to 
600°, according to the depth of the color 
required. It is not necessary to watch 
the temperature, but simply to examine 
the articles from time to time to see that 
when cooled in the air they assume the 
proper color. They should then be im- 
mediately removed, and the operation is 
then completed. 

3. — To blue steel without heat, mix fine- 
ly powdered Prussian blue with rather 
thin shellac ; gently heat the steel and 
apply the varnish. 

Brassing Iron. 

Remove all organic matter from the 
surface of the iron, and plunge it into 
melted brass. The coating of brass which 
is spread over the iron may be polished 
or burnished. 

Bronzing. 

Lay the object for a moment in a solu- 
tion of iron perchloride and copper sul- 
phate, with a little added nitric acid. 
Remove, and dry at a temperature of 
about 30° C. (85° F.). Finally, suspend 
in a close box containing a vessel of boil- 
ing alcohol, and leave for 20 minutes, 
keeping the alcohol boiling all the time. 
Scratch off with a scratch brush. Re- 
peat the operation several times, or until 
the desired tint is obtained. 

Cast Iron. — The Maschinenhauer de- 
scribes the following process for impart- 
ing to common cast iron all the rich glow 
of bronze, without covering it with a 
metal or an alloy. Thoroughly cleanse 
the surface, and rub it down smooth ; ap- 
ply evenly a coat of vegetable oil, say 
sweet or olive oil, and hfeat the iron ob- 
ject, being careful that the temperature 
does not rise high enough to burn the oil. 



[444] 



Coloring of Metals 



(Iron and Steel) 



At the moment of decomposition of the oil 
the cast iron will absorb oxygen, and this 
forms upon the surface a brown oxide 
skin or film, which takes a fast hold, and 
is so hard that it will admit of a high 
polish, thus bestowing upon the iron a 
most striking resemblance to bronze. 

Gun Barrels. — 1. — Nitric acid, i/^ oz. ; 
sweet spirits of niter, % oz. ; alcohol, 1 
oz. ; sulphate of copper, 2 oz. ; water, 30 
oz. ; tincture of muriate of iron, 1 oz. 
Mix. 

2. — Sulphate of copper, 1 oz. ; sweet 
spirits of niter, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pt. Mix. 
In a few days it will be fit for use. 

3. — Sweet spirits of niter, 3 oz. ; gum 
benzoin, 1^^ oz. ; tincture of chloride of 
iron, 1/^ oz. ; sulphate of copper, 2 dr. ; 
spirit of wine, ^ oz. ; mix, and add 2 lb. 
of soft water. 

4. — Tincture of chloride of iron, % oz. ; 
spirit of nitric ether, % oz. ; sulphate of 
copper, 2 scruples ; rain water, Yz pt. 

The above are applied with a sponge, 
after cleaning the barrel with lime and 
water. When dry they are polished with 
a stiff brush or iron scratch brush. 

5. — Make the following solution : So- 
lution of ferric chloride (s. g. 1.28), 14 
parts ; mercuric chloride, 3 parts ; fuming 
nitric acid, 3 parts ; cupric sulphate, 3 
parts ; water, 80 parts. Mix. With a 
brush or pencil go over the barrels with 
this liquid. Let dry on, then scratch off 
with the scratch brush. Repeat this 2 
or 3 times. Finally plunge the barrels 
into a 1% solution of potassium sulphide, 
and let remain for 10 days. At the end of 
the time wash in hot suds, dry off, and 
cover with linseed oil, which let dry on. 

Iron Castings. — Thoroughly clean, and 
immerse in a solution of sulphate of cop- 
per, when they acquire a coat of the lat- 
ter metal. They must be then washed in 
water. 

Iron Wire. — The following is commend- 
ed as the best and cheapest process : Clean 
the wire perfectly, then immerse it in a 
solution of sulphate of copper (blue vit- 
riol) until covered with a coating of me- 
tallic copper. Then wash and immerse 
the articles in the following solution : 
Verdigris, 2 oz. ; sal ammoniac, 1 oz. ; 
vinegar, 1 pt. ; diluted with water until 
it tastes only slightly metallic, then boiled 
for a few minutes and filtered. The ar- 
ticles are steeped in this liquor at the 
boiling point, until the desired effect is 
produced : but do not keep them in too 
long. When taken out, wash carefully 
in hot water, and dry. 

[ 



(Iron and Steel) 



Browning. 

1. — Dissolve in 4 parts of water 2 parts 
of crystallized iron chloride, 2 parts of 
antimony chloride and 1 part of gallic 
acid, and apply the solution with a sponge 
or cloth to the article, and dry it in the 
air. Repeat this any number of times, 
according to the depth of color which it 
is desired to produce. Wash with water, 
and dry, and finally rub the articles over 
with boiled linseed oil. The metal thus 
receives a brown tint, and resists mois- 
ture. The antimony chloride should be 
as little acid as possible. 

2. — A process having this end in view 
has been recently patented in Germany 
by Mr. A. De Meritens. The goods to 
be browned form the anode of the bath, 
which consists of ordinary or distilled 
water. The cathode is formed by the ves- 
sel which contains the v/ater, if it is 
made of iron ; otherwise, a plate of iron, 
copper or carbon is placed in the bath. 
The water is kept at from 160 to 180° F., 
and the tension of the current must be 
suflBciently great to decompose the water. 
The oxygen which thus is given off at 
the anode forms in an hour or two a 
layer of the black oxide of iron (a com- 
bination of ferrous and ferric oxide), 
which is said to polish up very well. Steel 
is said to give the best results ; in the 
case of cast and wrought iron, the oxide 
of iron formed separates as a powder, 
and it is necessary to use distilled water 
in order to obtain a layer which will ad- 
here to the goods. 

Guns. — 1. — The following recipe for 
browning is from the U. S. Ordnance 
Manual : Alcohol, 1 Yz oz. ; tincture of 
iron, iy2 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, 1% 
oz. ; sweet spirits of niter, 1% oz. ; blue 
vitriol, 1 oz. ; nitric acid, % oz. Mix, 
and dissolve in 1 qt. of warm water, and 
keep in a glass jar. Clean the barrel 
well with caustic soda water to remove 
grease or oil. Then clean the surface of 
all stains and marks by emery paper or 
cloth, so as to produce an even bright 
surface for the acid to act upon, and one 
without finger marks. Stop the bore and 
vent with wooden plugs. Then apply the 
mixture to every part with a sponge or 
rag, and expose to the air for 24 hours, 
when the loose rust should be rubbed off 
with a steel scratch brush. Use the mix- 
ture and a scratch brush twice, and 
more, if necessary, and finally wash in 
boiling water, dry quickly, and wipe with 
linseed oil, or varnish with shellac. 

2. — Sulphate of copper, ^4 av.oz. ; cor- 
rosive chloride of mercury, 1 av.oz. ; tinc- 
445 ] - . 



Coloring of Metals 



(Iron and Steel) 



ture of chloride of iron, 4 fl.oz. ; alcohol, 
4 fl.oz. ; strong nitric acid, V2 A-oz. Mix, 
and apply to the metal, which must be 
perfectly ' clean from all dirt or grease, 
with a sponge or rag ; allow to remain 
24 hours, so as to get thoroughly dry, 
then burnish with a hard brush. To ob- 
tain the desired shade of color, repeat the 
application and burnishing as often as 
is necessary, and then lacquer the metal 
with a thin, clear lacquer. 

3. — Sulphate of copper, i/^ av.oz. ; tinc- 
ture of chloride of iron, 2 fl.dr. ; spirit of 
nitrous ether, 1 fl.dr. ; strong nitric acid, 
1 fl.dr. ; alcohol, 2 fl.dr. ; water, sufficient 
to make 8 fl.oz. Mix, and proceed as 
above. 

Iron or Copper. — 1. — The following are 
taken from Illustrirte Zeitung fuer Blech- 
industrie: Rub the objects with a con- 
sistent mass composed of several sub- 
stances, and burn in the applied layer so 
as to prevent oxidation. This method 
finds frequent use on copper ware, not 
onlv to avoid oxidation and the tiresome 
polishing which becomes necessary, but 
also to impart to the copper, the natural 
color of which is rather glaring, an ap- 
pearance more pleasing to the eye. An- 
nealing, and careful cleansing with cor- 
rosives, of the articles have to precede 
the browning process. A dark brown is 
obtained by stirring equal parts of ver- 
digris and colcothar (English red) in 
vinegar to a pasty consistency, applying 
this on the well cleaned and dried parts, 
heating to redness, and quickly rinsing off 
in acetate of copper. 

2. — Make a paste of 2 parts of finely 
powdered iron oxide with alcohol. This 
mass is applied with a brush as uni- 
formly as possible ; heat over an open 
fire, rinse off, and polish with a soft 
brush. If the desired effect of the color 
is not produced thereby, the operation 
must be repeated. 

3. — Lighter brown shades are produced 
by applying a composition of 2 parts of 
verdigris, 2 parts of vermilion, 5 parts of 
sal ammoniac and 5 parts of alum with 
vinegar. After the application the parts 
are heated and rinsed off. 

With the above operations the greatest 
cleanliness must be observed, and the 
touching of portions to be browned with 
sweaty fingers must be avoided, else spots 
will result, which can only be removed by 
taking everything off again. 

Polish for Iron. — Pulverized asphaltum, 
1 lb. ; gum benzoin, % lb. ; spirits of tur- 
pentine, 2 qt. If needed quickly, keep in 
a warm place, shaking very often. It can 
be shaded well with ivory black, finely 



(Iron and Steel) 



ground. It should be used on iron ex- 
posed to the weather as well as interior 
work requiring a nice polish. Apply with 
a brush. 

Polish on Iron and Steel. — Oil of tur- 
pentine, 15 parts ; sulphur, li/^ parts. 
Boil together. Put a very thin coat on 
the article, and hold over the flame of an 
alcohol lamp. 

Coppering. 

Sulphate of copper, 1% lb. ; dissolve, 
and add 1 fl.oz. of sulphuric acid. 

Frosting Steel. 

Clean and polish the metal, flow it 
quickly with dilute nitric acid, and when 
the proper point is reached wash well 
in running water. 

Gilding. 

1. — Kirchmann says : Rub the surface 
of the iron with sodium amalgam, then 
apply a strong solution of chloride of 
gold ; on heating, mercury will be driven 
off and the iron will be gilded. 

2. — Articles of steel are heated until 
they acquire a bluish color, and iron or 
copper is heated to the same degree. The 
first coating of gold leaf is now applied, 
which must be gently pressed down with 
a burnisher and again exposed to gentle 
heat ; the second leaf is then applied in 
the same way, followed by a third, and 
so on ; or two leaves may be applied in- 
stead of one, but the last leaf should be 
burnished down while the article is cold. 

3. — Polished steel may be beautifully 
gilded by means of the ethereal solution 
of gold. Dissolve pure gold in aqua regia, 
evaporate gently to dryness, so as to drive 
off the superfluous acid, redissolve in 
water, and add 3 times its bulk of sul- 
phuric ether. Allow to stand for 24 hours 
in a stoppered bottle, and the ethereal 
solution of gold will float on top. Pol- 
ished steel, dipped in this, is at once beau- 
tifully gilded, and by tracing patterns on 
the surface of the metal with any kind 
of varnish beautiful devices in plain metal 
and gilt will be produced. For other met- 
als the electro process is best. 

4. — Gilding, Varnish. — a. — Beeswax, 4 
oz. ; verdigris and sulphate of copper, each 
1 oz. Mix, 

b. — Beeswax, 4 oz. ; verdigris, red ocher 
and alum, of each 1 oz. Mix. Used to 
give a red gold color to water gilding. 

NICKEL 

1. — The following solution gives nickel 
a rich, velvety black color : Water, 3 1, 
785 grams ; nickel-ammonium sulphate, 



[446] 



Coloring of Metals 



(Silver) 



34.02 grams ; potassium sulphocyanide, 
85.05 grams ; copper carbonate, 56.70 
grams. The same effect is produced by a 
solution of arsenic trioxide in ammonium 
carbonate. 

2. — Nickel, as well as copper, can be 
blackened by brushing with an aqueous 
solution of platinic chloride. 

SILVER 
Blackening. 

1. — Plunge into a solution of an alka- 
line sulphide. Remove, and rub with a 
brush dipped in powdered cream of tartar. 

2. — Rub the object with a solution of 
silver nitrate. 

Browning. 

To give silver a deep brown color, treat 
it with a solution of sal ammoniac and 
copper sulphate, in equal parts, in vinegar. 

Burnishing. 

Remove all dirt with powdered pumice 
stone, then brush all parts with strong 
soapsuds ; wipe with a linen cloth, and 
burnish. Use soapy water as a lubri- 
cant. 

Frosting and Whitening of Silver Goods, 
Pickle for. 

1. — Sulphuric acid, 1^^ dr. ; water, 6 
oz. Heat, and immerse the silver until 
frosted as desired. Wash well, dry with 
a soft linen cloth or in fine sawdust. 
For whitening only, use less acid. 

2. — Polished Silver. — Make a solution 
of % oz. of cyanide of potassium in ^ 
pt. of water. Apply to the silver with a 
brush. Hold the silver with pliers made 
of lancewood or boxwood. Very poison- 
ous. 

Gilding. 

1. — Dissolve equal parts, by weight, of 
bichloride of mercury (corrosive subli- 
mate and chloride of ammonium (sal am- 
moniac) in nitric acid; now add some 
grain gold to the mixture, and evaporate 
the liquid to half its bulk ; apply while 
hot to the surface of the silver article. 

2. — A rich gold tint may be imparted 
to silver articles by plunging them into 
dilute sulphuric acid saturated with iron 
rust. 

3. — Water Gilding. — Pour strong vine- 
gar on copper flakes ; add alum and salt 
in equal quantities ; set on a fire, and 
when the vinegar has boiled until it be- 
comes % part its original quantity throw 
into it the metal you design to gild, and 
it will assume a copper color. Continue 



(Silver) 



boiling, and it will change into a fine 
gold color. 

Oxidizing. 

1. — Add four or five thousandths of 
ammonium sulphide or potassium sul- 
phide to water at a temperature of 160 
to 180° F. When the articles are dipped 
into this solution an iridescent coating 
of silver sulphide is produced, which, after 
a few seconds, turns blue black if allowed 
to remain in the liquid. Remove, rinse, 
scratch-brush, and burnish when desired. 

2. — There are two distinct shades in 
use, one produced by a chloride, which 
has a brownish tint, and the other by 
sulphur, which has a bluish-black tint. 
To produce the former it is only neces- 
sary to wash the article with a solution of 
sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). 

3. — A much more beautiful tint may be 
obtained by employing a solution com- 
posed of equal parts of copper sulphate 
and ammonium chloride in vinegar (or 
dilute acetic acid). The fine black tint 
may be produced by a slightly warm so- 
lution of sodium or potassium sulphide. 

4. — Bromine, 5 gr. ; potassium bromide, 
5 dwt. ; water, 10 oz. ; boil the silver in 
this usually 2 to 5 minutes, then polish 
with rouge. 

5. — Dissolve sulphate of copper, 2 
dwts. ; nitrate of potash, 1 dwt. ; ammo- 
nium chloride, 2 dwts., in a little acetic 
acid. Warm the article and apply the 
solution with a camel's-hair pencil and 
expose to the fumes of sulphur in a closed 
box. Parts not to be colored must be 
coated with wax. 

6. — Dip the clean silver article in a so- 
lution of sulphide of potassium (liver of 
sulphur), 2 dr. to 1 pt. of water. Heat 
this solution to a temperature of 175° F. 
Immerse for a few seconds only, when 
the article becomes blue black. For a 
velvet black, dip the article, previous to 
oxidizing, in a solution of mercurous ni- 
trate and water, and rinse. Then dip in 
the sulphide solution as above. For a 
brown shade, oxidize in the potassium 
sulphide as above, then dip in a liquid 
composed of 10 parts of blue vitriol and 
5 parts of sal ammoniac to 100 parts of 
vinegar. After oxidation, brush with a 
scratch brush very lightly, to brighten 
and variegate the surface. There are 
many other methods, among which will be 
found the following : 

7. — Expose to the vapor of chlorine. 

8. — Use a solution of equal parts of 
copper sulphate and ammonium chloride 
dissolved in vinegar. 



[447] 



Coloring of Metals 



(Zinc) 



9.— Potassium sulphide dissolved in 
warm water. 

10. — Sodium sulphide dissolved in warm 
water. 

11. — Wash with a solution of ammo- 
nium chloride. 

Platinizing. 

Place some platinum in a small quan- 
tity of aqua regia or nitrohydrochloric 
acid, and keep it in a warm place for a 
few days, when it will have dissolved. As 
soon as it has dissolved, evaporate the 
liquid at a gentle heat until it is as thick 
as honey, so as to get rid of the excess 
of the nitric and hydrochloric acids. Add 
a little water, and it is ready for use. 
A dozen drops of this solution goes a 
long way in platinizing silver. The op- 
eration is performed in a small glass or 
beaker, covered with a watch glass to 
keep in the fumes, and placed in a little 
sand in a saucer to equalize the heat. 

Red. 

A solution containing 9.72 grams of 
uranium nitrate in 1,130 grams of water 
is mixed with a solution of potassium 
ferrocyanide of the same concentration. 
When the solution is to be used, 283 
grams of acetic acid and 2 liters 268 
grams of water are added, the mixture 
is warmed, and the silver immersed ; a 
deep red color develops on the surface of 
the latter. 

Rose. 

Immerse for a few seconds in a con- 
centrated hot solution of copper chloride ; 
rinse, dry, and immerse in alcohol ; finally, 
dry off by holding near the fire. 

Slate Gray. 

Make a solution of 35.4 grams of iodine 
and 345.4 grams of potassium iodide in 
% 1. of water. 

ZINC 

Blacking. 

1. — Chloride of platinum, painted on 
zinc, gives a very dead black. 

2. — Zinc may be given a fine black 
color, according to Knaffl, by cleaning its 
surface with sand and sulphuric acid and 
immersing for an instant in a solution 
composed of 4 parts of sulphate of nickel 
and ammonia in 40 parts of water, acidu- 
lated with 1 part of sulphuric acid, wash- 
ing, and drying it. The black coating 
adheres firmly, and takes a bronze color 
under the burnisher. Brass may be 
stained black with a liquid containing 2 
parts of arsenious acid, 4 parts of hydro- 



(Zinc) 



chloric acid and 1 part of sulphuric acid, 
in 80 parts of water. 

3. — A weak solution of sulphate of cop- 
per, and then with a decoction of log- 
wood. 

4. — Clean the zinc by dipping in an 
acid ; rinse, and plunge into the follow- 
ing : Nickel ammonium sulphide, 4 parts ; 
sulphuric acid, 1 part ; water, 40 parts. 
Mix. Wash the article, and dry care- 
fully. 

5. — Treat with an acidulated solution 
of antimony chloride, thus : Hydrochlo- 
ric acid, 6 parts ; antimony chloride, 10 
parts ; alcohol, 100 parts. Mix. When 
the desired shade is attained, dry, and rub 
with some good drying oil. Give 2 or 3 
coats. 
Bronzing. 

1. — Mix thoroughly 30 parts of sal am- 
moniac, 10 parts of oxalate of potash and 
1,000 parts of vinegar. Apply with a 
brush or a rag several times until the 
desired tint is produced. 

2. — Puscher employs acetate of lead for 
this purpose. On applying this substance, 
mixed with a minium preparation, a red- 
dish brown tinge is obtained. The cupola 
of the synagogue at Nuremberg was thus 
colored, as an experiment, a long time 
ago, and to all appearance is yet unaf- 
fected by the weather. By adding other 
bases lighter or darker tints of gray and 
yellow may be obtained, giving the zinc 
work the appearance of carved stone. 
With a solution of chlorate of copper the 
preparation turns the sheets of zinc. 

3. — First give a coat of brass (see 
Electrometallurgy). Then wet with a 
cloth dipped in copper protochloride dis- 
solved in hydrochloric acid. When dry, 
brush with a mixture of equal parts of 
iron peroxide and plumbago mixed up 
with a little essence of turpentine. Var- 
nish with thin copal varnish. 

Green Patina. 

1. — Make the following solution : So- 
dium hyposulphite, 2 parts ; sulphuric 
acid, 1 part ; water, 20 parts. Mix ; fil- 
ter off the precipitated sulphur, and heat 
the filtrate. Plunge the object into the 
hot solution ; watch the coloration as it 
progresses, and when the desired tint is 
secured remove, let dry, and varnish with 
copal. 

2. — Zinc Roofs. — Cleanse the zinc of all 
dirt, and coat it repeatedly with a diluted 
solution of copper nitrate. When the 
whole roof has been coppered over, cover 
it with a likewise diluted solution of car- 
bonate of ammonia. On this coat of cop- 
per patina readily forms. 



[448] 



Coloring of Metals 



(Zinc) (Zinc) 



Bronzing for Zinc, by Simple Immersion 



^ fSlli^ « 1 i^ illlll 

•wey fto r^-r 



o 

Q 



^ « oo -^S 35'^ ^ « B'S go §5 ^ 



pt. dr. dr. dr. dr. oz. oz. dr. dr. 

1 5 Black. 

1 . . 1 Black. 

1 .. 1 1 Dark gray. 

2 .. .. 1 1 Dark gray. 

. . X * Dark gray. 

2 1 Green gray, 

X . . Red— Boil. 

1.. .. 4 .. .. 4 Copper color. Plates socA : 

1 .. .. 8 8 ., .. Copper color, with agitation. 

X Purple — Boil. 



*Made to the consistency of cream. 



C440] 



CHAPTER IX 



DYEIISTG 



DYEING 

Simple directions for dyeing textiles 
will be found at the end of the chapter. 
Dyeing is a business, and can hardly be 
learned from formulas, hence the inclu- 
sion of any great number has been avoid- 
ed as taking up valuable space. 

Bristles, To Dye. 

Steep them for a short time in any of 
the common dyes used for cotton or v^ool. 

Celluloid. 

Black. — The object is first dipped in 
weak lye, then in a weak solution of ni- 
trate of silver, and allowed to dry ex- 
posed to the light. 

Blue. — For this use an indigo solution, 
almost neutralized with potash ; also Ber- 
lin blue solution ; also, on the one hand, 
chloride of iron solution, and on the other 
ferrocyanide of potassium solution. 

Brown. — Use a solution of permanga- 
nate of potash made alkaline with soda. 

Green. — Place the object in a solution 
of 2 parts of verdigris and 1 part of chlo- 
ride of ammonia. 

Purple. — Immerse the object in dilute 
solution of chloride of gold, and then ex- 
pose to strong light. 

Red. — Immerse the object first in water 
weakly acidulated with nitric acid, then 
in ammoniacal cochineal or carmine solu- 
tion. 

Yellow. — Immerse the object first in a 
solution of nitrate of lead and then in a 
solution of yellow chromate of potash. 

Easter Egg Dyes. 

Blue. — Marine blue, B. N. (aniline 
colors), 30 gr. ; citric acid, 250 gr. ; dex- 
trine, 1 oz. 

Brown. — Vesuvih, S., % av.oz. ; citric 
acid, % av.oz. ; dextrine, % av.oz. 

Green. — Brilliant Green, O., 200 gr. ; 
citric acid, 250 gr. ; dextrine, 2 oz. 

Orange. — Orange, II, 125 gr. ; citric 
acid, 250 gr. ; dextrine, 2 oz. 

Red.— Diamond, fuchsin, I, small crys- 
tals, 25 gr. ; citric acid, 125 gr. ; dextrine, 
1 oz. 

Rose. — Eosin, A., 50 gr. ; dextrine, 2 
av.oz. 



Violet. — Methyl violet, 6B, 30 gr. ; 
citric acid, 150 gr. ; dextrine, 1 oz. 

YeWoio.— Naphthol, yellow, S., 200 gr. ; 
citric acid, 500 gr. ; dextrine, 2 oz. 

To use, dissolve the dye in an earthen 
vessel, in 1 pt. of boiling water ; stir un- 
til solution is completed. In the mean- 
time, boil 5 well washed eggs in water 
for 5 minutes, then transfer them to the 
dye, and allow to remain until sufficiently 
colored, turning them occasionally. Dry 
with a soft cloth, and rub with oil until 
they appear glossy. 

Feathers. 

In general terms, clean with carbonate 
of ammonia, wash, and steep overnight 
in a solution of nitrate of iron 7° B. ; 
then rinse in water. Boil out equal parts 
of logwood and quercitron, and immerse 
the feathers at a "hand heat." When 
black, remove, and wash in warm water. 
Dissolve 3% oz. of bicarbonate of potash 
in 5 qt. of hot water and stir in 17% oz. 
of olive oil ; shake until it becomes an 
emulsion. As before, at a gentle heat, 
immerse in this, draw out the surplus 
moisture between the finger and thumb, 
and dry over a stove, constantly shaking 
them. Experience and skill are neces- 
sary. 

Black. — 1. — ^The feathers should be 
soaked in a solution of ammonium or so- 
dium carbonate, whereby they are ren- 
dered less liable to break or bend ; after 
being dyed they should be dried in a cur- 
rent of warm air. Feathers may be dyed 
black in the following baths : (a) Water, 
100 pt. ; ignited sodium carbonate, 1 lb. 
(b) Ferric nitrate at 70° B. (c) Log- 
wood, 2 lb. ; quercitrine, 2 lb. Half a 
pound of feathers is digested in (a) at 
30° ; the feathers are then washed with 
warm water and soaked in (b). After 
another washing they are boiled in (c) 
until of a deep black color ; they are then 
dipped in an emulsion formed by agitat- 
ing oil and potassium carbonate together, 
and dried by gently swinging them in 
warm air. 

2. — By immersion for 2 or 3 days in a 
bath (at first hot) of logwood, 8 parts, 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[451] 



Dyeing 



(Feathers) 



and copperas or acetate of iron, about 1 
part. 

Bronze. — Fashion has introduced gilded 
and silvered feathers. It is chiefly goose 
feathers and wings of pigeons which ap- 
pear covered with gold and silver. The 
process is very simple. The feather is 
dipped in bronze powder and rubbed with 
a piece of wash leather. In course of 
wearing, however, the bronze is very easily 
detached. To prevent this, the feather, 
before being dipped in the bronze pow- 
der, is taken through gum water, pressed 
nearly dry between cloths, and in its 
slightly adhesive state is treated with 
bronze powder. Partially bronzed feath- 
ers and wings are produced by covering 
those parts which are to remain plain 
with pasteboard, and the bronze powder 
is rubbed upon the rest with a feather. 
Of course, varied effects may be produced 
by dyeing the feathers with aniline col- 
ors, etc., prior to the application of the 
bronze. 

Crimson. — A mordant of alum, fol- 
lowed by a hot bath of Brazil wood, and 
afterward by a weak one of cudbear. 

Brown. — Feathers may be dyed brown 
by first treating them with catechu and 
then with potassium chromate ; they can 
be dyed directly with aniline colors, and 
can be bronzed by painting with aniline 
violet dissolved in alcohol at 90%. 

Gray. — 1. — Felt gray is a yellowish 
gray. It consists in employing felt gray in 
connection with rose-colored gray. These 
two substances, of easy application, will 
serve for the generality of the tents in 
question. If it were required to produce a 
somewhat roseate hue, cochine'al or violet 
might be taken ; if, on the contrary, a 
green one, a very small quantity of indigo- 
carmine would be required. These color- 
ing substances are applied, according to 
the feather and the tone of the color, in 
a cold, lukewarm or boiling-hot bath, 
acidulated with acetic acid or salt of sor- 
rel. 

2. — Giselle gray is a mixture of white 
with black. It is easily obtained by dye- 
ing the feather with a small quantity of 
gloss black. As there is always a residue 
of yellowish hue, it becomes necessary to 
give it a rose color with cochineal. This 
operation is effected in a cold bath acidu- 
lated with a small quantity of potassium 
binoxalate. If it be an ostrich feather, 
starch is dissolved in it. 

3. — Iron Gray, Steel Gray, etc. — ^These 
kinds of gray are usually rather darkish ; 
the tints result from a mixture of blue, 
a good deal of black, and some white. 
They are obtained on the feather by means 

[ 



(Gloves) 



of a conveniently proportioned mixture of 
roseate gray and blue gray, the shade be- 
ing subsequently imparted as in the case 
of the other gray species. 

Pink or Rose. — With saflBiower and 
lemon juice. 

Plum. — 1. — The red dye, followed by 
alkaline bath. 

2. — The plum color is a pale violet. The 
feather is dyed in a bath acidulated with 
sulphuric acid, archil, indigo-carmine and 
black gloss, so that an almost black gar- 
net may be produced. It is well to add 
a little lilac. The feather is taken out 
of the bath only at this moment. It is 
rinsed in pure water and then given a 
violet tint in a more or less heated solu- 
tion of carbonate of soda. During this 
operation the archil turns from red to 
violet. Black is developed, and settles 
more firmly on the feather, while a large 
portion of the indigo-carmine goes off. 
It is a primitive process, and certainly 
not economical, but which, nevertheless, 
gives good results in skilled hands ; but 
in the hands of unskilled operators it is 
extremely tiresome and of doubtful suc- 
cess. 

Red. — A mordant of alum, followed by 
a hot Brazil wood bath. 

Yellow. — An alum mordant, followed 
by a bath or turmeric or weld. Other 
shades may be obtained by a mixture of 
the above dyes. Feathers may also be 
dyed by simple immersion for 2 or 3 min- 
utes in a bath of any of the aniline col- 
ors. 

Gloves. 

Kid gloves of good quality, especially 
when light colored, are often thrown away 
when soiled, and made no further use of. 
By employing the following simple means 
they might easily be dyed violet, black or 
yellow, by the owner himself, and made 
to look almost equal to new. The gloves 
are first soaked in a little hot water con- 
taining dissolved crystals of soda or pot- 
ash, whichever color may be desired, and 
after a 25-minute bath they are taken 
out, washed, rinsed, and wrung. When 
the gloves are thus cleaned they are 
stretched tightly over a wooden hand and 
the dye applied. 

The aniline colors can be employed 
without any previous preparation of the 
leather. The bluish tint so greatly liked 
in black gloves is obtained by washing 
the finished article with sal ammoniac so- 
lution. If it is required to keep the 
seams white, they are covered with flour 
paste with which some fat has been ad- 
mixed. Instead of brushes, one may some- 
times use a sponge, 
452] 



Dyeing 



(Gloves) 



Black. — The glove is washed in alco- 
hol, and three times brushed over with 
a decoction of logwood, allowing between 
each brushing 10 minutes for drying ; 
afterward dipped into a solution of iron 
protosulphate, and then brushed with 
warm water. Should the color not prove 
sufficiently dark, a decoction of quercitron 
may be added to the logwood decoction. 
Instead of the protosulphate some nitrate 
of iron may be used. As the leather be- 
gins to dry it is rubbed over with the 
talc powder and some olive oil, and 
pressed between flannel. The treatment 
with talc and oil is repeated, and the 
glove then allowed to dry on the stretch- 
wood. 

Brown. — The solution is made of vary- 
ing quantities of decoctions of logwood 
and Guinea wood. For darkeninjg, a 
small quantity of iron protosulphate is 
employed. 

Gray. — Brushing with a decoction of 
sumac, and subsequent treatment with a 
feeble solution of iron protosulphate. The 
addition of logwood and yellow Brazil 
wood to the sumac decoction produces a 
greenish gray tint. 

Modes and Grays. — Clean with soap in 
the usual manner, and after they have 
been brushed with water brush over with 
the following mixture at 104° F. : Log- 
wood, 45 gr. ; orchil, 8% oz. ; water, 1% 
pt. Boil. A second bath is prepared of 
30 gr. of nitrate of iron in 35 oz. of 
water, and is applied with the brush, to 
produce a gray tone. 

Orange Yellow. — Simple decoction of 
onion peel is said to produce upon glove 
leather an orange yellow superior in lus- 
ter to any other. It is also said to be 
suitable for mixing with light bark shades, 
especially willow bark, and as a yellow 
for modulating browns. The onion dye is 
said to fix itself readily, even upon leath- 
ers which resist colors, and colors them 
well and evenly. 

Russia Red. — Decoction of cochineal 
with a tin salt and some saccharic acid ; 
and if a dark tint is demanded, the addi- 
tion of some logwood extract. 

Straw. — After cleaning, as in white, 
and rinsing well in water, two baths are 
prepared: (1) a bath of soda at %° B. 
(2) A bath of nitrate of iron at the same 
strength. The gloves are brushed first 
with (1), then dried, and brushed with 
(2), and finally with water, and dried 
at a gentle heat. They are then finished 
with the following mixture : Yolk of egg, 
155 gr. ; glycerine, 77 gr. ; water, 1% pt. 
When half dried they are rubbed with 
clean flannel. 



(Hats) 



Violet. — According to the tint desired, 
aniline or orseille violet must be used. 
Apply a little of the color by means of a 
brush or rag dipped in the coloring liquid. 
Lay on several coats of alum dissolved 
in water, then di-y- Then apply 1 or 2 
layers of the dye, which must be always 
hot. The kid is polished before finally 
drying, with a pad made of cork, covered 
with a piece of woolen cloth. This is 
the best way of regaining the gloss. 

White. — The gloves are placed on a 
wooden hand and then brushed over with 
a soft paint brush steeped in curd soap, 
155 gr. ; milk, 35 fl.oz. They are then 
dusted over with flne Venice talc, and 
rubbed with a bit of clean flannel. If 
this process does not leave them white 
enough, it is recommended. 

Yellow. — This requires a less compli- 
cated process — a decoction of Avignon 
crystals with alum. Apply several lay- 
ers, and polish the kid in the way indi- 
cated above. 

Gutta Percha. 

After dissolving 2 oz. of gutta percha 
in chloroform add 1 gr. of pure carmine, 
dissolved in a little pulverized gum and 
water. After the chloroform is distilled 
off the gutta percha is to be thoroughly 
kneaded. Anything may be used in this 
way, according to the color required, such 
as ocher, ultramarine, etc. 

Hats. 

Brotvn. — 1. — Bismarck Brown on Felt 
Hats (50 hats). — Prepare with soda, as 
formerly directed^ and boil for 45 minutes 
with 22 lb. of fustic, 10^ oz. of logwood, 
3% lb. of sumac, 8% lb. of sanders and 
1714 oz. of argol. Boil for 2 hours, and 
add 2 lb. 3 oz. of bluestone and 7 oz. of 
copperas. Re-enter the hats, and boil for 
% hour longer. 

2. — Brown on Mixed Hats (5 doz.). — 
Prepare with soda, and boil for 2 hours 
with 22 lb. of fustic, 5 lb. 7 oz. of mad- 
der, 25% oz. of turmeric, 2 lb. 3 oz. of 
madder, 25% oz. of sanders and 17^ oz. 
of argol. Air the hats and add 17% 
fl.oz. of black liquor and 2% oz. of cop- 
peras. Re-enter the hats, and boil again 
for an hour. 

3. — Chrome Brown on Felt Hats (50 
hats). — Prepare with 4% oz. of chromate 
of potash, 14 oz. of argol and 17^^ fl.oz. 
of a solution of tin. Let the hats lie 
overnight in the flot, and dye the next 
morning in fresh water with 17^ oz. of 
young fustic, 2G oz. of fustic, I714 oz. of 
turmeric, 6 lb. 9 oz. of madder, 3 lb. 4 oz, 
of peachwood and 7 oz. of logwood. 



[453] 



Dyeing 



(Straw) 



4. — Cinnamon. — Red lead, 3^ lb. ; best 
terra castle, 2% lb. ; picric acid, 2^ oz. ; 
indigo extract, ^^ gill; orchil, 3 pt. The 
picric acid is first dissolved in hot water, 
and the other ingredients are added. ( See 
also Straw Dyeing, below.) 

Cream Color. — (24 doz. 3-oz. bodies.) — 
Red lead, 2 lb. ; common terra cotta, 2 
lb. ; indigo extract in liquor, 2 gills ; or- 
chil, 3 gills. 

Fawn Color. — Burnt sienna, ground 
fine, 1% lb. ; burnt umber, % lb. ; orchil, 
% gill ; indigo extract in liquor, 14 giU. 

Gray. — An ordinary drab for soft hats : 
Common graphite, % lb. ; best graphite, 
% lb. ; orchil, 3 gills ; indigo extract, 2 
gills. Put the graphite into a pan, cover 
with water, and let down with sulphuric 
acid at 30° Tw. 

Mouse Color. — Common graphite (black 
lead), 31/2 lb.; best terra castle, 21/2 lb.; 
indigo extract in liquor, 2% gills ; orchil, 
4 gills ; red lead, 8 oz. 

Rose. — Common graphite, 2% lb. ; in- 
digo extract in liquor, 2 gills ; orchil, 5 
gills. 

Slate. — Common graphite, 4 lb. ; indigo 
extract, 4 gills ; orchil, 3% gills. 

Horsehair. 

The horsehair is first washed in soap, 
and rinsed. 

Blue. — 1. — The hair is mordanted in a 
solution of 2 parts of alum and 1 part of 
tartar, rinsed, and dyed in a solution of 
sulphate of indigo, then washed and dried. 

2. — Violet shade. — Treated as described 
in brown, then passed through water to 
which a little chloride of tin solution has 
been added. 

Brown. — -Obtained by letting lie for 12 
hours in a decoction of logwood and lime- 
water at 120° F. 

Red. — The hair is first laid down for 
iy2 hours in a solution of chloride of 
tin, and then prepared as blue, violet 
shade ; after rinsing it is dyed with Brazil 
wood and alum, allowed to lie in the bath 
24 hours, washed, and dried. 

Pasteboard. 

To color white pasteboard the color of 
leather, soak in a solution of copperas 
and then in ammonia. 

Straw. 

Black. — 1.— In order to obtain a level 
color a solution of gluten is added to a 
lye of soda, which is allowed to stand for 
24 hours and filtered. The hats are then 
steeped for 12 hours in the clear liquid. 
The straw is thus freed from grease, and 
the mordants of nitrate, sulphate, or ace- 



( Straw) 



tate of iron, as well as the decoction of 
logwood, mixed with sumac or galls, is 
very evenly taken up by the fiber. A 
slight addition of bichromate of potash 
improves the tone of the dye, and the 
goods are finished with gum or gelatine. 

2.— For 11 lb. of hats : Copperas, 2 lb. 
3 oz. ; red argol, 1 lb. ly^ oz. ; bluestone, 
17% oz. If possible, steep the hats over- 
night in an old black dye beck, and dye 
up the next morning in fresh water with 
about 4 lb. 6 oz. of good logwood and 
a little turmeric. The hats thus dyed 
appear, at first, rather brownish, but they 
assume a fine black luster on brushing. 

3. — The hats are first steeped in a beck 
of soda at 5° Baume at the heat of 122"* 
F., for 3 hours, rinsed, and soaked over- 
night in a sumac beck containing 2^4 lb. 
of sumac per 5 hats. In the morning 
take out and drain, and soak for 3 hours 
in a cold beck of black liquor at 2° B. 
Take out, drain, and lay the hats sepa- 
rately to air for 6 hours ; rinse, and dye 
at 144° F., with 21^ lb. of logwood per 
11 lb. of hats, till the shade is reached. 
Lift, drain, dip singly in a lukewarm 
beck containing 8% oz, of glue per 17 pt. 
of water ; dry, and rub with a hard brush. j 

Bleaching and Dyeing. — Put the straw 1 
hats into a pan of boiling water and let ■ 
them steep overnight. The next morning 
make up a strong soap beck and brush 
them well therein. Put them in the stove, 
without rinsing, for 24 hours, then rinse 
and dry. 

Brown (11 lb.). — 1. — Boil for 2 hours J 
with 4 lb. 6 oz. of fustic, 3% lb. of orchil, I 
1% oz. of argol, and the same weight of 1 
logwood. 

2. — Boil for an hour in the solution of 
3% lb. of catechu, drain, and work in 
a fresh beck made up of 2 lb. 3 oz. of cop- 
peras, and rinse. 

3.— Catechu Brown.— For 11 lb. of 
hats : Boil with sulphate of alumina, 
17% oz. ; bisulphate of soda, 8% oz. ; oil 
of vitriol, 4% oz. Add to the bath orchil, 
indigo, carmine and turmeric, according 
to shade, and boil. 

Gray. — For 11 lb. of hats : For iron 
gray, steep in a decoction of sumac, and 
dye cold in a beck made up with benzo- 
line and a little acetic acid. There are 
three sorts of benzoline, so that the tone 
of the gray may be varied at will. These 
benzoline grays are much brighter than 
those obtained with the old processes. 

Green. — Straw is placed in boiling 
water, then well washed with cold water, 
and bleached in a bath containing 20 gr. 
of bleaching powder to 7 or 9 gr. of sul- 
phuric acid. It is then thoroughly 



[454] 



Dyeing 



(Textiles) 



washed and mordanted with sumac, alum 
and tartaric acid (not too dilute a li- 
quor). Finally, it is dyed with aniline 
green and picric acid until the required 
shade is obtained, after digesting for some 
time. 

Magenta Bed. — The first operation for 
dyeing this or any other color on straw 
is to steep the latter in a bath acidulated 
with sulphuric acid, for 12 hours. For 
magenta, take an acid bath of 4 to 5° Be. 
The straw, after washing, is immersed 
for 12 hours in a bath kept at 30 to 40" 
C, containing the necessary amount of 
dye. Now wash well, and dry. Other 
aniline colors do not dye straw with the 
same facility. 

Maroon, with Logwood. — Clean the 
straw by boiling with a solution of car- 
bonate of soda, then steep in a bath of 
logwood for 2 hours. To give a bluish 
tint, add some bluestone to the bath ; if 
too much of the latter is used the straw 
will have a greenish hue. This is a loose 
color, only employed on account of its 
cheapness. 

Yellow. — To produce the yellow shade, 
which is in such demand, give them a bath 
with a little picric acid soured with a 
little oil of vitriol, and let them dry on 
the block. For a gloss, rinse in gum 
arable water or water in which gelatine 
has been soaked. 

Textiles. 

Simple Dyes for Home Use. — The fol- 
lowing are specially intended for those 
living in isolated districts, where special 
dyes and dyeing materials are practically 
unavailable. First it may be stated that 
in almost every case a fixing material or 
fluid is required, this being usually termed 
a mordant. The common rule is to use 
alum for fixing ordinary reds, blues, yel- 
lows and greens, ^4 lb. of alum to 2 gal. 
of boiling water. For deeper colors, such 
as black, purple, violet, and the heavy 
browns, acetate of iron is used. For 
scarlets and brilliant reds of this shade 
"tin liquor," or muriate of tin, is re- 
quired. To make this, obtain some tin 
filings (or pour some molten tin into 
cold water from a height of about 6 ft., 
which will reduce it to small particles). 
When dried, put the tin in a bottle, pour 
in 12 oz. of muriatic acid (known also as 
spirits of salts), then add, a little at a 
time, 8 oz. of sulphuric acid. The lat- 
ter must be added slowly, or the heat will 
break the bottle. When ebullition has 
ceased, stopper the bottle and let it stand 
a day. It will keep good for a year or 
more. This mordant can often be ob- 



( Textiles) 



[465] 



tained already prepared at a druggist's, 
with directions for use. As previously 
stated in this chapter, all goods to be 
dyed must be washed perfectly clean, all 
grease, or size, or "dress," being removed. 
Failing this, the work will finish patchy 
or spotty. After dyeing goods, they should 
be dried, or at least well aired, before 
washing out the superfluous dye. Silk 
and merino dresses should not be wrung. 
When hanging to dry, let all shawls and 
dress goods be fastened up by their edges, 
so as to dry evenly. 

Whenever using logwood chips as a dye, 
boil them for % hour ; or, to hasten mat- 
ters, they may be tied up loosely in a 
bag, and be boiled with the goods (though 
it is not so good a plan) ; or the extract 
may be used, 2^ oz. of this being equal 
to 1 lb. of chips. 

Woolen Goods. — Black. — Prepare a 
mordant of copperas, ^ lb. to 2 gal. of 
water, boiled together. (This is also 
known as green vitriol ; blue vitriol may 
also be used.) While boiling, dip the 
goods for about 40 minutes, airing them 
between ; or the goods may be boiled in 
the solution for 15 minutes, which is 
quicker, but not quite so good. Have 
ready a dye made by boiling 2 lb. of log- 
wood chips for y2 hour. Immerse the 
goods in the boiling dye for 1 hour, then 
air, and immerse again for ^^ hour ; or 
the goods may be boiled in the dye for 1 
hour. Dry thoroughly, and afterward 
wash in suds to remove superfluous dye. 
Rinse, and then press or iron out, using 
a damp linen sheet between the iron and 
the dyed goods. 

Blue. — 1. — For 1 lb. of goods : Alum, 
2y2 oz. ; cream of tartar, 1% oz. ; water. 
Boil together, then boil the goods in it 
for an hour. Prepare some warm water 
with indigo extract in it to the color de- 
sired, and boil up. Add more indigo if 
desired. 

2. — Boil together 2 gal. of water, 2 lb. 
of logwood chips, % oz. of Brazil wood 
and 1/^ lb. of green vitriol (copperas). 
Strain clear of the chips, then boil the 
goods in the liquor. 

Green. — For 1 lb. of goods : Fustic, 
1 lb. ; alum, 3i/^ oz. ; water. Steep until 
most of the strength is extracted, then 
soak the goods until a good yellow is ob- 
tained. Remove the fustic, and add ex- 
tract of indigo (also known as chemic), 
a very little at a time, until the desired 
green is obtained. 

Indigo Extract. — This is used for a blue 
coloring, and is made as follows : Take 
1 oz. of finely ground indigo and stir it 
into % lb. of oil of vitriol, and stir for 



Dyemg 



(Textiles) 



30 minutes. Cover over, and let it remain 
for 2 or 3 days, giving it a stir occasion- 
ally. Then stir in ^ teaspoonful, or less, 
of carbonate of soda to neutralize the 
acid. Store in a glass bottle, and it will 
keep vrell. It can often be obtained ready 
prepared at druggists. 

Madder Red. — For 1 lb. of goods: 
Alum, 5 oz. ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; 
water. Boil together, then put in the 
goods, and boil for % hour. Take them 
out to air for a little time, and boil for 
% hour longer. Now, in another pan 
put sufficient bran to half fill it, and 
then fill up with water. Make it slightly 
warm, and let it stand until the bran 
rises. Skim ofE the bran and put in % 
lb. of madder. Put in the goods, and 
boil up slowly. When the water boils 
the dyeing is finished. Wash in suds. 

Pink. — The same quantity of cochineal 
and cream of tartar, but no tin liquor. 
First boil 1 lb. of alum in water for the 
mordant, and dip the goods in this for 
1 hour, then follow with the dye. 

Scarlet.— For 2 lb. of goods: Well 
pulverized cochineal, 1 oz. ; cream of tar- 
tar, 1 oz. ; tin liquor, water, 5 oz. Boil 
together, then put in the goods, working 
them about for 10 minutes, afterward 
boiling for 1 hour. Stir occasionally 
when boiling. Finally, wash in clear 
water, and either finish as described with 
black, or dry in the shade. 

Snuff Brown. — For 1 lb. of goods : 
Camwood, 4 oz. ; boil this for 20 minutes. 
Dip the goods for % hour ; remove goods, 
and add to the liquor % lb. of fustic. 
Boil for y^ hour, and dip the goods again 
for % hour. Remove goods, and add ^4 
oz. of blue vitriol and 1 oz. of green vit- 
riol (copperas). Boil up, and dip again 
for % hour. More green vitriol will 
darken the color. It is permanent. 

Cotton and Linen Woven Goods. — 
In all cases, cotton or linen goods should 
be boiled in strong soapsuds or weak lye, 
to make them clean, the suds or lye being 
then carefully rinsed out with clear water. 

Black. — Some trouble is always neces- 
sary to get a permanent black on cotton 
goods. For 1 lb. of goods. Take Vq lb. 
of sumach (wood and bark together), and 
boil 1/^ hour. Let the goods steep in 
the liquor 12 hours. Dip in limewater for 
% hour. Add to the sumach liquor l^/^ 
oz. of copperas, and dip for another hour. 
Dip in limewater again for % hour. 
Make a dye of ^ lb. of logwood chips, 
toiled for 1 hour, and dip the goods in 
this liquor for 3 hours. Add ^/^ oz. of 
bichromate of potash to the logwood dye, 

[456 



(Textiles) 



and finally dip for 1 hour. Wash in clear 
water and dry in the shade. 

Blue. — 1. — ^Boil together 2 gal. of 
water, 2 oz. of sulphate of indigo and 
% lb. of potash. Dip the goods, and let 
them lie in this for a day and a night. 
Wring out, and dip in a fixing bath of 
44 lb. of alum dissolved in 2 gal. of boil- 
ing water. Let the goods be in this bath 
for 3 hours. The goods are best hung 
to dry in open light, as the color is im- 
proved by this. 

2. — First steep the goods in an alum 
fixing solution, then dye in a liquor com- 
posed of ^/i lb. of chemical blue to 2 gal. 
of water. Let the goods be in the dye a 
day and a night. 

3. — For cotton, 5 lb., or linen, 3 lb,: 
Bichromate of potash, % lb., dissolved 
in boiling water ; put in the goods, and 
dip 2 hours ; then take out and rinse. 
Make a dye with logwood, 4 lb, ; dip in 
this 1 hour, air, and let stand in the dye 
3 or 4 hours, or till the dye is almost 
cold ; wash out, and dry. 

4. — Sky Blue, — For 1 lb, of goods: 
Blue vitriol, 1% oz, ; water. Dissolve by 
boiling. Dip the goods 3 hours and then 
pass them through lime water. 

Brown. — A very good brown is obtained 
by dyeing for sky blue as last explained, 
then passing the goods through a solu- 
tion of prussiate of potash. 

Buff. — Boil together 3 gal, of water, 1^4 
lb. of annatto and i^ lb. of potash, stir- 
ring well. Put the goods in this and let 
boil for 10 minutes. Stir well all the 
time. Remove the goods, and put them 
direct into cold clear water, and rinse. 
Hang out to dry without wringing. 

Green, — 1. — Dip the cotton in the 
home-made blue dye tub until blue enough 
to make the green as dark as required ; 
take out, dry, and rinse the goods a lit- 
tle. Make a dye with fustic, % lb, ; log- 
wood, 3 oz, to each lb. of goods, boiling 
these 1 hour. When cooled to bear the 
hand, put in the goods, move briskly a 
few minutes, and let lie 1 hour; take 
out and let thoroughly drain. Dissolve, 
and add to the dye, for each lb. of cotton, 
% oz. of blue vitriol, and dip another 
hour ; wring out, and let dry in the shade. 
By varying the quantity of logwood and 
fustic, any shade of green may be ob- 
tained. 

2. — For cotton or linen. First boil the 
goods in a fixing solution of alum and 
water, then make a dye of 2 gal. of .water 
with 2 oz. of indigo and 2 oz.- of turmeric. 
Boil the goods in this until the desired 
tint is obtained. 

Yellow. — First boil the goods in a fix- 



Dyeing 



(Textiles) 



ing solution of alum and water, then boil 
in a dye made of annatto or turmeric, 
boiled in water. 

8ilh Goods. — These must first be 
washed clean, so as to remove all grease 
or "finish," as failing this, the dye may 
not take evenly, and cause much disap- 
pointment. 

Black. — Take 2 gal. of vinegar and boil 
with 2 lb. of copperas, 2 lb. of logwood 
chips and 2 oz. of nutgalls (bruised). 
Let the mixture boil 30 minutes (until it 
is dark). Drain off the liquor, and boil 
the goods in this until they are the shade 
desired. Rinse in clear water, and dry. 

Blue. — 1. — Prepare a fixing bath of 1 
lb. of copperas boiled in 1 gal. of water, 
and dip the goods in this. Make a dye 
bath of 1 gal. of water, 3 oz. of alum, and 
suflBcient indigo extract or chemic (al- 
ready described). The indigo extract 
must be added in very small quantities 
at a time until the right shade is ob- 
tained. The more of this that is used 
the darker the goods will be. 

2. — Sky Blue. — Follow the first part of 
the process for cinnamon brown, just ex- 
plained. 

Brown. — 1. — Cinnamon. Prepare a so- 
lution by boiling 2 oz. of blue vitriol in 
1 gal. of water. Dip the goods for 15 



(Textiles) 



minutes, then run them through lime- 
water. Dip the goods in a solution of 
1 oz. of prussiate of potash to 1 gal. of 
water. The first dipping will make the 
goods bright blue, while the latter will 
change it to brown. 

2. — If the goods are boiled in a decoc- 
tion of the peels of green walnuts, a 
good brown will be obtained. 

3. — Reddish Brown. — ^Boil the goods in 
a liquor made by boiling oak mark in 
water. 

Crimson. — For 1 lb. of goods : Dip 
the goods in an alum fixing bath, then in 
a dye bath of cochineal, 3 oz. ; nutgalls, 
bruised, 2 oz. ; cream of tartar, ^4 oz. ; 
water, 1% gal. Boil together 10 minutes, 
then allow to cool. When a little cool 
put in the goods, boil up, and keep it 
at this for 1 hour. 

Yellow. — 1. — For 1 lb. of goods : Make 
an alum fixing bath, and add % oz. of 
sugar of lead to it. Let the goods be 
in this 12 hours, then take out and drain. 
Make a dye with 1 lb. of fustic, and dip 
the goods until the required color is ob- 
tained. 

2.— For 1 lb. of goods : Take % lb. of 
yellow oak bark and boil for % hour; 
strain off the liquor and add 6 oz. of i»^u'-i. 
Dip in this. 



[4571 



CHAPTEE X 



ELECTKOJMETALLrEGY AND HOT AND COLD 
COATma OF METALS 



PRELIMINARY TREATMENT 

Electrometallurgy has two departments, 
which are distinguished by the prepara- 
tion of the surfaces to be coated. 

Electroplating is the production of ad- 
hesive deposits, and depends on the abso- 
lute cleanness of the metal surface coat- 
ed. This will be treated first. 

Electrotyping is the production of re- 
movable deposits from either non-metallic 
molds or from metal surfaces, whose 
cleanness is destroyed either by black- 
leading or by rubbing with turpentine 
containing a trace of wax. The prepa- 
ration of the objects depends (1) upon 
the class of deposit required; (2) upon 
the nature of the object itself. In all 
cases, ordinary dirt, rust, etc., must be 
removed, as the deposit reproduces every 
feature of the surface, even to a finger 
mark. 

Cleansing. 

1. — Copper, brass, zinc and the noble 
metals are cleaned by the suitable acids 
which act on them. Such cleaning solu- 
tions may be prepared for different metals 
as follows : 

Sul- Hydro- 
Water, Nitric, phuric. chloric. 
For copper and 

brass 100 50 100 2 

Iron 100 3 8 2 

Iron (cast)... 100 3 12 3 

Zinc 100 . . 10 

Silver 100 10 

It is best to make two such solutions, 
one being reserved for a final dip, during 
which a strong action occurs upon the 
surface. As this becomes weaker it can 
be used for the first cleansing, accom- 
panied by occasional rubbing with sand, 
etc., according to the nature of the ob- 
ject. 

Lead, tin and pewter must not be 
placed in acid, but are cleaned by aid of 
caustic soda. 

Objects must be carefully freed from 



acids if they are to be transferred to sil- 
ver or gold solutions, but less care is 
necessary for objects cleaned in soda, nor 
is the same care necessary in transferring 
objects cleaned in acids to an acid cop- 
pering solution. In such cases the best 
plan is to dip into clean water and at 
once transfer to the depositing cell. 

2. — Cleansing and Preparing Objects 
for Electroplating. — The first and most 
important operation in the electro-deposi- 
tion of one metal upon another is to 
effect a thorough chemical cleansing of 
the surface of the metal upon which the 
coating is to be deposited, for if this is 
not accomplished the deposited metal will 
not adhere to the surface. 

In cleansing, different metals usually 
require a somewhat different treatment. 
The surface of most metals, when clean, 
soon becomes coated with a film of oxide 
when exposed to the air, especially when 
the surface exposed is wet, and to avoid 
this it is usually necessary to proceed 
with the plating immediately after cleans- 
ing. 

Before proceeding to cleanse the arti- 
cles they are usually "trussed" with cop- 
per wire to avoid the necessity of hand- 
ling them during the operation or after- 
ward, until the plating is finished. A 
very slight contact with the hand is often 
sufiicient to make a second cleansing 
necessary. 

If the article to be plated presents a 
smooth, finished or polished surface, the 
deposit will be "bright." If, on the con- 
trary, the surface is rough or unpolished, 
the deposit will ordinarily have a dead 
luster. If left too long in the acid dips 
used in cleansing, the polished surface 
is apt to have its finish deadened. No 
interval should be allowed between the 
various operations of cleansing. 

Copper and Copper Alloys. — Caustic 
potash, 1 lb. ; soft water, 1 gal. Heat 
nearly to boiling in a cast-iron pot pro- 
vided with a cover. Brush to remove 
any loosely adhering foreign matters, 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 
[4b9J 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Cleansing Metals) 



truss, and suspend for a time in the hot 
lye ; usually, a few minutes will suflSce 
if the article is not heavily lacquered. 
If any of its parts are joined with solder 
it should not be allowed to remain too 
long immersed, as the caustic liquid at- 
tacks solders, and their solution black- 
ens copper. On removing, rinse thorough- 
ly in running water. If the articles are 
much oxidized, pickle in a bath composed 
of 1 gal. of water and 1 pt. of sulphuric 
acid until the darker portion is removed. 
Rinse in running water, and dip in the 
following solution : Soft water, 1 gal. ; 
cyanide of potassium, common, 8 oz. 
Remove from the bath and quickly go 
over every part with a brush and fine 
pumice stone powder moistened with the 
cyanide solution. Some electroplaters 
prefer to give the articles a preliminary 
"brightening" dip in nitric acid, or a 
mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids and 
salt, followed by rinsing in water, but 
the cyanide, aided by the mechanical ac- 
tion of the pumice and brush, does very 
well without it in most cases. After 
the scouring, dip the work momentarily 
in the cyanide solution, rinse quickly in 
running water, and transfer immediately 
to the plating bath. Where the article 
is to receive a deposit of gold or silver, 
its surface is usually softened by slightly 
amalgamating it with mercury to insure 
perfect adhesion of the deposited metal. 
The amalgamating is performed by dip- 
ping the article, after the cyanide scour- 
ing operation, for a few seconds in a so- 
lution of mercuric nitrate, 1-7 oz. ; sul- 
phuric acid, 1-5 oz. ; water, 1 gal. Stir 
until the solution becomes clear before 
using. Rinse the work quickly on com- 
ing from the mercury dip, and transfer 
to the plating solution. 

The acid, cyanide and mercury dips 
may be kept in glass or stoneware jars 
(avoid jars with lead glazing), provided 
with covers to prevent evaporation. 

A "dead luster" is imparted to arti- 
cles of copper or copper alloy by dipping 
them for a few minutes in a bath com- 
posed of nitric acid (36°), 20 lb.; sul- 
phuric acid (66°), 10 lb.; salt, 1-10 lb.; 
zinc sulphate, 1-10 lb. Mix the acids 
gradually, add the zinc salt, then the 
salt, a little at a time (out of doors to 
avoid the acid vapors), stir well together, 
and let it get cold before using. Rinse 
thoroughly, and pass through the cyanide 
before putting in the plating bath. 

Iron, Cast. — Cast iron is freed from 
grease, etc., by dipping in a hot alkali 
solution used for a similar purpose with 
copper, and after rinsing thoroughly is 



(Cleansing Metals) 



pickled in water containing about 1% of 
sulphuric acid for several hours, then 
rinsed in water and scoured with fine, 
sharp sand or pumice and a fiber brush. 
It is then rinsed, and returned to the 
acid pickle for a short time, rinsed again, 
and put into the plating bath directly. If 
more than 1% of acid is used in the 
pickle the time of immersion must be 
shortened, otherwise the iron will be deep- 
ly corroded, and the carbon which the 
metal contains, and which is not affected 
by the acid, will not yield without a 
great deal of labor to the sand and brush. 
Cast iron does not gild or silver well by 
direct deposit. Copper or bronze depos- 
its are better, though not perfect ; but 
if the iron is tinned, the coat is adher- 
ent, and will readily receive the other 
metals. 

Iron, Wrought. — The cleansing of 
wrought iron, if much oxidized, is effected 
in the same manner as cast iron, but it 
will bear a stronger pickle and a longer 
exposure. Whitened, filed or polished 
iron may be treated like steel. 

Steel. — Dip in the caustic lye used for 
copper, etc., rinse thoroughly, scour with 
moistened pumice powder, rinse, and pass 
through the following dip : Water, 1 gal. ; 
hydrochloric acid, 4 lb. Rinse quickly 
(but thoroughly) and plunge in the 
bath. 

Clean wrought iron and steel gild well 
without an intermediary coating in hot 
electrogilding baths. It is difficult to ob- 
tain an adherent coating of silver on 
these metals without interposing an in- 
termediate coating of copper or brass, 
which renders the further operation of 
silverplating easy. 

Zinc, Tin and Lead.— Zinc is cleansed 
by dipping for a few moments only (as 
the alkali quickly attacks the metal) in 
the hot potash lye, rinsing and dipping 
into water containing about 10% of sul- 
phuric acid for a few minutes. Rinse in 
plenty of hot water, and, if necessary, 
scour with pumice stone powder and a 
stiff brush, moistened with a weak cya- 
nide solution, or scratch brush. This last 
operation is especially useful when parts 
have been united with tin solder. 

Tin, lead and the alloys of these metals 
are more diflBcult to cleanse perfectly 
than zinc or iron. Scour rapidly with 
the hot potash and brush, rinse quickly 
and brush, or dress with a piece of soft 
clean wood. It is very difficult to obtain 
a satisfactory deposit of gold or silver 
directly upon these metals or their alloys. 
The results are much better if a coating 
of pure copper is interposed. 



[460] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Pickling and Brushing) 



Dipping Acid. 

This name is given to a mixture which 
is frequently used for imparting a bright 
surface to brass work. When required 
for dipping brass work preparatory to 
nickelplating it is commonly composed 
of sulphuric acid, 4 lb. ; nitric acid, 2 lb. ; 
water, 2 qt. In making the above mix- 
ture the nitric acid is first added to the 
water, and the sulphuric acid (ordinary 
oil of vitriol) is then to be gradually 
poured in, and the mixture stirred with 
a glass rod. When cold it is ready for 
use. The mixture should be kept in a 
stoneware vessel, which should be covered 
with a sheet of stout glass. The dipping 
should always be conducted either in an 
outer yard or near a fireplace, so that 
the fumes may escape, as they are exceed- 
ingly irritating to the lungs when inhaled. 
The instant the articles are removed from 
the dipping bath, they should be plunged 
in a vessel of water. 

Pickling Bath. 

PicJcling Bath. — Cast iron before nick- 
eled requires to be placed in a cold acid 
solution or "pickle" to dissolve or loosen 
the oxide from its surface. The pickle 
may be prepared in a wooden tub or tank 
from either of the following formulae : 
Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), V2 lb; 
water, 1 gal. Cast-iron work immersed in 
this bath for twenty minutes to half hour 
will generally have its coating of oxide 
suflBciently loosened to be easily removed 
by means of a stiff brush, sand and 
water. When it is desired that the arti- 
cles should come out of the bath bright 
instead of the dull black color which 
they present when pickled in the plain 
sulphuric acid bath the following formula 
may be adopted : Sulphuric acid, 1 lb. ; 
water, 1 gal. Dissolve in the above 2 oz. 
of zinc, which may conveniently be ap- 
plied in its granulated form. When dis- 
solved add y2 lb. of nitric acid and mix 
well. 

The greatest care should be used in 
cleansing or pickling before nickeling. 
The fine iron work which is made at 
Wernigerode and other places in the 
Hartz Mountains, is believed to be 
cleansed in this manner. Work of this 
class is inexpensive and is very artistic. 

Scratch-Brushing. 

The scratch brush is often resorted to 
to remove the dead luster on or to impart 
a smooth surface to an object. They 
are usually made of brass or steel wire, 
and of a variety of shapes to suit the 

[ 



(Aluminum) 



object. Some of the forms are shown in 
the annexed cut. 




-mmsmmm 



& 



Scratch Brushes 

The wheel brushes are used on the 
lathe, the objects being manipulated in 
contact with the rapidly revolving brush. 
The brush is usually kept moistened by a 
small stream of water while in use. 

PLATING BY NAMES OF METAL 

DEPOSITED. 
Aluminum. 

1. — Aluminum may be deposited on 
copper from a dilute solution of the 
double chloride of aluminum and ammo- 
nia. 

2. — Aluminum is one of the most dif- 
ficult and uncertain of metals to deposit 
electrolytically. The following recipe is 
given by Herman Reinbold, who states 
that it furnishes excellent results : Fifty 
parts by weight of alum are dissolved in 
300 of water and to this is added 10 parts 
of aluminum chloride. The solution is 
heated to 200° F., and when cold 39 
parts of cyanide of potassium are added. 
A feeble current should be used. 

3.— In The Jetcellers' Journal the fol- 
lowing recipe for electroplating with 
aluminum is given by Herman Reinbold : 

Fifty parts of alum, AlK (^0^)^ + 12 
H2O, are dissolved in 300 parts of water, 
and to this 10 parts of chloride of alum" 
ina (AloOle) are added, heated to 200° 
a"d cooled, whereupon 39 parts of cya- 
nide of potassium are added. The object 
461 J 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Aluminum) 



to be plated has to be cleansed, and to 
be absolutely free from grease in any 
form, whereupon it is suspended in the 
bath over the electro-positive electrode, 
the plate of metallic aluminum to be sus- 
pended on the negative pole. Tlie elec- 
tric current ought to be weak. The plat- 
ing when polished will be found to be 
equal to the best silver plating, having 
the advantage of not being oxidized or 
getting black when brought into contact 
with sulphurous vapors, which make it 
especially valuable for plating spoons and 
tableware. 

4. — The essential features of a new sys- 
tem of electroplating with aluminum are 
as follows : A solution of ammonia alum 
in warm water is prepared, containing 20 
per cent, of alum. To this is added a 
solution containing about the same quan- 
tity of pearlash and a little ammonium 
carbonate. The mixture results in ef- 
fervescence, and in the deposition of a 
precipitate. The latter is filtered off and 
well washed with water. 

A second solution of ammonia alum, 
containing 16 per cent, of alum and 8 
per cent, of pure potassium cyanide, is 
now prepared warm and poured over the 
precipitate previously obtained, the mix- 
ture being then boiled for 30 minutes in 
a closed iron vessel, jacketed to insure 
uniformity of heating. 

The proportions suitable in the above 
solutions are as follows : First alum solu- 
tion. — Ammonia alum, 2 kgm. ; warm 
water, 10 kgm. Pearlash solution. — 
Pearlash, 2 kgm. ; warm water, 10 kgm. ; 
ammonium carbonate, 8 to 10 grams. 
Second alum solution. — Ammonia alum, 
4 kgm. ; warm water, 25 kgm. ; potas- 
sium cyanide, 2 kgm. 

At this stage about 20 kgm. of water 
are added and about 2 kgm. more of po- 
tassium cyanide, and the whole is kept on 
the boil for about a quarter of an hour. 
The liquid is then filtered from the pi'e- 
cipitate, and is now ready for use in the 
electrolytic bath. 

The anodes are perforated or slotted 
plates of aluminum, arranged so that they 
can be conveniently raised or lowered. 
The cathodes receive the deposit. 

The anodes and the cathodes are con- 
nected respectively to the terminals of 
a battery or of a dynamo machine, and 
the current is thus transmitted through 
the bath, which is kept throughout the 
operation at a temperature of about 80° 
to 150° F. 

By attaching to the aluminum anode 
pieces of other metals, e. g., gold and sil- 
ver, nickel, copper, etc., the tint of the 



(Brass) 



deposited metal can be somewhat varied. 
When the deposit presents a gray tint, 
it is brightened by dipping the plated 
article in a solution of caustic soda, 
which has also the effect of impeding 
oxidation. 

Antimony, Deposition of. 

Antimony may be deposited by simple 
immersion and by means of an electric 
current ; in the latter case the metal may 
not only be obtained in a state of loose 
black powder, but also in two distinctly 
different coherent reguline conditions, viz., 
as a very brittle metal of a gray slate 
color and hard crystalline structure ; and 
also in a highly lustrous steel-black de- 
posit of amorphous structure. 

The solution used for obtaining the 
pure gray metal is composed of — 350 
grams distilled water ; 30 grams tartar 
emetic ; 30 grams tartar acid ; 45 grams 
pure hydrochloric acid. 

It is not a good conductor and should 
be used with a current of about 1 volt, 
so as to deposit about 1 millimeter per 
week. 

For obtaining a bright shining deposit 
the following solution can be used : 500 
grams sulphate of antimony ; 1 kilo potas- 
sic carbonate ; 8 liters water. 

Bismuth. 

Bismuth may be deposited from a 
slightly acid solution of the double chlo- 
ride of bismuth and ammonia. 

Brass. 

1. — De Salzede's Process. — 12 parts cy- 
anide of potassium ; 610 parts carbo- 
nate of potassium ; 48 parts sulphate of 
zinc ; 25 parts chloride of copper ; 305 
parts nitrate of ammonia ; 5,000 parts of 
water. The cyanide is to be dissolved in 
120 parts of the water, and the carbonate 
of potash, sulphate of zinc and chloride of 
copper are to be dissolved in the remain- 
der of the water, the temperature of 
which is to be raised to about 150° F. 
When the salts are dissolved, the nitrate 
of ammonia is to be added, and the mix- 
ture well stirred until the latter is all 
dissolved. The solution should be al- 
lowed to stand for several days before 
using, and the clear liquor separated from 
any sediment that may have deposited at 
the bottom of the vessel. 

2. — Cyanide of potassium, 50 parts ; 
carbonate of potassium, 500 parts ; sul- 
phate of zinc, 35 parts ; chloride of cop- 
per, 15 parts ; water, 5,000 parts. This 
solution is to be made up in the same 
way as No. 1. 



[462] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Brass) 



3. — Bronzing Solution. — This solution 
is the same as No. 1, except that 25 parts 
chloride of tin are substituted for the sul- 
phate of zinc. 

4. — Bronzing Solution. — This is the 
same as No. 2, with the exception that 12 
parts chloride of tin are substituted for 
the sulphate of zinc. This solution is 
worked warm, that is, at about 97° F. 

Electro-deposition of Brass. — Brass 
has been deposited from a great variety 
of brassing solutions, as will be seen by 
reference to the annexed table. Among 
the first attempts to deposit brass, may be 
mentioned that of M. De Ruolz in 1841, 
who employed a mixed solution of the 
double cyanides of copper, zinc and po- 
tassium. Cyanide of potassium forms an 
important ingredient in the majority of 
brassing solutions, but ammonia in some 
form is also necessary to keep the solu- 
tions in working order. 

The following general conditions are to 
be observed in making up the solutions 
according to the proportions given in the 
following table. Fluid ounces of liquids 
are intended and ounces avoirdupois for 
the solids. When potassium carbonate 
(carbonate of potash) is to be used, the 
copper and zinc salts are first dissolved 
in water and then precipitated as carbo- 
nates from this solution by adding a por- 
tion of the potassium carbonate. Where 
the sign q. s. is given in the foregoing 
table, a suflScient quantity of the am- 
monia or cyanide must be added to pro- 
duce the desired effect, ammonia being 
generally employed to dissolve the pre- 
cipitates, forming a deep blue liquid, and 
cyanide being used until the blue color 
has all disappeared. Both are employed 
as solvents to the anodes, which will not 



(Brass) 



freely dissolve unless one or both are 
present in the solution. Even when a 
brassing solution is made up without the 
use of cyanide and ammonia, it is neces- 
sary to add them afterward to keep the 
solutions in working order, as the ammo- 
nia alone does not freely dissolve the 
copper of the anode, and cyanide alone 
does not dissolve the zinc oxide formed on 
the anode. 

The following details apply to each 
numbered solution in the foregoing table : 

a. — Dissolve all the salts separately in 
portions of the water ; add the ammonia 
in equal parts to the solutions of the 
copper and zinc salt with stirring ; mix 
the copper and zinc solutions together, 
then add the caustic potash solution and 
lastly the cyanide solution ; stir well at 
frequent intervals during the next twelve 
hours, then allow the solution to rest a 
short time before working it. 

b. — Dissolve all the salts separately ; 
pour enough potash solution into the so- 
lutions of copper and zinc to precipitate 
all the metal ; add ammonia until the 
precipitate has been dissolved ; decolorize 
with the cyanide, then add remainder of 
potash and water. 

c. — Dissolve all separately ; mix copper, 
zinc and potash solutions, then add the 
nitrate of ammonia. 

d. — Proceed in a similar manner as for 
No. 3 solution. 

e. — Proceed in a similar manner as for 
No. 3 solution. 

f . — Dissolve all the salts ; add the cy- 
anide solution to the others with stirring. 

g. — Dissolve all the salts in distilled 
water, mix together and add 2 oz. of sal 
ammoniac. 



TABLE OF BRASSING SOLUTIONS. 



f 

800 
160 



h k 1 

250 1000 160 



16 



160 



q.s. 



16 



18 



q.s. 



16 



abode 

Water 1280 5000 3200 5000 5000 

Copper acetate 5 

Copper carbonate 

Copper chloride 10 16 25 15 

Copper sulphate ; 

Copper cyanide 

Zinc acetate 

Zinc carbonate 

Zinc cyanide 

Zinc sulphate 10 20 32 48 35 

Potassium acetate 

Potassium carbonate 160 400 610 500 

Potassium cyanide 8 24 12 50 

Potassium caustic 72 

Ammonia liquid 50 q.s 

Ammoniate carbonate 

Ammonia nitrate 200 305 

Soda carbonate 200 4 45 

Soda bisulphite '. '. . 50 4 7^ 

Arsenious acid 1 /20 .... 

[463] 



q.s. 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Brass) 



h.— Dissolve all the salts separately, 
Mienuiix together. 

k. — Dissolve the copper and zinc salts 
and mix the solutions ; add a solution of 
100 parts of the carbonate of soda and 
stir well together; when the precipitate 
has subsided, pour off the clear liquor, 
wash the precipitate, add the remainder 
of the carbonate of soda together with 
the bisulphite of soda previously dissolved 
in water, then add enough cyanide to dis- 
solve the precipitate. 

1. — Dissolve the zinc and copper salts 
in water, then add the other ingredients. 
Dissolve the arsenious acid in the hot cy- 
anide solution before adding it to the 
soda ; drain off all the liquid, wash the 
precipitate, add the carbonate and bisul- 
phite of soda, then stir in enough cyanide 
to make a clear solution. 

The Brass Baths. — 1. — a. — Where the 
ordinary cheap commercial cyanide is em- 
ployed, the following answers very well : 
Sulphate of copper, 4 oz. ; sulphate of 
zinc, 4 to 5 oz. ; water, 1 gal. 

Dissolve and precipitate with 30 oz. 
carbonate of soda ; allow to settle, decant 
the clear liquid, and wash the precipitate 
several times with fresh water-— after as 
many settlings. Add to the washed pre- 
cipitates : Carbonate of soda, 15 oz. ; 
bisulphite of soda, 7% oz. ; water, 1 gal. 

Stir to effect solution of these last two, 
then stir in ordinary cyanide of potas- 
sium until the liquid becomes clear and 
colorless. Filter if much iron or iron 
oxide (derived from impure zinc salt and 
cyanide) remains suspended in the liquid. 
An additional V2 oz. or so of the cyanide 
improves the conductivity of the solu- 
tion. 

b. — Management of the Bath. — ^The 
losses of the bath are to be repaired by 
the addition of copper and zinc salts (and 
arsenious acid) dissolved in fresh cyanide 
and water. 

The operator determines the require- 
ments from the rapidity of the deposit, 
its condition, color, etc. 

The difficulty in brass electrotyping, 
especially with small baths, is in keeping 
the uniformity of the color of the deposit, 
as the electric current, having to decom- 
pose two salts, each offering a different 
resistance, must, according to its intensity, 
vary the color and composition of the 
deposit. A feeble current principally de- 
composes the copper salt and results in 
a red deposit ; while too great intensity in 
the current decomposes the zinc salt too 
rapidly and the deposit is a white or 
bluish white alloy. If the deposit has an 
earthy or ocherous appearance, or if the 



(Brass) 



liquid is blue or greenish, the solution is 
deficient in cyanide. When in proper 
working order the liquor is colorless. If 
the coating becomes dull and unequal, a 
slight addition of arsenious acid will 
usually improve it. 

If the deposit is too red, use more 
battery power or add more zinc salt; if 
too white, decrease the current or add 
more copper salt. The specific gravity of 
the bath may vary from 5° to 12° 
Baume ; when it exceeds this latter grav- 
ity it should be diluted with fresh water 
to decrease the electric resistance. 

If the brass deposit is irregular, remove 
the articles from the bath, rinse, scratch- 
brush, and put again into the bath, until 
the color and thickness of the deposit are 
satisfactory. Scratch-brush again, and, 
if necessary, rinse in hot water, dry in 
warm white wood sawdust, and put in the 
stove room. The last three operations 
are indispensable for hollow pieces. 

In the disposition of the brass plating 
bath it is always necessary to have all 
the articles suspended at about equal dis- 
tances from the anodes. 

The bath may be subdivided by several 
anodes, forming partitions, so that each 
loaded rod is between two anodes. 

The anodes should always be removed 
when the bath is not in use. 

In order that the brass electroplating 
of zinc or copper may be lasting the 
deposit must not be too thin, and must 
be scratch-brushed, washed in lime water, 
and dried in the stove room. 

Generally ten to twenty-five minutes' 
exposure in the bath suffices in ordinary 
practice to throw on a good coating. 
Cast and wrought iron, lead and its al- 
loys require a bath richer in the metals 
than when brassplating zinc or its alloys. 
The battery power should also be greater. 
For lead the bath works better warm 
(at about 90° F.). When once placed 
in the brass bath articles should not be 
moved about, as there is a tendency under 
such circumstances to the formation of a 
red deposit. 

In brassplating wire the hot bath is 
usually employed. As before mentioned, 
the vessel containing the bath usually 
consists in an oblong open iron boiler, 
lined with sheet brass anodes, and heated 
by fire, steam or hot water. A stout 
copper or brass rod in the direction of 
the length of the boiler rests upon the 
edges, from contact with which it is insu- 
lated by pieces of rubber tubing. The 
rod is connected with the zinc pole of 
the battery. The binding wires are re- 
moved from the coil, the wires loosened, 



[464] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Brass) 



and the ends bent together into a loop. 
The wire is then dipped into a pickle of 
dilute sulphuric acid, and hung upon a 
stout round wooden peg fastened in the 
wall, so that the coil may be made to 
rotate easily. After a scrubbing with 
wet sharp sand and a hard brush the 
coil is given a primary coating of copper. 
It is then suspended to the horizontal 
rod, where only a part of the coil at a 
time dips into the solution and receives 
the deposit. The coil is then turned now 
and then one-half or one-fourth its cir- 
cumference. By dipping the coil entirely 
into the liquid the operation, is not so 
successful. 

The wires are washed, dried in saw- 
dust, and then in the stove room, and 
lastly passed through a draw plate to give 
them the fine polish of true brass wires. 

The temperature at which the hot bath 
is commonly used varies between 130° 
and 140° F. 

2. — Sulphate of copper, 4 oz. ; sulphate 
of zinc, 4 to 5 oz. ; water, 1 gal. Dis- 
solve and precipitate with 30 oz. of car- 
bonate of soda ; allow to settle, pour off 
the clear liquid and wash the precipi- 
tate several times in fresh water. Add 
to the washed precipitate carbonate of 
soda, 15 oz. ; bisulphite of soda, T^/^ oz. ; 
water, 1 gal. Dissolve the above salts in 
water, assisting the solution by constant 
stirring ; then stir in ordinary cyanide of 
potassium until the liquid becomes clear 
and colorless. Filter the solution, and to 
improve the conductivity, an additional 
1^ oz. of cyanide may be given. 

3. — Morris & Johnson's Process. — A 
solution is made by dissolving in 1 gal. 
of water cyanide of potassium, 1 lb. ; 
carbonate of ammonia, 1 lb. ; cyanide of 
copper, 2 oz. ; cyanide of zinc, 1 oz. 
The solution is to be worked at a temper- 
ature of 150° F., Avith a large brass 
anode and a strong current. 

4. — Wood's process consists in making 
a solution as follows : Cyanide of potas- 
sium (troy weight), 1 lb.; cyanide of 
copper, 2 oz. ; cyanide of zinc, 1 oz. ; 
distilled water, 1 gal. When the ingre- 
dients are dissolved add 2 oz. sal ammo- 
niac. For coating smooth articles, it isi 
recommended to raise the temperature of 
the solution to 160° F., using a strong 
current. 

5. — Russell & Woolrich's Process. — ^A 
solution is made of the following : Ace- 
tate of copper, 10 lb. ; acetate of zinc, 1 
lb. ; acetate of potassium, 10 lb. ; water, 
5 gal. The salts are to be dissolved in 
the water, and as much of a solution of 
cyanide added as will first Drecipitate the 

[ 



(Bronze) 



metals and afterward redissolve the pre- 
cipitate. An excess of cyanide is then 
to be added and the solution set aside to 
settle as before. A brass anode or one 
of zinc and another of copper may be 
used. 

6.— Cold Brass Bath for all Metals.— 
Carbonate of copper (recently prepared), 
2 oz. ; carbonate of zinc, 2 oz. ; carbonate 
of soda, 4 oz. ; bisulphite of soda, 4 oz. ; 
cyanide of potassium (pure), 4 oz. ; ar- 
senious acid, 1-20 oz. ; water, 1 gal. 

Filter, if necessary. 

This arsenious acid is added to bright- 
en the deposit — an excess is apt to give 
the metal a grayish white color. 

Bronze Baths. 

1. — Potassic cyanide, 50 parts; potas- 
sic carbonate, 500 parts ; tin chloride, 12 
parts ; cupric chloride, 15 parts ; water, 
5,000 parts. This bath is used at a 
temperature not exceeding 36° C. 

2. — Bronzing Electro-'brassed Work, 
Green Bronze. — Mix into a paste with 
water the following substances : Chro- 
mate of lead (chrome yellow), 2 oz. ; 
Prussian blue, 2 oz. ; plumbago, % lb. ; 
sienna powder, i/4 ib. ; lac carmine, % 
lb. When applying the above composi- 
tion a small quantity of sulphide of am- 
monia or chloride of platinum solution 
may be added. 

3. — Solutions for Depositing Brass or 
Bronze; Dr. Heeren's Process. — A brass- 
ing solution may be prepared by employ- 
ing a large excess of zinc to a very small 
proportion of copper as follows : Sulphate 
of copper, 1 part; sulphate of zinc, 8 
parts ; cyanide of potassium, 18 parts. 
The ingredients are to be dissolved in 
separate portions of warm water. The 
copper and zinc solutions are to be mixed 
and the cyanide solution then added, 
when 250 parts of distilled water are to 
be added and the mixture well stirred. 
The bath is to be used at the boiling 
temperature with two Bunsen cells. By 
this process, it is said that very rapid 
deposits of brass have been obtained upon 
articles of copper, zinc, Britannia metal, 
etc. 

4. — French Method of Bronzing Elec- 
tro-brassed Zinc Work; Steel Bronze. — 
This is obtained by moistening the arti- 
cles with a dilute solution of chloride of 
platinum and slightly heating them. 
Since this bronze is liable to scale off 
with friction, it should not be applied in 
successive doses, but the solution used 
should be of such a strength that the 
desired effect may be obtained if possible 
bv a single application. Copper bronze, 
465] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Copper) 



that is electro-brass with an excess of 
copper, may be darkened by dipping it 
into a warm and weak solution of chlo- 
ride of antimony (butter of antimony) 
in hydrochloric acid. Sometimes the 
color will be violet i«nstead of black. 

5. — French MetJiod of Bronzing Elec- 
tro'hrassed Zinc Work; Green or Antique 
Bronze. — Dissolve in 100 parts of acetic 
acid or in 200 parts of good vinegar, 30 
parts of carbonate of ammonia or sal 
ammoniac, and 10 parts each of common 
salt, cream of tartar and acetate of cop- 
per and add a little water. Mix well and 
smear the object with it, allow it to dry 
at the ordinary temperature, from twen- 
ty-four to forty-eight hours. At the end 
of that time the article will be found to 
be entirely covered with verdigris, which 
presents various tints. It is then to be 
brushed, but more especially the promi- 
nent parts, with a waxed brush, that is a 
brush passed over a lump of yellow bees- 
wax. The relief parts may then be "set 
off" with hematite, chrome yellow, or 
other suitable colors. Light touches with 
ammonia impart a blue shade to the 
green parts ; carbonate of ammonia deep- 
ens the color. 

Cadmium. 

Cadmium has been electro-deposited 
from a solution of the double cyanide of 
cadmium and potassium. 

Cobalt, To Electroplate Metals with. 

1. — ^The formulae for nickelplating may 
be used for cobalt, by substituting cobalt 
salts for nickel, where these are men- 
tioned. 

2. — Cobalt may be electro-deposited 
from an alkaline solution of the double 
sulphate of cobalt and ammonia. 

Copper. 

1. — Where it is intended to simply coat 
or plate another metal or alloy, the electro 
deposit of copper is usually obtained by 
the decomposition of a double salt, such 
as the cyanide of copper and potassium. 
This process is adapted to most metals, 
and affords a fine uniform deposit. The 
following is a good bath of this descrip- 
tion : Water (soft), 1 gal.; acetate of 
copper (cryst.), 3i/^ oz. ; carbonate of 
soda (cryst.), 3% 6z. ; bisulphate of 
soda, 3 oz. ; cyanide of potassium (pure), 

iy2 oz. 

Moisten the copper salt with water to 
form a paste (otherwise it is apt to float 
on the liquid) ; stir in next the carbonate 
of soda with a little more water, then 
the bisulphite, and finally the cyanide 



(Copper) 



with the rest of the water. When solu- 
tion is complete the liquid should be color- 
less. If not, add cyanide until it is. 

The bath may be employed hot or cold, 
and requires a moderately strong circuit 
of electricity. A copper plate forms the 
anode, and it should expose surface 
enough to supply the loss of copper — at 
least a surface equal to that of the work. 
It must be removed when the bath is not 
in use. 

If the liquid becomes colored, more cya- 
nide must be added. 

Large pieces are generally kept hang- 
ing motionless in the bath while the 
plating is in progress ; small articles are 
moved about as much as possible, espe- 
cially if the bath is warm. 

The formula for the bath given above 
requires pure cyanide of potassium, and 
where the commercial article, which is 
often very impure, is used instead, con- 
siderable allowance must be made. 

2. — Alkaline Copper Solution. — The 
best alkaline copper solution is that intro- 
duced by Mr. A, Watt, and subsequently 
modified by Mr. J. T, Sprague. Dissolve 
8 oz. of copper sulphate in 1 qt. hot rain 
water and set aside to cool. When cool, 
add liquid ammonia, while stirring with a 
stick or glass rod. At first a green pre- 
cipitate will fall, and then this will dis- 
solve on adding more ammonia, until the 
whole solution assumes a lovely blue tint. 
Dilute this with an equal bulk of cold 
rain water, and add to it enough solution 
of potassium cyanide, while stirring, to 
destroy the fine blue color of the ammo- 
nia sulphate and give the color of old ale 
to the solution. Set this aside for a few 
hours, then pass it through a calico filter 
and make it up to a gallon of solution 
with rain water. This solution may be 
worked cold, but the rate of deposition 
is increased and the deposited copper of 
improved quality when the solution is 
heated to a temperature of from 110° 
to 130° F. 

3. — Aluminum. — a. — Copper cyanide, 6 
parts ; potassium cyanide, 9 parts ; sodi- 
um phosphate, 9 parts ; distilled water, 
100 parts. 

b. — According to a Continental contem- 
porary, it is possible to obtain adhesive 
coats of copper on aluminum by the fol- 
lowing method : First clean the alumi- 
num in a warm solution of alkaline car- 
bonate, thus making its surface rough 
and porous ; it is next washed thoroughly 
in running water, and dipped into a hot 
solution of hydrochloric acid of about 5 
per cent, strength, again washed in clean 
water, and then placed in a somewhat 



[466] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Copper) 



concentrated acid solution of copper sul- 
phate, until a uniform metallic deposit 
is formed ; it is then again thoroughly 
washed and returned to the copper sul- 
phate bath, when an electric current is 
passed until a coating of copper of the 
required thickness is obtained. 

4. — Electrotyping Non-conducting Ma- 
terials, 'New Process for. — For electrotyp- 
ing on non-conducting materials, such as 
china and porcelain, a new and ingenious 
process has been lately introduced in 
France. Sulphur is dissolved in oil of 
spike lavender to a syrupy consistency ; 
then chloride of gold or chloride of plati- 
num is dissolved in ether, and the two 
solutions mixed under a gentle heat. The 
compound is next evaporated until of the 
thickness of ordinary paint, in which con- 
dition it is applied with a brush to such 
portions of the china, glass, or other fab- 
ric as it is desired to cover, according to 
the design or pattern, with the electro- 
metallic deposit. The objects are baked 
in the usual way before they are im- 
mersed in the bath. 

5. — Electro-coppering Flowers, Insects, 
etc. — To render non-metallic substances 
conductive ( Parkes ) . 

a. — ^A mixture is made from the fol- 
lowing ingredients : Wax or tallow, 1 oz. ; 
india-rubber, 1 dram ; asphalt, 1 oz. ; 
spirit of turpentine, 1% fl.oz. The in- 
dia-rubber and asphalt are to be dis- 
solved in the turpentine, the wax is 
then to be melted, and the former added 
to it and incorporated by stirring. To 
this is added 1 oz. of a solution of phos- 
phorus in bisulphide of carbon in the 
proportion of 1 part of the former to 15 
parts of the latter. The articles being 
attached to a wire are dipped in this 
mixture; they are next dipped in a weak 
solution of nitrate of silver, and when 
the black appearance of the silver is fully 
developed the article is washed in water ; 
it is afterward dipped in a weak solution 
of chloride of gold and again washed. 
Being now coated with a film of gold, it 
is ready for immersion in the copper bath. 

b. — Wax and deer's fat, of each %i lb. 
Melt together and add phosphorus, 10 
grams, dissolved in bisulphide of carbon, 
150 grams. The wax mixture must be 
allowed to become nearly cool, when the 
phosphorus solution is to be added very 
carefully through a tube dipping under 
the surface of the mixture. Stir thor- 
oughly. Molds prepared from this com- 
position are rendered conductive by being 
first dipped in a solution of nitrate of 
silver, then rinsed, and afterward dipped 
in a weak solution of chloride of gold, 



(Copper) 



and again washed, when they are ready 
for the coppering solution. 

6. — Iron and Steel. — The following for- 
mulae require a cyanide containing 70 to 
75% (a good average) of pure potassium 
cyanide. 

a. — Cold Bath. — Acetate of copper, 3 
oz. ; carbonate of soda, 6 1-5 oz. ; bisul- 
phite of soda, 3 1-5 oz. ; cyanide of potas- 
sium, 3% oz. ; water, 1 gal. ; aqua am- 
monia, 2 1-5 fl.oz. Prepare as before. 

b. — AVarm Bath. — Acetate of copper, 
3 1-5 oz. ; carbonate of soda, 3 1-5 oz. ; bi- 
sulphite of soda, 1 1-5 oz. ; cyanide of 
potassium, 4% oz. ; water, 1 gal. ; aqua 
ammonia,. 1 4-5 fl.oz. 

7. — Zinc. — a. — For small articles of 
zinc, which are coppered in a perforated 
ladle and in nearly boiling baths : Ace- 
tate of copper, 16 oz, ; bisulphite of soda, 
3% oz. ; cyanide of potassium, 25 oz. ; 
aqua ammonia, 5% oz. ; water, 4 to 5^ 
gal. 

In the preparation of these baths the 
salts are all dissolved together, except the 
copper acetate and ammonia, which are 
added after dissolving together in a small 
quantity of the water. 

The deep blue color of the ammonio- 
copper solution should entirely disappear 
on mixing it with the other solution : 
otherwise it becomes necessary to add 
more cyanide. 

The cold bath is put into well joined 
tanks of oak or fir wood, coated inside 
with gutta percha or asphaltum (genu- 
ine). The vertical sides are also covered 
with sheets of copper, all connected with 
the last carbon or copper of the battery 
by a stout copper wire with well cleaned 
ends, the other pole of the battery being 
in similar connection with a stout brass 
rod extending the length of the tank 
(without any point of contact with the 
anodes), and from which the work is sus- 
pended by hooks or trusses in the bath. 

With a thin deposit the coating is sufii- 
ciently bright to be considered finished 
after being rinsed and dried. But if the 
operation is more protracted the deposit 
has a dead luster on account of its thick- 
ness, and if a bright luster is desired it is 
necessary to use the scratch-brush. 

The hot baths are usually put into 
stoneware vessels heated by a water or 
steam bath, or into an enameled cast-iron 
kettle placed directly over a fire. The 
vessels are lined inside with copper, the 
edges of the vessel being varnished, or 
support a wooden ring upon which rests 
a brass circle connected with the zinc pole 
of the battery. The objects to be elec- 
troplated are suspended from this ring. 



[467] 



Elect rometalUirgy and Metal Coating 



(Gold) 



The hot process is more rapid than the 
cold, and is especially adapted to those 
articles which are difficult to cleanse. 
The articles are kept in continual agita- 
tion, which permits of the employment of 
a strong current of electricity. Small ar- 
ticles of zinc are placed in a perforated 
stoneware or enameled ladle, at the bot- 
tom of which is attached a copper wire 
which is wound up around the handle and 
connected with the zinc pole of the bat- 
tery. It is sufficient that one of the 
small articles touches the wire for all 
to be affected by the current, as they are 
in contact with each other. The ladle 
must be continually agitated, so as to 
change the points of contact of the ob- 
jects. What has been said in regard to 
electro brassplating, will apply here. 

b. — This bath is composed as follows : 
Crystallized acetate of copper, 200 
grams ; carbonate of soda, 200 grams ; 
crystallized bisulphide of soda, 200 
grams ; potassic cyanide, 300 grams ; dis- 
tilled water, 10 liters. 

This solution should be energetically 
boiled before being used. 

Gold. 

1. — In the practice of electroplating 
with gold the bath employed is usually 
heated, as the deposits obtained in such 
a bath are more homogeneous, tenacious 
and durable, and of a better color, besides 
which recommendation a greater quan- 
tity of the metal may be deposited satis- 
factorily from it in a given time than 
from a coid bath. 

Owing to the cost of the metal to be 
deposited very large surfaces are rarely 
required to be electroplated, and as these 
baths become worn out and must be re- 
placed by fresh solutions after a short 
time, they are usually, as a matter of 
economy and convenience, used in as 
small a vessel as the circumstances will 
admit of. These vessels may be of glass, 
porcelain, or porcelain-enameled iron. 
The latter serve the purpose admirably 
(if the enamel is good). They should be 
heated over the water bath or by means 
of steam. 

The same bath does not answer very 
well for all metals — either the bath must 
be modified to suit the metal or the latter 
must be previously coated with another 
metal to suit the conditions. Gold depos- 
its are obtained with the greatest facility 
upon silver or copper, their rich alloys, 
or other metals coated with them. With 
these a hot bath (at about 170° F.) and 
a moderately strong current give good 
results. With alloys, such as German 



(Gold) 



silver, the best results are obtained with 
a weak bath, barely warm. Steel and 
iron, when not coated with copper, re- 
quire an intense current and a very hot 
bath. Lead, zinc, tin, antimony and bis- 
muth alloys of, or containing much of 
these, are preferably coated with copper 
before electrogilding. 

2. — Operations Connected with Electro- 
deposition. — Solution for protecting pla- 
ted work, which is to be gilded in a hot 
cyanide bath, from receiving the gold de- 
posit upon parts of the ornamental work : 
Clear rosin, 10 parts ; yellow beeswax, 6 
parts ; best red sealing wax, 4 parts ; 
jeweler's rouge, 3 parts. The three first 
named substances are to be thoroughly 
melted, with gentle stirring, and the 
rouge, which is the peroxide of iron, 
gradually added and incorporated with 
stirring. The article to which the stop- 
ping off varnish has been applied should 
never be placed either in a hot or cold 
bath until it has become thoroughly dry 
and hard. 

Aluminum. — Gold chloride, 2 parts ; 
potassium cyanide, 2 parts ; sodium phos- 
phate, 2 parts ; water, distilled, 100 parts. 

Amateurs' Gilding Solution. — The best 
and cheapest solution for amateur electro- 
gilding, and also for operators in a small 
way of business, is the double cyanide of 
gold and potassium solution made by the 
battery process. This contains some ox- 
ide of potash, but if made up of pure 
gold and pure 98% cyanide of potassium, 
it will yield good results at once, and con- 
tinue to give them for years if kept in 
proper working condition. This solution 
is made up in the following manner : Pro- 
cure 5 dwts. pure gold ribbon, leaf, or 
wire (and divide it into 2 parts), 3 dwts. 
pure white 98% cyanide of potassium 
and 1 qt. of distilled water. Dissolve 
the cyanifde of potassium in the dis- 
tilled water made hot in a good enam- 
eled saucepan, and keep it at nearly 
scalding heat while making and working 
the gilding solution. Make up a battery 
of two Bunsen cells or three Daniel cells 
in series. Hang one strip of gold from 
the wire leading to the negative element 
of the battery, and the other strip to the 
wire leading to the positive element of the 
battery. Get a small, clean, white porous 
battery cell, nearly fill it with cyanide of 
potassium solution, place it in the sauce- 
pan and suspend in the porous cell the 
strip of gold connected to the zinc ele- 
ment of the battery. Immerse the other 
strip of gold in the outer cyanide solution, 
and pass current (from the battery) 
from one to the other for some two or 



[468] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Gold) 



three hours. During that time some of 
the gold will have dissolved oflE the anode 
strip and entered into combination with 
the cyanide of potassium solution to form 
the double cyanide of gold and potassium 
gilding bath, but this will not have pene- 
trated into the porous cell, nor will the 
strip of gold therein have suffered any 
loss. If at the end of this time a piece 
of German silver, suspended from the 
cathode wire in the outer solution, re- 
ceives a fair coat of gold in a few mo- 
ments, the bath is ready for gilding work. 
The contents of ttie porous cell may be 
poured into the outer solution, both strips 
of gold used as the anode, and the work 
may proceed with current from one or 
more cells, as may be required. At first 
there may be too much free cyanide, and 
the deposit may in consequence be too 
dark, but this fault will soon be corrected 
if the anode plates are wholly immersed 
while gilding. If the contrary condition 
exists, and the anode plates are dirty, or 
do not dissolve freely, add a very little 
more cyanide to the solution. This will 
be found to be the (Cheapest solution, be- 
cause there is no loss of material in mak- 
ing it up. If the whole of the gold strip 
dissolves in the cyanide solution, the bath 
will not be too rich in goM, as a very 
useful strength is 2 dwts. of gold in the 
quart of solution. A larger quantity may 
be made in the same manner in the same 
proportions. 

Brass. — Jewelry. — 1. — For Producing a 
Matted Surface on Brass Articles of Jew- 
elry, as Brooches, Lockets, etc. — First 
dip them for an instant in a mixture 
composed of equal parts of sulphuric and 
nitric acids, to which a small quantity of 
common salt is added ; plunge immediate- 
ly in cold water. Rinse in one or two 
other waters, then immerse in the gilding 
bath, in which, after a moment's immer- 
sion, they acquire the desired color of 
gold. After rinsing in hot water they are 
finally dried in hot boxwood sawdust. 

2. — a. — French Gilding for Cheap Jew- 
elry. — The bath for gilding recommended 
by Roseleur is composed of pyrophosphate 
of soda or potassa, 800 grams; hydrocy- 
anic acid (prussic acid), 8 grams; chlo- 
ride of gold crystallized, 20 grams ; dis- 
tilled water, 10 liters. The pyrophos- 
phate of soda is generally employed and 
this may be prepared by melting at a. 
white heat ordinary crystallized phos- 
phate of soda in a crucible. The quan- 
tity of gold given in the above formula 
represents the grams of the pure metal 
dissolved by aqua regia. In making the 
bath 9 liters of water are put into a por- 

[ 



(Gold) 



celain vessel and the pyrophosphate 
added, with stirring a little at a time, 
moderate heat being applied until all the 
salt is dissolved. The solution is then fil- 
tered and allowed to cool. The chloride 
of gold is allowed to crystallize, the crys- 
tals dissolved in a little distilled water, 
and the solution filtered. Add the chlo- 
ride solution to the cold solution of pyro- 
phosphate of soda, then add the hydro- 
cyanic acid and heat to near boiling point. 

This bath will produce fine gilding upon 
well cleaned articles, which must also 
have been passed through a very diluted 
solution of nitrate of mercury, without 
which the deposit of gold is red and irreg- 
ular. The articles must be constantly 
agitated in the bath, and supported by a 
hook, or placed in a stoneware ladle per- 
forated with holes. 

b. — The following solution, to be used 
at a temperature of from 120° to 180° 
F., is recommended by M. E. Rod in Le 
Monde de La Science: Crystallized phos- 
phate of soda, 60 ; bisulphate of soda, 10 ; 
cyanide of potassium, 1 ; chloride of gold, 
21/^ ; distilled or rain water, 1,000 parts 
by weight. To prepare this bath prop- 
erly the water should be divided into 
three portions, viz., one of 700 parts and 
two of 150 parts. The sodic phosphate is 
dissolved in the first portion, the chloride 
of gold in the second, and the disulphate 
of soda and cyanide of potassium in the 
third. The first two portions are gradu- 
ally mixed together, and the third is after- 
ward added. With this solution M. Rod 
uses a platinum anode (a wire or strip), 
adding fresh portions of the gold salt as 
the solution becomes exhausted. 

c. — Cold Electrogilding Solution. — > 
The cold gilding bath is sometimes used 
for very large objects, as clocks, chande- 
liers, etc., to avoid the necessity of heat- 
ing large volumes of liquid — Ferrocyanide 
of potassium (yellow prussiate of pot- 
ash) 20 parts, pure carbonate of potash 
30 parts, sal ammoniac 3 parts, gold 15 
parts, water 1,000 parts. All of the salts 
except the chloride of gold are to be added 
to the water, and the mixture boiled and 
afterward filtered. The chloride of gold 
is next to be dissolved, in a little distilled 
water and added to the filtered liquor. 
The deposit of gold from cold solutions 
varies greatly as to color. When the 
bath is in its best working condition, and 
a brisk current of electricity employed, 
the gold should be a pure yellow color. 

d. — M. De Briant's Solution. — Dissolve 
34 grams of gold in aqua regia, and evap- 
orate the solution until it becomes neu- 
tral chloride of gold ; then dissolve the 
469] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Gold) 



chloride in kilograms of warm water and 
add to it 200 grams of magnesia ; the gold 
is precipitated. Filter and wash with 
pure water ; digest the precipitate in 40 
parts of water, mixed with 3 parts of ni- 
tric acid, to remove magnesia, then wash 
the remaining (resulting) oxide of gold 
with water, until the wash water exhibits 
no acid reaction with test paper (litmus 
paper). Next dissolve 400 grams ferro- 
cyanicle of potassium (yellow prussiate of 
potash) and 100 grams of caustic potash 
in 4 liters of water, add the oxide of gold, 
and boil the solution about twenty min- 
utes. When the gold is dissolved, there 
remains a small amount of iron, precipi- 
tated, which may be removed by filtra- 
tion, and the liquid of a fine gold color is 
ready for use ; it may be employed either 
hot or cold. 

e. — Fizeau's Solution. — (1) 1 part of 
dry chloride of gold is dissolved in 160 
parts distilled water ; to this is added 
gradually a solution of a carbonated alka- 
li, in distilled water, until the liquid be- 
comes cloudy. This solution may be used 
immediately. 

(2) 1 gram chloride of gold: 4 grams 
hyposulphite soda, distilled in 1 liter of 
distilled water. 

3. — Wood's Solution. — 4 oz. (troy) cya- 
nide of potassium ; 1 oz. cyanide gold, dis- 
solved in 1 gal. distilled water. The so- 
lution is used at a temperature of about 
90° F., with a current of at least two 
cells. 

Cold Electrogilding Bath. — Water, dis- 
tilled, 1 gal. ; potassium cyanide, pure, 
3 1-5 oz. ; gold chloride, 3 1-10 oz. 

Dissolve the cyanide in a part of the 
water, then gradually add the gold chlo- 
ride dissolved in the remainder. Boil for 
half an hour before using. (Use cold.) 

The cold bath is kept in a gutta percha 
lined, wooden, or (if small) porcelain 
tank arranged as for brassplating. The 
anodes are thin plates of laminated gold, 
wholly suspended in the liquid (while in 
use) by means of platinum wires, from 
clean brass rods joined to the copper or 
carbon pole of the battery, the rods sup- 
porting the work being in connection with 
the zinc. When in proper working order 
the color of the deposit is yellow. If 
the deposit becomes black or dark red, 
add more cyanide (dissolved in water) to 
the bath, or use a weaker current. 

If the cyanide is in excess the plating 
will proceed very slowly or not at all ; 
or, as sometimes happens, articles al- 
ready gilded will lose their gold. In such 
a case add a litle more gold chloride or 
increase the intensity of the current. 



(Gold) 



Cold electrogilding must be done slow- 
ly, and requires a great deal of attention 
to secure good work. The articles must 
be frequently examined to detect irreg- 
ular deposits or dark spots (which must 
be scratch-brushed and returned). It is 
also frequently necessary to add to or 
remove an element from the battery, 
especially when adding or taking work 
from the bath. With too much intensity 
of current the deposit is black or red ; if 
too weak those portions opposite the 
anode only get covered. In coating Ger- 
man silver it is necessary to use a weak 
bath and a small exposure of anode. The 
best results with this alloy are obtained 
when the bath is slightly warmed. 

Hot Baths. — 1. — For copper, silver, or 
alloys rich in these. — Distilled water, 1 
gal. ; phosphate of soda, cryst., 9^^ oz. ; 
bisulphite of soda, 1 3-5 oz. ; cyanide of 
potassium, pure, 1-6 oz. ; gold chloride, 
160 gr. 

Dissolve in a portion of the water, 
heated, the phosphate of soda. Dissolve 
in another portion of the water the bisul- 
phite of soda and cyanide of potassium. 

Dissolve the gold chloride in the re- 
maining water, stir the solution slowly 
into the cold phosphate of soda solution, 
and finally add the solution of cyanide 
and bisulphite. The bath, now ready for 
use, should be colorless. 

2. — Bronze and Brass. — a. — The fol- 
lowing baths work well with bronze and 
brass, but are not suited for direct gilding 
on iron or steel : Distilled water, 1 gal. ; 
phosphate of soda, cryst., 6 2-5 oz. ; 
bisulphite of soda, 1 3-5 oz. ; bicarbonate 
of potash, 4-5 oz. ; caustic soda, 4-5 oz. ; 
cyanide of potassium, pure, 1-5 oz. ; gold 
chloride, 2-5 oz. 

Dissolve all together, except the gold 
chloride, in the hot water ; filter, cool and 
gradually stir in the gold chloride dis- 
solved in a little water. Heat from 120° 
to 140° F. for use. It requires an in- 
tense current. 

b. — Distilled water, 1 gal. ; ferrocyanide 
of potassium, 5% oz. ; carbonate of pot- 
ash, pure, 1% oz. ; sal ammoniac, 2-3 
oz. ; gold chloride, 2-3 oz. 

Dissolve as in the last, boil for half 
an hour, replace the evaporated water, 
and the bath is ready for use. 

c. — Distilled water, 1 gal. ; cyanide of 
potassium, 2 4-5 oz. ; gold chloride, 1 oz. 

Dissolve the gold chloride in the water, 
then add the cyanide, and stir until solu- 
tion is complete. 

Baths of this kind are commonly usedj 
and with little regard to temperature. 
They, are simple in preparation, but are, 



[470 2 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Gold) 



unfortunately, not very uniform in their 
working, ungilding one part while another 
is gilding, and producing a variety of 
colors, especially when freshly prepared. 
They linprove by use, however. 

3. — Iron and Steel — Uncoated, Bath 
for. — Distilled water, 1 gal. ; phosphate 
of soda, cryst., 7 8-10 oz. ; bisulphite of 
soda, 2 oz. ; cyanide of potassium, pure, 
3-5 drams ; gold chloride, 160 grains. 

Dissolve as before. Heat to 175° or 
180° F. Pass the second metal through 
the hot potash, then through dilute 
muriatic acid (acid 1, water 15), brush, 
and connect at once. Requires a very 
intense current at first. 

4. — Management of the Hot Bath. — 
The articles should be kept in agitation 
while in the bath. They should be placed 
in connection with the battery before or 
immediately upon entering the bath. A 
foilor wire of platinum is in many cases 
prefeiabie to a soluble gold anode when 
electrogilding by aid of heat. It suffers 
no alteration in the liquid, and by its 
manipulation the color of the deposit may 
be materially altered. When it is re- 
moved so as to expose only a small sur- 
face in the bath a pale yellowish deposit 
may be obtained ; when the immersion is 
greater, a clear yellow ; with a still 
greater exposure, a red gold color. The 
strength of the hot baths may be main- 
tained by successive additions of gold 
chloride with a proper proportion of the 
other salts and water ; but it is prefera- 
ble to wear out the bath entirely and pre- 
pare a new one, as it soon becomes con- 
taminated with copper or silver if much 
of these metals have been gilt in it. In 
a nearly exhausted bath containing dis- 
solved copper the electro deposit will be 
what is called "red gold" ; if it contains 
an excess of silver a "green gold" deposit 
will result. The gold and copper or gold 
and silver are deposited together as an 
alloy, the color of which depends upon 
the refetive proportion of the metals, 
battery, strength, etc. 

Dead luster gilding is produced by the 
slow deposition of a considerable quan- 
tity of gold, by giving the metallic sur- 
face a dead luster before gilding (by 
means of acids), "by first preparing a 
coating of frosted silver or by depositing 
the gold upon a heavy copper deposit 
produced with a weak current in a bath 
of copper sulphate. 

In order to secure a good deposit of 
gold it is absolutely necessary that the 
work should be perfectly freed from any 
trace of oxide, grease, oil, or other im- 
purity. Articles of copper and brass may 

[ 



(Iron) 



be cleansed by first immersing them in 
a strong boiling solution of caustic potash 
or soda, and, after rinsing, dipping mo- 
mentarily in nitric acid and immediately 
rinsing, or scouring with pumice stone 
moistened with a strong solution of 
cyanide of potassium in water. 

Other metals require a somewhat differ- 
ent treatment, which we will have occa- 
sion to refer to in a subsequent article. 

Lead, Britannia Metal, etc. — When 
articles composed of lead, tin, Britan- 
nia metal, iron or steel are required 
to be gilded it is best to give them a 
preliminary coating of copper in an al- 
kaline bath, or to electro-brass them, 
after which they may be easily gilded. 
The softer metals need to be burnished 
with great care, owing to their yielding 
nature under the pressure of the burnish- 
ing tools. 

Steel, Polished. — For gilding polished 
steel, a nearly neutral solution of chloride 
of gold is mixed with sulphuric ether and 
well shaken. The ether will take up 
the gold and the ethereal solution float 
above the denser acid. If the ethereal 
solution be applied by means of a camel's- 
hair brush to brightly polished steel or 
iron, the ether evaporates and the gold, 
which adheres more or less firmly, be- 
comes reduced to the metallic state on 
the steel, and may be either polished or 
burnished. Steel receives a deposit of 
gold with great rapidity, even with a very 
weak battery current. 

Iron. 

Electro-deposition of Iron, Solutions 
for.— 1. Ammonia Sulphate of Iron Solu- 
tion. — This double salt, which was first 
proposed by Boettger, for depositing this 
metal, may be readily prepared by evap- 
orating and crystallizing mixed solutions 
of equal parts of sulphate of _ iron and 
sulphate of ammonia. A solution of the 
double salt yields a fine white deposit of 
iron, with a moderate current, and has 
been very extensively employed in "fac- 
ing" engraved copper plates. When care- 
fully worked this is one of the best solu- 
tions for the deposition of iron upon 
copper surfaces. 

2. — Boettger's Ferrocyanide Solution. — 
This solution for coating engraved copper 
plates with iron is formed by dissolving 
10 grams of ferrocyanide of potassium 
(yellow prussiate of potash) and 20 gr. 
of Rochelle salts in 200 cubic centimeters 
of distilled water. To this solution is 
added a solution consisting of 3 grams 
of persulphate of iron in 50 cubic centi- 
meters of water. A solution of caustic 
471] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Nickel) 



soda is then added drop by drop, with 
constant stirring, until a perfectly clear, 
light, yellowish liquid is obtained, which 
is ready for immediate use. 

Boettger's process, as far as we are 
aware, has never been improved on. It 
is as follows : Mix 100 parts of ferrous 
ammonium chloride and dissolve the mix- 
ture in 500 parts of distilled water. 
Render the solution slightly, but dis- 
tinctly acid by the addition of sulphuric 
acid drop by drop. The surface to be 
plated is connected with the negative pole 
of a battery, an iron plate of equal size 
being connected with the positive pole 
and serving as an anode. For small 
articles two or three Bunsen elements 
will answer very well. Maintain the so- 
lution at from 75° to 80° F. The de- 
posited iron is very pure, white, very 
hard and steel-like, and accumulates very 
rapidly. In this manner copper, zinc, 
type metal, etc., may be given a surface 
as hard as steel plate and at a minimum 
cost. Of course the article to be plated 
should be rendered perfectly clean before 
it is put into the bath. 

3. — Copper. — Prof. Boettger recommends 
the following solution for coating copper 
plates with iron : 10 parts of ferrocyanide 
of potassium and 20 parts of tartrate of 
soda are dissolved in 220 parts of dis- 
tilled water, adding a solution of 3 parts 
of sulphate of iron in 50 parts of water. 
Caustic soda solution is poured into the 
mixture until the Prussian blue formed 
is redissolved. 

Lead 

May be deposited from its acetate solu- 
tion or from a solution of oxide of lead, 
in caustic soda or potash, in the form 
of beautiful metallo-chromes, on polished 
surfaces of steel or nickel. 

Magnesium. 

Has been deposited from a solution of 
the double chloride of magnesium and am- 
monia. 

Nickel. 

Preparation of Nickel Solution. — 1. 
The substance generally employed is the 
double sulphate of nickel and ammonia, 
or "nickel salts,'' a crystalline salt of a 
beautiful green emerald color. This ar- 
ticle should be pure. For 100 gal. of the 
solution the proportions employed are : 
Double sulphate of nickel and ammonia, 
75 lb. ; water, 100 gal. Place the nickel 
salts in a clean wooden tub or bucket 
and pour upon them a quantity of hot 



(Nickel) 



or boiling water ; stir briskly with a 
wooden stick for a few minutes, after 
which the green solution may be poured 
into the tank, and a fresh supply of hot 
water added to the undissolved crystals, 
with stirring as before. This operation 
is to be continued until all the crystals 
are dissolved, and the solution trans- 
ferred to the tank. A sufficient quantity 
of cold water is now to be added to make 
up 100 gal, in all. It is better to pass 
the hot solution through a strainer be- 
fore it enters the tank, to free it from 
impurities. 

2, — Nickelplating. — The Plating Bath. 
— The nickel salts commonly used are the 
nickel ammonium sulphate (called double 
sulphate) and the corresponding chloride. 
Other salts, such as the nickel potassium 
cyanide, the acetate and sulphate, have 
been used, but not so successfully as 
these. 

The double sulphate bath may be pre- 
pared by dissolving % lb, of the salt in 
each gallon of water (soft). The salt 
costs about 65 cents a pound, and is gen- 
erally considered the best for this pur- 
pose. It should be kept neutral and up 
to about 6° of hydrometer. 

The double chloride bath requires about 
4 oz. of the salt per gallon, and works 
better toward alkalinity. 

The bath should be filtered when fresh- 
ly prepared, and should be kept in a 
separate room, or at least away from the 
apartment in which the buffing or polish- 
ing is performed, to avoid contamination 
by dust as much as possible. Exposed 
to the air, the bath (the water) evapor- 
ates, and the water thus lost must be 
replaced from time to time. To retard 
this and keep out dust as much as possi- 
ble, it is well to cover the bath when not 
in use. Its surface should be skimmed 
occasionally and it should be frequently 
mixed together to preserve a uniform 
degree of strength. 

The tank or vessel in which the bath 
is contained is usually constructed of 
smooth 2-in. white pine stuff, grooved 
and well bolted together and coated on 
the inside with good asphaltum applied 
in the melted state. 

Instead of this form, a clean tub or a 
half barrel or hogshead, with an extra 
hoop, may be used, though from the shape 
of such a vessel there is necessarily much 
waste space to be filled with useless 
liquid. 

For small baths a neat form of vessel 
consisting in a square porcelain lined 
(enameled) iron tank of suitable dimen- 



[472] 



Electrojrwtallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Nickel) 



sions is sold by some of the dealers in 
electroplating materials. 

3. — Anodes or Feeding Plates. — Good 
pure cast nickel anodes are now obtained 
at a moderate cost ($1.85 per lb.), and 
are preferable to grain metal anodes. 
They usually come in sizes ranging from 
l%x4 in., 3-16 in. thick, to 8x12 in., 
% in. thick. 

They may be suspended around the 
sides of the tank or across and facing the 
work (cai-e being taken to avoid bring- 
ing them into such close proximity to the 
work that contact is likely to occur under 
any circumstance/. They may be sus- 
pended by clean copper trusses or hooks 
— which should not be permitted. to touch 
the liquid — from stout copper rods, to 
which connection with the battery is 
made. 

4. — The Battery. — In nearly all large 
electroplating establishments^ some form 
of dynamo-electric machine is now used 
instead of the battery. They are cleanly, 
require little attention and space, and 
afford a current more easily adapted to 
the work and at a much smaller cost. 

But as their first cost is considerable, 
and they require power to operate them, 
the old battery is still in requisition in 
smaller establishments. The carbon or 
chromic acid battery is more commonly 
used, as it admits of more rapid work 
with a smaller number of cells ; but as it 
supplies a very intense current, it often 
becomes necessary to introduce resistance 
coils to reduce it where small work is 
on hand. Some of the best work we have 
ever seen has been produced with the 
current derived from two or three Smee 
or sulphate of copper cells (in series). 
The amount of battery power for a given 
amount of work should be in zinc surface 
(exposed) about equal (when in proper 
working order) to the surface of the 
work exposed in the plating bath, with 
care to preserve the tension. If one cell 
has a zinc surface (exposed) of, say, one 
hundred square inches, and the work, say, 
five hundred, the one cell will require to 
be multiplied by five for quantity and 
(if the original tension was, say, three) 
by three to preserve the tension. Thus : 




Diagram of Connections 



(Nickel) 



Of course this is equivalent to three 
large single cells, each exposing five hun- 
dred square inches of zinc (equal to a 
plate about sixteen inches square, expos- 
ing both sides). Large batteries of the 
dipping form, admitting of the immersion 
of the proper quantity of zinc, are often 
convenient. 

If the current is too strong the de- 
posited metal will present a dull (com- 
monly termed burnt) appearance; if too 
weak it is apt to be imperfect, granular, 
or semi-crystalline. 

For practical purposes the electricity 
may be said to proceed from the copper 
or carbon pole of the battery, and care 
should be taken that this pole is invaria- 
bly connected (by stout copper wires or 
rods) with the anodes or feeding plates 
in the plating bath, for if misconnected 
damage is done both to the work and the 
bath by the corrosion or partial solution 
of the former in the latter. 

5. — Preparing the Work. — Before work 
can be plated its surface must be freed 
perfectly from all traces of oil or grease, 
oxides, lacquer, and other impurities. Oil, 
grease, etc., are removed by contact with 
a strong, hot acqueous solution of caustic 
potash, and, after rinsing off the adhering 
alkali, from oxide by an acid bath ; or, 
if of brass, copper, or German silver, by 
scouring with fine pumice stone and strong 
acqueous solution of cyanide of potas- 
sium. Iron is pickled in diluted sulphuric 
or muriatic acid (acid 1, water 5 to 15), 
and scoured with fine white silicious sand 
or pumice stone. Brass or copper is 
sometimes brightened before entering to 
the plating bath by dipping it momen- 
tarily in nitric acid diluted with about 
20 parts of water, and quickly rinsing 
it in running water. It should be placed 
in circuit immediately after this. 

The hand must not come into contact 
with any part of the work after removal 
from the alkali, as the slightest touch 
may spoil all. 

On removal of the plated work from 
the plating bath it should be quickly 
rinsed (without handling) in cold water, 
then transferred to hot water, which will 
cause it when taken out to dry quickly 
and perfectly. If the finished work is 
to present a smooth polishing surface it 
must present such a surface before enter- 
ing the plating bath. Nickel is hard and 
will not readily submit to a burnishing 
tool. 

When the work is placed in circuit in 
the plating bath (and it should not be 
permitted to remain many moments in 
the bath without being placed in circuit) 
473] 



Electrometallurgy/ and Metal Coating 



(Nickel) 



it should be moved about to free it from 
bubbles. 

The process of nickelplating is a sim- 
ple one, and by a little practice and 
proper attention to the requirements the 
bath may be worked month after month, 
and the metal deposited smoothly and 
with certainty. 

Formulae for Nickelplating Solutions. 
1. — Double sulphate of nickel and am- 
monium, 5 to 8 parts ; water, 100 parts. 

Dissolve the nickel double salt in above 
quantity of water with the aid of heat. 
Cautiously add ammonia, or the sulphate 
of ammonium, until the solution is neu- 
tral to test paper. This solution should 
be maintained as nearly neutral as possi- 
ble in use. This is commonly known in 
the United States as the Adams solution. 
It is in very general use by nickelplaters 
throughout the United States, and yields, 
where properly managed, excellent results. 

2. — Double sulphate of nickel and am- 
monium, 30 parts; boric acid (refined), 
21/^ to 5 parts ; water, 150 to 200 parts. 

(Weston's solution.) The superiority 
of this solution is generally acknowledged. 
The deposited metal, as previously re- 
marked, is almost silver-white, dense, 
homogeneous and tenacious, and the solu- 
tion maintains its excellent working 
quality very uniformly in long-continued 
service. 

The nickel salt and boric acid may be 
dissolved separately in boiling water, the 
solutions mixed, and the volume brought 
up to that of the formula, or the two 
components may be dissolved together. 

3. — Acetate of nickel, 2% parts ; acetate 
of calcium, 2^/^ parts ; water, 100 parts. 

To each gallon of this solution add 1 fl. 
oz. of acetic acid, 1.047 sp. gr. 

To prepare this bath, dissolve about 
the same quantity of the dry carbonate 
of nickel as that called for in the formula 
(or three-quarters of that quantity of the 
hydrated oxide) in acetic acid, adding the 
acid cautiously, and heating until effer- 
vescence has ceased and solution is com- 
plete. The acetate of calcium may be 
made by dissolving the same weight of 
carbonate of calcium (marble dust) as 
that called for in the formula (or one- 
half that quantity of caustic lime), and 
treating it in the same manner. Add 
the two solutions together, dilute the 
volume to the required amount by the 
addition of water, and then to each gallon 
of the solution add a fluid ounce of free 
acetic acid, as prescribed. (Potts' solu- 
tion. ) 

4. — Sulphate of nickel and ammonium. 



(Nickel) 



10 parts ; sulphate of ammonium, 4 parts ; 
citric acid, 1 part ; water, 200 parts. 

The solution is made with the aid of 
heat, and, when cool, small fragments of 
carbonate of ammonium should be added 
until the bath is neutral to test paper. 

5. — ^Sulphate of nickel, 6 parts ; citrate 
of nickel, 3 parts ; phosphate of nickel, 
3 parts ; benzoic acid, 1% parts ; water, 
200 parts. 

G. — Phosphate of nickel, 10 parts ; cit- 
rate of nickel, 6 parts ; pyrophosphate 
of sodium, 10% parts ; bisulphite of 
sodium, 1^ parts ; citric acid, 3 parts ; 
aqua ammonia, 15 parts ; water, 400 
parts. 

7. — Sulphate of nickel, 6 parts ; aqua 
ammonia, 3 parts; water, 100 parts. 

When the nickel is dissolved add aqua 
ammonia, 20 parts. 

This bath is similar to that recom- 
mended by Prof. Boettger ; it is said to 
be well suited for the purposes of ama- 
teurs, inasmuch as it gives good results 
with a platinum anode. It is worked at 
a temperature of 100° F., with a moder- 
ate current. It requires renewal from 
time to time, as it becomes impoverished 
in nickel, by addition of fresh nickel salt ; 
it must also be kept alkaline by the 
occasional addition of ammonia. 

8. — Sulphate of nickel and ammonium, 
10 parts ; sulphate of ammonium, 2 
parts ; water, 250 parts. 

Dissolve in boiling water, and allow to 
cool. 'These proportions are recommended 
for coating objects of cast and wrought 
iron and steel. 

9. — Sulphate of nickel and ammonium, 
10 parts ; sulphate of ammonium, 2 
parts ; water, 300 parts. 

Dissolve as above. Recommended for 
coating brass, copper, tin, britannia, lead, 
zinc, etc. 

10. — Sulphate of nickel and ammonium, 
6 parts; chloride of ammonium (sal am- 
moniac), 3 parts; water, 100 parts. 

A large number of American manu- 
factories use the following recipes for 
nickeling : 

11. — Bath for Brass, Copper, Tin, Bri- 
tannia, Metal, Lead, Zinc and Tinned 
Sheet Metal. — 13 gal. of water, 4 lb. 
double sulphate of nickel and ammonium, 
14 oz. sulphate of ammonium ; dissolve 
by boiling. Let the liquid cool. Test 
with red or blue litmus paper. Add a 
little hydrochlorate of ammonia if any 
acid is present. 

12.— Ordinary Nickel Bath. — 4% gal. 
of water, 1^4 lb. of double sulphate of 
nickel and ammonium, % lb. hydro- 
chlorate of ammonia ; dissolve by boiling. 



[474] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Nickel) 



Make the fluid slightly alkaline by adding 
1% lb. of caustic ammonia. The fluid 
should show 3° to 4° by the hydrometer. 

13. — 3^ gal. water, 2 lbs. double sul- 
phate of nickel and ammonium, 21 oz. 
hydrochlorate of ammonium, 14 oz. sul- 
phate of ammonium ; dissolve by boiling. 
Let the liquid cool. 

14. — Powell's Process. — This inventor 
claims that benzoic acid added to any of 
the nickel salts arrests the tendency to 
an imperfect deposit, prevents the decom- 
position of the solution and consequent 
formation of subsalts. The proportion 
of benzoic acid to be added to the bath 
is % of an oz. to a gallon of the solution. 
Powell gives the following formulae for 
nickel baths : 

a. — Sulphate of nickel and ammonia, 10 
parts ; sulphate of ammonia, 4 parts : 
citric acid, 1 part ; water, 200 parts. 
The solution is prepared with the aid 
of heat, and, when cool, a srdall quan- 
tity of carbonate of ammonia is added, 
until the solution is neutral to test paper. 

b.^Sulphate of nickel, 6 parts ; citrate 
of nickel, 3 parts ; phosphate of nickel, 3 
parts ; benzoic acid, 1% parts ; water, 
200 parts. 

15. — A new nickel-plating solution, said 
to yield beautiful results, is prepared by 
mixing the liquid obtained by evaporat- 
ing a solution of % oz. nickel in aqua 
regia to a pasty mass and dissolving it 
in 1 lb. aqua ammonia, with that ob- 
tained by treating the same quantity of 
nickel with a solution of 2 oz. cyanide 
of potassium in 1 lb. of water. More 
cyanide renders the deposit whiter and 
more ammonia renders it grayer. 

16. — Aluminum. ■ — Nickel chloride, 7 
parts ; sodium phosphate, 7 parts ; dis- 
tilled water, 100 parts. 

Warm the baths from 60° to 70° C. 
and maintain them at this temperature 
throughout, 

17. — Small Articles, such as Umtrella 
Mounts, etc. — Double sulphate of nickel 
and ammonium, 7 kgm. ; bicarbonate of 
soda, 800 grams ; water, 100 1. The 
bicarbonate of soda must be added when 
the nickel solution is warm, in small 
quantities at a time, otherwise the effer- 
vescence which occurs might cause the 
solution to overflow. The bath is to be 
worked up to nearly boiling point. If, 
after working for some time, the deposit 
becomes of a darkish color, add a small 
lump of sulphide of sodium, which will 
remedy it. 

18. — Renicheling Old Work. — When 
goods which have been nickelplated re- 
quire to be renickeled, it is always better 



(Platinum) 



to remove the old coating by means of a 
stripping solution, as nickel will not ad- 
here to a coating of the same metal. A 
stripping bath may be composed as fol- 
lows : Oil of vitriol, 16 lb. ; nitric acid, 
4 lb. ; water, 2 qt. Add the oil of vitriol 
to the water (not the reverse, which is 
dangerous) gradually, and when the mix- 
ture has cooled down, add the nitric acid, 
and stir the mixture with a glass rod. 
When cold it is ready for use. Attach 
the articles to be stripped to a piece of 
stout brass or copper wire and place in 
the stripping liquid ; they should be ex- 
amined after a few moments. The opera- 
tion of stripping should be conducted in 
the open air or in a fireplace with good 
draught. The articles should not be 
allowed to remain in the liquid one mo- 
ment after the nickel has been dissolved 
from the surface, but be immediately re- 
moved and plunged into cold water. 

19. — Tin, Britannia Metal, etc.— Sul- 
phate of nickel and ammonium, 10 parts ; 
sulphate of ammonium, 2 parts ; water, 
300 parts. The salts are to be dissolved 
in boiling water, and when cold the solu- 
tion is ready for use. For nickeling cast 
and wrought iron and steel the following 
bath is recommended: Sulphate of nickel 
and ammonium, 10 parts ; sulphate of am- 
monium, 1% parts ; water, 250 parts. 

Palladium. 

1. — Palladium may be deposited from 
the double cyanide of palladium and po- 
tassium, or from the double chloride of 
palladium and potassium. 

2. — Palladium, which is a whiter, light- 
er and more fusible metal than platinum, 
has of recent years been much used to 
plate watch movements, savs the Elec- 
trician. According to M. Pilet, four 
milligrammes (about one-seventeenth of 
a grain) of palladium is sufficient to coat 
the works of an ordinary-sized watch. 
M. Pilet recommends the following bath : 
Water, 2 1. ; chloride of palladium, 10 
grams ; phosphate of ammonia, 100 
grams ; phosphate of soda, 500 grams ; 
benzoic acid, 5 grams. This bath is 
suitable for all metals except zinc. 

Platinum. 

1. — Carton ( Walker) . — The carbon 
plate is purified by immersion for several 
days in sulphuric acid diluted with 3 or 
4 times its volume of water, then put 
i^^to a bath of sulphuric acid diluted with 
10 times its volume of water, with crys- 
tals of chloride of platinum added until 
it becomes straw-colored. 

The carbon is connected to the — pole 



L4T5] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Silver) 



of the battery and a platinum or carbon 
plate connected to the + pole serves for 
anode. After twenty minutes the carbon 
is platinized, as may be proved by using 
it to decompose water. The hydrogen 
should freely rise from its surface. 

2. — Iron. — Steep the iron plate in an 
acid solution of platinum in aqua regia. 

Silverplating. 

3. — Silver. — For use in Smee cells. The 
silver plate to be coated is plunged in a 
bath of bichloride of platinum and acidu- 
lated water. A current is sent through 
the bath from a platinum anode, the 
silver serving as cathode. A rough coat- 
ing of platinum takes place on the silver. 

Simple Instructions for. — 1. — For silver 
plating the bath consists of potassium 
silver cyanide, prepared by precipitating 
solution of silver nitrate with potassium 
cyanide and redissolving the washed pre- 
cipitate in excess of potassium cyanide 
solution — potassium cyanide, 12 oz. r 
water, 1 gal. ; silver cyanide, about 1 troy 
oz. Filter and use in a porcelain or 
glazed vessel. For the whitening bath 
dissolve 1 lb. potassium cyanide in 1 gal. 
of water, add % oz. troy of silver cya- 
nide and filter the solution. The baths 
are provided with silver feeding plates 
for anodes proportioned in size to the 
surface of the work to be plated. These 
are connected with the positive pole of 
battery. The cleaned articles are con- 
nected by a copper wire with the zinc 
pole of the battery, dipped for a minute 
or two in the whitening bath, and when 
uniformly coated with a white film of 
silver, transferred to the plating bath, 
under similar conditions. 3 or 4 Smee 
cells with plates 10 x 4 in. will gener- 
ally sufiice for the plating bath, and 4 
or 5 similar cells for the whitening bath ; 
twenty to thirty minutes in the plating 
bath is usually sufficient to plate the 
work properly. Articles of copper, brass 
or German silver to be plated should 
first be cleaned by boiling them for a few 
minutes in strong potash water to free 
them from traces of oil or grease, and, 
after rinsing, in dilute nitric acid to re- 
move any oxide and again thoroughly 
rinsed. It must not be touched by the 
hand after cleaning. Just before putting 
the work into the bath, dip it momen- 
tarily in strong nitric or a mixture of 
equal parts nitric and sulphuric acids 
and rinse quickly. After this treatment 
it is sometimes dipped for a moment in 
dilute aqueous mercurous nitrate solu- 
tion and rinsed again. This has the 
effect of coating the clean metal with a 



(Silver) 



t 476 ] 



film of mercury, which secures a perfect 
adhesion of the deposited silver. 

2.— The Bath.— Water (soft), 1 gal.; 
cyanide of potassium '^pure), 8 oz. ; ni- 
trate of silver, 5% oz. 

Dissolve the nitrate of silver in a 
sufficient quantity of pure water (soft), 
and add to it gradually, with constant 
stirring, hydrocyanic (prussic) acid until 
all the silver has been precipitated as 
cyanide, which may be known by the 
formation of no cloud in a portion of 
the clear liquid when a drop of the acid 
is added to it. Avoid adding an excess 
of the acid. Throw the precipitate upon 
a fine cotton cloth filter, and as the liquid 
runs through wash the precipitate on 
the cloth several times with pure water. 
Dissolve the cyanide of potassium in the 
water, and stir in the cyanide of silver 
carefully removed from the cloth. If it 
does not dissolve in the liquid entirely, 
add more cyanide of potassium until it 
does, stirring continually. Let the im- 
purities settle, and the bath is ready for 
use. Many electroplaters use a prelim- 
inary for silver "whitening" bath, which 
is the same composition, but contains less 
silver, more cyanide, and is worked with 
a somewhat stronger current. 

The cleared article in some cases is 
first dipped for a few moments in a solu- 
tion of nitrate of mercury, 1 oz. in 1 
gal. of water, and then in the whitening 
bath for a few minutes, and after brush- 
ing is transferred to the silver bath 
proper. 

The vessels containing the cold bath 
are sufficiently high to allow about 4 in. 
of liquid above the immersed objects, 
whose distance from the bottom and sides 
should be nearly the same to give a 
regular deposit of metal at both ends of 
the object. 

The upper ledge of the trough carries 
two brass rods all around, which do not 
touch one another, one above the other, 
so that other metallic rods placed trans- 
versely will rest upon the higher or lower 
series of rods only. The upper rods are 
connected with the zinc, the lower with 
the carbon or copper end of the battery, 
or with the corresponding poles of the 
dynamo-electric machine. The trans- 
verse rods resting upon the lower set 
support the silver anodes ; those resting 
on the upper set, the work. The work 
suspended from an upper transverse is 
placed so as to face two anodes sus- 
pended from two lower transverse rods. 

As the lower layers of the bath are apt 
to become denser (richer) than the up- 
per, it is often necessary to reverse the 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Silver) 



articles during the operation to obtain 
a perfectly uniform thickness of deposit. 
For the same purpose small articles 
should be kept in motion as much as 
possible. 

The deposit is finer and denser if ob- 
tained with a weak battery and long ex- 
posure than if a strong current is em- 
ployed. A sufficient quantity of silver 
may be deposited in three or four hours, 
but it will be of much finer quality and 
more easily burnished if the work is 
left in the bath for twelve or fifteen 
hours with a few cells of battery. 

When the articles, especially coppered 
iron, etc., have acquired a coherent film 
of silver, they are sometimes removed 
from the bath, and thoroughly scratch- 
brushed, cleansed in alcohol, or preferably 
in a hot silvering bath, thence again 
passed through the mercurial solution 
and finished in the cold plating bath. 

The first scratch-brushing, which is not 
always necessary, obviates the tendency 
of certain alloys to assume a crystalline 
appearance and corrects the imperfections 
of the cleansing in process. 

Should the anodes become black during 
the passage of the current, the solution 
contains too little cyanide. In this the 
deposit is adherent, but too slow ; and 
the bath loses more silver than it can 
gain from the anodes. 

If the anodes remain white during the 
passage of the current, the bath contains 
an excess of cyanide, and the deposit does 
not properly adhere ; correct by adding 
cyanide of silver until it dissolves with 
difficulty. 

When in good working order, the 
anodes present a gray appearance while 
the current is passing, becoming white 
when circuit is broken. 

The specific gravity of the bath may 
vary from 5° to 15° Baume's hydro- 
meter and still furnish good results. 

Electro-silvering baths do not generally 
work so well when freshly prepared. If 
properly used and cared for, they im- 
prove by age. At first the deposit is 
often granulated bluish or yellowish. 

It is customary to mix portions of an 
old bath with a freshly prepared one. 
Some platers introduce small quantities 
of ammonia instead to age the liquid. 

Bisulphide of carbon in small quanti- 
ties imparts a bright luster to plated ar- 
ticles. 1 oz. of the bisulphide is put into 
a pint bottle filled with a strong solution 
of the cyanide of potassium and silver, 
briskly shaken, and a few drops of this 
liquid poured into the bath occasionally 
until the work appears sufficiently bright. 



(Tin) 



An excess of bisulphide must, however, 
be avoided, as it will spoil the bath. 

What has been said about the arrange- 
ment of battery in articles of nickel and 
brass plating will also apply here. 

3. — Deposits. — For electro-silveiTplating 
the double salt of silver and potassium 
cyanide is almost universally employed. 
The baths are used either hot or cold. 
The latter method is generally adopted 
for articles which require great solidity. 
The hot process is used for small articles, 
and is preferable for steel, iron, zinc, lead 
and tin, which have been previously elec- 
tro-coppered. The hot baths are gener- 
ally kept in enameled cast-iron kettles, 
and the articles are either suspended or 
moved constantly about in them. A 
somewhat energetic current is needed, es- 
pecially when the articles are moved 
about in order to operate rapidly. A 
gray or black deposit indicates too strong 
a current, and when the surface becomes 
covered with bubbles of gas the same 
thing is indicated. The anodes are plates 
of silver or heavy silver foil. The wooden 
tanks for the cold baths are similar to 
those used in plating with copper and 
nickel, but should be very thoroughly 
coated on the inside with gutta percha. 

Aluminum. — Lanseigne and Leblanc, in 
the Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, 
give the following formula. The article 
must be well cleaned with a dilute solu- 
tion of an alkali (soda or potash) or with 
a weak solution of hydrochloric acid, and 
rinsed with water. The anodes must con- 
sist of the metal with which the plating 
is being done. 

Silver nitrate, 2 'parts ; potassium cy- 
anide, 4 parts ; sodium phosphate, 4 
parts ; water, distilled, 100 parts. 

Tin. 

1. — The following is one of the best 
solutions of plating with tin by the bat- 
tery process: Potassium pyrophosphate, 
12 oz. ; protochloride of tin, 4i/^ oz. ; 
water, 20 oz. 

The anode or feeding plate used in this 
bath consists of pure Banca tin. This 
plate is joined to the positive (copper or 
carbon) pole of the battery, while the 
work is suspended from a wire connected 
with the negative (zinc) pole. A mod- 
erately strong battery is required, and 
the work is finished by scratch-brushing. 

2, — In Weigler's process a bath is pre- 
pared by passing washed chlorine gas into 
a concentrated aqueous solution of stan- 
nous chloride to saturation, and expelling 
excess of gas by warming the solution, 
which is then diluted with about ten 



1477] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Wastes) 



volumes of water and filtered, if neces- 
sary. The articles to be plated are 
pickled in dilute sulphuric acid, and 
polished with fine sand and scratch-brush, 
rinsed in water, loosely armed with zinc 
wire or tape, and immersed in the bath 
for ten or fifteen minutes at ordinary 
temperatures. The coating is finished 
with the scratch-brush and whiting. 

By this process iron — cast or wrought 
— steel, copper, brass, and lead can be 
tinned without a separate battery. The 
only disadvantage of the process is that 
the bath soon becomes clogged up with 
zinc chloride, and the tin salt must be 
frequently renewed. 

3. — In Hern's process a bath composed 
of : Tartaric acid, 2 oz. ; water, 100 oz. ; 
soda, 3 oz. ; protochloride of tin, 3 oz. 
is employed instead of the above. It 
requires a somewhat longer exposure to 
properly tin articles in this than in Weig- 
ler's bath. Either of these baths may be 
used with a separate battery. 

Wastes. 

Electroplating Solutions, To Recover 
from. — Gold solutions, usually cyanides, 
are boiled in a porcelain dish, sodic stan- 
nate added, and the boiling continued 
until all the gold has combined with the 
tin, forming a black precipitate. This 
precipitate is washed with water and dis- 
solved in aqua regia. The solution of 
auric and stannic chlorides is carefully 



(Zinc) 



evaporated, diluted with distilled water, 
enough sodio-potassic tartrate added and 
warmed, when all the gold will be pre- 
cipitated as a brownish yellow powder. 
For silver solutions it is only necessary 
to boil with sodic stannate. 

Zinc. 

Electro-deposition of. — For the electro- 
deposition of zinc solutions of the sul- 
phate, ammonia sulphate, chloride and 
ammonia chloride may be employed, as 
also alkaline solutions, prepared by dis- 
solving zinc oxide or carbonate in a solu- 
tion of cyanide of potassium or caustic 
potassium ; the deposit from either of 
these alkaline solutions is generally of 
very good quality, and if too strong a 
current be not employed the deposited 
metal is usually very tough. 

COATING OF METALS BY OTHER 
PROCESSES 

COPPER DEPOSIT BY DIPPING 

This is seldom practiced except upon 
iron, as deposits thus obtained are gen- 
erally wanting in lasting qualities, since, 
from the thinness of the coating, the 
iron is but imperfectly protected from at- 
mospheric influences. If the iron is dipped 
in a solution of: Sulphate of copper, 3^4 
oz. ; sulphuric acid, 3^/^ oz. ; water, 1 to 
2 gal. ; it becomes covered with a coat- 



HOT AND COLD COATING OF METALS 
DEPOSITION BY SIMPLE IMMERSION, TABULAR EXAMPLES OF. 



Solution. 



h3 

H § 

^ a 



<j m m u u 



i 1 1 

•^ J Ph 



a " 

=^ ^ - :i ^ .9 .3 

PL, IS S ^ 02 H N 



Antim. terchloride n o d 

Bismuth chloride n o n 

Copper sulphate n o n 

Copper nitrate n o n 

Copper chloride n o d 

Copper dichloride n o n 

Gold terchloride d d d 

Gold double cyanide n o n 

Mercury nitrate d o d 

Mercurous salts d d d 

Platinum chloride d d d 

Lead nitrate acetate n o n 

Silver nitrate d d d 

Silv. alcoholic nitrate d o d 

Silv. double cyanide n o n 

Tin chloride n o n 

Zinc salts n o n 

d. Deposition. n. No deposition 



References. 

o. Not observed. 
[478] 



d d 



D. Quickly deposited. 



Electrometallurgy/ and Metal Coating 



(Non-Electric Gilding) 



ing of pure copper, having a certain ad- 
hesion ; but should it remain there a few 
minutes, the deposit becomes thick and 
muddy, and does not stand any rubbing. 
Small articles, such as pins, hooks and 
nails, are thus coppered by tumbling them 
for a few moments in sand, bran, or saw- 
dust impregnated with the above solution, 
diluted with three or four volumes of 
water. 

GOLD 

The metal employed for gilding is 
usually brass of a mixture of brass and 
copper. The following alloys have been 
recommended : 

a. — Copper, 6 parts ; brass, 1 part. 

b. — Copper, 4 parts ; Bristol brass, 1 
part. 

c. — Copper, 13 parts ; old Bristol brass, 
3 parts ; tin, 14 parts. 

1. — Mixtures employed in gilding by 
fire or by the wet processes. 

Red Ormolu. — Potash alum, nitrate of 
potash, 30 parts of each ; sulphate of zinc, 
8 parts ; common salt, 3 parts ; red ocher, 
28 parts ; sulphate of iron, 1 part. Add 
to it a small proportion of annatto, mad- 
der, cochineal, or other coloring matter, 
ground in water or in weak vinegar. 

Yellow Ormolu. — Red ocher, 17 parts ; 
potash alum, 50 parts ; sulphate of zinc, 
10 parts ; common salt, 3 parts ; nitrate 
of potash, 20 parts. 

Dead Luster for Jewelry. — Sulphate of 
iron, sulphate of zinc, potash alum, ni- 
trate of potash, equal parts of each. All 
the salts are melted in their water of 
crystallization. 

Hard Dead Luster for Clocks. — Water, 
5 parts ; nitrate of potash, 37 parts ; pot- 
ash alum, 42 parts ; common salt, 12 
parts ; pulverized glass and sulphate of 
lime, 4 parts. The whole is thoroughly 
ground and mixed. 

SoPt Dead Luster for Smooth Surfaces 
and Figures. — Water, 5 parts ; nitrate of 
potash, 46 parts ; potash alum, 46 parts ; 
common salt, 3 parts. The same treat- 
ment as the preceding mixture. 

Green for Red Luster. — Bitartrate of 
potash, 65 parts ; common salt, 25 parts ; 
acetate of copper, 10 parts. The whole 
is ground together. 

Wax for Gilding. — Oil, 25 parts : yellow 
wax, 25 parts ; acetate of copper, 13 
parts ; red ocher, 37 parts. The whole 
is melted and stirred until cold. 

2. — The following gilding solution will 
deposit a smooth and brilliant layer of 
gold on silver, brass, copper, etc. : 

Gold chloride, 20 parts ; potassium cy- 
anide, 60 parts ; potassium bitartrate. 



(Non-Electric Bronzing) 



5 parts ; prepared chalk, 100 parts ; water, 
distilled, 100 parts. 

Dissolve the gold chloride in a portion 
of the water and the potassium salts in 
the remainder. Mix the solutions and stir 
in the prepared chalk. The articles to 
be gilded should be rendered free from 
grease, oxidation, etc., and the mixture 
applied with a woolen rag and rubbed 
well on. 

3. — The following formula, which ap- 
pears in the Zeit. Angew. Mikroslc, has 
been recommended : Crystallized pyro- 
phosphate of sodium, 80 grams ; hydro- 
cyanic acid (12%), 8 grams; and 
crystallized gold chloride, 2 grams, are 
dissolved successively in 1 liter of dis- 
tilled water, and heated to boiling. The 
object to be plated is well cleansed, at- 
tached to a copper wire, and immersed 
in the boiling fluid. 

4. — We find the following in the Zeit- 
schrift fur angewandte Mikroskopie: 
In 1,000 parts of distilled water dissolve 
in the following order : Crystalline sodi- 
um pyrophosphate, 80 parts ; 12% solu- 
tion of hydrocyanic acid, 8 parts ; Crys- 
talline gold chloride, 2 parts. 

Heat to a boiling temperature, and dip 
the article, previously throughly cleaned, 
therein. 

Brass and Copper. 

1. — The following formula has been 
adopted for water gilding, as it is termed. 
Fine gold, 6^/4 dwts. Convert the gold 
into chloride and dissolve in 1 qt. of dis- 
tilled water, then add 1 lb. bicarbonate 
of potassium and boil the mixture for 
two hours. Immerse the articles to be 
gilded in the warm solution for a few 
seconds, up to one minute, according to 
the activity of the bath. 

2. — Another method of gilding brass 
and copper articles, by simple immersion, 
is to first dip them in a solution of proto- 
nitrate of mercury (made by dissolving 
quicksilver in nitric acid and diluting with 
water) and then dipping them into the 
gilding liquid. It is said that copper may 
be gilded so perfectly by this method as 
to resist for some time the corrosive action 
of strong acids. During the action which 
takes place, the film of mercury, which 
is electro-positive to the gold, dissolves in 
the auriferous solution, and a film of gold 
is deposited in its place. 

Bronze, etc. 

Small articles may be gilded by immers- 
ing them in the following solution, which 
must be used at nearly boiling heat. 
Caustic potash, 180 parts ; carbonate of 



[479] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Mercury Gilding) 



potash, 20 parts ; cyanide of potassium, 9 
parts; water, 1,000 parts. Rather more 
than 1% parts chloride of gold is to be 
dissolved in the water, when the other 
substances are to be added and the whole 
boiled together. The solution must be 
strengthened from time to time by the 
addition of chloride of gold, and also after 
being worked four or five times, by the 
addition of the other salts in the propor- 
tions given. This bath is recommended 
chiefly for gilding economically small 
articles of cheap jewelry, and for giving 
a preliminary coating of gold to large 
articles, which are to receive a stronger 
coating. 

Mercury Gilding. 

Preparation of the Amalgam. — To 
prepare the amalgam of gold for the pur- 
pose of mercury gilding, weigh a quan- 
tity of fine or standard gold and put 
in a crucible and heated to dull redness. 
The requisite proportion of mercury, 8 
parts to 1 part of gold, is now added, and 
the mixture is stirred with a slightly 
crooked iron rod, the heat being kept up 
until the gold is entirely dissolved by the 
mercury. Pour the amalgam into a small 
dish about 3 parts filled with water and 
work about with the fingers under the 
water to squeeze out as much of the ex- 
cess of mercury as possible. To facilitate 
this, the dish is slightly inclined to allow 
the superfluous mercury to flow from the 
mass, which soon acquires a pasty condi- 
tion capable of receiving the impression 
of the fingers. Afterward squeeze the 
amalgam in a chamois leather bag, by 
which a further quantity of mercury is 
liberated ; the amalgam which remains 
after this final treatment consists of about 
33 parts of mercury and 57 parts of gold 
in 100 parts. The mercury which is 
pressed through the bag retains a good 
deal of gold, and is employed in prepar- 
ing fresh batches of amalgam. It is im- 
portant that the mercury employed should 
be pure. 

The Mercurial Solution. — To apply the 
amalgam a solution of nitrate of mercury 
is employed, which is prepared by dissolv- 
ing in a glass flask 100 parts of mercury 
in 110 parts of nitric acid, of sp. gr., 1.33, 
gentle heat being employed to assist the 
chemical action. The red fumes which 
are given off must be allowed to escape 
into the chimney, since they are highly 
deleterious when inhaled. When the mer- 
cury is all dissolved the solution is to be 
diluted with about 25 times its weight of 
distilled water and bottled for use. 

Applying the 



(Steel Gilding) 



amalgam is spread with the blade of a 
knife upon a hard, flat stone ; the article, 
after being" well cleaned and scratch- 
brushed, is treated in the following way : 
Take a small scratch brush of nitrate of 
mercury, then draw over the amalgam ; 
pass the brush carefully over the surface 
to be gilded, repeatedly dipping the brush 
in the mercurial solution, and drawing it 
over the amalgam, until the entire sur- 
face is uniformly and suflftciently coated. 
Then rinse the article well and dry. The 
next operation is the evaporation of the 
mercury. For this purpose a charcoal 
fire, resting upon a cast iron plate, has 
been generally adopted, a simple hood of 
sheet iron being the only means of pro- 
tection from the injurious effects of the 
mercurial vapors. Wlien the amalga- 
mated article is rinsed and dried, it is 
exposed to the glowing charcoal, turned 
about and heated by degrees to the proper 
point ; then it is withdrawn from the fire 
by means of long pincers or tongs. The 
article is then taken in the left hand, 
which should be protected with a leather 
glove, turned over the fire in every direc- 
tion, and while the mercury is volatiliz- 
ing the article should be struck with a 
long-haired brush to equalize the amalgam 
coating and force it upon such parts as 
may appear to require it. When the 
mercury has become entirely volatilized 
the gilding has a dull, greenish yellow 
color. If any bare places are apparent 
they are touched up with amalgam and 
the article again submitted to the fire, 
care being taken to expel the mercury 
gradually. The article is then well 
scratch-brushed ; when it is of a pale, 
greenish color, heat it again to expel any 
remaining mercury, when it acquires the 
orange yellow of fine gold. If required 
to be bright it is burnished in the ordi- 
nary way. 

Steel. 

Gold leaf, chlorhydric acid, nitric acid, 
sulphuric ether. 

Mix the two acids in the proportion of 
one part of nitric acid and three parts 
of chlorhydric acid ; dissolve the gold leaf 
in it and evaporate till dry. The residue 
is to be dissolved in the smallest quantity 
of water possible. Then a volume of ether 
equal to three times the quantity of water 
is to be added. The liquor is to be shaken 
in a closely stoppered bottle until the 
layer of ether is colored yellow, and the 
water has lost all its color. 

To employ this solution, immerse in it 



the steel object, previously polished. The 
Amalgam. — The pasty I surface will be immediately gilded. An 
[480] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Non-Electric Nickeling) 



imitation of damaskeen work may be 
obtained. It is sufficient to apply a var- 
nish of wax to the parts before they are 
covered by the gilding, 

NICKELING 

Nickeling may be performed on all 
metals, cold, by means of nickelene by 
the Mitressey process, recently introduced 
in France, and any desired thickness de- 
posited. It is said to be more solid than 
nickel. 

First Bath.— Clean the objects and take 
5 kgm. of American potash per 25 liters 
of water. If the pieces are quite rusted, 
take 2 liters of chlorhydric acid per 1 
liter of water. The bath is employed 
cold. 

Second Bath. — Put 250 grammes of sul- 
phate of copper in 25 liters of water. 
After dissolution add a few drops of sul- 
phuric acid, drop by drop, stirring the 
liquid with a wooden stick until it be- 
comes as clear as spring water. 

Take out the pieces thus cleaned and 
place them in what is called the copper 
bath, attaching to them leaves of zinc ; 
they will assume a red tint. Then pass 
them into the nickeling bath, which is 
thus composed : 

Cream of tartar, 20 grams ; sal am- 
moniac, in powder, 10 grams ; kitchen 
salt, 5 grams ; oxychlorhydrate of tin, 20 
grams ; sulphate of nickel, single, 30 
grams ; sulphate of nickel, double, 50 
grams. 

Remove the pieces from the bath in a 
few minutes and rub them with fine sand 
on a moist rag. Brilliancy will thus be 
obtained. To improve the appearance, 
apply a brass wire brush. 

Brilliancy may be also imparted by 
means of a piece of buff glued on a 
wooden wheel and smeared with English 
red stuff. This will give a glazed appear- 
ance. 

PLATINUM 

In this new process, the metallic object 
is covered with a mixture of borate of 
lead, oxide of copper, and spirits of tur- 
pentine, and submitted to a temperature 
of from 250° to 330°. This deposit, upon 
melting, spreads in a uniform layer over 
the object. Then a second coat is laid 
on, consisting of borate of lead, oxide of 
copper, and oil of lavender. Next, by 
means of a brush, the object is covered 
with a solution of chloride of platinum, 
which is finally evaporated at a tempera- 
ture of not more than 200°. 

The platinum adheres firmly to the sur- 
face, and exhibits a brilliant aspect. If 

[ 



(Platinizing) 



the deposit be made upon the first coat, 
the platinum will have a dead appearance. 
Platinizing in this way costs, it is said, 
about one-tenth the price of nickel plat- 
ing. 

Copper. 

The appearance of platinum may be 
given to copper by immersion in a bath 
composed of 1% pt. hydrochloric acid, 
7% oz. arsenic acid, and 1^^ oz. acetate 
of copper. The article must be cleaned 
before immersion, and left in the bath till 
it has the color of platinum. 

Silver. 

Place some platinum in a small quan- 
tity of aqua regia or nitro-muriatic acid, 
and keep it in a warm place a few days ; 
it will dissolve. As soon as it has dis- 
solved, evaporate the liquid at a gentle 
heat until it is as thick as honey, so as 
to get rid of the excess of the nitric and 
muriatic acids. Add a little water, and 
it is ready for use. A dozen drops of this 
solution goes a long way in platinizing 
silver. The operation is performed in a 
small glass or beaker, covered with a 
watchglass to keep in the fumes, and 
placed in a little sand in a saucer, to 
equalize the heat. 

SILVER . 

Silver is used to a great extent in plat- 
ing other metals, to which it imparts not 
only its fine color, but also great resist- 
ance to outward infiuences. 

There are a number of methods of 
silverplating, which may be distin- 
guished : 1. Cold plating by rubbing. 
2. Wet plating by means of boiling. 3. 
Mechanical plating by pressing or rolling. 
4. Fire-silvering. 5. Contact plating. 
G. Electroplating. The latter method 
is the one which at present is almost ex- 
clusively employed. 

Cast Iron, To Silver. 

1. — To silver cast iron, 15 gr. nitrate 
of silver are dissolved in 250 gr. water, 
and 30 gr. cyanide of potassium are 
added ; when the solution is complete, the 
liquid is poured into 700 gr. water where- 
in 15 gr. common salt have been previous- 
ly dissolved. The cast iron intended to 
be silvered by this solution should, after 
having been well cleaned, be placed for 
a few minutes in a bath of nitric acid of 
1.2 sp. gr. just before being placed in 
the silvering fluid. 

2. — A new process for silvering articles 
of iron is thus described. The article is 
first plunged in a pickle of hot dilute hy- 
481] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Niello) 



drochloric acid, whence it is removed to 
a solution of mercury nitrate, and con- 
nected with the zinc pole of a Bunsen ele- 
ment, gas carbon or platinum serving as 
the other pole. It is rapidly covered with 
a layer of quicksilver, when it is removed, 
washed, and transferred to a silver bath 
and silvered. By heating to 300° C. 
(572° Fah.) the mercury is driven off, 
and the silver firmly fixed on the iron. To 
save silver, the wire can be first covered 
with a layer of tin. One part of cream of 
tartar is dissolved in 8 parts of boiling 
water, and 1 or more tin anodes are 
joined with the carbon pole of a Bunsen 
element. The zinc pole communicates 
with a well cleaned piece of copper, 
and the battery is made to act till enough 
tin has deposited on the copper, when 
this is taken out and the ironware put 
in its place. The wire thus covered with 
tin chemically pure, and silvered, is said 
to be much cheaper than any other sil- 
vered metals. 

Cold Plating. (See Rubbing.) 
Dead Luster. 

Mix 7 oz. white lead and 1 oz. white 
litharge, with linseed-oil varnish. Mix 
this mass with an oil varnish. 
Desilvering. 

The following is a liquid which will 
dissolve silver without attacking copper, 
brass, or German silver, so as to remove 
the silver from silvered objects, plated 
ware, etc. It is a mixture of 1 part of 
nitric acid with 6 parts sulphuric, heated 
in a water bath to 160° F., at which 
temperature it operates best. 

Niello, or Nielled Silver. 

This process somewhat resembles enam- 
eling, and consists essentially in inlay- 
ing engraved metal surfaces with a black 
enamel. The composition is made as fol- 
lows : Put into the first crucible, flowers 
of sulphur, 750 parts ; sal ammoniac, 75 
parts. Put into the second crucible, sil- 
ver, 15 parts ; copper, 40 parts ; lead, 80 
parts. When this mixture is sufficiently 
fused, the alloy thus formed is added to 
the fused sulphur in the first crucible, 
which converts the metals into sulphides. 
The compound is afterward removed from 
the crucible and reduced to a fine pow- 
der. To apply the powder, it is mixed 
with a small quantity of a solution of sal 
ammoniac. The entire surface of the 
engraved silver work is covered with the 
nielling composition ; it is then placed in 
the muffle of an enameling furnace, where 
it is left until the composition melts, by 
which it becomes firmly attached to the 



(Silvering by Rubbing) 



metal. The nielling is then removed from 
the parts in relief, without touching the 
engraved surfaces, which then present a 
pleasing contrast in deep black to the 
white silver surfaces, 'ji-his process is only 
applicable to engraved work. 

Rubbing. 

Cold Plating. — If certain silver com' 
pounds are brought into contact with 
other metals, such as zinc, iron, or copper, 
they will be decomposed, with separation 
of metallic silver; and this is the basis 
of a method of plating which consists 
merely in rubbing on a composition with 
a cork. Such a coating is not very dur- 
able, and only suitable for objects which 
are not to be submitted to any hard wear, 
such as the scales of thermometers and 
barometers. 

1. — One of the older formulas for cold 
plating gives the following mixture : Sil- 
ver chloride, 3 parts ; salt, 3 parts ; 
washed chalk, 2 parts ; potash, 6 parts. 

This compound is applied to the metal 
with a piece of moistened leather or with 
a cork. The object must previously be 
made bright, and is to be finally polished, 
after rinsing. 

The silver chloride is obtained by dis- 
solving silver in nitric acid, and adding to 
the solution hydrochloric acid, as long as 
there is any heavy white precipitate, re- 
sembling flakes of freshly precipitated 
cheese. This precipitate is filtered off, 
washed with water until the water, tried 
with ammonia, is no longer colored blue, 
and then dried in a dark place and also 
kept in the dark. Silver chloride is de- 
composed by light, becoming purple and 
finally black. 

2. — A fine even plating is produced by 
application of a paste consisting of 1 part 
of silver nitrate and 3 of potassium cya- 
nide. This is to be rubbed on with a 
woolen rag, the object afterward washed, 
and rubbed bright with leather. It is best 
to wear gloves when doing this, as potas- 
sium cyanide is so very poisonous that if 
the smallest scratch on the hand is 
touched by it, dangerous or even fatal 
ulcers may be caused. 

3. — Small objects, such as buttons, are 
easily silvered by rubbing with a composi- 
tion consisting of 3 parts of silver chlo- 
ride, 8 parts of tartar, and 1 of salt, 
made into a paste. 

4. — In another method, 1 part of pow- 
dered silver, chemically prepared by pre- 
cipitation of a silver solution with cop- 
per, is rubbed together, dry, with 2 parts 
of tartar and 2 of salt, the mixture is 
moistened with enough water to make a 



[482] 



Fjlectrometallurrgy and Metal Coating 



(Silvering by Rubbing) 



thin paste, and is rubbed on with the 
finger or with a compact, stiff brush. 
Bronze, copper, or brass objects will take, 
in this way; a very beautiful dull white 
silver coating. 

5. — Make paste by thoroughly grinding 
in a porcelain mortar, out of the light : 
Water, 3 to 5 oz. ; chloride of silver, 7 
oz. ; potassium oxalate, 10% oz. ; common 
table salt, 15 oz. ; sal ammoniac, 3% oz. 
Or, chloride of silver, 3% oz. ; cream of 
tartar, 7 oz. ; common salt, 10% oz. ; 
water, to form a paste. Keep in a 
covered vessel, away from the light. 
Apply with a cork or brush to the 
clean metallic (copper) surface and allow 
the paste to dry. When rinsed in cold 
water the silver presents a fine frosted 
appearance, the brightness of which may 
be increased by a few seconds' immersion 
in dilute sulphuric acid or solution of 
potassium cyanide. The silvering bears 
the action of the wire brush and of the 
burnishing tool very well, and may also 
be oxidized. Should a first silvering not 
be found sufficiently durable after scratch- 
brushing, a second or third coat may be 
applied. This silvering is not so adher- 
ing or white on pure copper as upon a 
gilt surface. 

For the reflectors of lanterns the paste 
is rubbed upon the reflector with a fine 
linen pad ; then, with another rag, a thin 
paste of Spanish white or similar sub- 
stance is spread over the reflector and left 
to dry. Rubbing with a fine clean linen 
rag restores the luster and whiteness of 
the silvered surface. 

The paste is sometimes mixed directly 
with the whiting and left to dry, or until 
nearly dry, then rubbed down as de- 
scribed. 

6. — Nitrate of silver, 2 parts ; salt, 2 
parts ; cream of tartar, 14 parts. Pulver- 
ize and mix. 

7. — For tbin plating dissolve in 10 or 
12 drops of water and add nitrate of 
silver, 2 parts ; cyanide of potassium, 6 
parts. Rub on the object. 

8. — One oz. of nitric acid is put in a 
glazed earthen vessel and placed over a 
slowly heating fire, and as it boils instant- 
ly the pieces of real silver are thrown in 
and dissolved immediately. When this is 
done a large handful of salt is put in, 
which will kill the acid. Then the •paste 
is made by the means of common whiting. 
Clean the article to be plated and apply 
the paste with water and wash leather. 
Will keep for years. 

9. — Silver nitrate, 15 grams ; tartar. 15 
grams; potassium cyanide (poisonous), 
7 grams; ground chalk, 130 grams. The 



(Wet Plating) 



powder is moistened slightly and then 
vigorously rubbed on the article to be sil- 
vered. 

10. — Amalgam of Silver and Tin. — Put 
into a mortar 2 parts of mercury, 1 of 
chemically precipitated silver powder, 1 
of tinfoil, and rub until the metals are 
amalgamated, then mix with 6 parts of 
bone ash, and apply the compound with 
a moist rag to brass or copper ; it can 
also be used for bronze, and gives a 
silvery coating, which is much finer and 
more durable than many kinds of wet 
plating. 

11. — Brass. — The £rst essential is that 
the metal be chemically clean, which is 
best done by the use of dilute nitric acid, 
followed by a wash with clean water, and 
then with dilute aqua ammonia, drying in 
sawdust. If the metal be then rubbed 
with chloride of silver dissolved in water, 
and then washed and again dried in saw- 
dust, the result will be fine. It should, 
however, be immediately lacquered in 
order to preserve the surface. 

12. — Imitation of Cold Silver Plating. — 
Rub together equal quantities of mercury, 
tin, and bismuth, until amalgamated, and 
add one and a half times as much washed 
chalk. This compound, applied to brass, 
gives a silvery coating, lustrous, but not, 
very durable. 

Wet Plating. 

Cold Method. — There are vipon the 
market various fluids, called "silvering 
fluid," "eau argentine," etc.. which im- 
part to clean and bright metal objects, 
simply immersed in them, a brilliant but 
very thin silver coating. The following 
are given for these fluids : 

1. — Silver carbonate, 1 part ; sodium 
hyposulphite, 10 parts ; water, 10 parts. 
The silver carbonate is obtained by 
pouring a soda solution into a solution 
of silver nitrate, the resulting precipitate 
to be washed and dried. Or it need not 
be dried, but simply put into a glass 
vessel with the crystals of sodium hypo- 
sulphite, where water is poured over it 
and the solution hastened by frequent 
stirring. The fluid is then poured off 
from the undissolved residue of the silver 
carbonate. The objects immersed in it 
are to be touched with a zinc rod. 

2. — Dissolve 1 oz. crystals of silver ni- 
trate in 12 oz. soft water, then dissolve in 
the water 2 oz. potassium cyanide. Shake 
the whole together and let it stand until 
it becomes clear. Have ready some half 
ounce vials and fill them half full of Paris 
white or fine whiting and then fill up the 
bottles with the liquid and it is ready for 



[483] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Wet Plating) 



use. The silver coating is not as tena- 
cious to the article as when electrolytical- 
ly deposited. This is very poisonous, and 
should be handled with great caution — if 
at all. 

3. — Boettger's Plating Fluid for Brass, 
Copper, Iron, and Steel. — Silver hyposul- 
phite, 2 parts ; ammonium chloride, 1 
part ; water, 20 parts. 

The silver hyposulphite is obtained by 
dissolving silver nitrate in water, adding 
ammonia until the resulting precipitate 
again dissolves, then adding a concen- 
trated solution of sodium hyposulphite 
and also alcohol. The silver hyposulphite 
which will be precipitated is to be well 
■slashed and dried. The fluid must al- 
ways be freshly prepared, since the silver 
hyposulphite, which can be preserved dry, 
soon decomposes in solution. Iron and 
steel can be plated with this fluid di- 
rectly, without previous copperplating, 
and one advantage which it possesses is 
that it is free from the poisonous potas- 
sium cyanide. 

4. — Brass, — Silver nitrate, 29 grams 
(29 parts) ; potassium cyanide, 120 
grams (120 parts) ; washed chalk, 30 
grams (30 parts) ; water, 1 1. (1,000 
parts). 

5. — Kayser's Plating Fluid (Argen- 
tine). — Silver nitrate, 5.5 parts; sodium 
hyposulphite, 10 parts ; ammonium chlo- 
ride, 6 parts ; washed chalk, 10 parts ; 
water,, 100 parts. 

6. — Kurth's Plating Fluid.— Silver ni- 
trate, 2 parts ; ammonium chloride, 1 
part ; sodium hyposulphite, 4 parts : 
washed chalk, 4 parts; water, 40 parts. 
This fluid is suitable for copper, brass, 
bronze, or German silver. 

7. — Schirtitz Argentine Water. — Silver 
nitrate, 11 parts ; potassium cyanide, 60 
parts ; water, 750 parts ; washed chalk, 
11 parts. For use, 1 part of the compound 
(which should be kept in a dark-colored 
glass receptacle) is to be mixed with 2 
parts of soft water and the objects laid in 
the fluid ; large objects may be rubbed 
with a sponge or rag wet in it, rubbed, 
after silvering, with washed chalk and 
polished with soft leather. 

8. — Zinc. — Silver nitrate, 10 parts : po- 
tassium cyanide, 25 parts ; washed chalk, 
100 parts ; tartar. 10 parts ; mercury, 1 
part ; water, 100 parts. This compound, 
like all which contain potassium cya- 
nide, must be freshly prepared for use, 
thoroughly shaken, and applied with a 
brush. The silvering will take place 
quickly, and the object is to be afterward 
washed and brusb'^d. 

Hot Method. — Plating can be done by 



(Tinning) 



[484] 



boiling with liquids whose composition is 
similar to those employed in cold plat- 
ing. If, for instance, the objects to be 
silvered are put into a compound consist- 
ing of 6 parts of tartar, 6 of salt, and 1 
of silver chloride, there will be obtained, 
after fifteen or twenty minutes' boiling, a 
beautiful and durable silver plating, 
which, however, is not very lustrous. If 
a brilliant luster is desired, the objects 
may be heated, on coming from the plat- 
ing fluid, in a solution consisting of 3 
parts of sodium hyposulphite in 32 of 
water, and 1 of sugar of lead in 16 of 
water. Black lead sulphide will be pre- 
cipitated, and after ten or fifteen minutes' 
heating the objects will have a bright coat- 
ing of silver. The heating temperature 
should be from 70 to 80° C. 

TIN 
Preparation for Tinning. 

To prepare tin for tinning brass, copper 
and iron. — Melt the metal in a crucible 
which has previously been slightly 
warmed ; and at the moment the metal 
begins to set, and when it is very brittle, 
pound it up rapidly, and sift when cold 
to remove any large particles. 

Processes. 

Perhaps the best and cheapest substi- 
tute for silver as a white coating for 
tableware, culinary vessels, and the in- 
numerable articles of manufacture re- 
quiring such a coating, is pure tin. It 
does not compare favorably with silver in 
point of hardness or wearing qualities, but 
it costs verv much less than silver, is 
readily applied, and easily kept clean and 
bright. 

There are several methods in use bv 
which small articles, wire, etc.. of iron, 
copper, brass, zinc and composition, are 
tin plated. These are: 1. Bv contact 
with melted tin. 2. By tin amalgam, 3. 
By simple immersion. 4. By battery. 

1- — (Contact Process. — ^The contact proc- 
ess is that by which all sheet tin, or, more 
properl.v, tinned sheet iron, is produced. 
In tinning hollow ware on the inside, 
the metal is first thoroua-hlv cleansed bv 
pickling it in dilute sulphuric acid, and 
scouring it with fine sand. It is thpn 
heated over a fire to about the melting 
point of tin, spT-inkTed with nowdered 
rosin, and partlv filled with melted nure 
grain tin covered with rosin to prevent 
Its oxidation. The vpsspI is then quickly 
turned and rolled about in every direc- 
tion, so as to brin<?' (>v(^rv T>«""t of the 
surface in contact with the molten metaJ. 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Tinning) 



The greater part of the tin is then 
thrown out, and the surface rubbed over 
with a brush of tow to equalize the coat- 
ing. The operation is repeated, if neces- 
sary. The vessels usually tinned in this 
manner are of copper and brass, but with 
a little care in cleansing and manipulat- 
ing, iron can also be satisfactorily tinned 
in this manner. The vessels must be hot 
enough to keep the tin contained in them 
fused. 

2. — Amalgam Process. — The amalgam 
process is not used so much as it was 
formerly. It consists in applying to the 
clean and dry metallic surface a film of a 
pasty amalgam of tin with mercury, and 
then exposing the surface to heat, which 
volatilizes the latter, leaving the tin ad- 
hering to the metal. 

3. — Immersion Process. — The immer- 
sion process is best adapted to coating 
articles of brass or copper. When im- 
mersed in a hot solution of tin properly 
prepared the metal is precipitated upon 
their surfaces. One of the best solutions 
for this purpose is the following: Am- 
monia alum, 171/4 oz. ; boiling water, 12% 
oz. : protochloride of tin, 1 oz. The arti- 
cles to be tinned, first thoroughly cleansed, 
are put into the hot solution until proper- 
ly whitened. 

4. — A better co?iting can be obtained by 
using the following bsith, and placing the 
pieces in contact with a strip of clean 
zinc, also immersed : Bitartrate of po- 
tassium, 14 oz. : water (soft), 24 oz. ; 
protochloride of tin. 1 oz. It should be 
boiled for a few minutes before using. 

Brass. 

Small articles of brass like hooks and 
eyes may be covered with a thin coating 
of tin bv any of the following methods : 

1. — Make a saturated solution of cream 
of tartar in boiling water; place the arti- 
cles to be coated between sheets of tin. 
immprse in the liquid, and boil until a 
sufficient deposit has been obtained. The 
brass should be freshly cleansed bv im- 
mersion in dilute acid and subsenuent 
washing or otherwise, just before b^i^g 
snbrnitted to the tinning operation. The 
articles after being coated are washed in 
water and brightened by being shaken 
with bran. 

2. — Boil peroxide of tin witli a strong, 
aoneous caustic potash solution, until the 
liquid is saturated with tin. and immerse 
the articles in this solution. 

3. — Rosplpur recommends the following 
method : Prepare a solution of chloride 
of tin in crystals, 6 parts: pvrophosnhate 
of sodium, 60 parts ; distilled water, 3,000 



(Tinning) 



parts. Place the articles on perforated zinc 
trays, immerse in the solution, and boil, 
stirring the contents occasionally to 
change the points of contact. The zinc 
trays are to be scraped clean after each 
operation to insure perfect contact in the 
next. 

Castings. 

1. — Cleanse the castings by pick- 
ling in dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 20 
of water) and scouring with sand if nec- 
essary. Then boil them in concentrated 
aqueous solution of stannate of soda, with 
a quantity of granulated tin. To copper 
iron castings, clean the iron as above and 
tumble it for a few minutes in sawdust 
moistened with a solution of copper in 
two gallons of water made slightly acid 
with sulphuric acid. Wash immediately 
in hot water. 

2. — To tin small castings, clean and 
boil them with scraps of block tin in a 
solution of cream of tartar. 

Cold Process. — Take equal parts of 
quicksilver and block tin and melt them 
together. Mix also equal parts of muri- 
atic acid and water. Apply the amalgam 
with a clean rag steeped in the acid mix- 
ture. 

Copper, Retinning. 

1. — Make the copper chemically clean 
by washing with a saturated solution of 
zinc in muriatic acid, the acid to be weak- 
ened with water to half strength after the 
dissolving of the zinc. Heat the copper 
vessel and pour in a small quantity of 
metal, of tin. 1 part, lead 1 part, and 
shake or tip the vessel until the tinning 
runs over the parts. Or, wipe the melted 
tin over the bare places with a cotton can- 
vas pad. 

2. — The best way to tin old copper 
utensils is to thoroughly clean them with 
sand and oxalic acid, and tin with a large 
copper soldering iron, using chloride of 
zinc and sal ammoniac (soldering fluid) 
for flowing the tin. It can also be done 
by heating the vessel and flushing melted 
tin over the surface, first sprinkling it 
with powdered rosin. You may succeed 
in this after a few trials. 

Crystalline Appearance. 

The following is the most approved 
method of producing this effect : The 
plate iron to be tinned is dipped into a 
tin bath, composed of 200 parts of pure 
tin, 3 parts of copper, and 1 part of 
arsenic. Thus tinned, the sheet iron is 
then submitted to the seven following op- 
erations : 



[485] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Tinning) 



a. — Immersing in lye of caustic po- 
tassa, and washing. 

b. — Immersing in diluted aqua regia, 
and washing. 

c. — Immersing in lye of caustic potassa, 
and washing. 

d. — Quickly passing through nitric acid, 
and washing. 

e. — Immersing in a lye of caustic po- 
tassa, and washing. 

f. — Immersing in aqua regia, and wash- 
ing. 

g. — Immersing in a lye of caustic po- 
tassa, and washing. 

The coat of oxide must be entirely re- 
moved at each washing, and the last 
washing should be in hot water. The 
varnish recommended is copal in spirit. 

Tacks. 

A recommended process of tinning iron 
tacks is to triturate chloride of zinc with 
a large quantity of oil and heat it in an 
oscillating vessel. As soon as this has 
reached the proper temperature, throw in 
the tacks and the necessary quantity of 
metallic tin. and after a few seconds dip 
them out with wire gauze and cast them 
in water. 

1. — A solution is first made by dissolv- 
ing with the aid of heat, in an enameled 
pan, protochloride of tin (fused), 2% 
grams ; ammonia alum, 75 grams ; wa- 
ter, 5 1. The chloride of tin is readi- 
ly made by dissolving grain tin in hydro- 
chloric acid, with the aid of heat, care 
being taken to have an excess of metal in 
the dissolving flask. When the bubbles of 
hydrogen gas which are evolved cease to 
be given off. the action is complete. If 
the solution be evaporated at a gentle heat 
until a pellicle forms on the surface, and 
the vessel then set aside to cool, needle- 
like crystals are obtained, which may be 
separated from the mother liquor by tilt- 
ing the evaporating dish over a second 
vessel of the same kind. T^Hien all the 
liquor has thoroughly drained, it should 
in its turn be again evaporated, when a 
fresh crop of crystals will be obtained. 
The crystals should, before wei<?-hing, be 
gentlv dried over a sand bath. When the 
solution of tin and alum has been bron<?ht 
to a boil, the iron articles, after being 
well cleansed and rinsed in water, are 
to be immersed in the Houid. when they 
quickly become coated with a delicately 
white film of a dead or matted annear- 
ance, which may be rendered bright by 
means of bran in a revolving cask, or in 
a leathern bag shaken by two persons, 
each holding one end of the bag. To keep 
up the strength of the tinning bath, small 

[ 



(Zinc Coating) 



quantities of the fused chloride of tin are 

added from time to time. 

Zinc. 

1. — It is quite an easy matter to tin 
zinc, as tin adheres well to this metal. The 
articles are first pickled clean and bright 
with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, then 
dipped in melted tin, covered with a layer 
of grease. 

2. — Sheets of zinc are tinned like sheet 
iron, by the English method, which is to 
dip the sheet, pickled and heated, into a 
tin bath, with a cover of tallow, and 
then into very hot melted tallow alone, 
in order that it may cool slowly and even- 
ly. 

3. — Large sheets of zinc may be tinned 
by laying them upon an iron plate, heated 
from underneath, strewing them over with 
powdered colophony or pouring on melted 
tallow, and then rubbing in melted tin 
with tow, as before described. 

4. — Heavy zinc plate may be given a 
durable plating in the same way that lead 
is plated, except that the zinc plate is not 
usually cast upon the same table where 
the tinning is done, but is cast, and rolled 
once or twice, then laid upon this table 
and warmed. Good tinned sheet zinc is 
excellently well adapted to making the 
most durable roofing, gutters, water pipes, 
etc., and deserves more extensive use than 
it has yet had. 

5. — Zinc articles can be very simply and 
easily tinned as follows : Prepare a mix- 
ture of 2 parts of tin chloride, 2 of puri- 
fied tartar, 4 of water at 75° C. (167° 
F.), and enough of the finest sand to make 
a pulpy mass. Apply this with a sponge 
or brush to the articles. The tin coating 
will at first be dull gray, but rubbing with 
clay and sand will bring out a fine tin 
luster. 

6. — Make a bath of distilled water, 1 
gal. ; pyrophosphate of soda, 3^ oz. ; 
fused protochloride of tin, % oz. A thin 
coat of tin can be obtained l3y simply dip- 
ping the zinc in the bath, and one of any 
thickness by the aid of the battery. 

ZINC 

Full instructions^ for Galvanizing are 
given in the Scientific American Supple- 
ment, Nos. 1645, 1646, 1704, 1705, 1731. 
For 2-alvapizing iron wire see Scientific 
Ameriffin Supplement, No. 1705. 

1. — For gfilvanizing cast iron with zinc, 
first clean the castinsrs thoroughly by im- 
mersing in a bath of 1 part muriatic acid, 
2 parts water, for a few hours ; wash 
thoroughlv in hot water and scrub with 
brush and sand. Then dip in a solution 
of sal ammoniac and water, % lb. to the 
486] 



Electrometallurgy and Metal Coating 



(Galvanizing) 



gal., hot. Dry quickly and dip in the 
zinc bath. 

2. — To galvanize sheet-iron work, dip 
in a bath of muriatic acid 1 part, water 4 
parts ; leave the work in long enough to 
break up the scale ; clean with brushes or 
scrapers so that the surfaces shall be free 
from scale or dirt. Then dip in a fresh 
bath of muriatic acid and water, 1 to 
4, with about 1 oz. sal ammoniac to the 
gal. of solution. Then dry quickly and 
thoroughly in a hot oven or on hot plates 
of iron and dip in the zinc bath. Never 
dip if any moisture remains among laps 
or rivets, for an explosion will ensue. 
Heat the zinc so that it will have a clear 
shining surface. Sprinkle a little pow- 
dered sal ammoniac upon the surface to 
clear it. Skim away the dross. 

3. — Clean all scale, rust and dirt or oil 
from the surface, and if oily, by boiling 
in caustic soda, and then remove scale 
and rust by a bath of hydrochloric acid 
and water. If necessary a little scrub- 
bing with a metallic brush, and then 
thoroughly rinse in hot water and dry 
quickly. After drying immerse in a bath 
of melted zinc, at the same time sprinkle 
a little powdered sal ammoniac upon the 
surface of the melted zinc to clear it. 
Judgment is required as to length of time 
for the immersion and temperature of the 
melted zinc. Very small work immersed 
but a few seconds. 

Crystals. — Clean it perfectly with a 
solution of chloride of zinc, and you will 
find that the coating is already crystal- 
line. Or use a wash of dilute nitric acid, 
1 part of acid to 1 part of water, and 
wash in a stream of clean water. 

Iron. 

Electrolytic Method. — Perfectly bright 
iron, dipped in a solution of zinc vitriol, 
and exposed to a strong electrical current, 
becomes quickly coated over with pure 



(Galvanizing) 



zinc. The coating, however, is dull ; to 
give the usual luster of zinc, the sheets 
are quickly heated to the melting point 
of zinc, cooled, and passed between smooth 
rollers. 

Small Objects. — To galvanize small 
iron articles, such as chains, rings, hooks 
and nails, thereby protecting them from 
rust, they are first put into a vessel con- 
taining dilute sulphuric acid, in order to 
pickle them bright, then dried, and put 
into the melted zinc. The usual method is 
to lay the articles into a net or basket 
of strong wire, and to immerse this in 
the melted metal, shaking it around to 
make sure that all the pieces come in 
contact with the zinc. After remaining 
two or three minutes in the zinc bath, 
they are removed and thrown into a little 
flame-oven, covered with powdered coal 
and brought to a red heat. The excess 
of zinc is hereby melted off, and collects 
in the lowest parts of the bottom of the 
oven. The articles are then drawn with 
rakes into the higher portions of the oven, 
mo\^ed around until the zinc coating has 
hardened, and the adhering coal powder is 
then rubbed off. 

The zinc coatings on small articles are 
more durable if the objects are first lightly 
copperplated before galvanizing. The 
simplest way of doing this is to put them, 
after pickling, into a trough and pour 
over them a solution of one part of blue 
vitriol to ten of water ; after having re- 
mained a few moments in contact with 
the fluid, they are removed, rinsed and 
thrown into the zinc bath. The thickness 
of the zinc coating varies according to 
the time during which the objects are left 
in contact with the fluid zinc ; experi- 
ments have shown that in the case of 
galvanized sheet iron, the thickness of the 
layer varies from 0.006 to 0.043 milli- 
meter, which corresponds to 45-300 
gram of zinc per square meter of surface. 



[487 3 



CHAPTER XI 



GLASS 



Bending Glass Tubes. 

1. — Place the part where the curve is 
required in the flame of a spirit lamp or 
in an ordinary gas flame (the whole of 
the surface must be equally heated) ; 
when the glass begins to soften, a gen- 
tle pressure by the hands will give the 
necessary bend. 

2. — Fill them with sand; this is neces- 
sary in three cases : when the tube is 
very wide, when the glass is thin, and 
when the curve is to be of a very long 
radius ; in the latter case, the tube, filled 
with sand, is best heated over a large fur- 
nace with burning charcoal. 

Blowing Glass. 

The technique of glass blowing is so 
comprehensive that it cannot be described 
in suflicient detail in a book of formulas. 
'J here are, however, two excellent little 
books on the subject which are profusely 
illustrated, and which are very inexpen- 
sive. To them the reader is referred. 

Breaking. (See also Cutting.) 

1. — Easy method of breaking glass to 
any required form. Make a small notch, 
by means of a file, on the edge of a piece 
of glass, then make the end of a tobacco 
pipe, or a rod of iron of about the same 
size, red hot in the fire ; apply the hot 
iron to the notch, and draw it slowly 
along the surface of the glass in any di- 
rection you please ; a crack will be made 
in the glass, and will follow the direc- 
tion of the iron. 

2. — Round glass bottles and flasks may 
be cut in the middle by wrapping around 
them a worsted thread dipped in spirits 
of turpentine, and setting it on fire when 
fastened on the glass. 

3. — In breaking a glass tube — e.g., a 
combustion tube — a small scratch is made 
with a file at the required place. At 
each side of this scratch, and about 1 to 2 
mm. away from it, a small roll of wet 
blotting paper is laid around the tube. 
The free space between is then heated 
all around over a Bunsen burner, or, bet- 
ter still, over a small blowpipe flame. 



A clean and even fracture is thus ob- 
tained, exactly between the two rolls, 
without dropping water on the hot glass. 
The rolls are made by cutting two strips 
of filter paper sufiiciently large to form 
rolls 1 to 2 mm. high and 2 to 4 cm. 
wide. The strips are folded once, length- 
ways, laid on the table, moistened, flat- 
tened out, and then wrapped on to the 
tube, so that the fold lies nearest the file 
scratch, and fold lies accurately upon fold 
in the successive layers. The thickness 
of the rolls, and their distance apart, has, 
of course, to be varied according to the 
diameter of the tubes. Equally good 
results are obtained with the thinnest test 
tubes, the thickest combustion tubes, 
beakers, flasks and glass bell jars. In 
those cases, where the sides are slanting, 
as, for instance, with funnels, an obvi- 
ous alteration in the construction of the 
paper rolls need only be carried out. A 




Glass Tube Cutter 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[489] 



Glass 



(Cutting Glass) 



special cutter for glass tubes is sold by 
dealers in chemical apparatus, and is il- 
lustrated herewith. 

Coloring. 

Incandescent Light Globes. — (See 
Household Formulas or the Index.) 
Cutting Glass. (See also Bending, 
Breaking, Drilling and Boring.) 

Board for Gutting Glass. — The accom- 
panying drawing shows a home-made 
glass board that is used for measuring 
and cutting glass. The board, which 
measures 30 x 60 in., is fitted with grooves 
running along both sides, full length, that 
will just accommodate a cloth tape meas- 
ure (such as tailors use), leaving the 
measure perfectly level with the top of 
the board. The board is fastened to the 
counter or base shelf with hinges, so that 
it can be let down when not in use. It 
has two legs on the outside or front that 
are attached with hinges to permit of 
them being doubled up under the table 
when not in use. In cutting glass, lay a 
rule across the table, and see that the 
numbers correspond to the size you wish 
to cut the glass on both sides of the 
board. Fig. 1 represents the board ready 
for use. Fig. 2 shows the legs doubled 




Glass Cutting Table 

up under the board, and Fig. 3 shows the 
board when not in use and hanging down. 
The board can be used as a table or work- 
ing counter for other purposes. 

Cutting. — 1. — To cut glass well a fine 
diamond should be used, and consider- 
able skill is required in its use. The 
file and the red-hot poker are also eflS- 
cient means of cutting glass, the crack 
following the hot iron. 

2. — Bottles. — a. — This method consists 
in the use of what in German is called 
"sprengkohle," cracking cold. The 
"sprengkohle" is made of finely ground 
limewood charcoal. The coal powder is 



(Cutting Glass) 



transformed by means of sufficient gum 
tragacanth and water into a dough or 
paste, out of which small cylinders of the 
size of a pencil are made by rolling be- 
tween two small pieces of board. Such 
a cylinder of sprengkohle, ignited at one 
end, glows slowly. Such sprengkohle may 
be bought at stores for chemical and phys- 
ical necessities. Now as for the use of 
the sprengkohle, it is as follows : Put a ^ 
drop of water on the spot where the crack 
is to begin. Make a short incision with 
a three-edged file. Wipe the water away. 
Touch the incision with the glowing 
"sprengkohle," blowing on it if required. 
After a few seconds the glass will crack 
for a length of % to 1 in. If now you 
move the sprengkohle slowly the crack 
follows it wherever you please. 

3. — Holes, Large, To Cut. — Bore a hole 
in the center by means of a hard steel 
drill moistened with turpentine ; cut the 
circle with a good glazier's diamond, guid- 
ed by a small piece of copper wire cen- 
tered in the hols just bored, and by means 
of cuts radiating from the center to the 
circumference divide the circle into nu- 
merous small sectors. Then, with a small 
piece of metal, tap the glass on the pos- 
terior side gently, following each cut 
throughout its extent. When this has 
been properly done fasten a piece of putty 
over the area of the circle on the cut side 
of the glass, and, while holding the putty, 
tap the glass on the other side firmly in 
the center of the circle. Too much press- 
ure on the diamond will cause it to 
scratch, without cutting the glass. 

Carbon Points for Splitting Glass. — 1. 
— Gum arable, 10 dr. ; water, 3 oz. ; trag- 
acanth, powdered, 4 dr. ; hot water, 8 
oz. ; storax, 2 dr. ; benzoin, 2 dr. ; alco- 
hol, 91°, 9 dr. ; powdered charcoal, 3 to 
3% oz. Dissolve the gum arable in the 
cold water and mix it with the paste 
made from the tragacanth and hot water. 
To the mucilage add the rosins, dissolved 
in the alcohol, and enough finely powdered 
charcoal to form a mass to be rolled into 
cylinders of suitable length, and about 
4-10 of an in. in diameter. While roll- 
ing the sticks, powdered charcoal is em- 
ployed to prevent adhesion. When thor- 
oughly dry, the pencils are ready for use, 
and are managed as follows : One end is 
sharpened like a lead pencil, and ignited ; 
then, the glass having been scratched with 
a diamond, the heated and glowing point 
of the pencil is carried close to the glass 
in the direction in which it is intended 
to split it. 

2. — The following receipts produce a 
pencil burning more rapidly than the 



[490] 



Glass 



(Drilling and Boring) 



above : Gum tragacanth, 1 dr. ; hot wa- 
ter, 10 dr. ; acetate of lead, 3 dr. ; finely 
powdered charcoal, 6 dr. Proceed as for- 
merly. 

3. — Sticks of willow or poplar, or any 
soft wood of about the thickness of a 
finger, are thoroughly dried, and immersed 
for about 7 days in a concentrated solu- 
tion of sugar of lead. When dry they 
are ready for use, and burn quite readily 
and evenly. 

Cracking Coal for Cutting Glass. — 
Powdered charcoal, 90 parts ; niter, 2 
parts ; benzoin, 1 part ; powdered trag- 
acanth, 2 parts. Mix in fine powder, 
mass with water, roll into pencils, and 
dry. Let one of these, when ignited, pass 
slowly over the glass, and cause a drop 
of water to fall in the hot parts, when 
it cracks. The crack may be led in any 
desired direction by means of the turning 
pencil. 

Drilling and Boring Glass. 

1. — In the Scientific American these di- 
rections are given : Make a solution of 
1 oz. of camphor, 1% oz. of spirits of tur- 
pentine and 3 dr. of ether. Keep the 
end of the drilling tool wet with this 
fluid. The sharp corner of a freshly 
broken point of a file is one of the best 
drilling tools for this purpose. 




Boring Glass with a Tube 

2. — To drill a ^-in. hole in a _ 
shade, make a hole in a piece of wood 
or metal of the size that you desire to 
drill in the glass. Fasten it with bees- 
wax upon the glass for a guide. A piece 
of brass or copper tubing, quite thin, is 
supplied with emery (No. 100) and water 
and twirled between the fingers or with 
a bowstring. This will cut a hole in a 
few minutes. You can feed the emery 
and water a little at a time through the 
tube. The sketch will give an idea as 
to the principle. 

[ 



(Drilling and Boring) 



3. — Can be done with a hard drill and 
spirits of turpentine — a tedious and un- 
certain process, and only for small holes, 
A diamond drill is much better and cheap- 
er, if there are many holes to drill. If 
large holes are wanted, from % to 1 in., 
or larger, prepare a piece of thin tubing, 
of brass or copper, of the required size 
of hole, of 1 or 2 in. in length, with small 
spindle and grooved pulley attached, some- 
thing after the style of the watchmaker's 
bow drill. Fasten upon the plate of glass, 
at the point to be drilled, a ring of metal 
or wood for a guide to keep the tubular 
drill in its place until the cut is started 
sufficiently to steady the cutter. Lay the 
glass plate horizontally, and work the 
drill perpendicularly with the bow, using 
one hand to steady the upper end of the 
drill stock. Feed emery (about No. 90) 
and water into the open end of the tube 
as fast as required. In a very short time 
you will cut a disk out of the plate. 

4. — For drilling holes in glass, a com- 
mon steel drill, well made, and well tem- 
pered, the Glassware Review claims to be 
the best tool. The steel should be forged 
at a low temperature, so as to be sure 
not to burn it, and then tempered as 
hard as possible in a bath of salt water 
that has been well boiled. Such a drill 
will go through glass very rapidly if kept 
well moistened with turpentine in which 
some camphor has been dissolved. Dilute 
sulphuric acid is equally good, if not bet- 
ter. It is stated that at Berlin glass cast- 
ings for pump barrels, etc., are drilled, 
planed and bored like iron ones, and in 
the same lathes and machines, by aid of 
sulphuric acid. A little practice with 
these different plans will enable the op- 
erator to cut and work glass as easily 
or iron. 



5. — The following directions were con- 
tributed to Design and Work by an op- 
tician : First make a saturated solution 
of camphor in spirits of turpentine ; then 
make a spear-shaped drill the size of the 
hole required ; heat the drill to a white 
heat, and plunge into mercury, and it 
will then be very hard ; sharpen on an 
oilstone, knock drill in a bradawl handle, 
dip the end of drill into the above solu- 
tion, and work it as if you were working 
it through wood. It is no use fixing the 
drill in a drillstock, because the motion 
all one way will not do. Keep the drill 
well moistened with the solution, and 
sharpen it when blunt. A file, dipped 
into the solution, will file the hole larger 
and will not get blunt. 

6. — Small, rough, refuse diamonds, set 
4917 



Glass 



(Etching) 



in tlie end of a tin tube, make effective 
drills for glass. 

Etching. 

In the opaque etching of glass it has 
hitherto been thought necessary to use 
certain expensive fluorine salts in the 
preparation of etching solutions. It has 
been discovered by A. Lainer that com- 
paratively cheap etching can be prepared. 
In Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal^ 
Lainer gives two recipes which obviate 
the use of the more expensive fluorine 
salts. 

1. — Two solutions are first prepared : 
(a) Consisting of 10 grams of soda in 
20 grams of warm water; (b) consisting 
of 10 grams of potassium carbonate in 
20 grams of warm water. Solutions (a) 
and (b) are now mixed, a"d to the mix- 
ture is added 20 grams of concentrated 
hydrofluoric acid, and afterward a solu- 
tion (c) consisting of 10 grams of potas- 
sium sulphate in 10 grams of water is 
added. 

2. — This recipe contains the following 
ingredients : Water, 4 c.c. ; potassium 
carbonate, 1 1-3 grams ; dilute hydro- 
fluoric acid, 0.5 c.c. ; hydrochloric acid, 
0.5 c.c. ; potassium sulphate, 0.5 c.c. This 
mixture is treated with hydrofluoric acid 
and carbonate of potassium until it pro- 
duces the required degree of opacity on 
being tried upon a piece of glass. 
^ 3. — But it appears that there is a still 
simpler process than either of these. It 
was invented by Herr Kampmann, of Vi- 
enna. In preparing an opaque etching 
fluid, Kampmann uses a wooden vessel, 
the iron fittings of which are protected 
from the corrosive action of the acid 
fumes by a layer of asphaltous material. 
This vessel is filled to about one-fifth of 
its contents with strong hydrofluoric acid, 
which is then partially neutralized by 
cautiously and gradually adding some 
crystals of soda ; more soda is added, and 
the mixture is stirred with a small wood- 
en rod. The point at which the neutral- 
ization of the acid should cease is indi- 
cated by the mixture frothing and becom- 
ing sufiiciently viscid to adhere to the stir- 
ring rod. It is, perhaps, hardly necessary 
to say that the acid fumes are highly 
injurious, and that this process should 
be carried on in the open air, in order 
to allow the vapor to pass rapidly away. 
The most hygienic and satisfactory proc- 
ess of all would be to carry on the opera- 
tion in a draught cupboard. The con- 
tents of this wooden vessel now consist 
of sodium fluoride and the unneutralized 
hydrofluoric acid. This mixture is now 



(Etching) 



transferred to a wooden tub, and diluted 
with from 5 to 10 times its volume of 
water, according to the degree of dilu- 
tion that is desired. It is objectionable 
to use this mixture in a too highly con- 
centrated condition, for then the etched 
surface of the glass is irregular, coarse- 
grained, and apparently strewn with tiny 
crystals ; if, on the other hand, the dilu- 
tion be too extreme, the etched surfaces 
will be transparent instead of opaque. 
Either of these two conditions of the etch- 
ing fluid can easily be remedied ; for, if 
it be too strong, water must be added : 
and if too weak, a small quantity of 
hydrofluoric acid, partially neutralized 
, with soda, must be mixed in. 

4. — A good recipe for preparing a small 
quantity of this etching fluid is the fol- 
lowing : Commercial hydrofluoric acid, 
240 c.c. ; powdered crystallized soda, 600 
grams ; water, 100 c.c. Tliese etching flu- 
ids are best used by taking the following 
precautions : The glass is first thorough- 
ly cleansed from all impurities, and is 
then provided with a rim of wax com- 
posed of the following ingredients : Bees- 
wax, tallow, colophony and powdered as- 
phalt, kneaded together. The rim pre- 
vents the acid from spreading over those 
parts of the surface which it is not de- 
sired to etch. The glass is now etched 
for a few minutes with an ordinary etch- 
ing solution (H.F. — 1 : 10), which is then 
poured off, the surface being afterward 
washed with water and wiped as dry as 
possible with a piece of sponge. The sur- 
face is now ready for the opaque etching 
fluid, which is poured on till it forms a 
thick layer. The operation is allowed to 
progress for an hour, when the liquid is 
poured away- and the surface washed with 
water. Water is further allowed to stand 
on the glass until a thin film of silicate 
is observed to form ; this film is then 
brushed off, and the surface finally 
cleansed with water, and the wax re- 
moved. By varying the action of this 
opaque etching fluid or paste, various de- 
grees of opacity may be produced, and if 
the opacity be greater than that which is 
desired, the surface can be cleared to any 
extent by using the etching solution of 
hydrofluoric acid. 

5. — Fancy, work, with ornamental fig- 
ures, lettering and monograms, are most 
easily and neatly cut into glass by the 
sandblast process. Lines and figures on 
tubes, jars, etc., may be deeply etched 
by smearing the surface of the glass with 
beeswax, drawing the lines with a steel 
point, and exposing the blass to the fumes 
of hydrofluoric acid. This acid is ob- 



[492] 



Glass 



(Etching) 



tained by putting powdered fluorspar into 
a tray made of sheet lead, and pouring 
sulphuric acid on it, after which the tray 
is slightly warmed. The proportions will, 
of course, vary with the purity of the 
materials used, fluorspar (except when in 
crystals) being generally mixed with a 
large quantity of other matter ; but this 
point need not affect the success of the 
operation. Enough acid to make a thin 
paste with the powdered spar will be 
about right. Where a lead tray is not at 
hand, the powdered spar may be poured 
on the glass and the acid poured on it, 
and left for some time. As a general rule, 
the marks are opaque, but sometimes they 
are transparent. In this case, cut them 
deeply and fill up with black varnish, if 
they are required to be very plain, as in 
the case of graduated vessels. Liquid 
hydrofluoric acid has been recommended 
for etching, but is not suitable, as it 
leaves the surface on which it acts trans- 
parent. The agent which corrodes the 
glass is a gas which does not remain in 
the mixture of spar and acid, but passes 
off in the vapor. The following formula 
has been published under the title of 
"Etching Ink" : Ammonium fluoride, 2 
dr. ; barium sulphate, 2 dr. Reduce to' 
a fine powder in a mortar, then trans- 
fer to a lead dish, and make into a thin 
writing cream with hydrofluoric acid 
(some make use of fuming sulphuric 
acid). Use a piece of lead to stir the 
mixture. The "ink" may be put up in 
bottles coated with paraffine, which can 
be done by heating the bottle, pouring in 
some melted paraffine, and letting it flow 
all around. The writing is done with 
a quill, and in about half a minute the 
ink is washed off. Extreme caution must 
be observed in handling the acid, since, 
when brought in contact with the skin 
it produces dangerous sores, very diffi- 
cult to heal. The vapor is also danger- 
ously poisonous when inhaled. 

6. — Mix in a lead flask 30 parts of 
ammonium fluoride, 15 parts of distilled 
water and 6 parts of pure sulphuric acid ; 
warm to 40° C. — but not higher — and 
add, after cooling, 6 parts of strong hy- 
drofluoric acid and 1 to 2 parts of gum 
arable in solution. Close the flask with 
a well fitting lead stopper. For particu- 
larly delicate drawings the quantity of 
gum arable should be increased. Steel 
pens or goose quills may be used. 

7. — Sodium fluoride, 36 parts ; potas- 
sium sulphate, 7 parts ; distilled water, 
500 parts. Mix. 

8. — Zinc chloride, 14 parts ; distilled 
water, 500 parts; acid hydrochloric, 65 



(Etching) 



parts. Mix. Dissolve in separate ves- 
sels, and mix the solutions only when re- 
quired for use. Write with a clean quill 
pen, being careful not to get too much 
of the liquid on the pen, as there is dan- 
ger of blotting. The writing or etching 
appears in the course of a half hour. 

9. — Commonly used for etching glass 
tumblers : Sodium fluoride, 1 oz. ; gla- 
cial acetic acid, 10 dr. ; water, 25 oz. 
Dissolve the sodium fluoride in water and 
add the acetic acid. The article to be 
etched is first coated with etching var- 
nish, which is scratched off where a pat- 
tern is desired, and then immersed in 
the solution. The fluid is sometimes ap- 
plied by means of a rubber stamp. 

10. — Ammonium fluoride, 10% ; barium 
sulphate, 10% ; hydrofluoric acid, fuming, 
enough. Use enough acid to decompose 
the ammonium fluoride. 

11. — Ammonium fluoride, 10% ; barium 
sulphate, 30% ; water, enough. This is 
made into a semi-liquid mixture, and may 
be applied with a common pen. 

12. — Sodium fluoride, 0.72% ; potas- 
sium sulphate, 0.14% ; water, 240%. 
Make, and add to the foregoing, another 
solution, consisting of zinc chloride, 
0.28% ; hydrochloric acid, 40% ; water, 
40%. At the end of half an hour the 
design should be sufficiently etched. 




Sandblasting Outfit 

13. — Sandblasting Process. — The proc- 
ess here described consists in corroding 
glass by violently projecting sand upon 
its surface by means of a current of air 
or steam. The apparatus used is very 
simple, and is shown in our engraving. 
Well dried sand, contained in the cylin- 
drical vessel, a, is allowed to flow in a 



[ 493 ] 



Glass 



(Etching by Chipping) 



continuous manner through the tube, c, 
whose length and inclination can be al- 
tered at will so as to regulate the fall of 
the sand. The tube conveying the cur- 
rent of air or steam terminates just above 
this spout, in a nozzle containing a se- 
ries of fine holes. The sand, urged on 
by the jet, is thrown violently against the 
glass plate, e, or other body placed with- 
in its range, and thus exerts a corroding 
action. By varying the quantity of the 
sand, the volume and velocity of the cur- 
rent, as well as the diameter of the jet, 
more or less rapid effects are produced. 
In engraving on glass, very little pressure 
is needed, the current from the bellows 
of an enameler's lamp being quite sufii- 
cient. In this way the divisions on grad- 
uated tubes, the labels on bottles, etc., 
can easily be engraved in laboratories 
with but little trouble. The portions of 
the glass which are to remain clear are 
covered with paper, or with an elastic 
varnish, these substances being suflficient- 
ly exempt from the corroding action of 
the sand. 

14. — Etching Ghss hy Means of Glue. 
— a. — Certain substances adhere to glass 
with such tenacity, that, upon being ab- 
ruptly separated, vitreous scales are often 
detached. This fact, Professor Cailletet 
says, in La Nature, he noticed a long 
time ago, while studying a process that 
should permit the soldering of glass to 
metals. The method of soldering then 
discovered is employed for adapting cocks 
or other metallic fittings to tubes de- 
signed to conduct gases under high press- 
ures. In order to solder a piece of metal 
to a glass tube ut sufiices to silver the 
latter in order to render it a conductor 
of electricity; and then to deposit upon 
the silvered portion a ring of galvanic 
copper, to which any metal whatever may 
be soldered with tin. The galvanic cop- 
per thus deposited adheres so tenaciously 
to the glass that, upon being detached, 
flakes of glass are removed at the same 
time. Silicate of soda, which is often 
used for uniting two pieces of glass, ex- 
hibits the same phenomena ; but the de- 
taching of the surface of glass objects 
becomes particularly easy when either 
common glue or isinglass is employed. 

Cover a piece of ordinary or flint 
glass with a coat of glue dissolved in 
water ; the glue, upon contracting through 
the effect of desiccation, becomes detached 
from the glass, and removes numerous 
scales of varying thickness. The glass 
thus etched presents a decorative design 
that resembles the flowers of frost de- 
posited upon window panes in winter. 



(Etching by Chipping) 



When salts that are readily crystallizable, 
and that exert no chemical action upon 
the gelatine, are dissolved in the latter, 
the figures etched upon the glass exhibit 
a crystalline appearance that recalls fern 
fronds. Hyposulphite of soda and chlo- 
rate and nitrate of potash produce pretty 
nearly the same effects. A large number 
of mineral substances are attacked by 
gelatine. What is called "toughened" 
glass is easily etched, and the same is 
the case with fluorspar and polished mar- 
ble. 

This etching of glass and different min- 
eral substances by the action of gelatine 
may be employed for the decoration of 
numerous objects. The process is as fol- 
lows : Dissolve some common glue in or- 
dinary water, heated by a water bath, 
and add 6% of its weight of potash alum. 
Alter the glue has become perfectly melt- 
ed, homogeneous, and of the consistency 
of syrup, apply a layer, while it is still 
hot, to a glass object by means of a brush. 
If the object is of ground glass, the ac- 
tion of the glue will be still more ener- 
getic. In about half an hour apply a 
second coat, in such a way as to obtain 
a smooth, transparent surface, destitute 
of air bubbles. Now leave the object to 
itself, and after the glue has become so 
hard that it no longer yields to the press- 
ure of the fingernail (say in about 24 
hours), put the article in a warmer place, 
for example, in the kitchen range, in 
which the temperature must not exceed 
105° P. Allow to remain a few hours, 
and when the object is removed the glue 
will detach itself with a noise, and re- 
move with it numerous flakes of glass. 
All that the piece then requires is to be 
carefully washed and dried. The designs 
thus obtained are not always the same, 
the thickness of the coat of glue, the 
time of desiccation, and various other 
conditions, seeming to act in such a way 
as to modify the form and number of the 
flakes detached. 

It is indispensable to employ glass ob- 
jects of adequate thickness, since in cov- 
ering what is called "muslin" glass with 
a layer of glue the mechanical action that 
it has to support during the desiccation 
is so powerful that it will break with an 
explosion. Glue, therefore, must not be 
allowed to dry in glass vessels, since they 
would be corroded and broken in a very 
short time. 

b. — Few trade secrets haA^e been kept 
so well from the knowledge of the general 
public as the process of producing crys- 
talline or chipped decorative glass. The 
first necessity in carrying out this proc- 



[494] 



Glas) 



(Etching by Chipping) 



ess is to have the glass which is to be 
ornamented ground either by means of 
the sandblast or by the more troublesome 




A. Glass Vessel Etched by the Action of 
Glue and Alum 

means of grinding by hand. This is done 
by rubbing a stone with a flat side over 
the glass till it has lost its polish and 
become translucent. A thin layer of em- 
ery, kept wet with water, will facilitate 
the grinding, which should be as coarse 
as possible, and for which reason grind- 
ing done by the sandblast is preferable. 
After the glass has been ground it should 
be kept scrupulously clean. Great care 
should be exercised that the surface is 
not touched by the hands. Any trace of 




B. Vessel Etched by Pure Glue 

grease is very apt to make the results 
uncertain. If the glass has, however, 
become contaminated, it may be cleaned 
with very strong ammonia, although glass 
which it has been necessary to clean is 
apt to be rather unreliable. Good glue 
is placed in sufiicient water to cover it, 
and allowed to soak for 24 hours. If 
the water is absorbed during the soaking, 
more may be added. It is then liquefied 
over a water bath, and is then ready to 

[ 



(Etching by Chipping) 



use. In practice, it makes considerable 
difiEerence which kind of glue is used. By 
repeated experiments it has been found 
that Irish glue is the best for the pur- 
pose. A wide brush is dipped in the 
glue and applied to the glass. The coat- 
ing should be a thick one, otherwise it 
will not be strong enough to do the work 
required. When the plates are coated 
they may be placed in racks, and the 
temperature of the room raised to 95 or 
100° F. They are permitted to remain 
at this temperature till they are perfectly 
dry, which will be in 10 to 20 hours. 

It is at this stage that the uncertain 
character of the glue shows itself. Under 
certain circumstances the glue will be- 
gin to crack and rise of itself, without 
any more manipulations ; but generally 
it will require to have a stream of cold 




C. 



Toughened Glass Vessel Etched by 
Glue and Hyposulphite of Soda 



air suddenly strike it. If the plate is 
perfectly dry at this period, and of suffi- 
cient thickness, the top surface of the 
glass will be torn of£ with a noise re- 
sembling the crack of a toy pistol. Some- 
times the pieces of glue will leap 2 or 
3 in. in the air, and may even fly into 
the eyes and injure them. To guard 
against this it is customary for the work- 
men to wear a pair of spectacles fitted 
with plain glass. The glue will come off 
sometimes at the least expected times, 
notably if the plate with dried glue is be- 
ing carried from one room to another. 
Plates which have shown a decided dis- 
inclination to chip have manifested a 
remarkable and unexpected activity, and 
have jumped into the face of the person 
carrying them, in such a manner as to 
cause him to drop them. The strength 
of the glue is very extraordinary. If the 
glass has been coated on the hollow or 
belly side of the glass, the slight leverage 
thus obtained is almost sure to break it, 
especially if the glass be single strength. 
495] 



Glass 



(Frosting Glass) 



Even plate glass is not unfrequently 
broken. 

The result of the operation described 
may be either a design resembling ferns 
of various shapes and sizes, or it may be 
a circular design, exhibiting narrow, feath- 
ery appearances ; or, if unsuitable glue 
has been used, it may be of a nondescript 
appearance. If, after the glue has been 
applied, but before it has become any 
more than set, a piece of stout paper is 
pressed over it, and it is allowed to dry 
in this way, the glaas will have less the 
appearance of feathers, but will be much 
coarser, and larger pieces will be removed. 

Some very elegant designs may be pro- 
duced by submitting the glass once more 
to the same operation, covering it as be- 
fore, and allowing the glue to chip. This 
is known by the name of double chip. 
If the glass was covered with the small 
circles in the first place, the second time 
it will have an appearance very much re- 
sembling shells, and for this reason this 
has been called shell chip. 

If, instead of using ordinary glass, col- 
ored glass is employed, pretty and origi- 
nal effects may be obtained. The glass 
may be either colored clear through, or 
it may have only a thin coating on one 
side. In the latter case, in some places 
the entire layer of colored glass will be 
removed, and in other places only a very 
little, and will, therefore, give all the 
gradations between those two extremes. 
Glass which has been treated in this way 
may be silvered and gilded, and thereby 
made still more remarkable in appearance. 

Extremely elegant effects may be ob- 
tained by what is known as "chipping to 
a line." The design is ground in the glass 
by the ordinary sandblast process. After 
the glass has passed through the machine 
the protective coating (wax is generally 
used) is not removed, but is left on to 
keep the glue off those parts which are 
not intended to chip. The glue is then 
applied in a thick layer to the ground 
portion, and the process is carried on as 
usual. 

Frosting Glass. 

1. — Rub over with a little bag of mus- 
lin filled with fine sand, powdered glass, 
or grindstone grit, and water. Some 
sand may be placed directly on the glass. 

2. — Clean the windows thoroughly, and 
moisten with hydrofluoric acid. When 
frosted enough, wash thoroughly. 
. 3. — Make a saturated solution of alum 
water, and wet the glass with the liquid. 
It is advisable to have the glass in a 
horizontal position, as the solution is 

[ 



(Frosting Glass) 



not likely to drain off. The more slowly 
it is cooled the more perfect the crystals 
will be. If desired, the alum solution 
may be colored with cochineal, and, of 
course, the more solution used the thicker 
will be the crystals. 

4. — Dissolve 2 tablespoonfuls of Epsom 
salts in 1 pt. of lager beer, and apply 
the brush. 

5. — Sandarach, 18 dr. ; mastic, 4 dr. ; 
ether, 24 oz. ; benzine, 16 to 18 oz. This 
mixture is to be painted on the glass. 

6. — Frosted glass may be ornamented 
as follows : Choose some pretty pattern 
of lace curtains, lay it upon thin paper, 
and then with a pencil trace the outlines. 
After making as many layers as you re- 
quire patterns, cut out the designs at 
one time through the several layers of 
paper with sharp scissors. Fasten the 
pattern with tacks to the frame around 
each pane of glass you wish to decorate. 
Tie up a piece of putty in a piece of 
thin muslin, leaving enough of the latter 
to hold instead of a handle. With this 
dabble all over the part of the glass which 
the pattern leaves bare. When the pat- 
tern on the glass is dry remove the paper 
and varnish the glass. 

7. — Dip a piece of flat marble into 
glass-cutter's sharp sand moistened with 
water ; rub over the glass, dipping fre- 
quently in sand and water. If the frost- 
ing is required very fine, finish off with 
emery and water. 

8. — As a temporary frosting for win- 
dows, mix together a strong, hot solution 
of epsom salt and a clear solution of 
gum arable ; apply warm. 

9. — Use a strong solution of sodium 
sulphate, warm, and when cool wash with 
gum water. 

10. — Daub the glass with a lump of 
glazier's putty, carefully and uniformly, 
until the surface is equally covered. This 
is an excellent imitation of ground glass, 
and is not disturbed by rain or damp. 

Electric Lights, To Frost. — (See 
Household Formulas.) 

Mirrors. — a. — In dressing the mirror, 
first clean it, and have it perfectly dry. 
A very pretty and pleasing effect is ob- 
tained by the use of a liquid called "bot- 
tled frost." This, when applied to a mir- 
ror, and left to dry, will form in many 
shapes, all radiating from a focus. This 
frost can be made in the following man- 
ner : Sour ale, 4 oz. ; magnesium sul- 
phate, 1 oz. Put on the mirror with a 
small, clean sponge, and let dry. It is 
now ready for the artist, and he may 
choose his own colors and subject. 

b. — Make a saturated solution of mag- 
496 ] 



Glass 



(Gilding Glass) 



nesium sulphate in soft water, somewhat 
warmer than the surrounding atmosphere. 
Dissolve sufficient dextrine to make a 
syrupy liquid, and add this to the solu- 
tion of magnesium sulphate. Filter quick- 
ly through thin muslin, and apply the fil- 
trate to the surface of the mirror, using 
a sponge, and applying the liquid plen- 
tifully. Let stand, and in the course of 
15 or 20 minutes the mirror will be cov- 
ered with a magnificent crop of flower- 
like crystals, resembling the "ice flow- 
ers" of winter, which adhere firmly to 
the glass. These may be made to last 
indefinitely by giving them a coating of 
shellac dissolved in alcohol (the solution 
must be thin). This should be done, 
however, only during a long spell of dry 
weather. Beautiful and artistic effects, 
it is said, are produced by dissolving in 
a portion of the saline solution water- 
soluble anilines, which thus produce col- 
ored crystals. 

Gilding Glass. 

1. — Thoroughly clean the glass, then 
take some very weak isinglass size, and 
while warm float the glass where you in- 
tend the gold to be laid, with the size and 
a soft brush ; then lay the gold on with 
a gilder's tip, previously drawing it over 
the hair of your head to cause the gold 
to adhere to it. Tilt the glass aside to 
allow the superfluous size to run away, 
then let it dry, and if it does not look 
sufficiently solid upon the face, give an- 
other layer of gold the same way. Where 
the black lines are to show, take a piece 
of pointed firewood, cut to the width the 
lines are needed, and with a straight- 
edge draw a line with the piece of wood, 
which, if made true and smooth, will take 
the gold off clean, and so square and 
sharpen up all the edges, lines, etc. 
When this is done, give a coat of Bruns- 
wick black thinned with a little turps, and 
the lines will show black, and it will pre- 
serve the gold. Try a small piece first, 
so as to get all in order. 

2. — The proper flux is anhydrous 
borax ; the real gilding is effected by the 
aid of heat. For this purpose a solution 
of gold in aqua regia (chloride of gold) 
is precipitated by potash or green vitriol 
— a finely divided powder (brown) con- 
sisting of metallic gold. This is washed, 
dried and rubbed up with the flux (an- 
hydrous borax). Mix the same with oil 
of turpentine or gum water; apply with 
a brush. When heated in the muffle, the 
volatile oil escapes ; the gum consumed, 
the borax melts and firmly attaches the 
gold to the surface of the vessel. 



(Ground Glass) 



3. — Gold powder is prepared by rubbing 
down gold leaf with a little honey or 
thick mucilage or gum fluid in a porcelain 
dish until the gold is completely trans- 
formed into powder, after which the honey 
or gum, by repeated additions of warm 
water and pouring it off again, is washed 
away. The gold powder is then mixed 
with a strong borax solution, with which 
mixture the pattern is traced. When it is 
dry, place the glass in an oven and expose 
it to very considerable heat. This causes 
a sufficient amalgamation of the borax 
and the glass, so that the gold is firmly 
attached to the latter. 

Grinding Glass Tube. 

It is very easy to true the interior of 
glass tube by chucking same (cemented 
hot by pitch) into a true hole bored by a 
slide rest in a wooden carver's chuck, at- 
tached to a lathe face plate. Then grind 
out with fine emery the interior by slid- 
ing a rod of steel one-third less diameter, 
fixed firmly and truly in the slide rest tool 
holder, so as to just bear upon the de- 
scending side of the inner tube, as the 
former moves in and out, and is con- 
stantly supplied with plenty of water and 
fresh emery. Polish by wrapping a few- 
thicknesses of alpaca or linen round the 
steel, and use finely washed rouge. This 
is the only way to get a perfectly true 
barrel. 

Ground Glass. 

Lainer recommends the following proc- 
ess in the Chemiker Zeitung: Mix 240 
c. cm. of commercial hydrofluoric acid of 
1.258 specific gravity with 600 grams of 
pulverized soda crystals, then dilute with 
1,000 c. cm. of water. After standing for 
some time a sediment is formed, and over 
it a clear solution. The thoroughly 
cleaned glass pane is provided with a wax 
edge (prepared by kneading yellow wax 
with tallow, rosin and asphalt powder) 
and pre-etched with common hydrofluoric 
acid (1:10) for some minutes to obtain 
an absolutely clean glass surface. Then 
wash with water and wipe the plate with 
a clean, soft sponge until the surface is 
only slightly moist. Stir up the paste of 
the etching acid, and pour the mass V2 
to_ 1 cm. high upon the pane. With this 
mixture a nice normal deadening is ob- 
tained after one hour. If the acid is old, 
having been used often, it may be made to 
act longer upon the plate of glass. The 
liquid is poured back into the vat, and 
the glass is rinsed off with water. Then 
the water is allowed to remain upon the 
pane until a skin, formed from the sur- 



[4971 



Glass 



(Lettering Glass) 



face of the glass, can be removed with the 
finger or a brush. The strong deadening 
obtained by this method can be fixed to 
any desired degree of transparency by 
etching with hydrofluoric acid. 

Lettering and Labeling. (See Etching 
Glass above.) 

Gold Letters on Glass. — Those parts of 
the glass which are to be gilded are 
painted with a saturated solution of 
borax ; upon the surface thus prepared 
gold-leaf is placed and pressed evenly and 
firmly by means of a piece of cotton. 
The glass is then gently and carefully 
heated over an alcohol lamp until the 
borax melts, after which it is allowed to 
cool. If the glass is to be decorated with 
gold letters or other designs the parts to 
which these latter are to be affixed are 
covered with a solution of sodium silicate, 
applied with a brush ; the gold-leaf is 
placed upon this layer and pressed down 
evenly with a plug of cotton. The object 
is warmed at about 136° F., in order to 
effect a partial drying, and the figures are 
then traced upon the gold-leaf by means 
of a lead pencil, the edges of the leaf 
trimmed off, and the object is dried by 
heating to a higher temperature. 

Signs. — The words should be set up in 
the desired style and size of type, and 
several impressions made on transparent 
paper. One of the impressions should 
be placed with its back to the glass and 
lightly attached to it at the edges. From 
the other sheets the letters should be 
separately and neatly cut, and stuck on 
the glass with the printed surface in con- 
tact with it. The paste used for this 
purpose may be mixed with color re- 
sembling that of the printing. The letter- 
ing showing through to the other side 
gives the right position for the lettering 
to be applied. Air bubbles must be well 
rubbed out, or, if necessary, pricked open 
with a needle. When the letters pasted 
on are dry, all the paste adhering to 
the polished glass is removed with the 
aid. of a clean cloth. To secure the let- 
ters, zinc white is rubbed down with 
thin linseed-oil varnish to make a paint, 
with which the surface, including the 
back of the letters, must be painted over. 
When everything is dry the center sheet 
is removed, and the lettering appears in 
black, red, blue, or parti-colors, on a gray 
background. 

Matt. 

1. — Make a thick paste of powdered 
fluorspar, place in a leaden dish, lay the 
glass to be etched over the dish, and ap- 



( Opaque Glass) 



ply gentle heat. This will give extremely 
fine matting. It should be done outdoors, 
or in a fume closet. 

2. — Dissolve gelatine, 20 gr. ; sodium 
fluoride, 20 gr. ; in warm water, 1 oz. 
Pour over glass, allow to set while level, 
and leave to dry. Immerse in hydrochlo- 
ric acid, % oz., water, 8 oz., for 30 sec- 
onds, then dry. 

3. — J. B. Miller contributes to Neuste 
Erfindung a description of a rapid and 
practical method of printing designs or 
labels on glass. The ink employed con- 
sists of French oil of turpentine, 90 parts ; 
Burgundy pitch, 30 parts ; pulverized Syr- 
ian asphalt, 10 parts ; pulverized mastic, 
2 parts. These are boiled together, and 
form a pasty varnish, which is spread 
out on a plate of ground glass, from 
which it is transferred to the rubber tire 
by means of a rubber roller. The ink 
must not be put on too thick. The glass 
is printed with this ink, and then dusted 
over with finely pulverized Syrian as- 
phalt and heated in a sheet-iron muffle 
until the ink and asphalt unite to form 
a brilliant varnish. If the glass is to 
be deeply etched the dusting with asphalt 
must be repeated. If the whole glass is 
not to be rendered matt, the remainder is 
covered, with the exception of a round or 
oval vignette, with a mixture of stearine, 
1 part ; and tallow, 2 or 3 parts. It is 
then put in lye, and the part that is to 
be etched is well washed with water, when 
the glass is put in dilute hydrofluoric 
acid for 5 minutes, rinsed with water, and 
put in the matt bath, where it is left 15 or 
20 minutes. It is afterward cleansed 
with hot lye and polished. 

Mirrors. (See Silvering.) 
Opaque, To Render Glass. 

1. — The following method renders win- 
dow glass non-transparent, while permit- 
ting light to pass through. Paint or pen- 
cil the glass with the following solution : 
Zinc sulphate, 3 parts ; magnesium sul- 
phate, 3 parts ; dextrine, 2 parts ; water, 
20 parts. Mix. On drying, the mixture 
of salts crystallizes in fine needles, which 
prevents vision through the glass. 

2. — The following, if neatly done, ren- 
ders the glass obscure yet diaphanous : 
Rub up, as for oil colors, a sufficient 
quantity of sugar of lead with a little 
boiled linseed oil, and distribute this uni- 
formly over the pane from the end of a 
hog-haired tool, by a dabbing, jerking mo- 
tion, until the appearance of ground glass 
is obtained. It may be ornamented, when 
perfectly hard, by delineating the pattern 
with a strong solution of caustic potash, 



[498] 



Glass 



(Platinizing Glass) 



giving it such time to act as experience 
dictates, and then expeditiously wiping 
out the portion it is necessary to remove. 

3. — For this purpose, German bronze 
factories manufacture a special silver- 
bronze, with a matt glass luster. Any de- 
sired design or pattern can be applied on 
the glass — e.g., glass doors, which look 
like etched glass, and constitute a pretty 
decorative effect. 

4. — Panes may also be rendered matt 
and non-transparent by painting them^ on 
one side with a liquid prepared by grind- 
ing whiting with potash water-glass solu- 
tion. After one or two applications the 
panes are perfectly opaque, while the 
room remains as light as before. 

Painting on Glass. 

Clear rosin, 1 oz. ; melt in an iron 
vessel ; let cool a little, but not harden ; 
then add oil of turpentine sufficient to 
keep it in a liquid state. When cold, use 
it with colors ground in oil. 

Platinum Deposits on Glass. 

• The following method of depositing 
brilliant films of platinum on glass was 
devised by Professor Bottger. In order 
to succeed in coating porcelain or glass 
with a perfectly faultless film of plati- 
num, of the brilliancy of silver, it is in- 
dispensably requisite to make use of per- 
fectly dry platinum chloride, which must 
be as free from acid as possible. To that 
end, pour some oil of rosemary over the 
perfectly dry platinum chloride, in a small 
porcelain mortar, and knead it up with 
the paste, renewing the oil about three 
times, and continue this operation until 
at length there is produced from the 
brownish-red chloride a soft plaster-like 
mass, the color of which is as black as 
pitch, and wherein no particles of unde- 
composed platinum chloride are discov- 
erable. The oil of rosemary assumes 
hereby a more or less yellow color, in 
consequence of its partially taking up 
chlorine from the platinum chloride. When 
at length we have arrived at converting 
the whole of the platinum chloride into 
the black plaster-looking mass spoken of, 
rub it well up with the pestle, after pour- 
ing the oil of rosemary off, with about 
five times its weight of oil of lavender, 
and continue to do so until it has become 
a perfectly homogeneous thin fluid. It 
must then be left to stand for % hour or 
so, for it is not until after that interval 
that it can be used with advantage for 
platinizing. For the production of the 
brilliant platinum film, all that is now 
required is to apply the mass as uniformly 

[ 



(Platinizing Glass) 



as may be, and in the thinnest possible 
coat, to the objects of porcelain, earthen- 
ware or glass, by means of a soft, deli- 
cate brush. The thinner the coat of the 
above described preparation the more bril- 
liant the film of platinum subsequently 
proves. When the articles have been gone 
over as thinly as possible with the fluid, 
conformably with these instructions, all 
that is required further is to subject them 
for a few minutes to a very low, scarcely 
perceptible red heat, either in a muffle, or 
in the flame of a Bunsen gas blowpipe, 
used with caution. The articles receive 
from this baking (supposing always that 
the temperature described has not been 
exceeded), without requiring any subse- 
quent treatment, an incomparably beau- 
tiful luster, as brilliant as silver. If, by 
any oversight, the coating of platinum 
upon the articles has turned out faulty, 
or in the case of breakage occurring dur- 
ing the baking, every trace of the metal 
may be recovered with facility, from the 
objects that have suffered, by means of 
the following very simple galvanic proc- 
ess, without being obliged to have recourse 
to the use of aqua regia. Nothing more 
is required than to pour common hydro- 
chloric acid over them, and then touch 
them with a zinc rod. On doing this, as 
quick as lightning, in consequence of the 
hydrogen evolved both at the upper and 
lower surface of the film of platinum 
which acts as the negative pole, we see 
the shining metallic coating peel off in 
the form of infinitely thin leaves, from 
the base of porcelain or glass, and, not- 
withstanding the specific gravity of the 
metal, ascend partially, and float on the 
surface of the acid. On separating the 
hydrochloric acid by the use of a filter, 
the whole of the platinum, which would 
be otherwise lost, is recovered, so that no 
complaint arises as to the waste of any 
of the metal in question. Prepare at once 
only as much of the platinizing fluid as 
is required for the day's use, inasmuch 
as it loses in efficiency by keeping. That 
which forms the active principle in the 
fluid, which results from treating plati- 
num chloride with oil of lavender, as 
above described, is an organic platinum 
salt, which, in point of fact, one can ob- 
tain, after some time, in the form of small 
elongated octahedral crystals, of a pale 
yellowish color, by washing out carefully 
with alcohol a tolerable quantity of the 
fluid. The crystals have the property 
of taking fire with a brilliant flame on 
being brought near a lighted candle, leav- 
ing a residue of compact platinum of daz- 
zling whiteness. 
499] 



Glass 



(Silvering Glass) 



Powdering. 

Powdered glass is frequently used in- 
stead of paper, cloth, cotton or sand for 
filtering varnishes, acids, etc. It is not 
soluble or corrodible. Sand, if purely 
silicious, v^ould be better, but such sand 
is difficult to get; it too often contains 
matters v^^hich are easily corroded or dis- 
solved. Powdered glass, when glued to 
paper, is also used for polishing wood 
and other materials. It cuts rapidly and 
cleanly, and is better than sand for most 
purposes. Glass is easily pulverized after 
being heated red hot and plunged into 
cold water. It cracks in every direction, 
becomes hard and brittle, and breaks with. 
Keenly cutting edges. After being pound- 
ed in a mortar it may be divided into 
powders of different degrees of fineness 
by being sifted through lawn sieves. 

Silvering Glass. 

1. — Ordinary water must never be used 
in silvering ; it rnust always be distilled 
water. (a) Reducing Solution: In 12 
oz. of water dissolve 12 gr. of Rochelle 
salts, and boil ; while boiling, add IB gr. 
of nitrate of silver dissolved in 1 oz. of 
water, and continue the boiling for 10 
minutes more ; then add water to make 
12 oz. (b) Silvering solution : Dissolve 
1 oz. of nitrate of silver in 10 oz. of 
/^water, then add liquid ammonia until the 
brown precipitate is nearly, but not quite, 
all dissolved ; then add 1 oz. of alcohol, 
and sufficient water to make 12 oz. To 
silver: Take equal parts of (a) and (b), 
mix thoroughly, and lay the glass, face 
down, on top of the mixture while wet, 
after it has been carefully cleaned with 
soda and well rinsed with clean water. 
Distilled water should be used for mak- 
ing the solutions. About 2 dr. of each 
will silver a plate 2 in. square. The 
dish in which the silvering is done should 
be only a little larger than the plate. The 
solution should stand and settle for 2 or 
3 days before being used, and will keep 
good a long time. 

2. — (a) Nitrate of silver, 1 oz.'; water, 
10 oz. (b) Caustic potash, 1 oz. ; water, 
10 oz. (c) Glucose, % oz. ; water, 10 
oz. The above quantities are those esti- 
mated for 250 sq. in. of surface ; add am- 
monia to solution (a) till the turbidity 
first produced is just cleared ; now add 
(b), and again ammonia to clear; then 
a little solution, drop by drop, till the 
appearance is decidedly turbid again ; then 
add (c), and apply to the clean glass 
surface. A film was obtained in 43 min- 
utes at a temperature of 56° F. 

[ 



(Silvering Glass) 



3. — First take 80 gr. of nitrate of sil- 
ver (either lunar caustic or the crystal- 
lized salt), and dissolve it in 10 oz. of 
water, preferably distilled or rain water. 
To this add 2 oz. of alcohol and 2 oz. 
of aqua ammonia. The ammonia is added 
to the solution, drop by drop, until the 
precipitate at first formed is dissolved. 
The solution is then allowed to settle for 
3 or 4 hours, when it is ready for use, and 
forms solution No. 1. Then take 6 oz. 
of water and dissolve it in 24 grams of 
nitrate of silver, and add to the same 
30 grams of arsenite or tartrate of cop- 
per, and then add, drop by drop, sufficient 
aqua ammonia to dissolve the precipitate 
of oxide of silver at first formed, and the 
arsenite or tartrate of copper, after which 
add 2 oz. of alcohol. Then make a sepa- 
rate solution of 48 grams of potassa in 
16 oz. of water. This last mentioned so- 
lution is brought to a boiling tempera- 
ture in an evaporating dish, after which 
the solution of nitrate of silver and ar- 
senite or tartrate of copper is added, drop 
by drop, to the boiling solution of po- 
tassa, and the boiling is continued for 
about an hour, or until a white film col- 
lects on the surface, after which it is 
allowed to cool and filter, when it is ready 
for use, and forms solution No. 2. In 
depositing the alloy upon the glass, take 
a suitable quantity of filtered water, pref- 
erably rain or distilled water, and add 
to it equal parts of solutions Nos. 1 and 
2, and mix the whole thoroughly, and ap- 
ply this solution in any convenient man- 
ner to the glass to be coated, and the 
deposition immediately commences, and is 
allowed to continue, say, for about 10 
minutes, until the metal in solution is 
entirely exhausted, when the glass will 
be covered with a coating of the alloy, 
having a brilliant reflecting surface ad- 
joining the glass. In order to increase 
the durability of the coating it is pref- 
erable to deposit a second coating upon 
the first, which is done by repeating the 
operation before the first coating is dry, 
and after the coating is completed, gener- 
ally cover the whole with a heavy coat 
of asphaltum varnish, although this is 
not absolutely necessary, as the metallic 
alloy is sufficiently hard to stand ordi- 
nary wear without it. By the above de- 
scribed process an alloy having all the 
qualities of hardness and durability of the 
ordinary alloys of copper and silver is 
deposited upon the glass, and the degree 
of hardness may be varied or modified 
by varying the proportions of the differ- 
ent ingredients employed. Other salts of 
copper besides the arsenite or tartrate 
500] 



Glass 



(Silvering Glass) 



may be employed in conjunction with the 
nitrate of silver. 

4. — Silvering solution : Dissolve 48 gr. 
of silver nitrate in 1 oz. of distilled water, 
and to the solution add ammonia water 
until the precipitate at first thrown down 
by it is nearly, but not quite, redissolved. 
Let stand for an hour or two, then filter, 
and to the filtrate add suflScient distilled 
water to make 12 fl.oz. Reducing solu- 
tion : In a flask of sufficient capacity 
dissolve 12 gr. of sodium and potassium 
tartrate (Rochelle salt) in 1 oz. of dis- 
tilled water. Bring to a boil, and while 
boiling add 2 gr. of silver nitrate dis- 
solved in 1 dr. of distilled water. Let 
boil for 3 or 4 minutes, then remove from 
the fire ; let cool down, and after letting 
stand a few minutes filter through paper. 
To the filtrate add sufficient distilled water 
to make, as before, 12 fl.oz. To use : 
Make the glass to be silvered chemically 
clean on the side on which the silver is 
to be deposited. To effect this, cleanse 
first with sulphuric or nitric acid, rinse 
in running water, and then flood with 
liquor potassse. If necessary, to get rid 
of grease, repeat these processes, rinse in 
running water, and finally in alcohol. Be 
careful not to let your fingers come in 
contact with the surface after cleansing, 
but handle the plate either with clean 
wooden forceps or in such manner that 
nothing comes in contact with the cleaned 
surface. To silver, equal parts of the 
fluids are necessary. As the deposition 
of the metal goes on from every direc- 
tion at once, but is strongest and best 
at the top, smaller mirrors are silvered 
by suspending the glass, cleaned surface 
downward, over a vessel having the same 
superficial area as the glass, set perfectly 
level, and filled with the mixed liquid. 
The surface of the glass should exactly 
touch that of the liquid at all points, and 
care should be taken that no bubbles or 
air spaces are left between the surfaces. 
In warm weather, all that is necessary is 
to place the vessel and glass where the 
direct sunlight (or a strong diffused light) 
can reach it ; but in cold weather the 
apparatus should be kept at a tempera- 
ture of from 90 to 110° F. The liquid 
at first becomes intensely black, but clears 
up as the reduction progresses. As soon 
as it becomes somewhat clear the process 
should be stopped, the glass removed and 
rinsed under running water, and allowed 
to dry spontaneously. The silvered sur- 
face should subsequently be varnished 
with a strong solution of shellac into 
which some thickening powder (such as 
English red) has been stirred. While the 



(Silvering Glass) 



silvering and reducing liquids are the 
same, larger mirrors are treated very dif- 
ferently. 

5. — Dissolve 120 gr. of silver nitrate in 
2 oz. of distilled water, and pour this 
solution quickly into a boiling solution 
of 96 gr. of Rochelle salt in about 2 oz. 
of water. When cool, filter, and make 
up to 24 fl.oz. with distilled water. Now 
make a separate solution of 120 gr. of 
silver nitrate in 2 oz. of distilled water, 
and add ammonia until the precipitate is 
nearly redissolved. Make up to 24 fl.oz. 
with distilled water. For use, mix equal 
quantities of these two solutions just be- 
fore the silvering is to be done, 

6. — Dissolve 96 gr. of silver nitrate in 
2 oz. of distilled water, and add ammonia 
until the precipitate is nearly dissolved ; 
filter, and make up to 24 fl.dr. with dis- 
tilled water. Now make a separate so- 
lution of 24 gr. of Rochelle salt in 2 oz. 
of distilled water ; boil this, and while 
boiling add 4 gr. of nitrate of silver, pre- 
viously dissolved in 2 dr. of water. When 
cool, filter, and make up to 24 fl.dr. For 
use, mix equal quantities of th'e two so- 
lutions just before the silvering is to be 
done. 

7. — Pure silver nitrate, 10 gr. to 1 oz. 
of distilled water ; add carefully, drop by 
drop, strong ammonia, until the brown 
precipitate is redissolved. When adding 
the ammonia keep stirring with a glass 
rod. In another bottle make a solution 
of 10 gr. of pure crystallized Rochelle salt 
to 1 oz. of distilled water ; then, when 
you have all ready, pour on sufficient to 
cover all the glass, using two-thirds of 
the silver solution and one-third of the 
Rochelle salt. The mirror can be pre- 
pared well by cleansing it with a little 
wet rouge and polishing dry with a wash- 
leather ; then warm the glass before the 
fire, or by letting it lie in the sun, to 
about 70 to 80° F. Pour on the solution 
as described above, and let it stand in the 
warm sunshine % to 1 hour. When sil- 
vered, pour on it some clean soft or dis- 
tilled water, and while still wet wipe it 
very gently all over with a little soft 
wadding, wet ; this will take off all the 
roughness, so that it will take but little 
rubbing with the rouge leather to polish 
it. When perfectly dry it is easily rubbed 
up to an exquisite polish. 

8. — Place a sheet of glass, previously 
washed clean with water, on a table, and 
rub the whole surface with a rubber of 
cotton, wetted with distilled water, and 
afterward with a solution of Rochelle salt 
in distilled water, 1 part of salt to 200 
parts of water. Then take a solution, 



[501] 



Glass 



(Silvering Glass) 



previously prepared by adding silver ni- 
trate to ammonia of commerce, the silver 
being gradually added until a brown pre- 
cipitate commences to be produced ; the 
solution is then filtered. For each square 
yard of glass take as much of the above 
solution as contains 20 grams (about 
309 gr.) of silver, and to this add as 
much of a solution of Rochelle salt as 
contains 14 grams of salt, and the 
strength of the latter solution should be 
so adjusted to that of the silver solu- 
tion that the total weight of the mixture 
above mentioned may be 60 grams. In 
a minute or two after the mixture is made 
it becomes turbid, and it is then immedi- 
ately to be poured over the surface of 
the glass, which has previously been 
placed on a perfectly horizontal table, but 
the plate is blocked up at one end to 
give it an inclination about 1 in 40 ; the 
liquid is then poured on in such a man- 
ner as to distribute it over the whole 
surface without allowing it to escape at 
the edges. When this is effected the plate 
is placed in a horizontal position at a 
temperature of about 68° F. The silver 
will begin to appear in about 2 minutes, 
and in 20 to 30 minutes sufficient silver 
will be deposited. The mixture is then 
poured 'off the plate, and the silver it 
contains is afterward recovered. The 
surface is then washed four or five times, 
and the plate is set up to dry. When dry, 
the plate is varnished by pouring over it 
a varnish composed of gum dammar, 20 
parts ; asphalt or bitumen, 5 parts ; gutta 
percha, 5 parts ; benzine, 75 parts. This 
varnish will set hard on the glass, and 
the plate is then ready for use. 

9. — The following is a successful method 
for the inexperienced, and produces a 
fixed, hard film of good density. Get 
three open glass jars or tumblers, and 
chemically cleanse them with nitric acid. 
Dissolve 180 grams of nitrate of silver 
in 3 oz. of distilled water in one of the 
tumblers. (When dissolved, take % oz. 
of this solution and put it aside in an- 
other jar or bottle, this also being chemi- 
cally clean.) In another of the tumblers 
dissolve 150 grams of caustic potash 
(pure by alcohol) in 2i/^ oz. of distilled 
water. In the third tumbler dissolve 75 
grams of chemically pure glucose in 2i/^ 
oz. of water. Now take the first tumbler 
with the silver solution in it and drop 
some pure ammonia into it until the solu- 
tion becomes a muddy-brown color. Con- 
tinue dropping the ammonia until the so- 
lution becomes clear again and looks as it 
was before the ammonia was added. Now 
take the separate % oz. of silver solution 



(Silvering Glass) 



and drop some of this in the ammoniated 
solution, drop by drop, the same as the 
ammonia was added. This will make the 
solution muddy again — ^more yellow than 
brown. Use care with the silver solu- 
tion, as any spilled on the hands will re- 
move the skin. Now add the potash so- 
lution, and the mixture will go blackish. 
After this continue dropping ammonia in, 
stirring with a glass rod all the time, un- 
til the solution begins to clear again. It 
will not get as clear as before, as there 
will be numberless black particles. Fil- 
ter the solution by pouring it through a 
funnel in which is a plug of cotton wool 
or a filter paper. Now add more of the 
spare silver solution, drop by drop, stir- 
ring all the time, until a very faint pre- 
cipitate again occurs, then immediately 
stop dropping the solution. Prepare the sil- 
vering dish, set it level, and pour the solu- 
tion in ; add sufficient distilled water to 
make it the right height in the dish. Pour 
the glucose solution in, and stir together. 
Immerse the surface of the mirror glass 
gently, holding it slanting as it is lowered 
in, so that air bubbles will not be held 
under. By the time the glass is in posi- 
tion the solution will be a pale reddish- 
purple color, and will grow darker. A 
fine deposit of silver will soon come, and 
will be complete in from 10 to 20 min- 
utes. Well wash the mirror with water, 
and place on edge to dry. The film can 
be polished with fine wash-leather over 
a pad of cotton wool for about 15 min- 
utes. The polishing must be gently done. 
10. — Brashear's Process. — The most im- 
portant thing is the sugar solution form- 
ing the reducing agent. This greatly 
improves by keeping — a solution that has 
been made some months being much more 
effective than a newly-made one. It is 
convenient to have always some Winches- 
ter quarts of it in stock for use. For con- 
venience, his proportions may be varied 
slightly, and are thus given : For the 
sugar solution add to 10% of loaf sugar, 
in distilled water, 10% of alcohol and 
%% of nitric acid. Solutions of 10% 
of silver nitrate and of caustic potash 
are separately prepared, the latter one as 
wanted. These, with sufficient ammonia, 
and a very dilute solution of silver nitrate, 
and also a similar very dilute one of am- 
monia, are prepared, the latter in order 
to obtain that pale brown color of the 
ammoniated solution of silver nitrate that 
is absolutely necessary to have before add- 
ing the reducing agent. Having selected 
a suitable dish to contain the liquid, in 
which the mirror can be placed face down- 
ward, with about i/^ to % in. of liquid 



[ 502 ] 



Glass 



(Silvering Glass) 



underneath, find, on the basis of 1 part 
of silver-nitrate solution to 4 parts of the 
total required liquid, the amount of silver 
solution needed ; to this add ammonia till 
the first formed precipitate is dissolved, 
then add half this quantity of the potash 
solution (this is a variation from Mr. 
Brashear's formula that has been found 
to work well), and again add ammonia 
till the mixed solution is quite clear, tak- 
ing care to put in only sufiicient ammo- 
nia for that purpose ; then add the weak 
solution of silver nitrate till a clear brown 
color is obtained ; should this become a 
dark brown, some of the weak solution 
will bring it to a pale brown color, which 
must persist if the solution is left stand- 
ing some time. The mirror, previously 
cleaned with nitric acid and distilled wa- 
ter, and suspended in the dish in distilled 
water of sufficient amount to make up, 
on addition of the solutions, the total li- 
quid required, is lifted out, and the pre- 
pared solutions are mixed with the dis- 
tilled water and an amount of the reduc- 
ing solution equal to about one-half that 
of the silver-nitrate solution, more or less, 
as the temperature is under or above 60° ; 
as soon as all is intimately mixed the 
mirror is immersed with one movement, 
beginning by dipping the edge first, and 
lowering so as to prevent any air bubbles 
forming under the glass. In 3 to 5 min- 
utes the silver begins to form on the mir- 
ror, the solution changing from pink to 
dark brown or black ; the film thickens 
quickly, and in 25 to 30 minutes sufficient 
silver is deposited. The mirror can then 
be washed and put to soak in distilled 
water for a few hours, then taken out, 
and dried and polished in the usual way ; 
that is, with a soft pad of clean chamois, 
and going all over the mirror with light 
strokes till the bloom is all removed and 
a fair polish is obtained, finishing with 
a very little of the finest washed rouge, 
quite dry, lightly dusted on the pad. It 
is very important to well consolidate the 
film of silver by the unrouged pad before 
using any polishing powder. It is a very 
good plan for any one who is not in the 
habit of silvering, or to whom the pi'ocess 
is strange, to try the proportions of the 
solutions on some small pieces of glass 
till a satisfactory proportion for the tem- 
perature (for that is the chief factor in 
varying the amount of reducing solution 
necessary) of the room in which he is 
working. The most important thing (aft- 
er the solutions) is the proper cleansirg 
of the glass, for on the proper prepara- 
tion of the surface of the glass a very 
great deal depends. As already stated. 



(Silvering Glass) 



this process is used when the glass to 
be silvered can be suspended in the liquid ; 
it is not suitable when we attempt to 
silver surfaces face upward. The mud 
formed settles down, and prevents any 
proper deposition of silver ; this was a 
source of considerable trouble when it was 
required to silver a 3-ft. mirror, and a 
pneumatic arrangement was eventually 
made to hold the mirror by the back, so 
that it could be silvered face downward, 
and up to that size the silvering could 
be managed. 

11. — Barton's Process. — (a) Nitrate of 
silver, 25 gr. ; distilled water, 1 oz. (b) 
Pure potash, 25 gr. ; distilled water, 1 oz. 
(c) Solution A, 1 part; solution B, 1 
part. Ammonia to just dissolve the pre- 
cipitate ; solution A to just cause a dis- 
coloration, (d) Loaf sugar, 2,700 gr. ; 
distilled water, 20 oz. ; nitric acid, 2 dr. ; 
strong alcohol, 10 oz, ; distilled water, to 
make 80 oz. For use: Solution (c), 1 
oz. ; solution (d), 1 dr. Solution (c) is 
subject to slow decomposition ; solution 
(d), on the contrary, improves by keep- 
ing. 

12. — Draper's Method. — Dissolve 500 
gr. of Rochelle salts in 3 oz. of water ; 
dissolve 800 gr. of nitrate of silver in 3 
oz. of water ; add silver solution to 1 oz. 
of strong ammonia until brown oxide of 
silver remains undissolved, then add al- 
ternately, ammonia and silver solution 
carefully until the nitrate of silver is 
exhausted, when a little of the brown 
precipitate should remain ; filter. Just 
before using, mix with the Rochelle salt 
solution, and dilute to 22 oz. Clean the 
mirror with nitric acid or plain collodion 
and tissue paper. Coat a tin pan with 
beeswax and rosin, equal parts. Fasten 
a stick, % in. thick, across the bottom. 
Pour in the silvering solution. Put in 
quickly the glass mirror, face downward, 
o'-'e edge first. Carry the pan to the 
window and rock the glass slowly for 
% hour. Bright objects should now be 
scarcely visible through the film. Take 
out the mirror ; set it on edge on blotting 
paper to dry. When thoroughly dry, lay 
it, face up, on a dusted table ; stuff a 
piece of softest thin buckskin loosely with 
cotton, and go gently over the whole sil- 
ver surface with this rubber, in circular 
strokes. Put some very fine rouge on 
a piece of buckskin, laid flat on the table, 
and impregnate the rubber with it. The 
best stroke for polishing is a motion in 
small circles, at times going gradually 
around on the mirror, at times across, on 
the various chords. At the end of an 
hour of continuous gentle rubbing, with 



[503] 



Ghu 



(Silvering Glass) 



occasional touches on the flat, rouged 
skin, the surface will be polished so as 
to be perfectly black in opaque positions, 
and, with moderate care, scratchless. It 
is best, before silvering, to warm the bot- 
tle of silver solution and the mirror in 
water heated to 100° F. 

13. — Drayton's Process. — (This may be 
considered as the earliest of the nitrate 
of silver methods.) A mixture is made 
of 1 oz. of coarsely pulverized silver ni- 
trate, Vz oz. of spirits of hartshorn and 
2 oz. of water, which, after standing for 
24 hours, is filtered, the deposit upon 
the filter, which is silver, being preserved, 
and an addition is made thereto of 3 oz. 
of spirits of wine, at 60° above proof, or 
naphtha ; 20 to 30 drops of oil of cassia 
are then added ; and after remaining for 
about 6 hours longer the solution is ready 
for use. The glass to be silvered with 
this solution mwst have a clean and pol- 
ished surface ; it is to be placed in a hori- 
zontal position, and a wall of putty or 
other suitable material is formed around 
it, so that the solution may cover the 
surface of the glass to the depth of % 
to Yi in. After the solution has been 
poured on the glass, 6 to 12 drops of a 
mixture of oil of cloves and spirits of 
wine, in the proportion of 1 part, by 
measure, of oil of cloves to 3 parts of 
spirits of wine, are dropped into it at 
different places ; or the diluted oil of 
cloves may be mixed with the solution 
before it is poured upon the glass ; the 
more oil of cloves used the more rapid 
will be the deposition of the silver, but 
the operation should occupy about 2 hours. 
When the required deposit has been ob- 
tained the solution is poured off, and 
as soon as the silver on the glass is 
perfectly dry it is varnished with a com- 
position formed by melting together equal 
quantities of beeswax and tallow. The 
solution, after being poured off, is al- 
lowed to stand for 3 to 4 days in a close 
vessel, as it still contains silver, and may 
be again employed, after filtration and the 
addition of a suflacient quantity of fresh 
ingredients to supply the place of those 
which have been used. About 18 gr. of 
silver nitrate are used for each square 
foot of glass, but the quantity of spirit 
varies somewhat, as its evaporation de- 
pends upon the temperature of the atmos- 
phere and the duration of the process. By 
the addition of a small quantity of oil 
of carraway or thyme, the color of the 
silver may be varied. The oil of cassia 
purchased of different manufacturers va- 
ries in quality ; therefore, on being mixed 



(Silvering Glass) 



with the solution, it must be filtered pre- 
vious to use. 

14. — Martin's Method. — (a) Nitrate of 
silver, 175 av.gr. ; distilled water, 10 
av.oz. (b) Nitrate of ammonia, 262 
av.gr.; distilled water, 10 av.oz. (c) 
Pure caustic potash, 1 av.oz. ; distilled 
water, 10 av.oz. (d) Pure sugar candy, 
^2 av.oz. ; distilled water, 5 av.oz. Dis- 
solve, and add tartaric acid, 50 av.gr. Boil 
in a flask for 10 minutes, and, when cool, 
add alcohol, 1 av.oz. ; distilled water, q. s. 
to make up to 10 oz. For use, take equal 
parts of (a) and (b) ; mix together also 
equal parts of (c) and (d), and mix in 
another measure. Then mix both these 
mixtures together in the silvering vessel, 
and suspend the mirror face downward in 
the solution. 

15. — Palmieri's Process. — Professor* 
Palmieri has devised a process for silver- 
ing glass by means of a reducing action 
on the salts of silver, which is said to 
have the advantage of producing a very 
brilliant metallic deposit. When into an 
ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate is 
poured, first a little caustic potash, and 
then a few drops of glycerine, the reduc- 
tion begins at once ; and this action is 
accelerated if ether or alcohol be added 
to the mixture. A moderate heat and 
darkness are said to increase the bril- 
liancy of the precipitate, and darkness 
also favors the adhesion of the deposit to 
the mirror. 

Solution 1. Silver nitrate, 1 oz. ; 
water, 10 oz. Solution 2. Caustic pot- 
ash, 1 oz. ; water, 10 oz. Solution 3. 
Glucose, % oz. ; water, 10 oz. 

The above quantities are those esti- 
mated for 250 sq. in. of surface. Add 
ammonia to solution No. 1 till the tur- 
bidity first produced is just cleared. Now 
add No. 2 solution, and again ammonia 
to clear; then a little solution, drop by 
drop, till the appearance is decidedly tur- 
bid again. Then add No. 3 solution, and 
apply to the clean glass surface. A film 
was obtained in 43 minutes at a tempera- 
ture of 56° F. The plate of glass was 
rather large : 37 in. diameter and 4^ in. 
thick, and weighed 4 cwt. 

Silvering Solution. — In 1 oz. distilled! 
or pure rain water, dissolve 48 gr. crys- 
tallized silver nitrate. Precipitate by] 
adding strongest water of ammonia, and 
continue to add the ammonia, di'op by] 
drop, stirring the solution with a glass 
rod, until the brown precipitate is nearly,] 
but not quite, redissolved. Filter, and] 
add distilled water to make 12 fl. dr. 

Reducing Solution. — Dissolve in 1 oz.j 
distilled or very clean rain water, 12 gr. 



[504] 



Glas^s 



(Silvering Glass) 



potassium and sodium tartrate (Rochelle 
or Seignette salts). Boil in a flask, and 
while boiling add 2 gr. crystallized silver 
nitrate dissolved in 1 dr. water. Continue 
the boiling 5 to 6 minutes. Let cool, filter, 
and add distilled water to make 12 fl. dr. 
To Silver. — For a mirror 1^4 to 1% in. 
diameter, take an ordinary 2 oz. gradu- 
ated glass ; procure a piece of thin wood 
(cigar box will do) long enough to go 
across the top of it, and through the cen- 




( Silvering Glass) 



Silvering Devices 

ter of the wood thrust, as shown here, 
a wire 7 to 8 in. long. After cleansing 
the glass to be silvered by immersing it 
in strong nitric acid, washing in liquor 
potassae, and thoroughly rinsing with dis- 
tilled water, with a bit of sealing wax 
attach one end of the wire to its face, 
as in the cut. If the glass has had mer- 
curia amalgam on it, it will probably be 
necessary to clean the back with rouge. 
On having this surface perfectly chemi- 
cally clean, depends in a great measure 
the success of the operation. 

Having attached the glass to the wire, 
lay the strip across the graduate, move 
the glass disc downwards until it nearly, 
but not quite, touches the sides of the 
graduate all round, taking care that its 
edges shall be as nearly level as possible. 
Having ascertained the height in the grad- 
uate at which the disc should stand, bend 
or clamp the wire so that it cannot slip. 
In the ordinary graduate, with a mirror 
1% in. diameter, this will be at the 6 
dr. mark, as nearly as may be. Remove 
the glass and pour into the graduate 
enough of equal quantities of the two so- 
lutions to fill the graduate exactly to the 
previously ascertained level. Stir the 
solutions so that they will become thor- 
oughly mixed, and replace the disc to be 
silvered, taking great care that the sur- 
face to be silvered shall come in contact 
with the silvering fluid exactly at all 
points. The disc should be rinsed care- 



[505] 



fully before replacing, and should be put 
in while wet. Great care should be taken 
that no air-bubbles remain on the surface 
of the solution, or between it and the sur- 
face to be silvered. 

Now set the graduate in the sun for a 
few minutes, if the weather be warm, or 
by the fire, if it be cold, as a temperature 
of 113 to 122° F. is not conducive to the 
rapid deposition of a brilliant, firm, and 
even film of silver. The fluid in the sun- 
light soon becomes inky black, gradually 
clearing as the silver is reduced, until 
when exhausted it is perfectly clear. The 
mirror should be removed before this 
point is reached, as a process of bleaching 
sets up if left after the fluid is exhausted. 
From 20 to 80 minutes, according to the 
weather, purity of chemicals, etc., is re- 
quired for the entire process. 

When the mirror is removed from the 
bath, it should be carefully rinsed with 
distilled water from the wash bottle, and 
laid on its edge on blotting paper to dry. 
When perfectly dry, the back should be 
varnished with some elastic varnish and 
allowed to dry. The wire and sealing wax 
can now be removed from the face, and 
the glass cleaned with a little pledget o'f 
cotton and a minute drop of nitric acid, 
taking great care that the acid does not 
get to the edges or under the varnish. 
Rinse, dry, and the mirror is finished. 
The light reflected from a mirror made 
thus has somewhat of a yellowish tinge, 
but photometric experiments show that 
25 to 30% more light is reflected than 
from the old mercurial mirrors. 

Balls. — Lead and tin, of each 2 oz. ; bis- 
muth, 2 oz. ; mercury, 4 oz. Melt to- 
gether in order given. Have the globe 
perfectly clean and dry. Warm it, melt 
the amalgam and pour it in and roll it 
about until the glass is coated. Too high 
a heat in use will spoil them. 

Amalgams for Silvering Glass Globes. — 

Lead. Tin. Bismuth. Mercury. 

1111 
1112 

The lead and tin are melted first, after 
which the bismuth is added. The dross 
is scraped off and the mercury added, 
when the whole mixture is well stirred. 
Leaves of Dutch metal are sometimes 
added, according to the color which it is 
desired to impart to the globes. 

Curved Glass. — This is a French proc- 
ess, used not only for flat surfaces, but 
also for those which are curved, or cut 
into patterns. Dissolve 600 gr. neutral 
silver nitrate in 1,200 gr. distilled water, 
add 75 drops of a solution composed of 
25 parts distilled wate^, 10 ammonia ses- 



Glass 



(Silvering Glass) 



quicarbonate, and 10 ammonia, sp. gr. 
0,980; add also 30 gr. ammonia, same 
sp. gr., and also 1,800 gr. alcohol, sp. gr. 
0.85. When clear, the liquor is decanted 
or filtered, and mixture of equal parts 
alcohol and oil of cassia is added to the 
silver solution in the proportion of 1 of 
the oil of cassia to 15 of the silver solu- 
tion, the mixture is agitated and left to 
setttle, then filtered. Before pouring up- 
on the glass surface, or into the glass 
vessel to be silvered, the solution is mixed 
with l-78th its bulk of essence of cloves, 
1 part oil of cloves, 3 parts alcohol. The 
glass is thoroughly cleaned, and the silver 
solution is applied and vrarmed to 100° 
P. for about 3 hours ; the liquid is poured 
off, and the silver deposit is washed, 
dried, and varnished. 

Globes. — 1. — Nitrate of silver, 1 oz. ; 
distilled water, 3 oz. ; alcohol, 3 oz. ; am- 
monia, sufficient, or about 1 oz. ; grape 
sugar, 2 oz. 

Dissolve the nitrate of silver in the 
water, add ammonia in a quantity just 
sufficient to redissolve the precipitate 
formed at first, add the alcohol, allow it 
to rest four or five hours and filter. The 
grape sugar is dissolved separately in 1 
oz. of water, and added to the silver solu- 
tion at the moment of using. The glass 
globes being perfectly cleaned, the solu- 
tion is poured into them, and the globes 
are turned on all sides in front of a mod- 
erate fire, so that the liquid touches every 
part alike. The coating is done in a few 
minutes, when the excess liquid is to be 
removed and the globe washed with dis- 
tilled water first, and lastly with alcohol. 
The success of the operation depends in a 
great degree on the cleanness of the sur- 
face of the glass to be silvered ; the slight- 
est speck of dust or grease spot is sure to 
show. A good way to clean the globes 
would be to wash them with a warm solu- 
tion of soda, then with dilute nitric acid, 
and lastly with alcohol, care being taken 
not to touch with the fingers any part of 
the globes which is intended to be sil- 
vered. 

2. — Take 1-3 ounce of clean lead, and 
melt it with an equal weight of pure tin ; 
then immediately add % oz. of bismuth, 
and carefully skim off the dross ; remove 
the alloy from the fire, and before it 
grows cold add 5 oz. of mercury, and stir 
the whole well together ; then put the 
fluid amalgam into a clean glass, and it is 
fit for use. When this amalgam is used 
for silvering, let it be first strained 
through a linen rag; then gently pour 
some ounces thereof into the globe in- 
tended to be silvered ; the alloy should be 



(Silvering Glass) 



poured into the globe by means of a paper 
or glass funnel reaching almost to the 
bottom of the globe, to prevent it splash- 
ing the sides ; the globe should be turned 
every way very slowly, to fasten the sil- 
vering. 

3. — Make an alloy of 3 oz. of lead, 2 oz. 
of tin, and 5 oz. of bismuth ; put a 
portion of this alloy into the globe, and 
expose it to a gentle heat until the com- 
pound is melted ; it melts at 197° F. ; 
then by turning the globe slowly round 
an equal coating may be laid on, which, 
when cold, hardens and firmly adheres. 
This is one of the cheapest and most dur- 
able methods of silvering glass globes in- 
ternally. • 

4. — Nitrate of silver, 1 oz. ; distilled 
water, 1 pint ; strong liquid ammonia, 
sufficient quantity, added very gradually, 
to first precipitate and then redissolve 
the silver ; then add honey, % oz. Put 
sufficient quantity of this solution in the 
globe, and then place the globe in a sauce- 
pan of water ; boil it for 10 to 30 min- 
utes, occasionally removing it to see the 
effect. 

5. — a. — Nitrate of silver, 10 parts ; dis- 
tilled water, 100 parts. 

b. — Water of ammonia, specific gravity, 
0.984. 

c. — Solution of soda, 30 parts ; distilled 
water, 500 parts. 

d. — Cane sugar, 25 parts ; distilled 
water, 200 parts ; nitric acid, 1 part. 
Boil the three together for 20 minutes ; 
when cool, add 50 parts of 90% alcohol 
and sufficient water to make 500 parts. 

To silver a globe, mix li/^ oz. of solu- 
tion a, 1 oz. of solution b, 2i/^ oz. of 
c, and dilute with water to make 3 1-3 
fluid- oz. ; allow it to stand 24 hours. For 
a globe of 1 quart, take 1 oz. of the above 
mixture, add 1 drachm of solution d, and 
shake it around in the bottle in the direct 
sunlight for 20 minutes. 

Repairing a Damaged Mirror. — 1. — 
Place the mirror face downward on a 
table and with a bit of cotton clean off 
the spot to be silvered, by rubbing it with 
a pledget of cotton. Now spread over 
the spot a piece of tinfoil a little larger 
than the area to be repaired, and after 
spreading out smoothly let fall on the 
center of it a drop of metallic mercury, 
and with a bit of chamois rub the foil 
until it becomes brilliant. Now place over 
the new amalgam a sheet of smooth writ- 
ing paper and on it pile books or weights 
of any sort, and leave it overnight. The 
amount of weight needed is not great — 
just sufficient to keep the new amalgam 
in close contact with the glass. The 



[506] 



Glass 



(Silvering Glass) 



amount of mercury needed should corre- 
spond as nearly as possible to 3 drachms 
to the square foot of surface to be re- 
silvered. We may say, in conclusion, that 
while the above reads "easy," the job 
itself requires considerable practice to do 
it neatly and with dispatch. 

2. — If mirrors coated become damaged 
they may sometimes be successfully re- 
paired as follows : 

Clean the bare portion of the glass by 
rubbing it gently with fine cotton, taking 
care to remove any trace of dust and grit. 
If this cleaning be not done very care- 
fully, defects will appear around the place 
repaired. With the point of a penknife 
cut upon the back of another looking- 
glass around a portion of the silvering of 
the required form, but a little larger. 
Upon it place a small drop of mercury ; 
a drop the size of a pin's head will be 
sufficient for a surface equal to the size 
of the nail. The mercury spreads imme- 
diately, penetrates the amalgam to where 
it was cut off with the knife, and the 
required piece may now be lifted and 
removed to the place to be repaired. This 
is the most difficult part of the operation. 
Then press lightly the renewed portion 
with cotton ; it hardens almost immedi- 
ately, and the glass presents the same ap- 
pearance. 

A Table for Plate-Glass Silvering. — 
The silvering of large mirrors or plate- 
glass is done on a moderately hot table, 
the hotter the table the quicker the silver 
will be deposited. The cut shows such a 
table. The body of the table may be 
described as a shallow zinc-lined trough 
or tank covered on top with slabs of slate. 
1 in. board is used for the body of the 




Silvering Table 

table, 1% in. slate for the top. The illus- 
tration shows a piece of slate removed. 
The slate is bedded on with red-lead and 
varnish to make it steam-tight. The 
slate top, when about to be used, has a 
blanket or felt cover, wetted with water 
before the heat is turned on. At one end 
Of the body is the steam-pipe and valve, 

r 



(Stoppers) 



and the steam is turned on very gradually 
when first heating up. At the other end 
of the body is an outlet, and the steam- 
valve must be regulated so that while 
sufficient steam enters for the purpose 
very little is wasted by escaping from the 
outlet. This outlet also discharges con- 
densed water and prevents steam pressure 
lifting the slates. The silvering process 
is to have the glass chemically clean and 
while still wet from the washing place it 
on the hot table, and at once pour over 
it a solution of gelatine or other mor- 
dant. Before this is dry cover the sur- 
face with the nitrate of silver solution 
and let it remain 10 minutes. Then wipe 
over with a leather squeegee and apply 
the silver solution again. Complete by 
wiping again with the squeegee. 

Varnish for Back of Silvered Mirrors. 
— 'Dammar gum, 20 parts ; asphalt, 3 
parts ; gutta-percha, 5 parts ; benzol, 75 
parts. Mix and dissolve. 

To use this varnish pour it over the 
silvered surface and move the plate back 
and forth until it is distributed evenly 
over the face. 



Staining, 

Use colors which come prepared es- 
pecially for this purpose, as it hardly 
pays to prepare them, and the results are 
much more uniform. In general, the 
colors are rubbed upon glass with spirits 
of turpentine or lavender and applied to 
the glass, which has previously been 
sponged with gum water, to give it a 
slight tooth. Considerable skill and many 
attempts must be made before satisfac- 
tory work can be done. When the paint- 
ing is finished each piece is fired in a 
muffle and is laid in a bed of sifted lime. 
Great skill is required in the firing and 
no general directions can be given. It is 
a much better plan to send the pieces to 
a man who makes a specialty of firing 
glass. 

Stoppers. 

Fitting. — 1. — To fit a stopper to a bot- 
tle that has not been ground, use emery or 
coarse sand kept constantly wet with 
water, and replaced with fresh as fast as 
it is reduced to powder. When all the 
surface has become equally rough, it is 
considered a sign that the glass has been 
ground to the proper shape, as until that 
time the projecting parts only show traces 
of erosion. This is the longest and hard- 
est part of the work, as after that the 
glass simply needs finishing and polish- 
ing. For that purpose emery only can be 
used, owing to the fact that the material 
507] 



Glass 



(Substitutes for Glass) 



can be obtained of any degree of fineness, 
in this respect differing from sand. Other- 
wise the operation is the same as before, 
the emery being always kept moistened, 
and replaced when worn out. The grind- 
ing is continued until both the neck of 
the bottle and the stopper acquire a uni- 
form finish, of a moderate degree of 
smoothness, and until the stopper fits 
so accurately that no shake can be felt 
in it, even though it be not twisted in 
tightly. 

2. — In stoppering a bottle, there are 
two processes: (a) The mouth of the 
bottle is opened to the required size by 
a steel cone revolving in a lathe; (b) the 
stopper is fixed in a wooden chuck, re- 
duced to proper dimensions, and finally 
ground into the mouth of the bottle. 

Removing. — 1. — Place the bottle firmly 
on a table, and hold it with the left hand. 
Then apply the right hand to the stopper, 
and pull it forcibly on one side, using the 
thumb as a fulcrum at the exterior of 
the neck of the bottle. If the stopper 
moves, the motion will be indicated by 
a ticking kind of noise ; and the stopper 
can then be withdrawn without further 
trouble, 2. — Tap the stopper on alternate 
sides with the handle of a hammer, or 
with a piece of wood (not resting it on 
a hard substance, but holding the bottle 
in the hand or between the knees) it can 
frequently be loosened. 3. — Dip one end 
of a cloth in boiling water, and then wrap 
it round the neck of the bottle ; the heat 
causes the neck to expand which allows 
the stopper more room, whereby it can 
often be removed with ease. 4. — The 
flame of a candle or small lamp may be 
applied to the neck of the bottle with the 
same effect. But in both cases the opera- 
tion must be performed quickly, in order 
that the heat may not get at the stopper 
and expand it, for if such is the case, 
it remains as firmly fixed as before. 5. — 
Pass a piece of strong twine round the 
neck of the bottle and fix one end of the 
string to a hook ; the neck will be heated 
by the friction occasioned by drawing 
the bottle rapidly backwards and for- 
wards, the bottle being held in one hand, 
and the free end of the string in the 
other. The heat expands the neck as 
before described. 

Substitute for Glass. (See also chapter 
on Celluloid.) 

1. — 4 to 8 parts of gum cotton are dis- 
solved in an adequate quantity of ether ; 
this solution is mixed with 2 to 4% 
of castor oil, or any other non-resin- 
itj'mg oil, and from 4 to 10% of tur- 



( Writing on Glass) 



pentine added to the mixture. The 
mixture is poured on to a glass slab and 
dried by a current of hot air, which, in 
a comparatively short period, transforms 
the fluid into a perfectly transparent, 
hard, amorphous plate, the thickness of 
which can be regulated as desired. 

2. — Tectorium. — This material is pre- 
pared by applying a varnish to a finely- 
meshed iron-wire fabric. The varnish 
consists principally of good linseed oil, in 
which the vertically hanging wire fabric 
is repeatedly dipped up to as many as 
twelve times. After each dipping, the 
thin layer of oil is dried in warm air. 
The fabric thus obtained is exceedingly 
flexible, strong, impermeable, and very 
well adapted for skylights, greenhouses, 
etc. 

Tuning Glasses. 

(To play on with the palm of the 
hand.) The tones are dependent on the 
glasses and the amount of water used. 
Moisten the palm of the hand with water. 

Writing on Glass. 

a. — Ether, 500 gr. ; sandarac, 30 gr. ; 
mastic, 30 gr. Dissolve, then add ben- 
zine in small quantities till the varnish, 
spread on a piece of glass, gives it the 
aspect of roughened glass. The varnish 
is used cold. To have a homogeneous 
layer, pour over that already formed, 
some oil of petroleum, let it evaporate a 
little, then rub in all directions with 
cambric cloth till all is quite dry. With 
ink or lead pencil, lines can be produced 
on this surface as fine as may be desired. 
Thus a drawing may be prepared in. a 
few minutes and immediately projected. 

b. — The glass is to be first gently 
heated at a spirit lamp or gas flame, till 
steam ceases to be deposited on it, up to 
112 or 140° F. (44 to 60° C). Then 
a particular varnish should be poured 
upon it, as is done in photographic 
operations with collodion. This varnish 
is composed of 51 dwt. alcohol, 61 gr. 
mastic in drops, and 122 gr, pounce. 
The rosins are dissolved by being heated 
in a hot water bath, the whole being in 
a flask corked and fastened. The solu- 
tion is afterward filtered. The varnish 
is very hard, and becomes brilliant and 
completely transparent. If it is poured 
on the cold glass, it becomes opaque and 
absorbs ink. Drawings may be executed 
upon it with common or India ink. Then 
a thin layer of gum is put upon it by 
dipping the glass in a very diluted solu- 
tion of gum or any other non-alcoholic 
coating. 



[508] 



CHAPTER XII 



HEAT TEEATMEIN^T OF METALS AJN^I^EALHSTG^ 



BRAZI^G^ CASEIIAEDEI^IIS^G, 



HARDElN^IJN^a, 



TEMPERIIS^G Al^B WELDIIN^G 



The distinction between "Hardening" 
and "Tempering" should be closely drawn. 
The word temper refers to the process of 
drawing temper after steel work has been 
hardened. 

Oil tempering furnaces are designed to 
heat oil or tallow to about 600° F. and 
to control the temperature so as to draw 
any desired temper required in dies, cut- 
ters, punches, knives, shear blades, etc., 
which do not need to show the temper 
color. 

Air tempering furnaces are used to 
draw, "spring temper" and for all work 
which must show a temper color. 

Sand tempering machines are designed 
for special work to be drawn to any de- 
sired temper color, which must show on 
the surface, and especially for heavy 
pieces which cannot be heated quickly 
enough in hot air and require that they 
be kept in motion. 

ANNEALING. 
Brass or Copper. 

In working brass or copper it will '>e- 
come hard, and if hammered to any great 
extent will split. To prevent cracking 
or splitting, the piece must be heated to 
dull red heat and plunged in cold water ; 
this will soften it, so it can be worked 
easily. Be careful not to heat brass too 
hot, or it will fall to pieces. These pieces 
must be annealed frequently during the 
process of liammering. 

Full directions for annealing copper 
are given in the Scientific American Sup- 
plement No. 1161. 

Cast Iron. 

To anneal cast iron, heat it in a slow 
charcoal fire to a dull red heat ; then 
cover it over about 2 inches with fine 
charcoal ; then cover with ashes. Let it 
lie until cold. Hard cast iron can be 
softened enough in this way to be filed 
and drilled. 



Wrought Iron. 

Chains. — Get your chain to a cherry 
red or bright red heat (it need not re- 
main in the furnace or fire afterward), 
then bury in charcoal dust or fine ashes 
until thoroughly cold. Chains are gener- 
ally made from "best best" iron, and are 
more liable to crystallization than more 
common iron would be, as it is purer. 

Steel. 

1. — More steel is injured, and some- 
times spoiled, by over-annealing than in 
any other way. Steel overheated in 
annealing will shrink badly when being 
hardened ; besides, it takes the life out of 
it. It should never be heated above a 
low cherry red, and it should be a lower 
heat than it is when being hardened. It. 
should be heated slowly, and given a 
uniform heat all over and through the 
piece. This it is difficult to do in long 
bars and in an ordinary furnace. The 
best way to heat a piece of steel, eit"her 
for annealing or hardening, is in red hot, 
pure lead. By this method it is done 
uniformly, and one can see the color all 
the time. 

2. — For a small quantity, heat the steel 
to a cherry red in a charcoal fire, then 
bury it in sawdust, in an iron box, cover- 
ing the sawdust with ashes. Let it stay 
until cold. For a larger quantity, and 
when it is required to be very soft, pack 
the steel with cast-iron (lathe or planer) 
chips in an iron box as follows : Having 
at least half or three-quarters of an inch 
in depth of chips in the bottom of the 
box put in a layer of steel, then more 
chips to fill the spaces between the steel 
and also the half or three-quarters of an 
inch space between the sides of the box 
and steel, then more steel ; and lastly, at 
least one inch in depth of chips, well 
rimmed down on top of the steel. Heat 
the whole to and keep at a red heat for 
from two to fonr hours. Do not disturb 
the box until cold. 



Always consult the Index when usinsr this book. 

[509] 



Heat Treatment of Metals 



(Brazing) 



3. — Water Annealing. — a. — First heat 
the steel to a red heat ; let it lie until 
nearly black hot, then throw into soap- 
suds/ Steel treated in this way can be 
annealed softer than by putting it into 
the ashes of a forge. 

b. — It is now recommended as a good 
method of annealing steel to let it remain 
in the fire until red hot, as it heats more 
evenly, then take it from the fire and 
carry it to some dark place, allowing it 
to cool in the air until the dull red is no 
longer obvious in the dark, 'and finally 
cooling it off in hot water. 

BRAZING. 

1. — If gas can be procured, it makes by 
far the best brazing heat, is clean, and 
in using it one has the advantage of be- 
ing able to place his work to the best 
advantage and to be able to see exactly 
what he is doing during the brazing proc- 
ess. Gasoline forges are about half way 
between gas and coal forges. The great- 
est difficulty with most gasoline forges 
is that they do not give enough heat for 
good-sized jobs. If neither gas nor gaso- 
line are available, then the coal forge must 
be used ; but in doing any kind of brazing, 
only good clean coal can be used, and coke 
or charcoal if possible. For cast-iron braz- 
ing the coal must be practically free of 
sulphur. Malleable iron is not so diflS- 
cult to braze, and almost any means of 
heating may be used, and an ordinary flux 
(borax, boric acid, or anything of that 
nature) will cause the brass to run over 
it like water. 

Malleable iron, steel, or common iron 
brazing is usually successful, but cast 
iron is more difiicult. The principal dif- 
ference in brazing cast iron is that a spe- 
cial flux must be used, and a greater heat 
and a longer time are required. The fol- 
lowing flux is recommended : Boric acid, 
1 lb. ; pulverized chlorate of potash, 4 
oz. ; carbonate of iron, 3 oz. Mix 
this thoroughly, rolling out all the 
lumps, and then add 2 lb. of granu- 
lated yellow brass spelter. This flux 
must be kept perfectly dry. A big fruit 
jar with the top screwed on tight may be 
used, and only a little taken out as need- 
ed. To use this, arrange the pieces of cast 
iron to be brazed in such a way that they 
will not jar out of line during the braz- 
ing, and the break so that the brass and 
flux has a chance to flow down throug'h 
it. Let the heat come from below, no 
matter what kind of forge is used. If 
using gas, throw the blast so that the 
flame will deflect upward. Heat the piece 
to a bright cherry red before applying the 



(Brazing) 



mixture. Then, using an iron rod, flat- 
tened on the end and heated red, apply 
the flux and brass, rubbing it along tho 
break and working it in lightly, gradually 
raising the heat till the piece is nearly 
white. Keep applying the mixture for 
some time after it has begun to flow 
nicely, and when you are sure that the 
flux has flowed all through the break, 
shut off the fire and let it cool down 
slowly. Do not hurry the heat, brazing, 
or cooling. If you have taken care that 
the break was clean and free from grease 
in the first place, and have followed 
directions faithfully, you will be aston- 
ished at the strength of the brazed joint. 
It will not break in the same place 'again, 
but will break either some distance away 
or across the first fracture. You cannot 
tear apart a good cast-iron braze. In 
trying this flux for the first time, 
do not use too small a piece, but take a 
cast-iron bar, say 1 x 1 x 12 in., break 
in two in the middle, and experiment on 
that till you get used to the right heat 
and the action of the flux. After thor- 
oughly testing out this you may begin on 
smaller articles, but remember that on 
very small pieces fire-brick or clay must 
be built up around them in order to hold 
in the heat, as a small piece hasn't body 
enough itself to properly fuse the flux. 
This flux can be also used for welding 
and makes an unusually good compound. 
Any first-class druggist can supply the 
ingredients, and if no spelter can be ob- 
tained, chop up some soft brass rod, sheet 
or scrap, and mix in ; but remember, do 
not apply flux till your iron is at least 
cherry red ; the hotter the better, just so 
the iron doesn't melt. For ordinary braz- 
ing, such as bicycle frames and the 
like, the following flux is recommended : 
Boiling water, 1 pt. ; borax, 1 pt. 
Let this dissolve thoroughly ; then add 
2 pt. of boric acid. No care need be 
taken of this flux other than to keep the 
dirt out of it. When using it dry, add 
a little water and paint the article where- 
ever brass is wanted to flow. This should 
be done before heating, after heating 
more flux and brass is applied. Brass 
will follow this flux "uphill" for an inch 
or so. This flux, however, has no effect 
whatever on cast iron. 

2. — Probably for some kinds of work 
borax will never be improved upon for a 
flux, but for some other varieties of 
brazing borax does not completely fill the 
bill — as, for example, wiien brazing work 
which must be filed and cannot be ground. 
Then the borax will leave a very hard 
skin, which destroys many a file before 



[510] 



Heat Treatment of Metals 



(Casehardening) 



it is fully removed. For this kind of 
work some mechanics like to use boracic 
acid, putting it on with a brush or a 
swab. The hard skin is thinner, and 
comes o£E easier when the acid solution is 
used, but a writer in the Tradesman is 
of opinion that the difference lies mostly 
in the fact that not so much of the flux 
is used when the solution is employed. 
The usual way is to pound up a lot of 
lump borax in a lead-melter's ladle or 
the hollow of a blacksmith's sow. Some 
of this (usually very coarse) powder is 
placed on the work with a bit of flat 
iron. Too much borax for the purpose is 
necessarily used in this manner, and the 
excess goes to make up the hard skin 
which "does for" the files. When the 
acid is used the same effect is secured 
as when the solid borax is applied, but 
not one-tenth the amount is used, and 
that is applied just where it is needed. 
If, for any reason, the manager insists 
upon a solid borax being used, make that 
official secure a coffee mill (one of the 
old-fashioned cheap ones will answer per- 
fectly) and have all the borax ground 
very fine. Then a little of the dust pow- 
der can be rubbed or dusted on where the 
joint is to be made, and the braze made 
without having a lot of oxide and slag 
piled up around the work. 

Aluminum. 

Aluminum bronze will braze as well as 
any other metal by using ^ brass solder 
(copper 50%, zinc 50%), and % borax. 

Steel. 

The following solder will braze steel, 
and may be found very useful in case of 
a valve stem or other light portion break- 
ing when it is important that the engine 
should continue to work for some time 
longer : Silver, 19 parts ; copper, 1 part ; 
brass, 2 parts. If practicable, charcoal 
dust should be strewed over the melted 
metal of the crucible. 

CASEHARDENING. 

1. — A reliaible method is to place the 
pieces to be hardened ioi an iron box made 
airtight by having all its seams covered 
well with fireclay, filling the box in with 
bone dust closely packed around the ar- 
ticles, or (what is better) with leather 
and hoofs cut into pieces about an inch 
in size, adding thin layers of salt in the 
proportion of about 4 lb. salt to 20 lb. 
of leather and 15 lb. of hoofs. In pack- 
ing the articles in the box, be careful to 
so place them that when the hoofs, 
leather, etc., are burned away, and the 

[51 



(Casehardening) 



pieces of iron in the box receive the 
weight of those above them, they will not 
be likely to bend from the pressure. 
When the articles are packed and the box 
ready to be closed with the lid, pour into 
it 1 gal. of urine to the above quantities 
of leather, etc. ; then fasten down the lid 
and seal the seams outside well with 
clay. The box is then placed in a fur- 
nace and allowed to remain there for 
about twelve hours, when the articles are 
taken out and quickly immersed in water, 
care being taken to put them in the water 
endways to avoid warping them. Articles 
to be casehardened in the above manner 
should have pieces of sheet iron fitted in 
them in all parts where they are required 
to fit well and are difficult to bend when 
cold. Suppose, for instance, it is a quad- 
rant for a link motion : fit into the slot 
where the die works a piece of sheet iron 
(say 14 in. thick) at each end of the slot, 
and two other pieces at equidistant places 
in the slot, leaving on the pieces a pro- 
tection to prevent them from falling 
through the slot. In packing the quad- 
rant in the box, place it so that the sheet 
iron pieces will have their projections 
uppermost ; then in taking the quadrant 
out of the box, handle it carefully, and 
the pieces of iron will remain where they 
were placed and prevent the quadrant 
from warping in cooling or while in the 
box, from the pressure of the pieces of 
work placed above it. It is obvious from 
what has been already said that the 
heavier pieces of work should be placed 
in the bottom of the box. 

2. — Small Articles. — Take a length of 
gas pipe of from 6 to 12 in. and of suitable 
diameter, screw on thimble caps, and 
pack the screws in them with bone dust, 
or with equal parts of charcoal dust and 
unslaked lime ; heat to a red for 2 hours, 
then chill in cold water. A charcoal or 
a coke fire is best; anthracite will do, 
but bitumous coal is objectionable. 

3. — Sal soda, 27 parts ; lampblack, 24 
parts ; sodium chloride, 6 parts ; black 
oxide manganese, ll^ parts. 

4. — ^Take some good charcoal (from 
oak the best) ; also some marble (car- 
bonate of lime). Mix together, the mar- 
ble having been broken small. Then lay 
the tool or other piece to be casehardened 
in this compound, in a covered box, and 
subject it to good and continuous heat. 
Result: a deep penetration of the carbon 
into the iron, and therefore a coating of 
steel. In other words, the outer cuticle 
has been converted into steel by the proc- 
ess of cementation. 

5. — A mixture said to be very effica- 

n 



Heat Treatment of Metals 



(Hardening) 



cious for casehardening iron consists of 
16 parts of lampblack, 18 parts sal soda, 
4 parts muriate of soda, 1 part black 
oxide of manganese. 

Iron. 

Prussiate of Potash Process. — 1. — 
Crush the potash to a powder, being care- 
ful that there are no lumps left in it, 
then heat the iron as hot as possible with- 
out causing it to scale ; and with a piece 
of rod iron, spoon-shaped at the end, 
apply the prussiate of potash to the sur- 
face of the iron, rub it with the spoon 
end of the rod until it fuses and runs all 
over the article, which must then be 
placed in the fire again and slightly re- 
heated, and then plunged into water, ob- 
serving the rules given for immersing 
steel so as not to warp the article. 

2, — Powder the prussiate of potash and 
spread upon the surface of the piece of 
iron to be hardened, after the iron is 
heated to a bright red. It almost in- 
stantly fluxes or flows over the surface, 
and when the iron is cooled to a dull red 
it is plunged into cold water. Some pre- 
fer a mixture of prussiate of potash, 3 
parts ; sal ammoniac, 1 part ; or prus- 
siate, 1 part ; sal ammoniac, 2 parts, and 
finely powdered bone dust (unburned), 
2 parts. The application is the same in 
each case. Proper casehardening, when 
a deep coating of steel is desired, is done 
by packing the article to be hardened in 
an iron box with horn, hoof, bone dust, 
shreds of leather or raw hide, or either 
of these, and heated to a red heat, for 
from 1 to 3 hours, then plunged in water. 

3. — Prussiate of potash, 20 parts ; salt- 
peter, 20 parts; sal ammoiiiac, 20 parts; 
pulverize, and mix thoroughly. Heat the 
case iron to a cherry heat and roll it in 
the above composition, taking care to 
touch every part of the surface. Plunge 
while hot in a bath containing 3 oz. 
prussiate of potash and 6 oz. sal am- 
moniac to each 1% gal. of cold water. 

HARDENING. 
Copper. 

1. — Mix thoroughly when in a molten 
condition with from 3 to 5% of man- 
ganese oxide. 

2. — Copper treated as follows becomes 
harder and tougher than commercial hard 
copper : Take 2 lb. of alum and 8 oz. of 
arsenic, and mix well. 40 lb. of copper 
is to be used with this quantity of alum 
and arsenic. When the copper is thor- 
oughly melted the alum and arsenic are 
poured in the crucible, and mixed well 
with the melted copper. The copper is 

[ 



(Hardening) 



then poured, and allowed to cool grad- 
ually. 

Iron. 

Cast. — 1. — Salt, V2 pt. ; saltpeter, ^4 
lb. ; prussiate of potash, % lb. ; cyanide 
of potash, % lb. ; soft water, 5 gal. Heat 
the iron to a cherry red, dip in the mix- 
ture. If not hard enough repeat the proc- 
ess. 

2. — 1 lb. of strong sulphuric acid is 
mixed with 1% gal. water and 1 oz. of 
nitric acid. Heat the iron in a clean 
fire to a cherry red, and plunge into the 
mixture. 

3. — For cooling and 'hardening cast 
iron: To 60 1. of water add 2.5 1. of 
vinegar, 3 kgm. of common salt and 0.25 
kgm. of hydrochloric acid. 

Steel. 

1. — A new process of hardening steel is 
to coat the metal with a mixture of whit- 
ing and varnish, heat to a cherry red, 
and to then dip for a few seconds in 
acidulated water. The steel is then 
dipped in rape oil for a slightly longer 
time, and is finally laid in a cooling bath 
of rock oil or a mixture of water and 
whiting. By dipping the steel first in the 
water, the heat is drawn away from the 
outer layer, which thus becomes hard. 
Dipping it in the rape oil retards the 
cooling of the interior of the metal, and 
obviates the risk of cracks appearing. 

2. — To 1 lb. of prussiate potash add 3 
lb. common salt, 2 oz. borax, and 2 oz. 
cyanide potash. Place the same in a 
crucible and place the same over a fire ; 
when hot put the steel in the mixture 
and there let it remain until hot, after 
which immediately plunge it in water 
until cool. This prevents the steel from 
cracking or warping, and will give per- 
fect satisfaction. 

Avoiding Cracks, Curving and Warp- 
ing. — 1. — Thin, flat pieces should be im- 
mersed, edge foremost, with uniform ve- 
locity. If allowed to touch the water with 
the broad surface, they would warp. 

2. — Articles considerably thicker on one 
side than on the other — for instance, 
razors — must be immersed with the thick 
side foremost, as otherwise the thin side 
would show cracks. 

3. — The article is to be immersed iu 
the hardening water as far as it has been 
made red hot ; otherwise a crack is 
formed on the place of immersion. 

4. — In hardening cast-iron articles 

tipped with steel, it must be taken into 

consideration that cast iron contracts 

more strongly than steel, and that conse- 

512] 



Heat Treatment of Metals 



(Hardening) 



quently the article would curve every 
time. To avoid this, curve the article be- 
fore hardening to the opposite side. 

Cutlery. — 1. — Sal ammoniac, 6 lb. ; re- 
fined borax, 3 lb. ; water, 41/^ qt. ; red 
wine, 6 oz. 

2.— Water, 6 gal. ; potash, l^^ lb. ; sal 
ammoniac, 4% lb. ; red wine, or wine 
vinegar, 2% pt. ; tartaric acid, 1% lb. 

Drills and Gutting Tools for Use on 
Hard Steel, Chilled Iron, Glass and Other 
Hard Substances. — 1. — Dissolve zinc in 
muriatic acid to saturation. Reduce the 
solution by adding an equal volume of 
water. 

For the tool use new steel or steel that 
has never been heated to a cherry red. 
Heat the tool after it has been sharpened, 
taking care not to heat it above a dull 
cherry red. Plunge it in the zinc chlor- 
ide solution above described and hold it 
still until cool. Use without further 
sharpening. 

When the tool becomes dull, grind it 
as little as possible to sharpen. If it 
does not stand well after grinding, re- 
harden. 

Use the usual lubricants for drills and 
cutters ; oil, or soap water for tempered 
steel ; turpentine for glass, very hard steel 
and chilled iron. 

2. — Any piece of steel wire can be made 
into a drill of such hardness that it will 
easily penetrate glass, or into an engrav- 
ing tool, with which to graduate bottles, 
etc. In the first place, shape the wire as 
desired by filing, then mix 4 parts pow- 
dered rosin and 2 parts fish oil with 1 
part tallow heated to the melting point. 
Heat the wire or other object to be 
hardened to dull redness, dip it into the 
mixture, and leave there until perfectly 
cold. After that it is heated again and 
dipped into cold water until the desired 
degree of hardness is obtained. 

3. — Drills used for riveting glass and 
china are made of fragments of diamond, 
and these, of course, require no harden- 
ing. For steel drills harden them as 
jewelers do their small tools — viz., heat 
to a cherry red and plunge into sealing 
wax, quickly withdraw and insert in a 
fresh place, and repeat this operation un- 
til too cold to enter the wax. In using 
a steel drill for glass it is advantageous 
to keep it moistened with turps, or better 
still, a solution of camphor in turpentine. 

Expansion of Wrought Iron and Cast 
Steel. — It is important in workshop man- 
ipulation to remember that if a piece of 
cast steel be made red hot, and quenched 
in cold water, it will become longer, but 
if the same operation be performed upon 

[ 



(Hardening) 



a piece of wrought iron it will become 
shorter. 

Files. — ^200 parts of common salt; 10 
parts crushed white glass ; 75 parts of 
neatsfoot burned and pulverized ; 25 parts 
of rye flour, 25 parts of rosin, 20 parts 
of charcoal powder, 12 parts of ferro- 
cyanide of potassium pulverized, made 
into a paste with alcohol, applied to the 
files as a coat, which are then dried and 
placed in a fire. After heating, intro- 
duce vertically into the hardening water. 

Fluid for Hardening. — Rosin, 25 lb. ; 
train oil, 12 lb. ; lard, 5 lb. ; asafetida, 
11/4 lb. 

Glycerine for Hardening Steel. — It is 
stated by the Pharmaceutische Zeitung 
that soft steel placed in glycerine of 1.08 
to 1.26 specific gravity, heated to from 
180 to 200° C, and let remain for some 
time, gradually becomes hard, and that 
the higher the temperature of the glycer- 
ine, the harder the steel. We think that 
our contemporary has forgotten to state 
that, after remaining in the hot glycerine 
the stated time, the metal should be 
suddenly cooled off either in water or in 
quicksilver. 

Mill Picks. — The only peculiarity in 
hardening mill picks is to leave the edge 
thick, say 1-16 in. Harden at the lowest 
heat that the particular kind of steel will 
take, in clean water at about 60°. Draw 
temper as little as possible, which may be 
ascertained by trial at a straw color to 
begin with. Do not draw temper with 
the same heat used for hardening. The 
pick after hardening should be tried with 
an old fine file, which by a little experi- 
ence will tell you if the hardening is even. 
Then grind and heat from the center for 
color drawing. If you use low grade steel 
of first-rate quality, the color temper may 
be dispensed with. The greatest difficulty 
is caused by burning the corners in forg- 
ing or in heating to harden. Therefore 
use a dull charcoal fire if possible with 
light blast. Blast often ruins the finest 
steel. 

Outside Hardening. — The following is 
said to keep the inside soft while the out- 
side remains hard : Borax and potassium 
nitrate, 3 parts of each ; yellow prussiate 
of potash, 10 parts ; lead acetate, 1 part. 
Grind the materials up fine and mix them 
thoroughly. When the steel is heated to 
red heat sprinkle over some of the powder, 
return to the fire until the proper color is 
reached, then cool in rain water. 

Petroleum. — According to B. Morgossy, 

the articles to be hardened are first heated 

in a charcoal fire, and, after thoroughly 

rubbing with ordinary washing soap, 

513] 



Heat Treatment of Metals 



(Hardening) 



heated to a cherry red. In this condition 
they are quickly plunged into petroleum ; 
ignition of the petroleum need not be 
feared, but, of course, an open flame must 
not be near at hand. Articles hardened 
according to this method show no cracks, 
do not warp in the least, and after hard- 
ening remain nearly white, so that they 
can be blued without previous rubbing 
with emery. 

Piano Strings. — The steel wire must 
be heated to redness and cooled off ; then 
immersed in a freshly melted metal bath 
of 40 parts lead, 12 parts zinc, 26 parts 
antimony, 21 parts tin, and 1 part bis- 
muth. When taken out, sprinkle or pour 
cold water over it. 

Sealing Wax, Hardening in. — Heat the 
steel article to- a white heat and plunge 
into the sealing wax. After an instant 
withdraw and insert in a new part of the 
wax. Repeat the operation until the steel 
becomes so cold that it refuses to enter 
the sealing wax. 

Screws. — Get some charcoal and reduce 
it very fine ; now take 1 part of prussiate 
of potash and 2 parts common table salt, 
powder these and dissolve them in hot 
water, just enough to keep them in solu- 
tion ; wet the charcoal into a paste with 
it, and imbed your articles in it in a sheet- 
iron pan ; place in a slow fire and sub- 
ject them to a nice red heat, and if very 
small you will not want the hardening 
to penetrate too deep. Five minutes will 
do, but the longer they are subjected to 
the process the harder they will be and 
the deeper. Plunge them into cold water, 
box and all. By this means you will have 
them clean and hard and will not lose any 
in the fire. 

Small Oljects. — 1. — Put soap on the 
pieces before heating. Use muriatic acid, 
1 part ; water, 2 parts ; for cleaning the 
pieces when made black by hardening. 

2. — In order to harden small objects 
that must not be distorted and in which 
a uniform hardness is a primary consider- 
ation, make a small iron box, with a 
handle, of the size of the object ; a suitable 
tin box can also be used. This is then 
filled with pulverized charcoal, in which 
the objects, as near to the top as possible, 
and where there are several articles with 
a space between them, are placed. In 
order to attain the proper heat, a small 
piece of steel is laid directly upon the 
crushed coal. When the steel shows the 
desired deep-red heat, the cooling may be 
effected in lukewarm water. The anneal- 
ing is best effected in an annealing fur- 
nace. 



(Hardening) 



Springs. — Above all, a variety of steel 
must be chosen which is suitable for the 
production of springs, a very tough qual- 
ity with about 0.8% of carbon being prob- 
ably the best. Any steel works of good 
reputation would no doubt recommend a 
certain kind of steel. In shaping a spring, 
forging and hammering should be avoided 
if possible. In forging an uneven treat- 
ment can scarcely be avoided; one por- 
tion is worked more than the other, caus- 
ing tensions which, especially in springs, 
must be guarded against. It is most ad- 
vantageous if a material of the thickness 
and shape of the spring can be obtained, 
which, by bending and pressing through, 
is shaped into the desired spring. Since 
this also entails a slight tension, a careful 
annealing is advisable, so as to prevent 
cracking or distorting in hardening. The 
annealing is best conducted with exclusion 
of the air, by placing the springs in a 
sheet-iron box provided with a cover, 
smearing all the joints well up with loam. 
The heating may be done in a muffled fur- 
nace ; the box, with contents, is, not too 
slowly, heated to cherry red, and then al- 
lowed to cool gradually, together with the 
stove. The springs must only be taken 
out when they have cooled off enough that 
they will give no hissing sound when 
touched by water. In order to uniformly 
heat the springs for hardening, a muffle 
furnace is likewise employed, wherein they 
are heated to cherry heat. For cooling 
liquid a mixture of oil, tallow and pe- 
troleum is employed. A mass consisting 
of fish oil, tallow and wax also renders 
good service, but one should see to it that 
there is a sufficient quantity of these cool- 
ing liquids so that the springs may be 
moved about, same as when cooled in 
water, without causing an appreciable in- 
crease in the temperature of the liquid. 
In most cases too small a quantity of the 
liquid is responsible for the many failures 
in hardening. When the springs have 
cooled in the hardening liquid they are 
taken out. dried off superficially, and the 
oil still adhering is burned off over a char- 
coal fire. This enables one to moderate 
the temper according to the duration of 
the burning off and to produce the desired 
elasticity. An even heating being of great 
importance in hardening springs, the elec- 
tric current has of late been successfully 
employed for this purpose. 

Schaefer's Fluid. — This fluid is com- 
posed of rosins, linseed oil, glycerine and 
powdered wood charcoal. Heat and mix 
thoroughly. Heat the steel to a fine, 
bright cherry red and drop in the fluid 
and let it remain until cold. Burnt cast 



[514] 



Heat Treatment of Metals 



(Hardening) 



steel regains its properties when hardened 
in this fluid. 

Straightening Hardened Steel. — In 
hardening and tempering tools they some- 
times spring, to the great annoyance of 
the workmen, and not seldom the tool is 
reheated and rehardened. In most cases 
this may be avoided. To straighten a 
piece of steel already heated and tem- 
pered, heat it lightly — not enough to draw 
the temper — and it may be straightened 
by blows from a hammer, if the charac- 
ter of the tool will admit of such treat- 
ment, or, as in case of a tap, it may be 
straightened by a heavy mallet on a hard- 
wood block. Although the steel, when 
cold, would break like glass with this 
treatment, when slightly warmed it will 
yield to moderately heavy blows unin- 
jured. 

Thin Steel— 1.— Beet suet, 3 lbs. ; train 
oil, iy2 gal. ; wax, 6% oz. ; add li/^ lb. 
rosin. 

2. — Spermaceti oil, 47% parts ; melted 
tallow, 5 parts ; neatsfoot oil, 2^4 parts ; 
pitch, % part; rosin, % part. 

Tools. — Die Zeitschrift fiir Maschinen- 
hau und Schlosscrei is authority for the 
following process : Powdered stag's hoof, 
500 parts ; Peruvian bark, 500 parts ; 
cooking salt, 250 parts ; refined salt- 
peter, 150 parts ; potassium cyanide, 
150 parts; all powdered well, mixed and 
made into a paste with 1,000 parts of 
black soap. The tools are made red hot, 
the powder is applied, and the tools are 
next hardened. For tempering the fol- 
lowing lead baths are recommended : Tin 
4 parts, lead 7 parts ; tin 4 parts, lead 8 
parts; tin 4 parts, lead 14 parts; tin 4 



(Tempering) 



small that they will not retain their heat 
sufficiently long to enable the operator to 
remove them from the source of heat to a 
vessel containing water used for harden- 
ing. 

Zinc. — From 1% to 3% oz. of sal am^ 
moniac are added to the molten metal. 
This yields a metal which can be easily 
worked with tools. 

SOFTENING STEEL. 

1. — Place a quantity of newly burnt 
lime in a damp place, where it will fall 
in the form of flour ; put it in an iron 
box. Heat the articles to dull red ; clean 
off all scale, and put in lime, and com- 
pletely cover with lime ; cover box over 
with iron lid and leave until cold. The 
more lime and larger the box the better. 
Keep airtight if possible. 

2. — One tablespoonful each of hydro- 
chloric acid and saltpeter to 1 gal. of 
water. Heat the steel and cool in it ; then 
heat to soften by letting cool. Cast steel 
thus treated will weld with sand. 

TEMPERING. 
Steel. 

1. — In judging the proper temperature 
and corresponding hardness, the follow- 
ing table serves admirably. It is often 
difficult to heat a piece of steel uniformly, 
consequently molten metallic mixtures are 
employed, chiefly made up of tin and lead ; 
the bright hardened steel is kept in these 
molten mixtures until it has assumed the 
temperature of the bath. The following 
tabulated form exhibits the composition of 
the metallic baths which have been found 
to be the best for tempering cutlery : 



Composition 
of metallic 
mixtures. Melting 
Lead. Tin. point. 

Lancets 7 4 220° 

Razors 8 4 228° 

Penknives 8i^ 4 232° 

Pairs of scissors 14 4 254° 

Clasp knives, joiners' and carpenters' 

tools 19 4 265° 

Swords, cutlasses, watch springs 48 4 288° 

Stilettos, boring tools and fine saws 50 2 292° 

Ordinary saws Boil'g linseed oil 316° 



Colors. 



Hardly pale yellow 

Pale yellow to straw yellow 

Straw yellow 

Brown 

Purplish colored 
Bright blue 
Deep blue 
Blackish blue 



parts, lead 19 parts ; tin 4 parts, lead 48 
parts ; tin 2 parts, lead 50 parts. 

Watch Drills. — A simple way of hard- 
ening small watch drills : Heat the tools 
in the flame of a candle and then plunge 
suddenly in the candle grease. This is 
done on account of the drills being so 



2. — (a) Use animal charcoal produced 
by charring horn, 24 parts ; horn filings, 
4 parts ; glue, 6 parts ; potassium nitrate, 
9.5 parts; common salt, 55 parts, (b) 
Potassium bicyanide, 1 part ; purified salt- 
peter, 1 part ; burnt and powdered cattle 
hoofs, 1 part; gum arable, 1-30 part; 



[515] 



Heat Treatment of Metals 



(Tempering) 



aloes, 1-30 part; common salt, 0.5 part. 
Mix a and b well together after being well 
pulverized, strew this upon steel when red 
hot and upon wrought iron when white 
hot, and allow it to burn in, after which 
cool as usual. 

3. — Cast Steel. — Dissolves small quan- 
tity of sal ammoniac in water, make the 
metal red, drop it into the mixture for a 
second or two, and take it out, leaving 
enough heat in the metal to draw it back 
a bit. If left till cold, the steel will be a 
great deal too hard. 

Axes. — The poll should be heated in a 
charcoal fire until it is little more than a 
cherry red. Then change ends and heat 
the bit to a cherry red. Cool the bit only 
in cold salt water. Immerse in the water 
at once, otherwise there may be a fire 
crack in it that will spoil it. 

Scour with bricks ; put the poll in the 
fire endways. The temper should run to a 
blue. Do not use a blast. 

Burglar and Drill Proof Diamond Chill. 
Take 1 gal. urine and add to it 1 oz. 
borax and 1 oz. salt. 

Cold Chisels. — Heat the chisel at a low 
heat, so as not to raise a scale. Dip in a 
brine of clear salt and water. About 1 qt. 
of salt to 10 qt. of water is the right pro- 
portion. Leave heat enough in the tool to 
run the temper down to a required hard- 
ness, which is shown by the pigeon blue 
color. Take care to make the chisel stout 
enough that it won't spring in the using. 

Drill. — 1, — A drill heated to a low red, 
and plunged in a strong solution of chlo- 
ride of zinc, will drill glass. 

2. — Heat the drill and rub in cyanide of 
potassium. The drill should be hot 
enough to melt the potassium. Heat again 
to a dark cherry red, and cool it in a very 
strong brine made with warm, soft water. 
Do not draw the temper. The drill will 
look white, but be hard and tough. 

3. — The drill should be heated to a 
cherry red in a charcoal fire, then plunged 
in cold water to which a handful of salt is 
added. Make the drill bright. Draw to a 
light straw color. 

Gravers. — Instruments larger than drill 
may be tempered in mercury the same as 
above, but lead may be used as a substi- 
tute for mercury. The lead is lessened 
about half an inch, and the instrument, 
made light red hot, is pressed into the 
cut. The melted lead then surrounds it. 

Oun Springs. — To temper gun springs, 
heat them evenly to a low red heat in a 
charcoal fire, and quench them in water 
with the cold chill off, keeping them im- 
mersed until reduced to the temperature 
of the water. Place an iron pan contain- 



( Tempering) 



ing lard oil and tallow, in about equal 
quantities, over a fire, and place the 
springs therein, and heat the pan until its 
contents take fire ; then hold the springs 
in the flames, turning them over and over 
and dipping them occasionally in the oil 
to keep them blazing ; when the oil adher- 
ing to them blazes freely when they are 
removed from the flames, place them aside 
to cool off. 

Knife Blades. — Be careful about heat- 
ing, otherwise the blade will be warped 
out of shape. When the blade is heated 
evenly, plunge perpendicularly in a bath 
of raw linseed oil. The temper should be 
drawn on a hot iron. The blades may be 
heated and hardened between two straight 
pieces of iron. 

Liquid for Tempering. — 1. — Saltpeter, 
1 oz. ; alum, pulverized, 2 teaspoonfuls ; 
salt, 1 teacup ; soft water, 2 gal. ; never 
heat over a cherry red nor draw any tem- 
per. 

2. — Water, 1^2 gal. ; saltpeter, 5 oz. ; 
sal ammoniac, 5 oz. ; alum, 5 oz. Draw 
to temper. 

3. — Water, 2 gal. ; saltpeter, 2 oz. ; 
alum, 2 oz. ; sal ammoniac (pulverized), 1 
oz. ; salt, 11/^ lb. Heat to a cherry red, 
plunge in, draw no temper. 

4, — Water, 2 gal. ; saltpeter, i/^ oz. ; 
pulverized borax, % oz. ; white vitriol, 1 
oz. ; salt, 11/^ pt. 

5. — Put % oz. of corrosive sublimate in 
3 qt. of soft water and add 1 handful of 
common salt. Dissolve, and it is ready 
for use. This gives toughness and hard- 
ness of steel. It is a dangerous poison. 

6. — Alum, 1 oz. ; saltpeter, 1 oz. ; sal 
ammoniac, 1 oz. ; salt, % lb. ; soft water, 
1^2 gal. Draw no temper. 

7. — Saltpeter, 1 av.oz. ; borax, 1 av.oz. ; 
sal ammoniac, y^ av.oz. ; common salt, 12 
av.oz. ; water, 1 gal. Mix and dissolve. 

Mill Chisels, Tempering for. — Prepare 
a mixture of water, lYa gal.; ammonia, 
1% oz. ; white vitriol, 1^^ oz. ; sal am- 
moniac. 1% oz. ; spirits of niter, l^/^ oz. ; 
alum, % oz. ; salt, 3 oz, and 1 handful 
horse-hoof parings. Keep in a jar tightly 
corked. The pick should be heated to a 
dark cherry red and cooled in this liquid. 
Do not draw the temper. 

Screto Gages. — Heat in melted lead ; 
harden in cold water or brine pickle ; pol- 
ish bright; draw to color (straw) in hot 
sand. If the steel is homogeneous, there 
will be no change in size. 

Springs, To Temper. — 1. — Tempering of 
coiled springs requires much judgment, 
based upon experience with the particular 
kind of spring that you wish to temper. 
A coiled spring does oot give the faintest 



[516] 



Heat Treatment of Metals 



(Welding) 



idea of its form, size, length, thickness, 
kind of steel, or whether it is a clock 
spring or car spring, all of which must 
be considered in the method of treatment. 
As a general rule, springs that are slender 
and liable to lose shape in a common fire 
should be heated in an oven or muffle and 
hardened in water or oil. The temper 
should be drawn in boiling linseed oil. 
Springs that have stiffness, like car 
springs, may be heated in a covered forge 
fire to good advantage and hardened in 
lard oil. The temper can be drawn by 
burning off. 

2. — Heat to an even red heat, rather 
low, to prevent cracking ; quench in luke- 
warm water. Place in ladle with enough 
tallow to cover it ; heat until tallow burns 
with a large flame extending beyond ladle, 
then set the ladle aside and allow it to 
cool. 

3, — Revolver Springs. — Heat the spring 
to a cherry red and plunge in linseed oil. 
To draw the temper to the desired degree, 
hold the spring over the fire, and allow the 
oil to burn away, take away from the fire, 
put on more oil, and let it burn away. 
Burn the oil off three times and plunge in 
the oil again. The spring is then ready 
for use. Do not overheat the steel. Test 
the temper frequently with a file. 

Taps. — Bear in mind that a tap is 
simply a series of cutters on a bar ; hence 
the cutting parts must be uniformly hard 
enough to cut, and the base soft as pos- 
sible to insure durability. This can be 
best accomplished by dipping at as low a 
heat as possible and making the outside 
hard, while the inside will be compara- 
tively soft when rubbed off ready for tem- 
pering. Heat a heavy ring (a broken pul- 
ley hub is as good as anything), which 
have on side of your fire for use while 
hardening taps, and also a heavy pair of 
tongs, made hot in the same way. Take 
the lever end of the tap with the hot 
tongs, and insert the tap in the center of 
the hot ring, but do not let it touch the 
sides. It is better to keep turning it 
round. If the temper draws too fast, 
where held by the tongs, cool it off, move 
backward and forward until the right 
color is attained. This, too, depends on 
quality of steel and the size and make of 
the tap. and lastly the purpose for which 
it is intended. 

WELDING. 

Directions. 

The great secret of welding is to have 
a clean fire, then heat the iron and "strike 
while the iron is hot." Make the fire of 
blacksmiths' coal which has been caked 



(Welding) 



(coke). If the work is small have only a 
little fire. As the weld requires consider- 
able pounding, plenty of stock should be 
left by using generous laps. Be sure the 
laps fit well before welding. When the 
iron gets from a red to a white heat sand 
the iron without removing from the fire 
and watch the iron carefully. When it 
sparks freely and has a glazed appear- 
ance, remove from the fire, lay quickly, 
after a shake to remove the oxide, and 
pound the lap well until the iron becomes 
too cold to work. 

Composition for. — 1. — To 20 parts of 
iron filings add 10 parts of borax and 1^ 
part sal ammoniac and 1 part of balsam 
of copaiba or other resinous oil. Mix 
well, heated and pulverized. The surfaces 
to be united are powdered with this mix- 
ture ; after which place the article in the 
fire and let it come to a cherry-red heat ; 
when the composition melts, take the por- 
tions to be welded from the fire and join 
together. This composition is used in 
Germany with great success. 

2. — Another composition for welding 
consists of 30 parts of borax, 4 parts of 
sal ammoniac and 4 parts of cyanide of 
potash. Dissolve in water and then evap- 
orate the water at a low temperature. 

Copper. — (Rust.). — Prepare a mixture 
of 358 parts soda phosphate, 124 parts 
boracic acid ; apply the powder when the 
metal is at a dull red heat ; it is then 
brought to a cherry red and at once ham- 
mered. As the metal is apt to soften 
when exposed to a high degree of heat, a 
wooden hammer is recommended. Remove 
all carbonaceous matter from the surfaces 
to be joined, as the success of the opera- 
tion depends on the formation of a fusible 
phosphate of copper. The phosphate of 
copper dissolves a thin film of oxide on 
the surfaces of the metal, keeping them 
clean and in condition to weld. 

Fluxes. — 1. — A welding material com- 
posed of 25 parts of borax, a paner or 
metallic support and 60 parts metallic fil- 
ings of the same nature as the metals to 
be welded, and made bv first melting the 
borax: second, immersing the support in 
the fused borax : third, smoothing the 
same by passinsr it through pressure roll- 
ers; fourth, sprinkling its two faces with 
the metal filinars : fifth, heating the sheet 
in an oven ; sixth, passing through pres- 
sure rollers. 

2. — A welding material composed of 
borax and metallic filings of the same na- 
ture as the metals to be welded, mixed 
with the fused borax, and in the propor- 
tions substantially as set forth, and then 



[517] 



Heat Treatment of Metals 



(Welding) 



rolled out into sheets of about 1-16 in. 
thick. 

3. — The welding sheets coated with a 
layer of gum lac or other appropriate 
varnish. 

4. — The following compound has been 
frequently offered as a trade secret : Take 
copperas, 2 oz. ; saltpeter, 1 oz. ; common 
salt, 6 oz, ; black oxide of manganese, 1 
oz. ; prussiate of potash, 1 oz. Pulverize 
these ingredients and mix with them 3 
lbs. nice welding sand. 

Lead. — An ingenious method of welding 
lead has been devised by M. Blondel. The 
surfaces to be joined are carefully cleaned 
and between them is placed a thin layer of 
lead amalgam. On passing an ordinary 
soldering iron along the line of junction, 
the mercury of the amalgam is vaporized, 
and the lead, set free in an exceedingly 
finely divided state, fuses and unites the 
two surfaces together. 

Potvder. — Belgian Welding Powder. — 
1. — Iron filings, 800 parts; borax, 400 
parts ; balsam of copaiba or other resinous 
oil, 40 parts ; sal ammoniac, 60 parts. 
Mix, heat and pulverize finely. Powder 
the surfaces to be welded, bring to a 
cherry-red heat, at which the powder 
melts ; take from the fire and join. 

2, — Calcine and pulverize together 50 
parts iron or steel filings, 5 parts sal 
ammoniac, 3 parts borax. 2% parts bal- 
sam copaiba. Heat one of the pie'^es to be 
welded red, carefully clean off scale, 
spread the powder upon it; apply the 
other piece at a white heat and weld with 
a hammer. Used for welding iron and 
steel, or both, tosrether. 

Iron and Steel Together. — 1. — To weld 
cast steel with cast steel or with iron, a 
welding powder has to be rnade use of, if 
a secure seam is desired, since cast steel 
cannot stand sparkling heat. An excel- 
lent welding powder is produced as fol- 
lows : In an unglazed iron vessel or 
crucible fuse borax in an annealing fur- 
nace until the liquid appears entirely dark 
green. Test the molten mass by immers- 
ing a wire or piece of iron, to which a 
sample will cling. First the molten mass 
is pale yellow, but it gradually turns 
darker. As soon as the sample taken with 
the iron rod, which immediatelv cools into 
a hard mass, acquires a dark green or 
black color, the moment has arrived to 
remove the vessel from the fire in order to 
pour the contents into another cold, but 
dry, receptacle. After complete cooling, 
the glass-like dark mass is crushed in a 
mortar into a coarse powder. The powder 
is pale greenish yellow, and is now mixed 
with an equal volume of steel filings. In 

[51 



(Welding) 



storing the welding powder it must occupy 
a dry place to prevent the filings from 
rusting. 

2. — Heat the steel to cherry red (after 
it is shaped to correspond to the surface 
of the cast iron to which it is to be 
joined). Apply borax to the surfaces to 
be welded. Heat the parts to a welding 
heat. Apply strong pressure, without im- 
mersing, which will securely weld the steel 
and iron. 

3. — Take copperas, 2 oz. ; saltpeter, 1 
oz. ; common salt, 6 oz. ; black oxide of 
manganese, 1 oz. ; prussiate of potash, 1 
oz. : pulverize and mix with welding sand, 
3 lbs. Use it in the same way as you 
would sand. 

4. — Ten parts borax, 1 part sal ammo- 
niac ; pulverize together thoroughly, with 
which sprinkle the parts to be welded. 

5. — To make composition used in weld- 
ing cast steel, take of borax 10 parts ; sal 
ammoniac, 1 part ; grind or pound roughly 
together ; then fuse in a metal pot over 
a clear fire, continuing the heat until all 
spume has disappeared from the surface. 
When the liquid appears clear, the compo- 
sition is ready to be poured out to cool 
and concrete. To prepare it for use it is 
ground to a fine powder. The steel to be 
welded is raised to a bright yellow heat, 
and then dipped into this welding powder ; 
it is then placed in the fire again, and 
when it attains the same heat as before 
it is ready to be placed under the ham- 
mer. 

6. — A mass of ingredients is sold for 
the purpose of welding cast steel, but the 
simplest and best method is, according to 
the Revue Industrielle, the one employed 
by Fiala, of Prague, Bohemia. He uses 
pulverized white marble for the purpose. 
The two pieces to be welded together are 
heated, and, after rolling in marble dust, 
are promptly joined together and sub- 
jected to a good hammering. 

7.— Welding Cast Steel Without Borax. 
— Copperas, 4 parts ; saltpeter, 2 parts ; 
prussiate of potash. 2 parts ; black oxide 
of magnesia, 2 parts ; common _ salt, 12 
parts ; all pulverized. Mix with good 
welding sand, 48 parts, and use precisely 
the same as you would sand. 

8. — Another powder which is valuable 
for the same purpose consists of borax, 2 
parts ; wrought-iron filings, free from 
rust, 2 parts ; sal ammoniac, 1 part. 
These pulverized parts are moistened with 
copaiba balsam and made into a paste, 
then slowly dried over a fire and again 
powdered. The application is the same 
as above. 

9. — Powder to weld wrought iron at 

8] 



Heat Treatment of MetaU 



(Welding) 



pale-red heat with wrought iron : Borax, 
1 part (by weight) ; sal ammoniac, ^ 
part ; water, i^ part. These ingredients 
are boiled with constant stirring until the 
mass is stiff ; then it is allowed to harden 
over the fire. Upon cooling the mass is 
rubbed up intg a powder and mixed with 
one-third wrought-iron filings free from 
rust. When the iron has reached red 
heat this powder is sprinkled on the parts 
to be welded, and after it has liquefied a 
few blows are sufficient to unite the 
pieces. 



(Welding) 



10. — Welding powder to weld steel on 
wrought iron at pale-red heat : Borax, 3 
parts ; potassium cyanide, 2 parts ; Berlin 
blue, 1-100 part. These substances are 
powdered well, moistened with water ; 
next they are boiled with constant stirring 
until stiff ; then dry over a fire. Upon 
cooling the mass is finely pulverized and 
mixed with 1 part of wrought-iron filings 
free from rust. This powder is sprinkled 
repeatedly upon the hot pieces, and after 
it has burned in the welding is taken in 
hand. 



£519] 



CHAPTER XIII 



HOUSEHOLD FOEMIJLAS 



The reader is requested to consult the 
Index in all matters relating to this sec- 
tion, as many of the formulas are neces- 
sarily classified elsewhere as "Accidents 
AND Emergencies," "Beverages," "Ce- 
ments," "Cleansing, Bleaching, Re- 
storing, Polishing, etc," which includes 
"Laundry Work, etc.," "Ice Cream 
AND Confectionery," "Dyeing," "Insec- 
ticides," "Leather (Blackings and 
Polishes)," "Paints, Varnishes, etc.," 
"Preserving, Canning, Pickling," 
"Soaps and Candles." Also the Mis- 
cellaneous Formulas. With the aid of 
the Index everything can be found. 

Birds. 

Antiseptic Wash for Cage Birds. — 
Chinosol, F., 2 dr. ; burnt sugar, 20 m. ; 
aq. cinnamon, 4 oz. ; aqua, 20 oz. Add 
1 or 2 teaspoonfuls to the bath water 
and allow the birds to use it, when it will 
quickly destroy all parasites or germs 
in the feathers. To wash out the cages, 
use a mixture of 1 tablespoonful in 1 pt. 
of hot water. 

Canaries. — Asthma. — Tincture of capsi- 
cum, 5 dr. ; spirits of chloroform, 90 min. ; 
soluble iron citrate, 45 grams ; fennel 
water, 3% oz. Give a few drops on lump 
sugar, in the cage, once daily. 

Food. — Yolk of egg, dried, 2 parts ; 
poppy heads, in coarse powder, 1 part ; 
cuttlefish bone, in coarse powder, 1 part ; 
granulated sugar, 2 parts ; powdered soda 
crackers, 8 parts. The granulated sugar 
may be omitted. 

Paste. — The following ingredients are 
worked into a stiff paste, which is passed 
through a sieve : Pea meal, 8 parts ; 
blanched sweet almonds, 2 parts ; fresh 
butter, 1 part. The butter must be un- 
salted. A little honey may be added, if 
desired. 

Constipation of Birds. — Fluid extract 
of senna, 2 dr. ; syrup of manna, 1 oz. ; 
fennel water, enough to make 4 oz. Give 
a. few drops of the liquid on a lump of 
sugar once daily. 

Diarrhoea. — Tincture of iron chloride, 



2 dr. ; paregoric, 2 dr. ; caraway water, 
BVs oz. Give a few drops on a lump of 
sugar once daily. 

Manna. — Sweet almonds, 8 oz. ; wheat 
flour, 16 oz. ; capsicum, % oz, ; yolk of 
eggs, enough ; honey, enough. Blanch the 
almonds, reduce them to a smooth paste, 
and add the flour, capsicum, and enough 
yolk of eggs and honey to form a mass 
which may be worked into small cakes. 

Mocking Bird Food. — 1. — Hemp seed, 

3 parts ; toasted wheat bread, 2 parts ; 
maw seed, 1 part ; ox heart, 1 part. Boil 
the ox heart well in water, cut it small, 
and place it in a pan in an oven, where 
it must be allowed to become perfectly 
dry and crisp. All the ingredients must 
then be thoroughly mixed and ground in 
a mill to coarse powder. 

2. — Mix together, corn meal, 2 parts ; 
pea meal, 2 parts ; moss meal, 1 part ; add 
a little melted lard, but not suflScient to 
make the mixture too greasy, and sweeten 
with molasses. Fry in fryingpan for half 
an hour, stirring constantly, and taking 
care not to let it burn. This makes it 
keep well. Put it in a covered jar. 

3. — Hemp seed, 16 av.oz. ; rape seed, 8 
av.oz. ; cracker, 8 av.oz. ; rice, 2 av.oz. ; 
corn meal, 2 av.oz. ; capsicum, 2 av.oz. ; 
lard oil, 2 fl.oz. Mix all together but the 
oil, grind to coarse powder, and then in- 
corporate the oil. 

Ointment for Healing. — Peru balsam, 
60 gr. ; cola cream, 1 oz. Apply. 

Red Birds, Food for. — Sunflower seed, 
8 oz. ; hemp seed, 16 oz. ; canary seed, 10 
oz. ; cracked wheat, 8 oz. ; unshelled rice, 
6 oz. Mix, and grind to a coarse pow- 
der. 

Seed, Mixed. — Sicily canary, 10 oz. ; 
German rape, 2 oz. ; Russian hemp, 1 oz. ; 
German millet, 3 oz. 

Tonics. — 1. — ^Iron sulphate, % oz. ; di- 
luted sulphuric acid, % dr. ; water, enough 
to make 20 oz. A tablespoonful of this 
mixture is to be added to each quart of 
the drinking water. 

2. — Powdered capsicum, 20 gr. ; pow- 
dered gentian, 1 dr. ; ferric oxide, 4 dr. ; 



Always consult the Index when using: this book. 

[521] 



Household Formulas 



(Cellars) 



sugar, 4 dr. ; molasses, enough. Form a 
mass, and cut into pieces of about 5 gr. 
each, one of which is to be placed in the 
cage daily. 

3. — For coughs, asthma, congestion of 
the lungs, etc., in all kinds of songbirds. 
A certain cure for soft moult. Dose, 3 
to 6 drops in the water : Tr. ferri per- 
chlor., 1 dr. ; ac. hydroohlor. oil, % dr. ; 
glycerine, 1% dr. ; aq. camph., 1 oz. Mix, 
and filter. 

Candles. (See Soap and Candles chap- 
ter.) 
Canning. (See special chapter.) 

Carpets, Preservation of. 

Lay sheets of lining under the carpet. 
This gives a soft feeling to the foot, and 
by diminishing the wear adds longer life 
to the carpet ; at the same time it tends 
to keep away the air and renders the 
apartments warm. 

Ceilings. 

1. — Ceilings that look very rough, and 
manifest a tendency to peel, should be 
gone over with a solution of 1 oz. of alum 
to 1 qt. of water. This will remove the 
superfluous lime and render the ceiling 
white. 

2. — Cracked Ceilings, Filling for. — 
Whiting, mixed with glue water or cal- 
cined plaster and water, makes a good 
putty for filling cracks in plastered ceil- 
ings. 

Cellars. (See also Waterproofing.) 

1. — Damp, Remedy for. — Take old pre- 
serve cans and put therein calcium chlo- 
ride, 1 lb. of this salt sufficing for a large 
cellar. The same attracts the water from 
the air, which collects in the cans. This, 
however, is not poured away, but is evap- 
orated on a strong fire, whereby the salt 
crystallizes again, and becomes fit for re- 
newed use. Especially for potato cellars 
this process is very serviceable, since the 
sprouting of the potatoes, though not en- 
tirely prevented, is considerably retarded 
thereby. 

2. — Mold, Extermination of. — Unslaked 
lime is best suited for this purpose. The 
same is blown, in the shape of fine pow- 
der, on the walls of the cellar and into the 
joints and crevices, by means of a bel- 
lows, or else thrown on with the hand. 
The walls must be damp ; dry walls have 
to be well moistened previously. The 
lime slakes with the adhering water and 
kills all organisms. On the day follow- 
ing the walls are washed off, and, as expe- 



( Disinfectants) 



[522] 



rience has proved, the cellar will remain 
free irom mold for at least 2 years. 

Chimney Cleaner. (See also Soot be- 
low.) 

The chemical chimney cleaner is a 
compound in powdered form, made up in 
packages, to put on a hot fire, when it 
evolves gases which have the effect of car- 
rying off a good deal of the soot in a 
chimney. The instructions for use are to 
make a hot fire, then put the package 
on and put a blower up in front of the 
fire (if it is an open grate), and in a 
few minutes the contents of the package 
have effected their purpose. 

1. — Parts by weight : Copper sulphate, 
7 ; coarse salt, 6 ; ammonium chloride, 8 ; 
saltpeter, 5 ; fine sand, 2 ; coke dust, 2, 
Well mix. Can be colored with any inert 
material, such as red ocher, if desired. 

2. — Parts by weight : Chloride of so- 
dium, 7 ; potassium nitrate, 4 ; flour sul- 
phur ; cuprous sulphate, 7 ; muriate of 
ammonia, 8 ; color as above, if desired. 

Cleansing. (See special chapter.) 

Disinfectants. 

For information about some common 
disinfectants, see our Scientific American 
Supplement No. 1740. 

Chlorides. — 1. — Aluminum sulphate, 6 
oz. ; zinc chloride, 1% oz. ; sodium chlo- 
ride, 2 oz. ; calcium chloride, 3 oz. ; water, 
enough to make 2 pt. 

2. — Zinc, in strips, 4 oz. ; lead carbo- 
nate, 2 oz. ; chlorinated lime, 1 oz. : mag- 
nesium carbonate, % oz. ; aluminum hy- 
drate, 11/^ oz. ; potassium hydrate, % oz. ; 
hydrochloric acid, 16 oz. ; water, 16 oz. ; 
whiting, enough. First dissolve the zinc 
in the acid, then add the other salts singly, 
in the order named, letting each dissolve 
before the next is added. When all are 
dissolved add the water to the solution, 
and after a couple of hours add a little 
whiting to neutralize any excess of acid ; 
then filter. It may be added that zinc 
chloride ranks very low among disinfect- 
ants, and that the use of such solutions 
as these, by giving a false sense of se- 
curity from disease germs, may be the 
means of spreading, rather than of check- 
ing the spread of sickness. 

FormaldeJitjde. — 1. — Gaseous Formalde- 
hyde. — In disinfecting with formaldehyde 
gas it is essential that the compartments 
to be disinfected be tightly closed, so that 
a sufficient concentration of the gas may 
be held in contact with the infected sub- 
stances a sufficient length of time. The 
temperature of the air is an important 



Household Formulas 



(Disinfectants) 



factor in securing efficient action, the for- 
maldeliyde being much more energetic in 
a warm atmosphere than in a cold. The 
best authorities state that gaseous for- 
maldehyde disinfection should not be at- 
tempted if the temperature of the air is 
below 50° F. The gas is most convenient- 
ly secured by liberating it from the con- 
centrated aqueous 40% solution or from 
the solid paraform. 

2. — Liquid Formaldehyde. — Solutions 
of formaldehyde are best prepared by mak- 
ing a 5% solution of formalin in water. 
This is applied directly to substances that 
require disinfection, and in the case of 
refuse, excreta, and similar substances, 
should be thoroughly mixed with them. 
A 5% solution of formalin is generally 
regarded as superior to carbolic acid of 
the same strength, as a general disinfect- 
ant. 

3. — Spraying. — In this method the for- 
malin is sprayed upon the surface of ob- 
jects which require disinfection, or upon 
sheets, which are hung up in the com- 
partment containing the infected materi- 
als. The gas is liberated by simple evap- 
oration, this liberation being favored by 
the wide surface which is exposed. The 
gas is liberated much more slowly by this 
method than by either of those already 
described, and the diffusion is also rela- 
tively much slower. For these reasons, 
the compartment to be disinfected should 
not be very large, and should remain 
closed for at least 24 hours. Not less 
than 10 oz. of formalin should be used 
for each 1,000 cu. ft. of space. 

Household Disinfectants. — What is or- 
dinarily meant by a disinfectant for use 
about the house is a deodorizing anti- 
septic. Copperas, on account of its cheap- 
ness, is most frequently used, and is effi- 
cient. The fault found with it is that it 
produces rust stains and unsightly dis- 
colorations wherever it is used. This does 
not interfere with its usefulness in sta- 
bles, outhouses, drains, etc., but is an 
objectionable feature. Salts of alumina, 
especially the sulphate, answer the pur- 
pose better for use about the house, but 
are, of course, more costly. A strong so- 
lution of chloride of zinc, prepared by dis- 
solving scrap zinc, or zinc oxide, to satu- 
ration in muriatic acid, is of much greater 
intrinsic value as a disinfectant, and, on 
the whole, is probably the best thing to 
recommend. The only objection to it is 
that it is poisonous, and it should never 
be sold without a poison label. ^ Among 
the disinfectants said to be especially use- 
ful in destroying foul odors is thymol, 
which may be most conveniently used in 



(Disinfectants) 



the form of an alcoholic solution, to be 
employed with a spray apparatus. The 
following are typical formulas : 

1. — Iron sulphate, 8 oz. ; ammonium 
chloride, 1 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, 1 dr. ; 
alcohol, 4 oz. ; water, to make 32 oz. Dis- 
solve the iron sulphate in 24 oz. of water, 
and the corrosive sublimate in the alco- 
hol. Mix both solutions, add the am- 
monium chloride and enough water to 
make 32 oz. Mix with equal parts of 
water, and use as a disinfectant. 

2. — Alum, 10 oz. ; sal soda, 10 oz. ; sal 
ammoniac, 2 oz. ; common salt, 2 oz. ; 
chloride zinc, 1 oz. ; muriatic acid, com- 
mercial, q. s. ; water, quantity sufficient 
to make 1 gal. Dissolve the alum in i/^ 
gal. of boiling water, then add the sal 
soda, which gives a precipitate of alumi- 
num hydrate. Muriatic acid is then added 
in sufficient quantity to dissolve this pre- 
cipitate, thereby forming aluminum chlo- 
ride. The other salts are then dissolved 
in the remainder of the water and added 
to the first solution. The advantages 
claimed for this preparation are cheap- 
ness, ease of preparation, odorless, non- 
poisonous, and its adaptability for gen- 
eral use. Its freedom from iron, in the 
disinfection of clothing, is an important 
point, insomuch that it will not injure 
the fabric in any way. 

3. — Aluminum chloride, 24 oz. ; zinc 
chloride, 6 oz. ; sodium chloride, 12 oz. ; 
calcium chloride, 18 oz. ; water, enough 
to make 1 gal. Moisten the aluminum and 
calcium salts separately, then mix, and 
allow to settle. Decant the clear liquid, 
and in this dissolve the other salts. 

4. — Alum, 10 oz. ; sodium carbonate, 
10 oz. ; ammonium chloride, 2 oz. ; sodium 
chloride, 2 oz. ; zinc chloride, 1 oz. ; hydro- 
chloric acid, 1 fl.oz. ; water. Dissolve the 
alum in i/^ gal. of boiling water, then add 
the sodium, which will precipitate the 
aluminum hydrate. Hydrochloric acid 
should now be added in sufficient quan- 
tity to dissolve the precipitate. The other 
salts should be dissolved in 3 pt. of wa- 
ter ; this should be added to the first solu- 
tion, and enough water added to make 1 
gal. 

5. — Zinc straps, 2 lb. ; hydrochloric 
acid, 24 oz. ; water, sufficient to make 1 
gal. Mix the acid and water, and place 
into the mixture the zinc. When solu- 
tion is obtained, test for free acid, which 
should be avoided. 

6. — Litharge, 9 oz. ; nitric acid, 6 oz. ; 
water, 1 gal. Dissolve the litharge in the 
acid and water, previously mixed. Tin 
waste or scraps, such as old tin cans, tin 
boxes, etc., may be utilized to make a 



[523] 



Household Formulas 



(Disinfectants) 



disinfectant fluid by placing them into 
a wooden barrel or cask containing dilute 
muriatic acid, the acid solution gradu- 
ally dissolving the tin and iron precipi- 
tate and producing a cheap and effective 
preparation. 

7. — Eckstein finds that bleaching pow- 
der is the most effective disinfectant for 
privies, urinals, etc., inasmuch as it rap- 
idly decomposes hydrogen compounds, 
such as ammonia, sulphureted hydrogen, 
etc. It is conveniently applied in a bag 
made of parchment paper, through which 
the disinfectant slowly passes by osmosis. 
Comparative experiments made in a chem- 
ist's house (where at least 100 persons 
use the closets daily) gave the following 
results : 

a. — Two pounds of sulphate of iron 
(green vitriol), dissolved in water, pre- 
vented the production of smell for 2 or 
3 hours, and had wholly lost its preserva- 
tive action in 12 hours. 

b. — Sulphate of copper in solution pro- 
duced the same result. 

c. — ^Two pounds of solid sulphate of 
iron, or sulphate of copper, acted as a 
disinfectant for 2 full days. 

d. — A mixture of iron and copper sul- 
phates and carbonate of lime (2 lb. in 
all) only remained active for 2 days. 

e. — Solution of sulphurous acid lost its 
action quickly ; it was perceptible to the 
respiratory organs for an hour. 

f. — Crude carbolic acid filled the Tiouse 
with a peculiar tarry odor for 2 days. 
This was so powerful that it could not 
be determined whether the smell of the 
faecal matter was decomposed or merely 
hidden by a more powerful odor. 

g. — Two pounds of sulphate of iron in 
a parchment paper bag only became active 
after 2 hours, and remained active for 
full 3 days, at the end of which time the 
bag contained a muddy liquor destitute 
of smell. 

h. — Two pounds of good commercial 
bleaching powder in a parchment bag be- 
came active in 2 hours, and remained effi- 
cacious for 9 full days, without in the 
least affecting the respiration or smell. 

i. — Crude permanganate of soda disin- 
fected immediately, but only lasted for 
1 day. In a parchment paper bag the 
same quantity lasted 2 days. 

j. — As regards remedies which prevent 
the further development of spores, the 
following results were obtained. The first 
number means retarding the development, 
the rest totally preventing it : 



(Disinfectants) 






Corros. sublimate 1 : 1,600,000 1 


320,000 


Oil of mustard. . 1 : 330,000 


1 


33,000 


Arsenite of pot. . 1 : 100,000 


1 


10,000 


Thymol 1 : 80,000 






Oil of turpentine 1 : 75,000 






Hydrocyanic acid 1 : 40,000 


1 


8,000 


Oil of peppermint 1 : 33,000 






Chromic acid.... 1:10,000 


1 


5,000 


Picric acid 1: 10,000 


1 


5,000 


Iodine 1 : 5,000 






Salicylic acid... 1:3,300 


1 


1,500 


Permang. of pot. 1 : 3,000 






Muriatic acid... 1:2,500 


1 


1,700 


Camphor 1 : 2,500 






Eucalyptol 1 : 2,500 






Benzoic acid 1:2,000 






Borax 1 : 2,000 


1 


700 


Carbolic acid.... 1:1,250 


1 


300 



Recent researches have demonstrated 
that many of the agents which have been 
found useful as deodorizers, or as anti- 
septics, are entirely without value for 
the destruction of disease germs. Anti- 
septic agents, however, exercise a re- 
straining influence upon the development 
of disease germs, and their use during 
epidemics is to be recommended when 
masses of organic material in the vicinity 
of human habitations cannot be complete- 
ly destroyed or removed or disinfected. A 
large number of the proprietary "disin- 
fectants," so called, which are in the 
market are simply deodorizers or antisep- 
tics of greater or less value, and are en- 
tirely untrustworthy for disinfecting pur- 
poses. 

k. — Ferric chloride, 4 parts ; zinc chlo- 
ride, 5 parts ; aluminum chloride, 5 parts ; 
calcium chloride, 4 parts ; magnesium 
chloride, 3 parts ; water, sufficient to 
make 90 parts. Dissolve, and add to 
each gallon 10 gr. of thymol and ^ oz. 
of oil of rosemary, previously dissolved in 
about 6 qt. of alcohol, and filter. 

Instruments, Dhinfection of. — 1. — < 
Sterilize coarse building sand by roasting. 
Fill a suitable vessel with this, and pour 
in a 4% corrosive sublimate solution or 
a 50% solution of lysol, till the sand is 
thoroughly soaked ; keep covered with a 
sterilized piece of pasteboard, pass all 
instruments through this 3 or 4 times. 
Offers simplicity, rapidity, absolute ster- 
ility, no injury to instruments. 

2. — A 10% solution of boroglycerine in 
water will sterilize forceps, broaches and 
cutting instruments, and leave them with- 
out unpleasant odor. 

Odorless Disinfectants. — 1. — Ferric 
chloride, 4 parts ; zinc chloride, 5 parts ; 
aluminum chloride, 5 parts ; calcium chlo- 
ride, 4 parts ; manganese chloride, 3 



[524] 



Household Formulas 



(Disinfectants) 



parts; water, 69 parts. If desired, 10 
gr. of thymol and 2 fl.dr. of oil of rose- 
mary, previously dissolved in about 12 
fl.dr. of alcohol, may be added to each 
gallon. 

2. — Alum, 10 parts ; sodium carbonate, 
10 parts ; ammonium chloride, 2 parts ; 
sodium chloride, 2 parts ; zinc chloride, 1 
part ; hydrochloric acid, sufficient ; water, 
100 parts. Dissolve the alum in about 
50 parts of boiling water and add the 
sodium carbonate. The resulting precipi- 
tate of aluminum hydrate dissolve with 
the aid of just sufficient hydrochloric acid, 
and add the other ingredie^^ts, previously 
dissolved in the remainder of the water. 

3. — Mercuric chloride, 1 part ; cupric 
sulphate, 10 parts; zinc sulphate, 50 
parts ; sodium chloride, 65 parts ; water, 
to make 1,000 parts. 

Perfumed Disinfectant. — To remove the 
inconvenience suffered by travelers 
through the disinfecting process of quar- 
antine stations, Gawoloski recommends 
the application of a disinfectant prepared 
by introducing sulphurous acid gas at a 
low temperature into alcohol until satu- 
rated, and then adding thymol and suit- 
able perfumes. 

Sick-Room Disinfectants, and How. to 
Use Them. — The National Board of 
Health, consisting of a number of our 
leading physicians and chemical experts, 
of which Prof. C. F. Chandler was chair- 
man, have issued the following instruc- 
tions for disinfection, intended especially 
for yellow fever districts, but which are 
equally applicable in other classes of con- 
tagious diseases. No reliance can be 
placed on disinfectants simply because 
they smell of chlorine or carbolic acid, or 
possess the color of permanganate, and 
that, in general, proprietary disinfect- 
ants with high-sounding names are prac- 
tically worthless, as they either have no 
value whatever, or, if of value, cost ma^^.y 
times as much as they are worth, and can- 
not be used in sufficient quantity. 

Explanations. — Disinfection is the de- 
struction of the poisons of infectious and 
contagious diseases. Deodorizers, or sub- 
stances which destroy smells, are not, 
necessarily, disinfectants, and disinfect- 
ants do not necessarily have an odor. Dis- 
infection cannot compensate for want of 
cleanliness or of ventilation. 

1. — Disinfectants to be Employed. — a. 
— Roll sulphur, brimstone, for fumiga- 
tion. 

b. — Sulphate of iron, copperas, dissolved 
in water in the proportion of 1% lb. to 
the gal. ; for soil, sewers, etc. 

c— Sulphate of zinc and cororoon salt, 

[ 



(Disinfectants) 



dissolved together in water in the pro- 
portions of 4 oz. of sulphate and 2 oz. of 
salt to the gallon ; for clothing, bed linen, 
etc. 

Note. — Carbolic acid is not included in 
the above list for the following reasons : 
It is very difficult to determine the quality 
of the commercial article, and the pur- 
chaser can never be certain of securing it 
of proper strength ; it is expensive when 
of good quality, and experience has shown 
that it must be employed in comparative- 
ly large quantities to be of any use ; it 
is liable by its strong odor to give a false 
sense of security. 

2. — a. — The most available agents are 
fresh air and cleanliness. The clothing, 
towels, bed linen, etc., should be at once, 
on removal from the patient, placed in 
a pail or tub of the zinc solution, boiling 
hot, if possible, before removal from the 
room. All discharges should either be 
received in vessels containing copperas so- 
lution, or, when this is impracticable, 
should be immediately covered with cop- 
peras solution. All vessels used about the 
patient should be cleansed with the same 
solution. Unnecessary furniture, espe- 
cially that which is stuffed, carpets, and 
hangings, when possible, should be re- 
moved from the room at the outset ; oth- 
erwise, they should remain for subsequent 
fumigation and treatment. 

b. — Fumigation with sulphur is the only 
practicable method for disinfecting the 
house. For this purpose the rooms to be 
disinfected must be vacated. Heavy 
clothing, blankets, bedding, and other ar- 
ticles which cannot be treated with zinc 
solution, should be opened and exposed 
during the fumigation, as directed below. 
Close the rooms as tightly as possible, 
place the sulphur in iron pans supported 
upon bricks, set it on fire by hot coals, 
or with the aid of a spoonful of alco- 
hol, and allow the room to remain closed 
for 24 hours. For a room about 10 ft. 
square at least 2 lb. of sulphur should 
be used ; for larger rooms proportionately 
increased quantities. 

c. — Premises, cellars, yards, stables, 
gutters, privies, cesspools, waterclosets, 
drains, sewers, etc., should be frequently 
and liberally treated with copperas solu- 
tion. The copperas solution is easily pre- 
pared by hanging a basket containing 
about 60 lb. of copperas in a barrel of 
water. 

d.— Body and Bed Clothing, etc.— It is 
best to burn all articles which have been 
in contact with persons sick with con- 
tagious or infectious diseases. Articles 
too valuable to be destroyed should be 
525] 



Household Formulas 



(Disinfectants) 



treated as follows: (1) Cotton, linen, 
flannels, blankets, etc., should be treated 
with the boiling hot zinc solution, in- 
troducing piece by piece, securing thor- 
ough wetting, and boiling for at least 
half an hour. (2) Heavy woolen cloth- 
ing, silks, furs, stuffed bed covers, beds, 
and other articles which cannot be treated 
with the zinc solution, should be hung 
in the room during fumigation, pockets 
being turned inside out, and the whole 
garment thoroughly exposed. Afterward 
they should be hung in the open air, 
beaten and shaken. Pillows, beds, stuffed 
mattresses, upholstered furniture, etc., 
should be cut open, the contents spread 
out and thoroughly fumigated. Carpets 
are best fumigated on the floor, but should 
afterward be removed to the open air and 
thoroughly beaten. 

e. — The corpses should be thoroughly 
washed with a zinc solution of double 
strength, then wrapped in a sheet wet 
with the zinc solution, and buried at once. 
Metallic, metal-lined, or airtight coffins 
should be used when possible, certainly 
when the body is to be transported for 
any considerable distance. 

f. — Zinc sulphate, 64 fl.oz. ; sulphuric 
acid, 4 fl.dr. ; nitrobenzol, 1 dr. ; indigo 
blue, 0.5 gr. Place about 1 dr. in the 
bedpan before using. Contact with urine 
or liquid stools determines prompt solu- 
tion of this salt, deodorization and steril- 
ization being instantaneous. The excreta 
are also thus preserved for microscopical 
examination. 

g. — Guaiacol, 50 grams ; eucalyptol, 40 
grams ; menthol, 20 grams ; carbolic acid, 
30 grams ; thymol, 10 grams ; oil of 
cloves, 5 grams ; alcohol, q. s., 1,000 
grams. To be sprayed about, with water. 

h. — Liquid for Sanitary Spraying. — 
This, for use in the chambers of the sick, 
is composed of 10 parts of eucalyptol, 3 
parts of thyme oil, as much lemon oil, 
and the same quantity of lavender oil, in 
110 parts of alcohol of 90°. To 1 pt. of 
water add 1 teaspoonful of this liquid. 

Sponges, Sterilization of. — A very sim- 
ple process for the sterilization of sponges, 
which does not change the physical prop- 
erties of the sponges, is given by Elsberg 
in the Chemiker Zeitung Repertorium. 
Allow the sponges to lie for 24 hours in 
an 8% hydrochloric-acid solution, to elim- 
inate lime and coarse impurities, wash in 
clean water, and place the sponges in a 
solution of caustic potash, 10 grams ; tan- 
nin, 10 grams ; water, 1 1. After they 
have been saturated for 5 to 20 minutes 
with this liquid they are washed out with 
sterilised wa ter or a solution of carbolic 



(Electric Light Bulbs) 



acid or sublimate, until they have en- 
tirely lost the brown coloring acquired by 
the treatment with tannin. The sponges 
thus sterilized are kept in a 2% or 15% 
carbolic solution. 

Drain Pipes, Testing. 

1. — The following "smoke test" is rec- 
ommended by a writer who has tested it. 
Ignite soiled cotton waste and sulphur, 
and blow the smoke into the drain or 
pipes. If the leakage exists in the latter, 
inside of the house, the smoke and smell 
both issue forth, and generally tell where 
the fault lies. Sulphur, as is well known, 
is one of the best disinfectants, and a 
dose of the fumes from this to the drains, 
after disease has been in the house, would 
effect much good. ( See also Sinks, Waste 
Pipes.) 

2. — Smoke Cartridge for Testing. — Po- 
tassium nitrate, 1 oz. ; manganese diox- 
ide, % oz. ; rosin, % oz. ; asphaltum, 1/4 
oz. Mix. 

Dust Cloth, Oiled. 

1. — Saturate a suitable piece of cloth 
with kerosene, and lay it aside until the 
surplus oil has evaporated. Rub it on a 
wooden surface until it no longer leaves 
a streak, and it is ready for use. This 
cloth should be well shaken after each 
use, and re-oiled about once a month. 

2. — Mix 30 parts of paraffine with 10 
parts of double refined rape-seed oil, heat 
moderately, and stir into it 1 part of 
melted benzoin (gum benjamin). Im- 
merse the cloths in this liquid so as to 
become entirely saturated with it ; wring 
out well, and dry in a shady place. The 
cloths do not injure even polished furni- 
ture, but rather enhance the brilliancy. 

Dyeing. (See special chapter.) 

Electric Light Bulbs, Coloring. 

1. — White shellac, 3 oz, ; powdered 
rosin, 1 oz. ; benzoin, 1 dr. ; alcohol, 10 
oz. ; aniline dye (any color), enough. Ap- 
ply to the bulbs. 

2. — First, make a solution by mixing 
the white of 1 egg, previously beaten to 
a froth, with 1 pt. of soft water. Filter, 
and be sure that no bubbles remain on 
the surface of the liquid. The globes 
should be carefully cleaned and polished, 
and then dipped into this solution and 
hung up by a string to dry. After about 
half an hour they should be dipped the 
second time, to insure a perfect coating. 
When perfectly dry they are ready for 
the coloring solution. This is made by 
dissolving .from 10 to 30 gr. (according 



[ 526 I 



Household Formulas 



(Floors) 



to the density of color desired) of any 
soluble aniline dye in 4 oz. of collodion. 
Dip the globes in this solution* and hang 
up to dry again. If they are not dark 
enough they can be dipped again after 
the first coat has become dry, which usu- 
ally requires about 6 hours. 

3. — Aniline dyes are used for coloring 
the bulbs of incandescent lamps. These 
may be dissolved in amyl acetate or in 
photographer's collodion. The bulbs should 
be cleaned thoroughly and dried, coated 
with the white of egg and again dried. 
The dye will then adhere firmly to the 



4. — Bulbs may be colored temporarily 
by coating them with collodion in which 
has been dissolved aniline dye. Such a 
coloring soon bakes and peels off, and 
it has been suggested that it may ignite, 
and set fire to anything combustible which 
may be near it. The possibility of acci- 
dent from this source, however, seems re- 
mote. Water glass in place of collodion 
has been suggested. 

5. — Another method is to dip the bulb 
into a saturated solution of alum and 
allow the liquid to dry on it. The solu- 
tion may be colored with cochineal for 
red, turmeric for yellow, indigo for blue, 
and so on. Aniline dyes may be em- 
ployed. Epsom salt in hot solution has 
been tried in place of the alum, but pre- 
sumably with less satisfactory results. 

Enamel Paints. (See special chapter on 
Paints, etc.) 

Filters. (See Water, below.) 

Fireproof[ng. (See special chapter.) 

Floors. (See also Carpets, Linoleum.) 

Ballroom Floors. — 1. — Glissade Pow- 
der. — Boric acid, 1 lb. ; terpineol, V^ oz. 
Mix. Put up in tins with perforated lids. 
To be dusted evenly over the surface of 
the floor before the dancing commences. 

2. — Perfume for Ballroom Floor Gloss. 
— Oil of lavender, % oz. ; oil of verbena, 
20 minims ; oil of neroli, 20 minims. 

Dust Absorbent. — 1, — This dust-absorb- 
ing agent has for its object to take up 
the dust in sweeping floors, etc., and to 
prevent its development. The production 
is as follows : Mix in an intimate man- 
ner 12 parts (by weight) of mineral 
sperm oil with 88 parts (by weight) of 
Roman or Portland cement, adding a few 
drops of mirbane oil. Upon stirring, a 
uniform paste forms at first, which then 
passes into a greasy, sandy mass. This 
mass is sprinkled upon the surface to be 
swept and cleaned of dust, next going 
over it with a broom or similar object, in 



(Floors) 



the customary manner, at which operation 
the dust will mix with the mass. The 
preparation can be used repeatedly. 

2. — For drawing-rooms, etc. : White 
vaseline oil, 600 parts ; raw linseed oil, 
800 parts ; patchouli oil, 2 to 4 parts. 

3. — For offices, stores, factories, etc. : 
(a) Yellow vaseline oil, 1,000 parts; lin- 
seed oil, 1,000 parts, (b) Rape-seed oil, 
1,000 parts ; linseed oil, 1,500 parts, (c) 
Yellow vaseline oil, 1,000 parts ; rape-seed 
oil, 500 parts ; linseed oil, 2,000 parts. 
Although the so-called dustless floor oil 
does not, of course, create a perfectly 
dustless room, yet the dust is reduced to 
a minimum. A drawback presented by 
the above oils is that any articles falling 
down are apt to be soiled or ruined. 

4. — Paraffine oil, 8 parts ; kerosene, 1 
part ; lime water, 1 part. 

5. — Paraffine oil, 1 part ; neatsfoot oil, 
1 part ; cotton-seed oil, 1 part. 

Oil Dressing for Floors. — 1. — Neatsfoot 
oil, 1 part ; cotton-seed oil, 1 part ; petro- 
leum oil, 1 part. 

2. — Beeswax, 8 parts ; water, 56 parts ; 
potassium carbonate, 4 parts. Dissolve 
the potash in 12 parts of water ; heat 
together the wax and the remaining water 
till the wax is liquefied ; then mix the 
two, and boil until a perfect emulsion is 
effected. Color, if desired, with a solution 
of annatto. 

3.— Paraffine oil, 8 parts ; kerosene, 1 
part ; lime water, 1 part. Mix thorough- 
ly. A coat of the mixture is applied to 
the floor with a mop. 

Stains for Floors. — 1. — Linseed oil, 1 
gal. ; Spanish brown, 1 lb. ; powdered 
senna, 2 lb. ; litharge, 1 oz. Mix in an 
old tin pan, heat carefully to the boiling 
point, take from fire, add 1 pt. of tur- 
pentine, and apply with a broad brush. 
Choose a clear, dry day, and open doors 
and windows. Next day polish with a 
waxed- cloth wrapped around a block 
which is fastened to a broom handle. 

2.— Red-oak bark, 1 pk. ; common to- 
bacco, 2 lb. ; copperas, 1 tablespoonful. 
Boil the bark and tobacco in 2 gal. of 
water. When well colored, stir in the 
copperas. Apply, after straining, with a 
broad brush, and when dry mop with 
weak lye water. Good for common floors. 

Wace. — 1. — The mixture, which is usu- 
ally composed of beeswax and oil of tur- 
pentine, should have a consistency slight- 
ly thicker than the pure turpentine. Ex- 
treme care must be exercised in its prep- 
aration, in order to procure the exact 
degree of humidity required. The floor 
should be perfectly clean and smooth be- 
fore the preparation of beeswax and tur- 



[527] 



Household Formulas 



(Floors) 



pentine is applied, which latter is best 
accomplished by the aid of a rag. The 
quality and general texture of the flooring 
material will largely determine the quan- 
tity of the fluid preparation which will 
be needful. Hard, close-grained wood will 
naturally require less than wood which 
is soft and open, the absorbing power of 
the latter being much greater. Care must 
be exercised to apply neither too much 
nor too little of the wax. To determine 
the proper amount, experiment with a 
square foot or two, and leave untouched 
for 24 hours, or longer, if necessary. In 
simply waxing a floor the coat must be 
made as thin as possible, otherwise the" 
grain of the wood will be concealed. Wlien 
the liquid preparation has become thor- 
oughly dry the treated part should be 
rubbed thoroughly with a hard brush until 
a shiny aspect is given it. If a satisfac- 
tory polish is produced on the experimen- 
tal floor patch the entire floor may be 
similarly treated. If, on the other hand, 
the luster of the wax is dim and dull, 
its removal is essential. The best-known 
means of removing the defective coating 
is by the aid of fine sandpaper, but in 
instances where floor waxing is accom- 
plished by simply applying a pomade, the 
use of fine cork will be found more sat- 
isfactory. If the experiments prove the 
drying to be too slow, a little of the oxi- 
dizing compounds, or driers, which are on 
sale at any paint dealer's, may be used. 
The proportion of drier to the prepara- 
tion of turpentine and wax should be 
about 1 pt. to 6 pt. of the latter. 

2. — We are told that in finishing hard 
wood with a wax polish the wood is first 
coated with a "filler," which is omitted 
in the case of soft wood. This seems 
to be reversing the natural procedure, the 
softer wood being more porous, but our 
information comes from an authoritative 
source. The filler is made from some hard 
substance, vei'y finely ground ; sand _ is 
used by some manufacturers. The polish 
is the same as for soft wood. The sim- 
plest method of applying wax is by a 
heated iron, scraping off the surplus and 
then rubbing with a cloth. It is evident 
that this method is especially laborious, 
and for that reason a solution of the wax 
is desirable. It may be dissolved rather 
freely in turpentine spirit, and is said 
to be soluble also in kerosene oil. 

3. — Stearine, 100 parts; yellow wax, 
25 parts ; caustic potash, 60 parts ; yel- 
low laundry soap, 10 parts ; water, a suf- 
ficient quantity. Heat together until a 
homogeneous mixture is formed. 

4. — Yellow wax, 25 parts ; yellow laun- 



(Gas) 



dry soap, 6 parts ; glue, 12 parts ; soda 
ash, 25 parts ; water, a sufficient quan- 

tltV. 



ash, 25 part! 
tity, 

Furniture. (See Woodwork.) 
Gas. 

Freezing of Meters, To Prevent. — Add 
glycerine to the water in the proportion 
of 1/^ pt. to 1 gal. of water. Glycerine 
does not affect the metals of which the 
meter is composed. 

Leakage, Detection of. — 1. — ^Dr. Bunte's 
method for detecting gas leakage, by 
means of palladium paper, has been ren- 
dered still more delicate by Herr Schauf- 
flers, who uses, to every 3 parts of chlo- 
ride of palladium 1 part of chloride of 
gold. The increase of sensitiveness may 
be partly due to catalytic action — that is, 
to the mere presence of the gold — perhaps 
to the action of traces of acetylene upon 
the gold solution. The solution used for 
making the paper contains %% of chlo- 
ride of palladium and %% of chloride of 
gold. One pint costs about 9s., and will 
steep filter paper enough for 8,000 to 
11,000 tests. The main sources of error 
are tobacco smoke, stoves and smoky 
chimneys, which let carbonic oxide into 
the roorr., the vapor of fusel oil, onion 
smell, mercury vapor and sulphureted hy- 
drogen. 

2. — Rub a little soapy water upon the 
suspected place. The formation of a bub-' 
ble will show where the leak is. 

Mantles. — These are prepared after 
processes based on the original formula 
of Welsbach — the impregnation of vege- 
table fibres with certain mineral oxides in 
solution, drying out, and arranging on 
platinum wire. The following are good 
examples of the oxide : 

1. — Lanthum oxide, 30 parts ; yttrium 
oxide, 20 parts ; burnt magnesia, 50 
parts ; acetic acid, 50 parts ; water, dis- 
tilled, 100 parts. The salts are dissolved 
in the water, and to the solution another 
150 parts of distilled water are added and 
the whole filtered. The vegetable fibre 
(in its knitted or woven form) is impreg- 
nated with this solution dried, and ar- 
ranged on platinum wire. In the formula 
the acetic acid may be replaced with 
dilute nitric acid. Indeed, the latter 
seems to have some advantages over the 
former, among which is the fact that the 
residual ash where acetic acid is used 
has a tendency to ball up and make a 
vitreous residue, that of the nitric acid 
remains in powdery form. 

2. — Zirconium, ore, 50 parts ; lantha- 
num oxide, 35 parts ; yttrium, ore, 15 



[528] 



Household Formulas 



(Gas Mantles) 



parts. Solvents as before. Mix and dis- 
solve, etc. 

3. — Zirconium, 60 parts ; lanthanum 
oxide, 99 parts ; thorium nitrate, 95 parts. 
Cerium nitrate may be used in place of 
the thorium salt. 

Meter, How to Bead a." — The dial 
marked "1 thousand" in the accompany- 
ing illustration is divided into hundreds ; 
the dial marked "10 thousand" is divided 
into thousands ; that marked "100 thou- 
sand" into ten-thousands, and that 
marked "1 million" into hundred-thou- 
sands. When 1,000 cu. ft. of gas have 



(Ice) 



the mechanism and shows that the meter 
requires attention. 

. Pipe, Strength of. — The thread on a %- 
in. gas pipe will sustain a weight of 5,000 
lb., Vz in., 7,000 lb., and % in., 9,000 lb., 
so that chandeliers cannot readily be 
shaken from their supports. 

Glass. (See special chapter.) 
Hinges, To Prevent Creaking. 

Rub a little soap on the hinges ; or, 
make a mixture of equal parts of lard, 
black lead and soap, and apply. 



CUBIC 



V\ILL 





FEET 



2t / i. 



^■OJOU^^ 




Gas Meter Indicator Dials 



been consumed, the pointer on the dial 
marked "1 thousand" will have made a 
complete rotation, and the fact will be 
indicated by the pointer of the next dial 
at the left, which will point to the figure 
1. When 10,000 cu. ft. of gas have been 
consumed, the pointer on the "10 thou- 
sand" dial will point to 1, and so on. 
In reading a gas meter, put down the 
hundreds first, then the thousands, and 
so on, always counting the figure just 
under, or which has just been passed by, 
the pointer. In the illustration about 
half a hundred is indicated on the "1 
thousand" dial, three thousands is in- 
dicated on the next dial, two ten-thousands 
on the next dial, and one one-hundred- 
thousands on the "1 million" dial. The 
reading will be 123,050. The dial marked 
"ten feet" is called the units dial. It is 
used for testing the meter to discover 
whether it is in working order or not. 
Each mark represents a cubic foot and 
the complete circle 10 cubic feet. If the 
pointer moves when no gas is burning, it 
indicates a leak. If it does not move 
when the gas is burning, or if its motion 
is unsteady, it indicates a derangement in 

[ 



Ice. 

Keeping. — The use of ice i'n small 
quantities, frequently repeated, is very 
general in many diseases, but it is found 
difficult to keep it from melting, especi- 
ally when in small blocks. To obtain 
this result, the ice should be put in a 
vessel covered with a plate, which vessel 
should be placed on a feather bed, and 
covered with a feather pillow or cushion ; 
feathers being very bad condmctors of 
heat. By this plan a few lb. of ice can 
b-^ kept several days, even in summer 
heat. 

Weight. — Drug Topics says that a close 
estimate of the weight of ice can be 
reached by multiplying together the length, 
breadth and thickness of the block in 
inches, and dividing the product by 30. 
This will be very closely the weight in 
lbs. Thus, if a block is 10x10x9, the 
product is 900, and this divided by 30 
gives 30 pounds as correct weight. A 
block 10 X 10 X 6 weighs 20 lb. This sim- 
ple method can be easily applied, and it 
may serve to remove unjust suspicions, 
or to detect short weight. 
529] 



Household Formulas 



(Kalsomine) 



Insecticides. (See special chapter.) 

Kalsomine. 

1. — A lime kalsomine or wash, made as 
follows, is good for cheap work : Take 
6 qts. thick lime whitewash made of the 
best lime slacked in hot water. Mix 
turps and linseed oil of each i/^ a pint, 
and stir it in while the wash is hot, then 
add % lb. of powdered alum. Have the 
mixture thick enough to cover like kalso- 
mine and put it on with a kalsomine 
brush. The edges dry slowly, and no 
matter how much suction there may be 
in the wall the wash will spread smooth 
and easy. 

2. — Sodium carbonate, 8 parts; linseed 
oil, 32 parts; hot water, 8 parts; white 
glue, 12 parts; whiting, 160 parts. Dis- 
solve the sodium carbonate in the hot 
water, add the oil and saponify by heat- 
ing and agitation. Cover the glue, broken 
into small pieces, with cold water and let 
soak overnight. In the morning pour the 
whole on a stout piece of stuff and let the 
residual water drain off, getting rid of 
as much as possible by slightly twisting 
the cloth. Throw the swelled glue into 
a capsule, put on the water bath and 
heat gently until it is melted. Now add 
the sapoified oil and mix well; remove 
from the bath, and stir in the whiting a 
little at a time, adding hot water as it be- 
comes necessary. When the whiting is 
all stirred in, continue adding hot water 
until a liquid is obtained that flows free- 
ly from the kalsomining brush. The ad- 
dition of a little soluble blue to the mix- 
ture increases the intensity of the white. 

3. — Prepared kalsomine can be readily 
purchased at any large paint store, but 
some of our readers may wish to prepare 
their own kalsomine. The following rules 
are given for the purpose of enabling 
them to do so : 

Soak 1 lb. of white glue overnight, then 
dissolve it in boiling water and add 20 
lb. of Paris white, diluting with water 
until the mixture is of the consistency of 
rich milk. To this any tint can be given 
that is desired. 

4. — Coloring. — Blue. — A small quantity 
of Prussian blue will give a soft azure 
tint. Dark blue is never desirable. 

Brown. — Burnt umber. 

Buff. — Spruce, or Indian yellow, 2 
parts, and burnt sienna, 1 part. 

Gray. — Raw umber, with a trifling 
amount of lampblack. 

Lavender. — Make a light blue and tint 
it slightly with vermilion. 

Lilac. — Add to the kalsomine, Prussian 
blue, 2 parts and vermilion, 1 part, stir- 



( Lamps) 



rirg the mixture thoroughly and taking 
care to avoid too high a color. 

Delicate tints in the foregoing varieties 
of colors are always agreeable and taste- 
ful, and so great care must be taken that 
they are not too vivid. The tints will 
always appear brighter than in the kal- 
somine pot, and this fact must be kept 
in mind when adding the coloring pow- 
ders. 

Kindlings. 

1. — Save the corncobs for kindlings, 
especially if wood is not going to be plen- 
tiful next winter. To prepare them, melt 
together rosin, 60 parts, and tar, 40 parts. 
Dip in the cobs, and dry on sheet metal 
heated to about the temperature of boil- 
ing water. 

2. — Dip the wood in melted rosin. The 
followng composition is sometimes used : 
melted rosin, 60 parts ; tar, 40 parts, in 
which the wood is dipped for a moment. 
Or, take tar, 1 qt, ; rosin, 3 lb. ; melt 
them, then cool ; mix as much sawdust 
with a little charcoal added as can be 
worked in. Spread out on a board and 
when cold break up into lumps the size 
of a hickory nut, and you will have 
enough kindling to last a good while. 

3. — Use the cheapest rosin and add 
about 2 oz. of tallow to each lb. of the 
rosin. Melt the rosin first and add the 
tallow. Either smear over small blocks 
of wood or mix with sawdust and pour 
into molds made of boards, which can 
be knocked apart and the mass broken up. 

4. — Wooden sticks, of suitable length, 
are dipped in petroleum, turpentine, etc., 
and tied together in bundles. Dry wood 
is disposed about these and it is coated 
with rosin to prevent the evaporation of 
the volatile constituents. 

Lamps. 

Chimneys, To Prevent from Breaking. 
— Put them on the fire in a vessel filled 
with cold water, add a little coarse salt, 
heat gradually until it boils, and then cool 
slowly. This process may be applied also 
to objects of crockery or porcelain. In 
this way the objects are annealed, and the 
slower the operation, especially in the 
cooling of the water, the stronger will 
they become. If a glass chimney is cut 
with a diamond on the convex side, it will 
not break, for the cutting facilitates the 
dilatation produced by the heat. 

Leather. (See special chapter.) 
Laundry Work. (See Cleansing chap- 



ter.) 



[530] 



HouseJiold Formulas 



(Papei-hanging) 



Linoleum, Oilcloth, etc. 

Linoleum, Dressing for. — 1. — A weak 
solution of beeswax in spirits of turpen- 
tine has been recommended for brighten- 
ing the appearance of linoleum. 

2. — Palm oil, 1 oz. ; paraffine, 18 oz. ; 
kerosene, 4 oz. Melt the paraffine and oil, 
remove from the fire and incorporate the 
kerosene. 

3. — The Bulletin de laSociete Royal de 
Pharmacie de Bruxelles gives the follow- 
ing directions for keeping linoleum mats 
bright : Treat first with a mixture in 
equal parts of milk and water. Let this 
dry on the surface, then apply the follow- 
ing mixtures : Yellow wax, 3 parts ; car- 
nauba wax, 6 parts ; oil of turpentine, 30 
parts ; benzine, 31 parts. If the mat is 
subjected to much service the first prepa- 
ration appears to be the best, while if but 
light, either of the others will answer. 

Composition for Linoleum, Oilcloth and 
Other Coated Articles. — This is composed 
of whiting, dried linseed oil and any ordi- 
nary dryer, such as litharge, to which in- 
gredients a proportion of gum tragacanth 
is to be added, replacing a part of the oil 
and serving to impart flexibility to the 
fabric and to the composition in a pasty 
mass the property of drying more rapidly. 
In the production of linoleum the whiting 
is replaced in whole or in part by pulver- 
ized cork. The proportions are approxi- 
mately the following by weight : Whiting 
or powdered cork, 13 parts; gum traga- 
canth, 5 parts ; dried linseed oil, 5% 
parts ; siccative, % part. 

Polish. — a. — Yellow ceresin, % oz. ; 
paraffine, 2^2 oz. ; boiled linseed oil, l^^ 
oz. ; oil of turpentine, 2 oz. 

b. — White ceresin, 1 oz. ; paraffine, 2 
oz. ; oil of turpentine, 5 oz. 

c. — Palm oil, 2 14 oz. ; carnauba wax, 
5 dr. ; yellow ceresin, 2^2 dr. ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 6 oz. 

d. — Take yellow wax, 5 oz. ; oil tur- 
pentine, 11 oz. ; amber varnish, 5 oz. 
Melt the wax, add the oil and then tbe 
varnish. Apply with a rag. 
Oilcloth. (See Linoleum.) 
Paints. (See special chapter on Paints, 

Vaknishes, etc.) 
Paperhanging. 

To prepare the walls, make a size of 
glue and water, then give the walls a coat 
of a very weak solution of the same. To 
make a paste, take 2 lb. of fine flour, put 
in a pail, add cold water and stir it up 
together in a thick paste. Take a piece 
of alum about the size of a small chestnut, 
pound it fine and throw it into the paste; 
mix well. Then provide about 6 qt. of 

r 



(Plaster) 



boiling water and mix while hot with the 
paste until the whole is brought to a 
proper consistency. This makes an excel- 
lent paste and fit for use when cold. 

WaV P'Tper.— The following table from the 
New York AewsdMler shows how many rolls of 
wall paper are i*equired to cover a room, of the 
dimensions indicated by the figures in the left 
hand column, also the number of yards of 
border necessary: 



Size of Room. 



7X9 

7X9 

7X9 

7X9 

8X10 

8x10 

8x10 

8x10 

9X11 

9x11 

9X11 

9X11 

10X12 

10x12 

10x12 

10X12 

11X12 

1JX12 

11X12 

11X12 

12X13 

12X13.... 

12X13 

12X13 

12X15 or 13X14. 
12X15 or 13X14. 
12X15 or 13X14. 
12X15 or 13X14. 

13X15 

13X15 

13X15 

13K15 

14X16 

14X16 

14X16 

14X18 

14X18 

14X18 

15X16 

15X17.. 



H-l 


<*-{ 


<M ^ 














nil 


6 


8 






9 






7 


10 






« 


12 






10 


8 






7 


9 






8 


10 






9 


12 






11 


8 






8 


9 






10 


10 






11 


12 






13 


8 






9 


9 






10 


10 






11 


12 






13 


8 


2 


3 


8 


9 


2 


3 


9 


10 


3 


3 


10 


12 


3 


3 


13 


8 


3 


8 


8 


9 


3 


3 


10 


10 


2 


3 


11 


12 


2 


3 


14 


8 


2 


3 


10 


9 


3 


3 


11 


10 


3 


3 


12 


12 


2 


2 


15 


8 


3 


3 


10 


9 


3 


3 


11 


10 


3 


3 


13 


12 


2 


3 


16 


9 


3 


3 


12 


10 


3 


3 


14 


12 


2 


2 


17 


9 


2 


3 


13 


10 


3 


3 


15 


12 


3 


2 


19 


10 


3 


3 


15 


1 13 


3 


3 


19 






Deduct one-half roll of paper lor each or- 
dinary door or window extra— size 4x7 feet. 

Pickling. (See Preserving chapter.) 

Plaster. 

Interior Plastering. — Substance. Mor- 
tars which are used for interior work are 
called fine, coarse, gauge and stucco. 

Fine Stuff. — Lump lime is to be slaked 
with water to a paste and afterward to a 
cream, after which it hardens by the 
water evaporating and is ready for work- 
531] 



Household Formulas 



(Roofs) 



ing. It is now used for what is termed 
slipped coat, but is ready for finishing 
coat when prepared with plaster of paris 
or sand. 

Coarse Stuff. — Lime paste, 2 parts ; 
sand, 434 parts ; hair, 1-3 part. There 
may be less hair used for the second coat. 

Gauge Stuff or Hard Finish. — This is 
composed of from 1^^ to 2 parts fine stuff 
and % plaster of paris. Regulation must 
be considered as to the rapidity of hard- 
ening. For cornices, etc., there will be 
equal parts fine stuff and plaster. 

Preserving. (See special chapter.) 
Roof Covering. ( See also Faints, etc. ; 

FlREPROOFING AND WATERPROOFING. ) 

1. — In an iron receiver melt over an 
open fire 190 kgm. of rosin and add grad- 
ually 100 kgm. of anthracite oil. Take 
from the fire and pour into the receiver 
60 kgm. of crude benzol, while stirring 
carefully. Pour into this mixture, still 
gradually, 200 kgm. of ordinary bole, 
while continuing to stir rapidly. Leave 
it at repose for a time, but filter while the 
mixture is still warm. 

2. — Fireproof Roofing Paper, Not Brit- 
tle. — Ordinary impregnating tar is boiled 
with water-glass solution, ordinary roll 
pasteboard is drawn through the mixture 
and sprinkled with the finest possible 
sand. If in place of cardboard jute fabric 
is used, which it is best to pass first 
through a bath of water-glass, the roof 
covering will not be brittle. 

3. — Slate Roofs. — A square of slate or 
slating is 100 superficial ft. The lap of 
slates varies from 2 to 4 in. The pitch 
of a slate roof should not be less than 1 
in. in height to 4 in. in length. 

4. — Tar Paper, Paint for Roofing 
Paper, etc. — a. — Distilled coal tar, 70 
parts; heavy mineral oil (lubricating oil), 
10 parts ; American rosin, 20 parts. 

b. — Distilled coal tar, 50 parts ; Trini- 
dad asphalt, 15 parts ; mineral oil, con- 
taining paraffine, 10 parts; dry clay, 
finely ground, 25 parts. 

c. — Distilled coal tar, 50 parts ; rosin, 
15 parts ; rosin oil, 5 parts ; dry clay-slate, 
finely powdered, 30 parts. 

d. — Distilled coal tar, 70 parts; rosin, 
20 parts; linseed oil varnish, 8 parts; 
finely powdered pyrolusite, 2 parts. 

e. — Distilled coal tar, 50 parts ; rosin, 
15 parts ; linseed oil varnish, 7 parts ; 
pyrolusite, 1 part ; dry clay, finely pow- 
dered, 27 parts. 

5. — Tiles, Coating for. — First dip in a 
hot solution of soft soap, and when dry, 
dip in a strong solution of alum. This 
treatment has proved most successful. 



(Sinks) 



Rubber Hose. (See Rubber chapter.) 
Sealing Wax for Bottles. 

Bottle Wax. — 1. — Rosin, pitch, ivory 
black, equal parts. 

2. — Rosin, 6% parts ; beeswax, % part ; 
Venetian red or red lead, 1^2 parts. 

3. — Shellac, 3 parts ; Venice turpentine, 
1% parts ; vermilion, 2% parts ; or Vene- 
tian or red lead, q. s. 

4. — Rosin, 6 parts ; shellac and Venice 
turpentine, each 2 parts ; coloring matter 
to suit. 

5. — The following recipe is recommend- 
ed by Scheirer : Burgundy pitch, 50 parts ; 
turpentine, 25 parts ; colophony, 100 
parts. Heat the pitch until all the water 
is driven off, then add the turpentine and 
colophony, and when the whole is liquid, 
add a mixture of the following in fine 
powder : Chalk, 50 parts ; carbonate of 
magnesia, 5 parts ; Armenian bole, 50 
parts. Mix thoroughly. 

6. — The ingredients are shellac, 2 lbs. ; 
rosin, 4 lb. ; Venice turpentine, 2% lb. : 
red lead, 1% lb. Melt the shellac and 
rosin cautiously in a bright copper pan, 
over a clear charcoal fire. When melted 
add the turpentine, and lastly mix in the 
red lead. Pour into molds or form sticks 
on a warm marble plate. The gloss may 
be produced by polishing the sticks with a 
rag urtil they are cold. 

7. — Dieterich is authority for the fol- 
lowing : Gelatine, 1 oz. ; gum arabic, 1 
oz. ; boric acid, 20 gr. ; starch, 1 oz. ; 
water, 16 fl.oz. Mix the gelatine, gum 
arabic and boric acid with 14 fl.oz. of cold 
water, stir occasionally until the gum is 
dissolved, heat the mixture to boiling, re- 
move the scum and strain. Also mix the 
starch intimately with the remainder of 
the water and stir this mixture into the 
hot gelatine mixture until a uniform prod- 
uct results. As noted above, the compo- 
sition may be tinted with any suitable 
dye. Before using it must be softened by 
the application of heat. 

Sinks, Cleanliness of. 

One of the most prolific causes of defile- 
ment and offensive odors in kitchen sinks 
and their outlets is the presence of decay- 
ing grease. This comes from the empty- 
ing of kettles in which meat has been 
cooked, in the dish-water and in the soap. 
The grease lodges in every crevice and 
catches at every obstruction. A remedy 
may be found in the use of the common 
alkalies instead of soap, aqua ammonia 
in washing clothes, and borax in washing 
lawns and laces, and washing soda in 
cleaning dishes. These alkalies prevent a 



[532] 



Household Formulas 



(Stove Blacking) 



solid soap from forming in the sink and 
its pipes and neutralizes all effects of de- 
composing fat. 

Soaps. (See special chapter.) 

Soot and Smoke from Coal Fires, Powder 
to Prevent the Formation of. 

Chalk, 2 oz. ; salt, 7 oz. ; dried mag- 
nesium sulphate, 1 oz. Mix. 

Steam Pipes, etc., Covering for. 

The following is recommended : 1. — 
Water, 225 parts ; potter's clay, 20 parts ; 
fossil meal (infusorial earth), 39 parts; 
horse or cow hair, 7 parts ; linseed oil, 
3.5 parts ; sifted rye flour, 3.5 parts ; beet 
sugar molasses, 2.5 parts ; ultimately, if 
desired, also 3.5 parts of flaxseed meal. 

2. — Linen cottonade, paper, etc., is 
treated with paraffine, 1 part ; , rubber, 
0.04 part ; white lead, 0.75 part ; zinc 
white, 0.8 part; graphite, 0.8 part, and 
wood shavings, 0.8 part, 

3. — The best covering for steam pipes 
is formed by alternate layers of felted 
hair and asbestos. Cork has not proved 
so reliable, as the pores admit the air. 
Mineral wool, infusorial earth, and mag- 
nesium carbonate can also be recom- 
mended. As stated in the Zeitschrift fur 
Elekrotechnik, experiments made to test 
various coverings show the following re- 
sults, expressed in comparative values : 
Alternate layers of felted hair and asbes- 
tos, 100 ; granulated cork, 77 ; mineral 
wool, 75 ; infusorial earth, 71 ; magnesium 
carbonate, 70 ; infusorial earth with hair, 
53 ; asbestos board, 47 ; infusorial earth 
with asbestos, 46 ; crude asbestos, 36 ; 
ordinary air-space, 18. 

Stove Pipes. 

Cleaning. — ^A piece of zinc put on the 
live coals in the stove will clean out the 
stove pipe. 

Protecting. — Varnish with : Asphaltum, 
2 lb. ; boiled linseed oil, 1 pt. ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 2 qt. Fuse the asphaltum in an 
iron pot, boil the linseed oil. and add 
while hot. Stir well and remove from the 
fire. When partially cooled add the oil 
of turpentine. 

Stoves. 

Blacking and Polishes. — 1. — Mix 2 
parts of black lead, 4 parts of copperas, 
and 2 parts of bone black, with water, so 
as to form a creamy paste. This is an 
excellent polish, as the copperas produces 
a jet black enamel, causing the black 
lead to adhere to the iron. 

2. — Plumbago, 2 lb. ; water, 8 oz. ; tur- 

[ 



(Stove Blacking) 



pentine, 8 oz. ; sugar, 2 oz. Knead thor- 
oughly and keep in tin boxes. Apply with 
a brush. 

3. — Plumbago, make into a thin paste 
with sodium silicate or water-glass. This 
makes an excellent stove polish and should 
be brushed thoroughly. 

4. — Pulverized black lead, 2 lb. ; spirits 
of turpentine, 2 gal. ; water, 2 oz. ; sugar, 
2 oz. Mix. 

5. — Mix 5 parts black lead, 5 parts bone 
black and 10 parts of iron sulphate. Use 
water q. s. to form a paste. This is an 
excellent preparation and the coating is 
very permanent. 

6. — Reduce graphite to an impalpable 
powder by grinding in a mill with water, 
dry ; use with water first, then dry and 
polish. This is the base of nearly all 
commercial stove polishes. 

7. — Turpentine and black varnish, put 
with any good stove polish, is the black- 
ing used by hardware dealers for polish- 
ing heating stoves. If properly put on, 
it will last throughout the season. 

8. — Pulverized black lead, 2 lb. ; spirits 
of turpentine, 2 gal. ; water, 2 oz. ; sugar, 
2 oz. ; mix, 

9. — Liquid Stove Polish. — Bone black, 
2% parts ; pulverized graphite, 2i/^ parts ; 
copperas, 5 parts ; water, q. s. to form a 
creamy paste. 

10, — Pulverized black lead, 1^ lb. ; tur- 
pentine, ll^ gill; water, 1% gill; sugar, 
li/o oz, 

11. — Asphaltum, 5 lb. ; melt and add 
boiled oil, 2 lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 
gal, ; mix, 

12. — Make a mixture of water-glass and 
lampblack of about the consistency of thin 
syrup, and another of finely levigated 
plumbago and mucilage of Soudan gum 
(or other cheap substitute for gum 
arable), of a similar consistency. After 
getting rid of dust, etc., go over the stove 
with mixture number one and let it dry 
on, which it will do in about 24 hours. 
Now go over the stove with the second 
mixture, a portion of the surface at a 
time, and as this dries, with an old black- 
ing brush give it^ a polish. If carefully 
done the stove will have a polish resem- 
bling closely that of new Russian iron. A 
variant of this formula is as follows : Mix 
the graphite with the water-glass to a 
smooth paste; add, for each pound of 
paste, 1 oz. of glycerine and a few grains 
of aniline black. Apply to stove with a 
stiff brush. 

13. — The following is said to equal the 

best of the patented preparations : Make 

two saturated solutions, one of tannic acid 

in water, and the other of iron sulphate 

533 3 



Household Formulas 



(Stove Blacking) 



in water. Mix 2 parts, by weight, of the 
iron solution and 3 parts of the tannin 
and to the mixture add 1 part of good oil 
blacking, 1 part of lampblack and 5 parts 
of plumbago and grind the whole together 
to a smooth paste. Apply as plain black- 
ing is applied. 

14. — Graphite (often misnamed black- 
lead) is the foundation ingredient in a 
stove polish. Lampblack is frequently 
added to deepen the color, but the latter 
form of carbon is of course more readily 
burned off than the former. The nowder 
variety of stove polish is merely purified 
and ground graphite, with or without the 
addition of lampblack, which is applied 
to the stove by being first mixed with a 
little water. The paste is made by the 
addition of glycerine or paraffine oil to 
the powder. 

15. — Graphite in fine powder, 1 lb. ; 
lampblack, 1 oz. ; rosin, 4 oz. ; turpentine, 
1 gal. This form may be esteemed a con- 
venience by some, but the rosin will, of 
course, give rise to some disagreeable odor 
on first heating the stove, after the liquid 
is applied. The mixture must be kept 
well shaken while in. use, and must not be 
applied when there is a fire or light near 
on account of the inflammability of the 
vapor. The solid cakes of polish are said 
to be made by subjecting the powdered 
graphite, mixed with spirit of turpentine, 
to great pressure. It has to be reduced to 
powder and mixed with water before being 
applied. Any of them has to be well 
rubbed with a brush after application to 
give a handsome polish. 

16. — A correspondent of The Phar- 
maceutical Era submits the following 
formula for a preparation which he says 
his company advertises as a "dustless 
paste stove polish" : Animal charcoal, 8 
parts ; blacklead, 8 parts ; molasses, 4 
parts ; sulphuric acid, 2 parts ; hydrochlo- 
ric acid, 1 part; water, enough to make 
a paste. He says he allows the acids to 
act on the charcoal and molasses for 
twenty-four hours, after which the gra- 
phite is added with enough water to 
form a paste. He says that the trouble 
with this paste is that "it forms a layer 
on the cloth when applied, and this layer 
in contact with a warm stove falls as 
dust to the floor." The French stove 
polish which is used for blackening and 
polishing iron stoves is produced in the 
following manner : 

17. — Turpentine oil, French or Ameri- 
can, 23.0 kilos ; American lampblack, 3.0 
kilos; prime black, fat, finely elutriated 
graphite, 2.5 kilos. 

ISi — Ceresine, 3.0 kilos; carnauba 



(Waste Pipes) 



wax, 0.5 kilo. Melt the ceresine and car- 
nauba wax in a tinned or enameled 
kettle over a moderate fire and add mix- 
ture 3, previously stirred cold, to the 
fusion, 4, but only at a distance from the 
fire, with stirring. Pour this mixture 
through a fine metal sieve into a second 
vessel, and next, for a more intimate mix- 
ture, from one kettle into another until 
it begins to thicken, and only then fill into 
tin cans. If the paste should have be- 
come a little too cold during the filling of 
the tins, so that it interferes with the 
pouring, all that is necessary is to put 
the vessel into a larger one containing 
boiling water, whereby it is rendered more 
liquid again. 

Polishing. — For a stove of medium size, 
pulverize a piece of alum the size of a 
large hickory nut, stir into two table- 
spoonfuls of vinegar, add this to the stove 
blacking, mixed with water in the usual 
manner. Apply this mixture with a cloth 
or brush to a cold stove, and while wet 
rub briskly with a dry brush. The polish 
will appear at once. 

Varnishes. (See special chapter on 
Paints, Varnishes, etc.) 

Walls, To Protect from Dampness. 

1. — Three-quarters lb. of mottled soap 
to 1 gal. of water. This composition to 
be laid over the brickwork steadily and 
carefully with a large flat brush, so as 
not to form a froth or lather on surface. 
The wash to remain twenty-four hours, 
to become dry. Mix % lb. alum with 4 
gal. water; leave it stand twenty-four 
hours, and then apply it in the same man- 
ner over the coating of soap. Let this 
be done in dry weather. 

2. — Thirty parts of tin are dissolved in 
40 parts of hydrochloric acid, and 30 
parts of sal ammoniac are added. A 
powder composed of freestone, 50 parts ; 
zinc oxide, 20 parts ; pounded glass, 15 
parts ; powdered marble, 10 ^ parts, and 
calcined magnesia, 5 parts, is prepared 
and made into a paste with the liquid 
above mentioned. Coloring matter may be 
added. The composition may be used as 
a damp-proof coating for walls, or for 
repairing stonework, or for molding 
statues or ornaments. 
Washing. (See Cleansing chapter.) 
Waste Pipes, Cleaning. 

One of the most frequent and trying 
annoyances of housekeeping, as many can 
testify, is the obstruction to the free, 
quick outlet of the waste water of the 
Washstand, the bathtub, and the kitchen 
sink. This is caused by a gradual accu- 



[534 J 



Household Formulas 



(Water, Hard) 



mulation of small bits of refuse material, 
paper, rags, meat, bones, or other ofEal, 
which check and finally entirely stop the 
outflow of the waste water. A simple, in- 
expensive method of clearing the pipe is 
as follows : Just before retiring at night 
pour into the pipe enough liquid potash 
(not soda) lye of 36° strength to fill the 
"trap," as it is called, or bent portion of 
the pipe just below the outlet. About a 
pint will suffice for a washstand, or a 
quart for a bathtub or kitchen sink. Be 
sure that no water runs into it till next 
morning. During the night the lye will 
convert all of the offal in the pipe into 
soft soap, and the first current of water 
in the morning will remove it entirely, 
and leave the pipe as clean as new. The 
writer has never had occasion, in over 
thirty years' experience, to make more 
than two applications of it in . any one 
case. The so-called potash lye sold in 
small tin cans in the shops is not recom- 
mended for this purpose ; it is quite com- 
monly misnamed, and is called caustic 
soda, which makes a hard soap. The lye 
should be kept in heavy glass bottles or 
demijohns, covered with wickerwork, and 
plainly labeled; always under lock when 
not in actual use. It does not act upon 
metals, and so does hot corrode the pipes 
as do strong acids. 

Water, Hard. 

Softening. — The invention was a chemi- 
cal one for expelling chalk by chalk. 
Chalk consisted — for every pound (16 
oz. ) — of lime, 9 oz. ; of carbonic acid, 7 
oz. Nine oz. of lime, which could be 
obtained by burning in a kiln, required at 
least 40 gallons of water to dissolve it. 
This was called lime water. Chalk was 
very sparingly soluble in water, so that 
one pound would require 5,000 gallons to 
dissolve it; but if there was combined 
with it an additional 7 oz. of carbonic 
acid, the chalk became readily soluble in 
water, and when so dissolved it was called 
bicarbonate of lime. If the quantity of 
water containing the one pound of chalk, 
with 9 oz. additional of carbonic acid, 
were 400 gallons, then the solution would 
be a water of the same hardness as well- 
water from the chalk strata, and not 
sensibly different in other respects. Thus 
it appeared that one pound of chalk, 
scarcely soluble in it by either of two dis- 
tinct chemical changes, could be made 
soluble by being deprived entirely of its 
carbonic acid, when it was capable of 
changing water into lime water, and 
soluble by combining with a second dose 
of carbonic acid, making up bicarbonate 

[ 



(Water Filter) 



of lime. Now, if a solution of the 9 oz. 
of burned lime, forming lime water, and 
another solution of the one pound of chalk 
and 7 oz. of carbonic acid, forming bi- 
carbonate of lime, were mixed together, 
they would so act upon each other as to 
restore the two pounds of chalk, which 
would, after the mixture subsided, leave 
a bright water above. The water would 
be free from bicarbonate of lime ; free 
from burned lime, and free from chalk, 
except a very little. A small residuum of 
the chalk remained, not separated by the 
process. Of the 11^2 gr. in a gal. of 
water only 16 gr. would be deposited and 
1^ gr. would remain. To soften water 
on a small scale, it was necessary to pro- 
vide lime water about one-tenth of the 
quantity of water to be treated. Two- 
gallon stoneware <3asks with wooden taps 
have been used. The casks were placed 
near a constant service tap; 1% pt. of 
lime water being first put in, the cask 
should be filled up tO' two gallons. After 
standing twenty-four hours, the superna- 
tant water will be as clear as before, and 
at the bottom of the vessel would be 
found a precipitate of chalk. 

Water Filter. 

1. — To make a filter with a wine barrel, 
procure a piece of fine brass wire cloth of 
a size sufiicient to make a partition across 
the barrel. Support this wire cloth with 
a coarser wire cloth under it and also 
a light frame of oak, to keep the wire 
cloth from sagging. Fill in upon the 




A Simple Filter 

wire cloth about three inches in depth 
of clear, sharp sand, then two inches of 
charcoal broken finely, but no dust. Then 
on the charcoal four inches of clear, sharp 
sand. Fill up the barrel with water and 
draw from the bottom, 

A Quick Filter. — Take a clear piece of 
chamois skin, free from thin places ; cut 
it of the desired size, wash it in a weak 
535] 



Household Formulas 



(Windows) 



solution of soda or any alkali to remove 
the grease, and rinse thoroughly in cold 
water before using. Tinctures, elixirs, 
syrups, and even mucilages are filtered 
rapidly. A pint of the thickest syrup 
will run through in four or five minutes. 
By washing thoroughly after each time 
of using it will last a long time. 

2. — Use two stone pots or jars, as 
shown in the accompanying engraving, the 
bottom one being a water jar with side 
hole, if it can be procured ; otherwise, if 
no faucet can be used, the top jar can be 
removed to enable the water to be dipped 
out. The top jar must have a hole drilled 




Filter and Cooler 

or broken in the bottom, and a small 
flowerpot saucer inverted over the hole. 
Then fill in a layer of sharp clean sand, 
rather coarse. A layer of finer sand, a 
layer of pulverized charcoal with dust 
blown out, then a layer of sand, the whole 
occupying one-third of the jar. 

.3. — Stone. — K. Steinman, in Tifenfurt 
lei Gorlitz, proposes filtering plates from 
the following mixture : Clay, 10 parts 
or 10 or 15; levigated chalk, 1 parts or 
1 or 1 ; glass sand, coarse, 55 parts ; glass 
sand, fine, 25 or 65 parts ; ground flint, 
30, or 5 parts. The ingredients are mixed 
thoroughly in water, molded, and hard 
burnt. 

"Waterproofing. (See special chapter.) 
Windows, To Prevent Frost and Sweat- 
ing. 
1. — A number of experiments have 
shown that far less daylight enters 
through frozen panes than one would be 
apt to suppose without previous tests. 
With a moderate amount of frost work on 
the windows the volume of incident light 
was diminished at least two-thirds, while 



(Windows) 



panes covered with a large quantity of 
frost admitted only one-fifth of the 
amount of light traversing the non-frozen 
windows, other conditions being equal. 
An occasional consumption of two-thirds 
to four-fifths of the daylight may be of 
subordinate significance in summer, but 
the case is different in winter, even if 
the eye were only remotely as sensitive 
to differences in light as the skin is to 
changes of temperature. It is very essen- 
tial, therefore, to endeavor to avoid frosty 
panes, not only in workshops, but in 
rooms of every description, including 
bedrooms. 

2. — As an excellent remedy against the 
freezing of shop windows, the Phar. Zeit, 
recommends the application of a mixture 
consisting of 55 grams of glycerine dis- 
solved in 1 1. of 62% alcohol, containing, 
to improve the odor, some oil of amber. Aa 
soon as the mixture clarifies it is rubbed 
over the inner surface of the glass. This 
treatment, it is claimed, not only prevents 
the formation of frost, but also stops 
sweating. 

3. — Sweating Windows. — Perfect venti- 
lation is probably the most effective means 
within reach. This is effected by making 
openings in the sash at the top and bot- 
tom so as to cause a current of cold air 
from the outside to traverse the interior 
side of the glass. In extremely cold 
weather, or when the air in the store be- 
comes mixed with watery vapors escap- 
ing from the portion of the room where 
pharmaceutical work is performed, there 
is no effective remedy, if the cause cannot 
be removed, except by a double sash. The 
gaslights in that case should be on the 
outside of the double panes so that the 
air in the confined space be not heated 
but kept at a temperature uniform with 
the outside atmosphere. The appearance 
of moisture may, in windows arranged in 
this ^ manner, be greatly diminished by 
placing a vessel containing sulphuric acid 
or calcium chloride within the confined 
space. Another plan which appears very 
effective is to have a number of gas-jets 
along the lower sash furnished with a 
reflector of tin, which throws the heat 
up along the glass and thus prevents con- 
densation, to which, of course, the mois- 
ture, etc., is chiefly due. 

4. — Di«!!=olve 55 grams of glycerine in 
1 1. of alcohol (63%), to which a little 
amber oil is added for scent, j^s soon 
as the mixture is limpid, the inside sur- 
face of the show window is rubbed with 
it, using a window chamois or a li^^en 
rag, whereby not only the freezing, but 



[536] 



Household Formulas 



(Windows) 



also the dimming and sweating of the 
windows is obviated. 

5. — To keep frost, etc.,, off plate glass 
windows keep the inside air dry, or inner 
sash tight, so that the air in window in- 
closure will be cold, and ventilated from 
the outside. A partial remedy is to have 
ventilating openings in the top of the 
window casing, 

6. — A thin coat of pure glycerine ap- 
plied to both sides of the glass will pre- 
vent any moisture forming thereon, and 
will stay until it collects so much dust 
that it cannot be seen through. Survey- 
ors can use it to advantage on their in- 
struments in foggy weather. In fact, it 
can be used anywhere to prevent mois- 
ture from forming on anytliing, and loco- 
motive engineers will find it particularly 
useful in preventing the accumulation of 
steam as well as frost on their windows 
during the cold weather. 

7. — Take two square pieces of tin and 
draw circlesi on them to fit a five-inch stove- 
pipe elbow, as shown in the dotted line in 
cut, and cut the tin from the center 
to the circle, as marked in the same draw- 
ing. Bend the points back and cut off 
to leave a flange of about one and a half 
inches, as shown. Cut a hole 5 inches in 
diameter in the floor of the window close 
to the glass, and another hole of the same 
size through the wall beneath the window, 
making an opening into the street. Fit 
the pieces of tin to these holes, and insert 
the stovepipe as indicated in cut. Place 
wire netting over both holes. Then cut a 
few holes at the top of the window to al- 
low the air to circulate. This well keep 
the windows frostproof in the coldest 




Window Ventilation 

weather. This principle, which keeps the 
air in constant circulation, is a simple 
one. The air in the window (which was 
enclosed) is colder and denser and hence 
has a ereater pressure than that in the 



(Windows) 



store. It therefore forces itself out 
through the holes at the top of the .win- 
dow, allowing the cold air from the 
street to enter at the bottom. Any one 
who tries this plan will find it very satis- 
factory, but care should be taken in trim- 
ming the floor not to cover the opening 
with any heavy article that will prevent 
the free circulation of the air. 

8. — Arthur E. Friant, an expert win- 
dow trimmer, describes the following 
method in the Confectioners' Journal: 
"I first had two large sections taken up 
in the window floor so I could see how my 
windows looked under the space. I found 
that I could see large cracks, which no 
doubt let in a great deal of cold air. These 
cracks I filled with packing, such as is 
used in calking seams in a boat. I then 
filled in the whole space under the window 
floor with sand about three inches deep. 
My idea in doing this was to keep all 
possible dampness out of the window. 




' / / ,^1lA3S0F 



^77^ 



BASE BOARD FACING STREET 



WINDOW FLOOR 



mt 



BA&EMENT FLOOR 



a 



Plan of Window, Showing Scheme for 
Preventing Sweating of Windows 

Then I cut a square hole in the flooi 
under the window floor of the platform 
which led into the basement. The onlj 
space for air to come in was through tht 
large hole, which was perfectly tight al' 
around the air-space. The heat from th( 
top of basement naturally would cause i 
draught in this air-space, from the faC 
that the air in the window was coole: 
than the air in the basement, and. as ho 
air rises because it is lighter than thr 
cold air, the hot air in the basement rosi 
to the window. The doors leading fron 
the store into the window were taken of 
their hinges, and this allowed the air froc 



Household Formulas 



(Wood) 



the basement to circulate througli the 
whole window. Then I took a thermom- 
eter and tried the temperature of the 
basement first, then of the window, also of 
interior of store. They were found to 
be all of the same temperature. "If you 
will notice your store doors in the cold- 
est weather you will see that they very 
seldom freeze or sweat, because the heat 
of the store strikes the whole glass, and 
the temperature is alike from bottom of 
the door to the top. I can step into my 
windows now with the same amount of 
comfort that I would walk about the 
store. In stores without heat in the base- 
ment a common lamp placed under the 
air chamber has been tried and found 
very successful." 

Woodwork. 

Bruises in Furniture, to Remove. — 1. — 
To take out bruises in furniture wet the 
part with warm water, double a piece of 
brown paper five or six times, soak it and 
lay it on the place ; apply on that a hot 
flatiron till the moisture is evaporated. 
If the bruise be not gone, repeat the proc- 
ess. After two or three applications, the 
dent or bruise will be raised level with 
the surface. If the bruise be small, mere- 
ly soak it with warm water, and apply 
a red-hot poker very near the surface ; 
keep it continually wet, and in a few 
minutes the bruise will disappear. 

2. — If the bruise is very small all that 
is necessary is to soak it with warm water 
and apply a red-hot poker near the sur- 
face, keeping the spot continually wet 
until the bruise disappears, which will 
occur in a few moments. 

3. — Polish, to Restore. — When the dent 
is removed and the wood dry, the polish 
can be restored by any of the usual proc- 
esses. If the wood was originally finished 
in oil, rub with a little boiled linseed cut 
with acetic acid (oil 8 parts, acid 1 part). 
If it was "French polished," apply an 
alcoholic solution of shellac, and let dry ; 
repeat if necessary, and when completely 
dry proceed as follows : Rub the part 
covered with shellac, first with crocus 
cloth and a few drops of olive oil, until 
the ridges, where the new and old polish 
come together, disappear ; wipe with a 
slightly greased but otherwise clean rag 
and finish with putz-pomade. In the case 
above spoken of (a beautifully polished 
writing desk) the polish was restored in 
this manner, and it will now require very 
close scrutiny to detect the injured spot. 

Furniture Cream. — 1. — Yellow wax, 4 
oz. ; yellow soap, 2 oz. ; water, 50 oz. ; 



(Wood) 



boil, with constant stirring, and add boiled 
oil and oil of turpentine, each 5 oz. 

2. — Soft water, 1 gal. ; soap, 4 oz. ; 
white wax, in shavings, 1 lb. Boil to- 
gether, and add 2 oz. of pearlash. To be 
diluted with water, laid on with a paint 
brush, and polished off with a hard brush 
or cloth. 

3. — Wax, 3 oz. ; pearlash, 2 oz. ; water, 
G oz. Heat together, and add 4 oz. of 
boiled oil and 5 oz. of spirits of turpen- 
tine. 

4. — Beeswax, 2,500 parts ; potassium 
carbonate, 25 parts ; oil of turpentine, 
4,000 parts ; water, rain or distilled, 4,50() 
parts. Dissolve the potassium salt in 
1,500 parts of the water, add the wax, 
rasped or cut up, and boil together until 
the wax is partially saponified. Add suflft- 
cient water to replace that lost by evap- 
oration, remove from the fire and stir 
until cold. Now add, little by little, and 
under constant stirring, the oil of tur- 
pentine, and continue to ^ stir until a 
smooth homogeneous emulsion is obtained. 
When this occurs, add the remainder of 
the water at once and stir in. If de- 
sirable, a little oil of lavender or other 
essential oil may be used as a perfume. 
It should be added with or immediately 
after the oil of turpentine. If a color 
is desired, soak alkanet root in the oil of 
turpentine (about an ounce to the quart) 
before addition. 

This paste is said by the Journal qf the 
Austrian Pharmaceutical Association to 
be one of the best furniture polishes 
known. The directions are very simple — 
apply the paste as' thinly as possible over 
the surface to be polished (which, of 
course, should be first washed with tepid 
suds, either alone, or, as many house- 
wives prefer, carrying a little gasoline 
poured on the surface), then rub ofE with 
a soft woolen cloth, using "elbow grease 
q. s." in rubbing. 

5. — One pint 90% alcohol, V^ oz. gum 
arable, 1 oz. shellac. Bruise the gums 
and sift them through a piece of muslin. 
Place the spirits and gums together in a 
vessel closely corked, near a warm stove, 
and frequently shake them ; in two or 
three days they will be dissolved. Strain 
through a piece of muslin, and keep 
corked tight. 

6. — Shellac, 6 oz. ; naphtha, 1 qt. ; ben- 
zoin, % oz. ; sandarac, 1 oz. 

7. — Dissolve 1% oz. shellac, ^ oz. san- 
darac, in % pt. naphtha. To apply the 
polish, fold a piece of flannel into a sort 
of cushion, wet it well with the polish, 
then lay a piece of clean linen rag over 
the flannel, apply 1 drop of linseed oil ; 



[5881 



Household Formulas 



(Wood) 



rub your work in a circular direction, 
liglitly at first. To finish off, use a 
littie naphtha, applied the same as the 
polish. 

8. — Pale shellac, 2% lb. ; mastic and 
sandarac, each 3 oz. ; spirits, 1 gal. Dis- 
solve, and add copal varnish, 1 pt. ; mix 
well by agitation. 

9. — Shellac, 12 oz, ; wood naphtha, 1 
qt. ; dissolve, and add % pt. linseed oil. 

10. — Crush 3 oz. shellac with i/^ oz. 
gum mastic, add 1 pt. methylated spirits 
of wine, and dissolve. 

11. — Shellac, 12 oz. ; gum elemi, 2 oz. ; 
gum copal, 3 oz. ; spirits of wine, 1 gal. ; 
dissolve. 

12. — Shellac, IYj, oz. ; gum juniper, i/^ 
oz. ; benzoin, % oz. ; methylated alcohol, 

V2 pt. 

13. — One oz. each of gums mastic, 
sandarac, seed lac, shellac, and gum ara- 
ble ; reduce to powder, then add % 
oz. virgin wax ; dissolve in a bottle with 

1 qt. rectified spirits of wine. Let stand 
for twelve hours, and it is then fit for 
use. 

14. — One oz. gum lac, 2 dr. mastic 
in drops ; sandarac, 4 dr. ; shellac, 3 oz. ; 
gum dragon, l^ oz. Reduce the whole to 
powder. 

15. — Boiled linseed oil, 1 pt. ; yellow 
wax, 4 oz. ; melt, and color with alkanet 
root. 

16. — Acetic acid, 2 dr. ; oil of lav- 
ender, 1/^ dr. ; rectified spirit, 1 dr. ; lin- 
seed oil. 4 oz. 

17. — Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; alkanet root, 

2 oz. ; heat, strain, and add lac varnish, 

1 oz. 

18. — Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; rectified spirit, 

2 oz. ; butter of antimony, 4 oz. 

19. — WHiite soap. 21^ oz. : spirits tur- 
pentine, 80 oz. ; white wax, 20 oz. ; water, 
110 oz. ; carbonate potash, 1 oz. Place 
the soap in a water bath with a portion 
of the water and melt by a gentle heat, 
adding the remaining water as fa«t as 
absorbed. Now add the wax and in- 
crease the heat until it melts. Reduce 
the heat and add the turpentine grad- 
ually, stirring until all is thoroughly in- 
corporated. 

20. — White Furniture Cream. — Raw 
linseed oil, 6 oz. ; white wine vinegar, 3 
oz. : methylated spirit, 3 oz. ; butter of 
antimony, % oz. ; mix the linseed oilwith 
the vinegar by degrees, and phfike well 
so as to prevent separation ; add the spirit 
and antimony, and mix thoroughly. 

Oak, To Darken. — O'^k '«! fumigated by 
liquid ammonia, strength 880°, which may 
be bought at any wholesale chemist's shop. 
The wood should be placed in a dark and 

[ 



(Wood) 



airtight room, and half a pint or so of 
ammonia poured into a soup plate, and 
placed upon the ground in the center of 
the compartment. This done, shut the 
entrance, and secure any cracks, if any, 
by pasted slips of paper. Remember that 
the ammonia does not touch the oak, but 
the gas that comes from it acts in a 
wondrous manner npon the tannic acid in 
that wood, and browns it so deeply that 
a shaving or two may actually be taken 
off without removing the color. The 
depth of shade will entirely depend upon 
the quantity of ammonia used and the 
time the wood is exposed. 

Oil. — 1. — Linseed oil, 4 oz. ; vinegar, 
2 oz. ; mucilage, oil of turpentine, alcohol, 
% oz. each ; butter of antimony, % oz. ; 
hydrochloric acid, % oz, ; or linseed oil, 
4 fl.oz. ; oil of turpentine, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 
2 oz, ; rosin, 1 oz. ; rose pink, % oz. 

2.— Boiled linseed oil, 1 pt. ; yellow 
wax, 4 oz. ; melt, and color with alkanet 
root. 

3. — Acetic acid, 2 dr. ; oil of lavender, 
1/^ dr. ; rectified spirit, 1 dr. ; linseed oil, 
4 oz. 

4. — Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; alkanet root, 2 
oz, ; heat, strain and add lac varnish, 1 
oz. 

5. — Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; rectified spirit, 2 
oz. ; butter of antimony, 4 oz. 

6. — Take 1 pt. furniture oil, mix with 
it % pt. spirits of turpentine and % pt, 
vinegar ; wet a woolen rag with the liquid 
and rub the wood the way of the grain, 
then polish with a piece of flannel and 
soft cloth. 

7.— Melt 3 or 4 pieces of sandarac, each 
of the size of a walnut, add 1 pt. boiled 
oil, and boil together for one hour. While 
cooling, add 1 dr. Venice turpentine, 
and if too thick a little oil of turpentine 
also. Apply this all over the furniture, 
find after some hours rub it off: rub the 
furniture daily, without applying fresh 
varnish, except about once in two months. 
Water does not injure this polish, and 
anv ptain or scratch mav Ve again covpved, 
which cannot be done with French polish, 

8. — Beeswax, % lb. ; alkanet root, Vt 
oz. ; melt until well colored. Then add 
linseed oil and spirits of turpentine, of 
each ^2 gill, straining through a piece 
of coarse muslin. 

9. — The wood having been stained, paner 
off smooth with No. glass paper enough 
to give an even surface. Add V2 gill 
French polish, to % oz. best dragon's 
Mood, well mix and strain throueh mus- 
lin : polish as usual : if wanted verv dark, 
anply a little dragon's blood to the rub- 
539] 



Household Formulas 



(Wood) 



ber, but the rubber must be covered twice 
with linen rag. 

10. — Mix one part of boiled linseed oil 
with two parts of alcoholic shellac var- 
nish. Shake well before using. Apply 
in small quantities, with a cloth, and rub 
the work vigorously until the desired 
polish is secured. 

11. — Darkening Furniture. — a. — Lin- 
seed oil, 1 pt. ; rose pink, 1 oz., and al- 
kanet root, 1 oz., beaten up in a metal 
mortar ; let the mixture stand for a day 
or two ; then pour off the oil, which will 
be found of a rich color, b. — Or mix 1 
oz. of alkanet root with 4 oz. of shellac 
varnish, 2 oz. of turpentine, the same 
quantity of scraped beeswax, and 1 pt. of 
linseed oil ; this should stand a week. 

Paste. — 1. — To keep wood light, scrape 
% lb. beeswax into V2 pt. of turpentine. 
By adding linseed oil the wood is dark- 
ened. 

2. — Dissolve 6 oz. pearlash in 1 qt. of 
hot water, add ^4 lb. of white wax, and 
simmer for half an hour in a pipkin ; 
take from off the fire, and when cool the 
wax will float, which should be taken off, 
and, with a little hot water, worked into 
a paste. 

3. — Beeswax, spirits of turpentine and 
linseed oil, equal parts ; melt and cool. 

4. — Beeswax, 4 oz. ; turpentine, 10 oz. ; 
alkanet root to color ; melt and strain. 

5. — Digest 2 dr. of alkanet root in 
20 oz. of turpentine till the color is im- 
parted ; add yellow wax in shavings, 4 
oz. ; place on a water bath and stir till 
the mixture is complete. 

6. — Beeswax, 1 lb. ; linseed oil, 5 oz. ; 
alkanet root. % oz. ; melt, add 5 oz. of 
turpentine, strain and cool. 

7. — Beeswax, 4 oz. ; rosin, 1 oz. : oil 
of turpentine, 2 oz. ; Venetian red to 
color. 

8. — White wax, 1 lb. ; black rosin, 1 
oz. ; alkanet root, 1 oz. ; linseed oil, 10 oz. 

Polish. — 1. — If the work is full of 
pores, you should give it a coat of clear 
size before commencing with the polish, 
and, when dry, go gently over it with 
very fine glass paper. The size, by filling 
up the pores, will prevent both the waste 
of polish, which would otherwise be ab- 
sorbed in the wood, and save considerable 
time in the work. You should place your 
work in such a situation that the light 
may shine on it obliquely, so that by look- 
ing sideways you may be able to see how 
the polishing proceeds. Make a wad with 
a piece of coarse flannel, or drugget, by 
rolling it round and round, over which, 
on the side you mean to polish with, .put 
very fine linen rag doubled several times 



(Wood) 



to render it as soft as possible; put the 
wad, or cushion, to the mouth of the 
bottle containing the polish and shake it, 
which will damp the rag sufficiently, then 
proceed to rub your work in a circular 
direction, observing not to do more than 
a foot square at a time ; rub it lightly till 
the whole surface is covered, and repeat 
this operation three or four times, accord- 
ing to the nature of the wood. Be very 
particular in having your rags clean and 
soft as the effect of the polish depends, 
in a great measure, on its being kept clean 
and free from dust. Rub each coat till 
the rag appears dry, and be careful not 
to put too much upon the rag at once, and 
you will obtain a beautiful and lasting 
polish. 

2. — Melt three or four pieces of san- 
darac, each of the size of a walnut, add 
1 pt. of boiled oil, and boil together for 
one hour. While cooling add 1 dr. of 
Venice turpentine, and if too thick a little 
oil of turpentine also. Apply this all over 
the furniture, and after some hours rub 
it off ; rub the furniture daily, without 
applying fresh varnish, except about once 
in two months. Water does not injure 
this polish, and any stain or scratch may 
be again covered, which cannot be done 
with French polish. 

3. — The subjoined simple preparation is 
said to be desirable for cleaning and pol- 
ishing old furniture. Over a moderate fire 
put a perfectly clean vessel. Into this 
drop 2 oz. of white or yellow wax. When 
melted, add 4 oz. of pure turpentine, then 
stir until cold, when it is ready for use. 
The mixture brings out the original color 
of the wood, adding a luster equal to that 
of varnish. 

4. — Melt 3 or 4 pieces sandarnc, eich 
of the size of a walnut, add 1 pt. of boiled 
oil, and boil together for one hour. While 
cooling add 1 dr. of Venice turpentine, 
and if too thick, a little oil of turpentine 
too. Apply this all over the furniture, 
and after some hours rub it off ; rub the 
furniture daily, without applying fresh 
varnish, except about once in two months. 
Water does not injure this polish and anv 
stain or scratch may be again covered, 
which cannot be done with French polish. 
This receipt is very highly recommended 
for use in the household. 

5.— Melt together 4 parts of paraffin e, 1 
part of tallow and pour the mixture into 
a vessel containing hot, water. Add 12 
parts of oil of turpentine and stir well. 
Allow to stand until cold. 

6. — The following is a good polish for 
furnitnrf, to be used upon new wood for 
hand polishing, in place of French polish, 



[540] 



Household Formulas 



(Wood) 



but one that requires constant manual 
labor, may be made of beeswax and tur- 
pentine spirit melted together, with red 
Sanders wood to color it. This has been 
tried for many years and well repays the 
trouble attending it. It should not be 
used upon work that has been French 
polished, but the following will be found 
better than most that can be bought for 
reviving the brilliancy of French pol- 
ished goods. Take equal parts of turpen- 
tine, vinegar, spirits of wine (methylated) 
and raw linseed oil, and place them in a 
bottle in the order in which they are men- 
tioned ; great care must be taken in this 
last particular ; if not, the mixture will 
curdle and become useless. — Smither. 

7. — Derby cream is made by adding 6 
oz. linseed oil to 3 oz. acetic acid. This 
is agitated well, and l^ oz. butter of anti- 
mony and 3 oz. methylated spirit are 
added. 

8. — Soft water, 1 gal. ; soap, 4 oz. ; 
beeswax, in shavings, 1 lb. Boil to- 
gether, and add 2 oz. pearlash. To be 
diluted with water, laid on with a paint 
brush, and polished oflE with a hard brush 
or cloth. 

9. — Wax, 3 oz. ; pearlash, 2 oz. ; water, 
6 oz. Heat together, and add 4 oz. boiled 
oil and 5 oz. spirits of turpentine. 

10. — The name is sometimes given to a 
mixture of 1 oz. white or yellow wax with 
4 oz. of oil of turpentine. 

11. — Rain water, 1 gill ; spirits of wine, 
1 gill ; beeswax, 1 oz. ; pale yellow soap, 
1 oz. Cut the wax and soap into thin 
slices, and boil them in the rain water 
until dissolved. Take ofE the fire, and oc- 
casionally stir till cold. Afterward add 
90% alcohol, bottle, and it is ready for 
use. The above compound should be ap- 
plied with a piece of flannel, and after- 
ward rubbed with a soft cotton cloth. 

Cabinet Work. — 1. — For delicate cabi- 
net and papier-mSche work. — Linseed oil, 
32 oz. ; spirit, 8 oz. ; vinegar, 8 oz. ; butter 
of antimony, 2 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 8 
oz. Shake well before using, and apply 
with a woolen rubber. 

2. — Oil of turpentine, 16 oz. : rectified 
oil of amber, 16 oz. ; olive oil. 16 oz. ; oil 
of lavender, 1 oz. ; tincture of alkanet. 4 
dr. Mix. A cotton rubber is saturated 
with this polish, which is thus applied to 
the wood. The latter is then well rubbed 
with soft, dry cotton raes and wiped dry. 

3. — Cnrved Cabinet Work. — Dissolve 2 
oz. seed Inc and 2 oz. white ropin in 1 pt. 
90% alcohol. This mu=t be laid on warm, 
and if the work can be warmed also, it 
will be so much the better : at any rate, 
moisture and dampness must be avoided. 

[ 



(Wood) 



Used with a brush for standards or pillars 
of cabinet work. The carved parts of 
cabinet work are also polished thus : Var- 
nish the parts with the common wood 
varnish, and having dressed them off 
where necessary with emery paper, apply 
the polish used for the other parts of the 
work. 

4. — Polish for Fine Carved Wood. — 
Take 8 oz. linseed oil, 8 oz. old ale, the 
white of an egg, 1 oz. spirit, 1 oz. hydro- 
chloric acid. To be well shaken before 
using. A little is to be applied to the face 
of a soft linen pad and lightly rubbed for 
a minute or two over the article to be 
restored, which must afterward be pol- 
ished off with an old silk handkerchief. 
This will keep any length of time, if well 
corked. 

5. — Chemical Polish. — Linseed oil, 40 
parts ; alcohol, 4 parts ; vinegar, 16 parts ; 
antimony chloride, 2 parts ; ammonium 
chloride, 1 part ; spirits of camphor, 1 
part. Place the oil in a large bottle, and 
add successively the antimony chloride, 
the spirits of camphor, the vinegar and 
the alcohol, part by part, and with con- 
stant shaking ; when thoroughly incorpo- 
rated, add the sal ammoniac. 

6. — Copal Polish. — Melt with gentle 
heat finely powdered gum copal, 4 parts, 
and gum camphor, 1 part, with ether to 
form a semi-fluid mass, and then digest 
with a sufficient quantity of alcohol. 

Ebony, to Polish. — 1. — Give the work 
two coats of fine copal varnish and rub 
this down (when dry) quite smooth with 
fine pumice stone; put on a third coat of 
the same and rub down with rotten stone ; 
clean and put on a flowing coat of best 
spirit copal varnish, and when this has 
become quite dry, polish with chamois 
skin and the palm of the hand. 

2. — .Add 1/4 oz, best drop black to Va 
gill French polish. A little of the drop 
black may be used on the inside rubber, 
but covered twice with linen rag. 

3. — A high polish on ebony, one that 
will be durable. Give the work two coats 
of fine copal varnish and rub this down, 
when quite dry smooth with fine pumice, 
put on a third coat of the same and rub 
down with rotten stone : clean and put on 
a flowing coat of best spirit copal varnish, 
and when this has become quite dry, pol- 
ish with chamois skin and the palm of the 
hand. 

Eggshell Polish on Wood. — Three parts 
shellac. 1 part gum mastic and 1 part 
sandarac gum dissolved together in 40 
parts alcohol form a beautiful polish ; ap- 
ply with brnph or rag. 

French Polishing. — 1. — French polish- 
541j 



Household Formulas 



(Wood) 



ing is the name given to the art of coat- 
ing wood with a fine, smooth, glossy sur- 
face or varnish of shellac and various 
other gums, which are easily soluble in 
90% alcohol, methylated spirits, or wood 
naphtha. A varnish is thus produced, but 
if it is applied simply with a brush, as 
copal, mastic, and most other varnishes 
are applied, the result is a very broken 
and uneven surface instead of a smooth 
and continuous polish. To obtain a good 
polish with a lac varnish on wood it is 
necessary to apply a very small quantity 
at once, and to rub it continuously until 
it dries ; when this process has been care- 
fully and properly gone through, the re- 
sult is a beautiful and even surface, which 
is not to be surpassed or even equaled by 
any other means. 

2. — French Polish Reviver. — a. — Lin- 
seed oil, % pt. ; spirits of camphor, 1 oz, ; 
vinegar, 2 oz. ; butter of antimony, % oz. ; 
spirit cf hartshorn, ^ oz. 

b. — One-half gill vinegar ; 1 gill spirits 
of wine ; 1 dr. linseed oil. 

c. — Naphtha, 1 lb. ; shellac, 4 oz. ; ox- 
alic acid, ^ oz. Let it stand till dis- 
solved; then add 3 oz. linseed oil. 

Friction, Polish for Wood. — Used with- 
out. Dissolve 4 oz. best_ shellac in 2 
pt. strong alcohol, add 2 pt. linseed oil 
and 1 pt. spirit of turpentine, shake and 
add 4 oz. sulphuric ether (common ether) 
and 4 oz. aqua ammonia. Shake when 
used and apply with a sponge lightlyo 

3. — French (Shellac) Polish Combined 
with Chalk. — These polishes, according 
to the Farhen Zeitung, can be readily ap- 
plied and are very useful for furniture 
which is not too much scratched ; much 
worn surfaces must first be treated with 
chalk and afterward with the French 
polish. Most of the shellac (French) pol- 
ishes on the market are to some extent 
colored by the shellac they contain, but 
in most cases they require to be bright- 
ened up with aniline dyes to bring out 
the desired characteristic color of the 
wood in polishing. To obtain a better 
distribution of the polish, some linseed oil 
or well-refined thin mineral oil is added 
to the French polish. A polish of this 
kind, for example, can be prepared by 
dissolving 5 parts by weight each of shel- 
lac and sandarac in 77 parts by weight 
of 95% alcohol, filtering, and adding 8 
parts by weight of mineral oil and 8 
of Spanish white: this French polish can 
be dyed additionally with aniline dyes. 

Hard Wood Filler. — Use boiled linseed 
oil and enough powdered starch to make 
a very thick paste — add a little japan 
and reduce to proper consistency with oil 



(Wood) 



of turpentine. Add no color for white 
oak or white ash ; for other wood add 
enough color to cover the white of the 
starch. For dark ash and chestnut use 
little raw sienna ; for walnut, burnt 
umber and a very little Venetian red. 
Apply the filler with brush or rags, let 
dry for several days, then sandpaper. 

Imitation Polish for Woodwork. — The 
wood is first varnished over with gelatine, 
and after drying and smoothing, with a 
mixture of 2% lb. fluid copal varnish and 
4 dr. pure drying linseed oil ; after dry- 
ing the wood is polished with an ethereal 
solution of wax. 

Piano Polish.— 1.— Alcohol, 95%, 300 
parts ; benzol, 700 parts ; gum benzoin, 
8 parts; sandarac, 16 parts. Mix and 
dissolve. U-se as French polish. 

2. — Another excellent polish for fresh- 
ening up polished or varnished surfaces 
is as follows : Beeswax, 2,500 parts ; po- , 
tassium carbonate, 25 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 4.000 parts ; water, rain or dis- 
tilled, 4.500 parts. Dissolve the potas- 
sium carbonate in 1.500 parts of the 
water and in the solution boil the wax, 
shaved up,' until the latter is partially 
saponified, replacing the water as it is 
driven off by evaporation. When this / 
occurs remove from the fire and stir until 
cold. Now, add little by little and under - 
constant agitation, the turpentine, stirring 
until a smooth homogeneous emulsion is 
formed. When this occurs add the re- 
mainder of the water under constant stir- 
ring. If a color is wanted use alkanet 
root, letting it macerate in the oil of tur- 
pentine before using the latter (about an 
ounce to the quart is sufficient). This 
preparation is said by the Journal of the 
Austrian Pharmaceutical Association to 
be one of the best polishes known. The 
directions are very simple : First, wash 
the surface to be polished, rinse and dry. 
Apply the paste as evenly and thinly as 
possible over a portion of the surface, 
then rub off with a soft woolen cloth, 
using plenty of elbow grease. 

3. — ^"Gum- mastic. fi5 parts : shellac, 250 
parts; alcohol (95%), 1.000 parts. For 
the finest work, the alcoholic solution of 
the gums should be shaken with about 
one-tenth of its volume of benzine, and 
the latter drawn off after the mixture has 
-been allowed to stand for a few hours. 
This gives greater mobility. 

4. — Egg whites. IV2 oz. ; raw linseed 
oil, 8 oz. ; wood alcohol, 2% oz. ; orchil, 
% oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 2 oz. ; vinegar, 
8 oz. 

Red Polish. — Oil of turpentine, 16 oz, ; 
alkanet, 4 dr. ; beeswax, 4 oz. Digest 



[542] 



Household Formulas 



(Wood) 



the alkanet in the oil until sufficiently 
colored ; then scrape the beeswax fine and 
form a homogeneous mixture by digestion 
over a water bath. For a plate polish 
omit the alkanet. 

Repolishing Furniture. — 1. — Shellac, 4 
parts ; alcohol, 32 parts ; oil of turpen- 
tine, 16 parts ; linseed oil, boiled, 32 
parts ; ammonia water, 4 parts. Dissolve 
the shellac in the alcohol ; dissolve in a 
separate vessel the linseed oil in the tur- 
pentine, and mix the two solutions, add- 
ing them slowly with continuous agita- 
tion ; then add the ammonia water and 
mix by agitation until thoroughly homo- 
geneous. 

2. — Mix one part of old boiled linseed 
oil with 2 parts of an alcoholic solution 
of shellac. Agitate each time before using, 
.and apply in small quantities, rubbing 
, vigorously until the polish is attained. 
/ 3. — White wax, 2,500 parts ; water, 
/ 4,500 parts ; potassium carbonate, 25 
parts ; oil of turpentine, 4,000 parts. Boil 
the wax in 1,500 parts of the water, 
carrying the potassium carbonate, until 
the wax is emulsified. Add sufficient 
water to replace that lost by evaporation 
and stir till cold and add, little by little, 
under constant agitation, the oil of tur- 
pentine, and continue to stir until a conr- 
plete emulsion is obtained. When this 
occurs add the remainder (3.000 parts) of 
the water all at once and stir in. In 
case the mixture is incomplete add a little 
more oil of turpentine. To use the cream 
smear a little of it on a thin soft rag and 
with this go over the furniture ; then 
polish with a woolen cloth, or bit of flan- 
nel. The cream answers equally well 
for leather upholstering, imitation leather, 
leather, cloth, marble, etc. 

Polishing by Rubbing. — 1. — Rubbers. — ■ 
>^ The small rubbers employed for doing 
carved framework, etc., are usually made 
of white wadding and the large round 
ones used for surface work are mostly 
formed of soft flannel. The latter kind 
must be firmly made ; and the more they 
possess such qualifications as proper size 
and solidity, the more quickly and satis- 
factorily will they polish extensive sur- 
faces. 

2. — Rags. — Fine linen makes the best 
rubber coverings and spiriting cloths, but 
cheap cotton will answer nearly as well. 
Both stuffs are preferred after having 
been used and washed several times. The 
way to wash them is to boil them first in 
a strong lye of potash, and then in a weak 
one of soap powder, suffering each boil- 
ing to be succeeded by a thorough rinsing 
in clean water. 

i 



(Wood) 



3. — Wettings. — Some workmen wet the 
soles of their rubbers by dipping into a 
saucer containing the preparation, and 
others by holding their bottles upside 
down, allowing the polish to shower 
through the drilled punctures of the 
stopples. Care should be taken not to 
soak the rubber too much by either 
means ; and after wetting and covering, 
the sole ought always to be pressed forci- 
bly upon the palm of the hand so as to 
equalize the moisture. 

4. — Rubbings. — Invariably on beginning 
with a newly wetted rubber, gently and* 
regularly sweep the surface from end to 
end in the running direction of the fiber 
three successive times ; then rub across 
the grain with a semi-circular motion, till 
the polishing tool becomes dry. This op- 
eration is of course repeated until the 
whole surface of the pores is no longer 
visible. The work so treated is now to 
be left in a clean apartment for a period 
of twelve hours, this being the time re- 
quired for the complete absorption of the 
first body. The sinking period expired, 
the work is smoothed, dusted, etc., and 
then the polishing of it is recommenced. 
The first sweepings are similar to those 
described in the preceding embodying, 
after which ply the rubber wholly with 
a rotatory movement, leaning lightly on 
it at first, and slightly increasing the 
necessary pressure toward the drying of 
it, which is finally accomplished by sweep- 
ing once or twice along the grain, express- 
ly to remove any marks that may have 
been caused by the cross or round rub- 
bings. In these manipulations it is much 
better to use freely extended motions than 
contracted ones ; therefore the mechanical 
movements of the arm must on no- ac- 
count be confined. Wipe all the \dust 
off your work at each recommencement. 
Allow every embodying a proper time to 
absorb and harden, previous to the reap- 
plication of smoothing stuffs or polishes. 
Cover your rubber with a clean part of 
the rag at each wetting. Carefully guard 
agaist working your implement too long 
in one direction, and leaning too heavily 
on it when it is very wet, else you will 
be apt to produce coarse marks and 
streaky roughness. Rubber marks may be 
removed by their being reversely rubbed 
with a heavily pressed half dry rubber. 
In polishing a very large surface, such as 
the top of a dining table, do only one- 
half at a time. In spiriting, the finishing 
spirit should not be used in excess, be- 
cause it dissolves a portion of the resin- 
ous or gummy body, and thereby causes 
dimness instead of brightness. If, how- 
543] 



Household Formulas 



(Wood) 



ever, the spirit be slightly and judiciously 
employed, the desired clearness of luster 
will make itself apparent. Prior to the 
application of the spirit cloth, which con- 
sists of a few soft rags loosely rolled up 
in the shape of a large finger rubber and 
slightly damped with spirit, it is most 
essential to ply the rubber more quickly, 
and a little longer than ordinary, for the 
purpose of removing all signs of moisture 
and greasiness from the surface of the 
gloss. Most polishers seem to think that 
nothing can be more productive of trans- 
parent brilliancy and durable hardness at 
the finish than the moderate use of spirit 
that has been somewhat weakened by ex- 
posure to the air, and an allowance of 
two hours as a resting period between 
the final embodying and the spiriting. 

Repolishing, Directions for. — In order 
to apply this process with facility, you 
will find it needful to disunite the various 
parts of each article. If your job be a 
wardrobe, take off the doors by unfasten- 
ing their hinges; remove all the screw 
nails ; take off the cornice ; lift the wings 
or carcases from the base ; and then 
separate the moldings and other carved 
ornaments from the frames and panels of 
the doors. If it be a chest of drawers, 
pull the drawers out ; unscrew the knobs 
or handles ; remove the scutcheons from 
the keyholes ; free the columns or pilasters 
from their recesses, and lift the carcase 
from off the base. If your job should 
happen to be a sideboard, separate the 
upper back from the top, unscrew the 
under back, and then take the base, top 
and pedestals asunder. After having dis- 
joined the different portions and orna- 
ments, take a pencil and put tallying 
marks on every two meeting sides ; this 
will guide you in having everything ap- 
propriately replaced, when the complete 
article is finished. The viscid rust must 
be thoroughly removed from the surface 
of the work ; this is done by scrubbing 
it with a paste made of the finest emery 
flour and spirits of turpentine. After 
cleansing and before repolishing, it is a 
good plan to merely moisten the face of 
the work with raw linseed oil, for this 
causes the old body to unite with the 
new one. Where shallow dents, scratches 
and broken parts of the polish present 
themselves, carefullv coat them two or 
three times with a thick solution of shel- 
lac, and when the last coatings become 
hard rub them with soft putty until they 
become uniformly smooth and even ; then 
proceed to polish the general surface. 

Satinwood or Maple. — One quarter oz. 
chrome yellow to 1 gill light French pol- 



(Wood) 



ish ; use as before described ; a little 
chrome yellow on the rubber is desirable. 
In French polishing always use a drop 
of linseed on the rubber. 

Turner's Work. — Dissolve 1 oz. san- 
darac in % pt. 90% alcohol ; shave 1 oz. 
beeswax, and dissolve it in suflBicient 
spirits of turpentine to make it into a 
paste ; add the former mixture to it by 
degrees ; then, with a woolen cloth, apply 
it to the work while it is in motion in 
the lathe, and polish it with a soft linen 
rag ; it will appear as if highly varnished. 

Wainscot. — Take as much beeswax as 
required, and, placing it in a glazed 
earthen pan, add as much 90% alcohol 
as will cover it, and let it dissolve without 
heat. Add either ingredient as is re- 
quired, to reduce it to the consistency of 
butter. When this mixture is well rubbed 
into the grain of the wood, and cleaned 
off with clean linen, it gives a good gloss 
to the work. 

Walking Canes and Other Hard Wood. 
— The following process gives the 
most satisfactory and hardest finished 
surface. Fill with best clear filler or with 
shellac ; dry by heat : rub down with 
purcice ; then put on three coats of clear 
spirit copal varnish, hardening each in 
an oven at a temperature as hot as the 
wood and gum will safely stand. For 
extra work, the first two coats may be 
rubbed down and the last allowed a flow- 
ing coat. For colored grounds, alcoholic 
shellac varnish with any suitable pigment 
(very finely ground in) can generally be 
used to advantage. 

Walnut, To Polish. — 1. — ^To give black 
walnut a fine polish so as to resemble rich 
old wood, apply a coat of shellac varnish, 
and then rub it with a piece of smooth 
pumice stone until dry. Another coat 
may be given, and the rubbing repeated. 
After this, a coat of polish, made of lin- 
seed oil, beeswax, and turpentine, may be 
well rubbed in with a dauber, made of a 
piece of sponge tightly wrapped in a piece 
of fine flannel several times folded and 
moistened with the polish. If the work 
is not fine enough, it may be smoothed 
with the finest sandpaper and the rub- 
bing repeated. In the course of time the 
walnut becomes very dark and rich in 
color, and in every way is superior to 
that which has been varnished. 

White Polish. — 1.— White wax, 1 lb.; 
solution of potash, 82 oz. Boil to proper 
consistency. 

2. — White Polish for Light Woods. — 
White (bleached) shellac, 3 oz. ; white 
gum benzoin, 1 oz. ; gum sandarac, % 



[544 3 



Household Formulas 



(Wood) 



oz. ; alcohol or wood naphtha, 1 pt. ; dis- 
solve. 

White and Gold. — 1. — Brackets, con- 
sole tables, whatnots, chairs, and other 
furniture, are frequently done in white 
and gold. The grain of the wood should 
first be filled in with whiting and glue 
size, one or two coats well papered off 
and white polished, but the wood should 
not be finished off with spirits until gilt, 
leaving the last coat to be aone when the 
gilding is finished ; the gilding is done 
as in 1. 

2. — A cheaper mode, and much easier 
for the amateur : First well clean the 
article (if not new) with soda and water; 
when dry, scrape and smooth all over, 
stop up cracks with white lead and driers, 
one of driers to two of white lead; mix 



(Wood) 



some good white paint made of turps, 
driers, and white lead, not oil. Give the 
article three coats, rubbing down the first 
coat when dry with pumice and water ; 
when the third coat of paint is quite dry, 
proceed to gild as before described, using 
either gold leaf or gold paint; when so 
done, give the gold a coat of transparent 
enamel varnish, after which varnish the 
white work with clear copal varnish. 
Give the work two coats ; it will set in 
a day. Small boxes and other fancy arti- 
cles may be done by this process. 

3. — One pt. linseed oil, 1 oz. alkanet 
root, % oz. rose pink, boil for % hour, 
strain through muslin so that the oil may 
be clear ; to use it pour a little oil on 
flannel : rub briskly. After two or three 
applications, the effect will be apparent. 



[545] 



CHAPTER XIV 



ICE CEEAMS, COIS'FECTIOIS'EEY Al^D 
CHEWIJS'G GUM. 



CHEWING GUM 

The manufacture of chewing gum is 
by no means the simple operation that it 
seems upon examination of the formula. 
Considerable experience in manipulation 
is necessary to success, and the published 
formulae can at best serve as a guide 
rather than as something to be absolutely 
and blindly followed. Thus, if the mass 
is either too hard or soft, change the 
proportions until it is right. Often you 
will find that different purchases of the 
same article will vary in their character^ 
istics when worked up. Some manufac- 
turers add a little parafiine or wax to 
harden the mass, but the most successful 
attribute their success to the employment 
of the most approved machinery and 
greatest attention to details. The work- 
ing formulae and the processes of these 
manufacturers are guarded as trade se- 
crets. 

1. — Chicle, 3^ lb. ; paraffine wax, 1 
lb. ; tolu balsam, 2 oz. ; Peru balsam, 
1 oz. Dissolve the gum in as much water 
as it will take up, melt the paraffine, and 
mix all together. Now take sugar, finely 
granulated, 10 lb. ; glucose, 4 lb. ; water, 
3 pt. Put the sugar and glucose into the 
water, dissolve, and boil them up to 
"crack" degree (confectioners' term), 
pour the syrup over the oil slab, and turn 
into it sufficient of the above gum mix- 
ture to make it tough and plastic, adding 
any of the following flavors, if desired : 
Cinnamon, chocolate, sandalwood, myrrh, 
galangal, ginger or cardamom. 
. 2.— Chicle, 3% lb.; white _wax, 1 lb. ; 
sugar, 10 lb. ; glucose, 2 lb. ; watery 3 pt. ; 
balsam of Peru, 1 oz. ; flavoring, a suffi- 
cient quantity. 

S.^ToIu balsam, 4 oz. ; benzoin, 1 oz. ; 
white wax, 1 oz. ; paraffine, 1 oz. ; pow- 
dered sugar, 1 oz. Melt together, mix 
well, and roll into sticks. 

The following formulae all yield excel- 
lent results : 

4. — White wax, 1 part ; paraffine, 1 
part ; balsam of tolu, 4 parts ; benzoin, 



1 part ; powdered sugar, 1 part ; flavoring 
matter, sufficient. Melt the gums, etc., 
together, and, when fluid, stir in the 
sugar and flavoring matter (any of the 
essential oils). When cool enough, roll 
into sticks or cut into dice. 

5. — Yellow wax, 10 parts ; balsam of 
tolu, 2 parts ; balsam of Peru, 1 part ; 
American thus, 15 parts ; Venice turpen- 
tine, 20 parts. Melt together, and add, in 
fine powder, the following : Ciniiamon, 
6 parts; chocolate (not sweet), 10 parts; 
red sandalwood, 2 parts ; ginger, 1 part ; 
sugar, 2 parts. Mix well, and pour out on 
a slab. When cool enough, cut into suit- 
able pieces. This is very fine. 

6. — Gum chicle, 56 parts ; paraffine, 
hard, 15 parts ; balsam of tolu, 2 parts ; 
balsam of Peru, 2 parts ; sugar, granu- 
lated fine, 160 parts ; glucose, 64 parts ; 
water, a sufficient quantity. Soak the 
chicle in water until it absorbs all that 
it will take up. Melt the paraffine and 
balsams together and add the swelled 
chicle. In the meantime, mix the sugar 
and glucose with 50 parts of water, and 
boil together until a little of the liquid, 
withdrawn on the end of a stick, and 
quickly dipped into a glass of cold water, 
snaps between the fingers on an attempt 
to bend it (what is called the "crack," 
or eighth degree of candy boiling, by con- 
fectioners). When this is reached quick- 
ly remove from the fire and pour out on 
a large marble slab, the surface of which 
has been previously greased with butter or 
good sweet oil. As soon as the syrup is 
spread add to it, a little at a time, care- 
fully working in, the melted mixture of 
gums, paraffine, etc., until a portion of 
the mixture, tested, is found to have the 
proper degree of toughness. The flavor- 
ing (which consists of the essential oils, 
such as wintergreen, cinnamon, clove, 
sandalwood, etc., or any other substance 
that you may desire) , should be well in- 
corporated with the paraffine and gum 
mixture before adding to the syrup. These 
are the methods of procedure, and read 
easily enough, but you will find that it 



Always coostllt the Index when using this book. 

t 547 J 



Ice Creams, Confectionery and Chewing Gum 



(Chewing Gum) 



will pay you to employ an expert confec- 
tioner to carry them out. Sugar boiling, 
the carrying it to just the right degree, 
is an art in itself. You will need a large, 
smooth slab of marble, several inches 
thick, on which to do the mixing. 

7. — Spruce gum, 20 parts ; chicle, 20 
parts ; sugar, powdered, 60 parts. Melt 
the gum separately, mix while hot, and 
immediately add the sugar, a small por- 
tion at a time, kneading it thoroughly 
on a hot slab. When completely incor- 
porated, remove to a cold slab, previously 
dusted with powdered sugar, roll out at 
once into sheets, and cut into sticks. Any 
desired flavor or color may be added to 
or incorporated with the sugar. 

8. — Mastich, Gum Mastic. — The rosin 
flowing from the incised bark of Pistacia 
lentiscus, var. Chia. It occurs in pale 
yellowish, transparent, rounded tears, 
which soften between the teeth when 
chewed, and give out a bitter, aromatic 
taste, sp. gr. 1.07. It is soluble in both 
rectified spirit and oil of turpentine, form- 
ing varnishes. It is chiefly used as a 
masticatory to strengthen and preserve 
the teeth and perfume the breath. 

9. — Take of balsam tolu, 4 oz. ; white 
rosin, 16 oz. ; sheep suet, 1% oz., more 
or less, and melt together. Of above mix- 
ture take 2 oz. ; white sugar, 1 oz. ; oat- 
meal, 3 oz. Soften, and mix on a water 
bath. Roll the pieces in finely powdered 
sugar or flour to form sticks, etc., as de- 
sired. Parafline, with a little olive oil 
and glycerine, may be melted together for 
a chewing gum. The exact mixture will 
vary with the season, etc. 

10. — Chicle, 1 lb. ; sugar, 2 lb. ; glucose, 
1 lb. ; caramel butter, 1 lb. First mash 
and soften the gum at a gentle heat. Now 
place the sugar and glucose in a small 
copper pan, add enough water to dissolve 
the sugar, set on a fire, and cook to 244° ; 
lift off the fire, add the caramel butter 
and lastly the gum ; mix well into a 
smooth paste, roll out on a smooth mar- 
ble, dusting with finely powdered sugar, 
run through a sizing machine the thick- 
ness you desire, cut into strips, and again- 
into thin slices. 

11. — Gum chicle, 122 parts ; paraffine, 
42 parts ; balsam of tolu, 4 parts ; sugar, 
384 parts ; water, 48 parts. Dissolve the 
sugar in the water by the aid of heat, 
and pour the mass on an oiled slab. Melt 
the gum, balsam and paraffine together 
and pour on top of the syrup, and work 
the whole together. The presence of par- 
affine in chewing gum is objected to on 
the ground that in case the gum is swal- 
lowed the paraffine will not digest, but 

[ 



(Confectionery) 



may form an obstruction in the alimen- 
tary canal. It may be omitted from this 
combination. 

12.— Tolu balsam, 4 lb. ; rosin, 10 lb. ; 
paraffine, 3 lb. ; sugar, fine powder, 
enough. Melt together the first three in- 
gredients, strain, and incorporate enough 
sugar to make a mass. 

13. — To make a cheap chewing gum 
the confectioners boil to a weak "crack" 
20 lb. of sugar, 6 lb. of glucose and 2 qt. 
of water. This they throw on a slab, and 
spread over it 2 lb. of melted white wax 
and a stiff paste made by mixing up with 
flour 4 oz. of gelatine steeped in water. 
When sufficiently cool, all is mixed to- 
gether and a few drops of spirit of lemon 
added. The above comes out cheap, and 
has many other advantages ; it can be put 
through the machine, pulled, or otherwise 
cut up into squares, made into sticks, etc. 

14. — Venice turpentine, 100 parts ; 
American thus, 75 parts ; yellow wax, 50 
parts ; balsam tolu, 10 parts ; balsam 
Peru, 5 parts. Melt together and add, in 
fine powder: Cinnamon (Chinese), 30 
parts ; chocolate, 50 parts ; red sandal- 
wood, 10 parts ; myrrh, 5 parts ; galangal, 
5 parts ; ginger, 5 parts ; cardamom, 2^/^ 
parts. Mix, and roll out, when cool 
enough, into sticks, or make into any 
suitable form. 

CONFECTIONERY 

Rose Almonds. — Put into a round-bot- 
tomed copper basin, which has been thor- 
oughly cleaned and warmed, 1 lb. of Jor- 
dan almonds ; whether they be blanched, 
or unblanched, is not important. Now 
have ready 6 lb. of syrup or white sugar 
boiled to the "blow" degree, and still hot, 
and while your helper stirs the almonds 
constantly with a wooden spatula pour 
the hot syrup slowly, and in a small, fine 
stream, over them. This mode of opera- 
tion causes the sugar to granulate upon 
the surface of the almonds and coat them, 
and you are to continue it until this 
coating becomes thick enough to please 
you. 

Burnt Almonds. — Free 1,000 parts of 
selected sweet almond kernels from dust 
by tossing and rubbing them on a sieve, 
then place them in a pot or pan, and heat 
them over a free fire, with constant stir- 
ring, until they are uniformly hot 
throughout. In the meantime, put into a 
suitable boiler : Sugar, 1,000 parts ; glu- 
cose, 100 parts ; water, 150 parts ; boil 
together to the "bon-bon" consistency, 
and add : Cinnamon, 20 parts ; red bole, 
25 parts ; cloves, 7^/^ parts ; vanilla sugar, 
25 parts ; and stir well in. Now pour the 
548] 



Ice Creams, Confectionery and Chewing Gum 



(Confectionery) 



hot almonds into the syrup thus made, 
and let boil a moment, or until the 
almonds begin to pop, stirring vigorously 
all the while. Have ready a shallow cop- 
per pan, lightly oiled, and at this moment 
lift the almonds out, by aid of a broad 
copper dipper, and spread them carefully 
out in the pan. Let cool, and after the 
almonds are cold separate the masses. 

Coltsfoot Rock Candy. — Purified ex- 
tract of licorice, 1 lb. ; water, q. s. ; trag- 
acanth, 2 oz. ; sugar, 28 lb. ; spirit of 
lemon, 1 fl.oz. ; extract of poppies, 2 
fl.oz. ; Spanish brown, q. s. Dissolve the 
licorice in 12 fl.oz. of water, and swell 
the tragacanth in 20 fl.oz. of water. Mix 
these, and add the other ingredients, using 
a sufficient quantity of Spanish brown to 
color the candy. Make into a paste. By 
means of a piston and screw, force 
through a metal tube having star-shaped 
holes at the bottom. Cut into lengths and 
dry. 

Fruit, To Crystallize. — The following 
process may meet the requirements : Make 
a syrup from 1 lb. of sugar and i/^ pt. 
of water ; stir until the sugar is dissolved, 
then boil quickly about 3 or 4 minutes. 
Try by dipping a little in cold water. If 
it forms a small ball when rolled between 
the thumb and finger it has attained the 
desired degree, known as the ball. Throw 
the fruit to be conserved, a little at a 
time, into this syrup, let it simmer for a 
moment, lift with a skimmer, draining 
free from all syrup. Sprinkle sugar thick- 
ly over the boards or tin pans, place the 
fruit over it in a single layer, sprinkle 
over thickly with granulated sugar, and 
place in the oven or sun to dry. When 
dry, make a syrup as before, and just 
before it reaches the ball degree add the 
fruit, stir with a wooden spoon until it 
begins to grain and sticks to the fruit. 
When cold, sift off the sugar and put 
out again to dry. When dry, place in 
boxes, in layers, between sheets of waxed 
paper. Keep in a cool, dry place. 

Gumdrops. — Grind 25 lb. of Arabian 
or Senegal gum, place it in a copper pan 
or in a steam-jacket kettle, and pour 3 
gal. of boiling water over it ; stir it up 
well. Now set the pan with the gum into 
another pan containing boiling water, and 
stir the gum slowly until dissolved ; then 
strain it through a No. 40 sieve. Cook 
19 lb. of sugar with sufiicient water, 2 lb. 
of glucose and 1 teaspoonful of cream of 
tartar to a stiff ball, pour it over the 
gum, mix well, set the pan on the kettle 
with the hot water, and let it steam for 
iy2 hours, taking care that the water 



(Confectionery) 



in the kettle does not run dry ; then open 
the door of the stove and cover the fire 
with ashes, and let the gum settle for 
nearly 1 hour ; then remove the scum 
which has settled on top, flavor, and run 
out with the funnel dropper into the 
starch impressions, and place the trays 
in the drying room for 2 days, or until 
dry ; then take the drops out of the 
starch, clean them off well, and place 
them in crystal pans, 1 or 2 layers. Cook 
sugar and water to 34%° on the syrup 
gauge and pour over the drops lukewarm. 
Let stand in a moderately M^arm place 
overnight, then drain the syrup off, and 
about an hour afterward knock the gum- 
drops out on a clean table, pick them 
apart, and place on trays until dry. 

Italian Cream Caramels. — Place 8 lb. 
of sugar, 2 lb. of brown sugar into a cop- 
per pan ; add 3 lb. of glucose and 2 qt. 
of cream or of the richest milk ; set on 
the fire and stir until dissolved. When 
boiling, cover a minute or two to steam 
down the grain ; remove the lid, and stir, 
with the thermometer in it, and cook to 
235° ; remove from fire, and mix 2 lb. of 
macaroon cocoanuts, 2 lb. of cream fon- 
dant and 3 lb. more of glucose in the 
batch ; set a moment on the fire, and pour 
out on the marble, either greased or pa- 
pered, and between iron bars. As soon 
as it has formed a little crust, mark 
with a long knife or with a caramel cut- 
ter, and when cool, but still warm, glaze 
with white shellac. When cold, break 
apart and wrap, or pack in paper boxes. 

Lime Tahlets. — "A" sugar, 20 lb. ; glu- 
cose, 5 lb. ; citric or tartaric acid, 5 oz. 
Put the sugar in a clean copper kettle, 
pour 5 pt. of water over it, stir well, and 
set over a brisk fire. When the sugar 
is boiling cover it with a wooden lid, so 
as to steam down all the grain which may 
adhere to the side of the pan ; let boil 
for a T~hile, lift off the lid, add the glu- 
cose, and cook to 330° F. After the batch 
is done, pour on a greased marble slab, 
fold in the edges, and sieve the acid over 
the top of the sugar ; then sprinkle some 
lime juice or oil of lime over it, and suffi- 
cient green vegetable color to give it a 
bright tint. Fold the batch together, and 
work it with your hands to thoroughly 
mix the flavor, color and acid, but do 
not handle more than necessary, as the 
sugar should be kept as clear as possible. 
Lay the mass near the batch-warmer, cut 
off small pieces, and run them through the 
tablet rollers. After they are cold, sift 
off and put away in tin cans or glass jars. 
Other fruit tablets are made in the same 



[ 549 ] 



tee Creams, Confectionery and Chewing Gum 



(Ice Creams) 



manner, only changing color and flavor 
to correspond with name. 

Maple Caramels. — Maple sugar, 10 lb. ; 
cream of tartar, 1 even teaspoonful ; wa- 
ter, 1 qt. ; rich cream, 1 qt. ; cook to 
crack. Put 10 lb. of maple sugar in a 
copper kettle and add 1 even teaspoonful 
of cream of tartar ; now add 1 qt. of 
water, set the kettle on a quick fire, and 
stir till the sugar is dissolved ; then cook 
to a hard boil ; then add 1 qt. of rich 
cream, and cook the batch to a crack ; 
then pour out on an oiled slab, between 
iron bars, in a mass % in. thick, and 
when almost cold mark in small squares 
with a hoarhound cutter ; and when cold 
place in tin trays. 

Ice Cream Cones. — Here is the formula 
for 1,000 cones : Granulated sugar, 10 
lb. ; pastry flour, 20 lb. ; fresh eggs, 5 
doz. ; extract of vanilla, to flavor ; water 
(orange-flower water, if desired), enough. 
The iron on which the cones are baked 
has something to do with the baking of 
the cone ; in fact, it has as much to do 
with the production of a good article as 
the batter itself. 

ICE CREAMS 
Bases. 

Corn Starch. — Pure milk, 2 gal. ; sugar, 
2 lb. ; corn starch, % lb. ; flavoring, as 
desired. Dissolve the starch in 1 qt. of 
the milk by the aid of heat ; mix all to- 
gether ; continue to heat until slightly 
thickened, then flavor and freeze. 

Cream. — Pure cream, 2 gal. ; sugar, 2 
lb. ; flavoring, as desired. Mix well, and 
freeze. 

Eggs. — a. — Milk, 2 gal. ; sugar, 4 lb. ; 
flour, 4 oz. ; eggs, 12 ; common salt, 1 dr. ; 
flavoring, as desired. Mix the flour, 
sugar and salt with 1 qt. of the milk, add 
the eggs, which should be well beate"<, 
and the flavoring ; heat the milk to boil- 
ing, mix all together, boil for a few min- 
utes, let cool, strain, and freeze. 

b. — Fresh milk, 2 gal. ; granulated 
sugar, 2 lb. ; eggs, 36 ; flavoring, as de- 
sired. Beat the eggs thoroughly and add 
the sugar, stirring up well together ; put 
the milk on the fire, and stir all the time 
until it boils ; pour the milk ir.to the 
sugar and egg mixture, stirring all the 
time ; set on the fire, and stir for a few 
minutes until slightly thickened ; strain, 
and cool, flavor and freeze. 

c. — Milk, 1 gal. ; sugar, 4 lb. ; eggs, 
4 ; rich cream, 6 qt. ; flavoring, as de- 
sired. Bring the milk to boiling, add the 
sugar, stirring all the time, and then set 
aside to cool. Beat thoroughly the whites 
and yolks of the eggs separately, add the 



(Ice Creams) 



cream and the flavor, mix with the sweet- 
ened milk, and freeze as usual. 

d. — Milk, 3 pt. ; eggs, 5 or 6, beaten 
separately ; sugar, 3 cupfuls. Heat the 
milk to near boiling point, add the sugar, 
and stir well. Beat together the Avhites 
and yolks of the eggs, after they have 
been beaten separately. Pour the hot 
milk in this, little by little, beating brisk- 
ly all the time. Then return to the fire 
and let it remain 15 minutes, or until 
as thick as custard. When quite cold 
add 1 pt. of rich cream, and flavor with 
vanilla or lemon. 

e. — Cream, 1 pt. ; eggs, 4 ; sugar, 2 
scant cupfuls ; vanilla, lemon, or any 
other flavor desired, 2^ teaspoonfuls. 
Make a custard of the milk, eggs and 
sugar ; when cold, add the cream and 
flavoring ; then freeze. 

Gelatine. — Cream, 2 gal. ; milk, 2 qt. ; 
condensed milk, 1 pt. ; sugar, 4 lb. ; gela- 
tine, 1 oz. ; flavoring, as desired. Soak 
the gelatine in water for 2 or 3 hours, 
dissolve in the milk by the aid of heat, 
add the other ingredients, stir well, and 
freeze. 

Vnflavored Ice Cream. — Many dispen- 
sers use an unflavored ice cream, relying 
on the syrup in the soda for the taste, as 
it were. The following recipe should be 
used : Sweet cream, 4 qt. ; granulated 
sugar, 4 lb. ; sweet milk, 2 qt. First dis- 
solve the sugar in the milk and cream, 
then strain into 12-qt. freezer. 

Coloring. 

Coloring matters which are harmless 
can be prepared as follows : 

1. — Green. — Chlorophyll is the best 
coloring matter to use. By mixing tinc- 
ture of saffron or turmeric with a solu- 
tion of indigo carmine — readily made 
from paste — in various proportions, a va- 
riety of green shades can be obtained. 

2. — Red. — Cochineal syrup and solution 
of carmine have been used for many 
years, and are very satisfactory. Cochi- 
neal syrup is prepared as follows : Pow- 
dered cochineal, 12 parts ; potassium bi- 
carbonate, 4 parts ; distilled water, 30 
parts ; alcohol, 24 parts ; simple syrup, 
120 parts. Rub up the potass: am bicar- 
bonate with the cochineal powder, mix the 
alcohol and water, and add to the pow- 
der. Filter, and mix the solution with 
the syrup thoroughly. The solution of 
carmine is made as follows : Carmine, 22 
parts ; stronger water of ammonia, q. s. ; 
distilled water, q. s. to make 500 parts. 
Dissolve the carmine in the ammonia 
water and add the water 



[550] 



Ice Creams y Confectionery and Chewing Gum 



(Tee Creams) 



3. — Yellow. — Tincture or infusion of 
saffron, tincture of turmeric. 

Flavoring. 

Chocolate Paste. — Liquor chocolate, 5 
lb. ; glucose, V2 lb. ; sugar, 4 lb. Put the 
liquor chocolate in a pan ; place the pan 
in hot water and let it remain until the 
chocolate is melted ; then put the sugar 
and glucose in a copper pan, adding 
enough water to dissolve the sugar ; then 
cook to a sj-rup (35° on a syrup gauge), 
and while the syrup is hot pour it in a 
small stream into the melted chocolate, 
stirring the latter while adding the syrup. 
Keep up this stirring until the chocolate 
becomes a smooth paste ; then set it away 
in an earthen vessel for use. In flavoring, 
put 1 lb. of the paste into a pan and 
warm it till melted by putting the pan "in 
hot water ; then add a little plain cream to 
it, mixing it well, and afterward adding 
the chocolate to the cream to be flavored. 

Fruit Juices. — Fruit juices are not to 
be added in the preparatory cooking of 
the cream ; they should be mixed with 
the sugar, and stirred in with it until a 
clear syrup is obtained. This syrup may 



(Ice Crea?ms) 



be stirred into the cream just before the 
freezing, or it may be beaten into it after 
the cream is frozen. The latter method 
is the better of the two. 

Making and Freezing Ice Cream, 

A mistaken practice that is followed by 
many workmen is to transfer a finished 
batch from the machine can to a stack 
can, strain in the fresh batch, and use 
the same ice for a second run. It is a 
wrong thing to do, for the strength of the 
ice and salt is gone ; it has done its work. 
At the end of each run remove the can 
from the machine, wet the sides and bot- 
tom, and slide the contents into a packing 
can ; every spoonful of cream will come 
out readily, and your machine can is 
ready for another run. To utilize thp ice 
that is left in the tub, dump it into the 
break box, then throw it on to the can 
just transferred, and put on another 
shovelful of salt. Your cream will become 
nice and firm, and will keep until next 
day if you need to carry it over. This 
practice saves time and money, and is 
the only sure and economical way to man- 
ufacture good ice cream. 



Table of Proportions of Materials in Making Ice Cream 
Compiled by E. F. White, from the Spatula 



Pints Pints 




of of Juice 




fruit base of 


Remarks. 


juice, cream, lemon. 





Apricot 2 9 

Blackberry 2 9 

Black cherry 2 9 

Black Currant 2 9 

Black raspberry 2 9 

Champagne 2 10 

Chocolate 10 

Claret 2 9 

Cranberry 2 9 

Currant ll^ 9 

Damson 2 9 

Ginger wine 2 9 

Gooseberry 2 9 

Greengage 2 9 

Huckleberry 2 9 

Lemon wine 2 10 

Lime juice 9 

Madeira 2 9 

Peach 2 10 

Pear 2 9 

Pineapple 1% 8 

Plum 11/2 9 

Pomegranate 2 9 

Quince 1^ 10 

Raspberry 1^4 10 

Straw^berry 2 10 



1 oz. of lime juice. 

6 oz. of chocolate, 2 oz. of vanilla sugar. 

4 oz. of orange wine. 

4 oz. of orange wine. 

4 oz. of orange wine. 

4 oz. of orange wine. 

4 oz. of lemon wine, 1 oz. of lime juice. 



% pt. orange wine or juice of 3 oranges. 

V2 pt. black cherry juice. 

2 oz. of vanilla sugar. 

is oz. of orange wine, 2 dr. of essence of 

I cinnamon, 2 dr. of essence of cloves. 

8 oz. orange wine, 1 dr. essence of rose. 



1 

[ 551 ] 



Ice Creams, Confectionery and Chewing Gum 



(Ice Creams) 



Ice Creams. 

Almond or Orgeat Ice Cream. — Cream, 
1 qt. ; sweet almonds, 8 oz. ; bitter al- 
monds, 2 oz. ; sugar, 12 oz. ; orange-flower 
water, 2 oz. Blanch the almonds, and 
pound quite fine in a mortar, using the 
orange-flower water to prevent their oil- 
ing ; rub through a sieve and pound again 
the portion which has not passed through 
until fine enough ; mix with the cream, 
and make into a custard with the yolks 
of 7 eggs ; strain, and, when cold, freeze. 

Banana. — Usually, the bananas are 
cooked in a little milk, with sugar, then 
pressed through a sieve ; add to them the 
yolks of 2 or 3 eggs, according to the 
amount of bananas used, after which add 
the cream and milk in equal quantities, 
and then freeze. Some finely chopped 
pistachio nuts add to the flavor. 

Bisque. — To make 40 qt. of bisque ice 
cream : Dissolve 10 lb. of sugar in 20 
qt. of cream, strain into the freezing can 
and start to freeze. After the cream is 
nearly frozen mix in 1% lb. of bisque 
crumbs and 1 qt. of sherry — or half sher- 
ry and half Jamaica rum — and finish up. 
This will sell as well as any mixed flavor 
that is made. Bisque crumbs are made 
from two-thirds stale macaroons and one- 
third stale sponge cake. These are toast- 
ed to a dark brown in the oven, and, when 
cold, crushed with a rolling pin and 
passed through a coarse sieve. This makes 
fine bisque crumbs, and the only kind 
that should be used. Bisque cases may 
be purchased of any reliable baker. 

Burnt Almond. — 1. — Roast 1 lb. of 
almonds to a nice yellow. Then put 2 
lb. of sugar in a copper kettle, set on the 
fire, and stir slowly all the time until the 
sugar becomes liquid and of a golden 
color ; then add the almonds ; give it a 
few turns, and pour it on the greased 
marble, and, when cold, pulverize the same 
in a mortar ; then place this in the boiler 
with 4 qt. of cream. Proceed in the usual 
manner, adding the yolks of 8 eggs. 

2. — Put over the fire ^4 lb. of raw al- 
monds and % lb. of sugar until the sugar 
has taken on a delicious brown. Turn 
the batch, put on a greased slab, and let 
it cool ; then pound in a mortar. Put it 
into 3 qt. of cream, add 1"^ lb. of flour 
and some vanilla flavoring. Cook as for 
other cream, then strain and freeze. Also 
same as Filbert (2). 

Burnt Ice Cream. — To 1 qt. of custard 
for ice put into a stewpan 4 oz. of pow- 
dered sugar; place by the side of the 
stove or over the fire, to melt and burn 
a fine brown, stirring constantly ; when 



(Ice Creams) 



the proper color mix the custard quickly 
with it ; when cold, freeze. 

Cherry. — 1. — Red cherries, 3 lb., picked, 
pounded, boiled with Y^ pt. of water, and 
rubbed through a hair sieve ; syrup, 1 qt. ; 
cochineal, to color. A few drops of es- 
sence, cherry kernels. 

2. — Cherries, 2 lb. ; cream, 1 qt. ; sugar 
or syrup, 12 oz. Pound the cherries, with 
the stones, in a mortar, adding a few 
ripe gooseberries or currants ; pass the 
pulp through a sieve, add the cream and 
sugar, juice of 2 lemons and a little cochi- 
neal ; mix, and freeze. From preserved 
fruit it is made the same way, adding a 
little noyau, or a few bitter almonds, 
pounded, for the flavor of the kernel. 

Chocolate. — 1. — Place 1 pt. of milk, 7 
heaping tablespoonfuls of sugar and 4 
squares of bakers' chocolate in a double 
boiler, and cook until the chocolate has 
melted and the mixture is smooth. Chill, 
turn into the freezer, and turn the dasher 
until the mixture is frozen to the con- 
sistency of mash. Take out the dasher, 
add 1 pt. of whipped cream and a small 
tablespoonful of vanilla. Beat vigorously, 
repack, and stand for 2 hours to mellow. 

2. — Powdered chocolate, 20 oz. ; pow- 
dered or granulated sugar, 1 lb. ; pulver- 
ized cinnamon, 1 oz. Rub up well in a 
mortar, and add 1 qt. of cold water and 
1 oz. of vanilla extract (best). Add this 
paste to 2 gal. of cream, being careful 
to remove all lumps. Now add 3 gal. of 
rich milk, and mix all well, and add lYi 
or 2 oz. of extract of pepsin. Freeze, and 
serve. 

Coffee. — 1, — Cream, 4 qt. ; sugar, 1 lb. 
12 oz. ; yolks of 8 eggs ; good ground cof- 
fee, 3 oz. (or the equivalent of extract). 
Place the sugar, half of the cream and 
coffee in the pan, over a slow fire, and 
keep stirring until it has reached the 
boiling point ; then mix up the egg yolks 
with the remainder of the cream and pour 
it in, and bring it to the point of boiling. 
Strain through a fine sieve or cloth, then 
cool off and freeze. 

2. — ^^Ground coffee, 1 tablespoonful ; 
milk, % cupful ; heavy cream, % cupful ; 
sugar, 1 tablespoonful ; a grain of salt. 
Add the coffee to the milk, cook over hot 
water for 5 minutes, then strain ; add 
remaining ingredients, strain through 
cheese cloth, and freeze. 

Delmonico. — This is a rich cream, al- 
lowing 8 egg yolks to 1 qt, of sweet cream, 
and 1 vanilla bean to every 2 qt,, and if 
properly made it should be frozen in a 
French freezer, or at least after the 
French style. This cream, like all others 



[552] 



Ice Creams y Confectionery and Chewing Gum 



(Ice Creams) 



of this sort, is especially adaptable for 
molding. 

Filbert. — 1. — Cream, 1 qt. ; nuts, 1 lb. ; 
sugar, 12 oz., or 1 pt. of syrup. Break 
the nuts and roast the kernels in the 
oven ; pound with a little cream ; make a 
custard, and finish as almond ice. 

2. — Burnt. — Same proportions. Put 
the kernels into the syrup, boil until they 
crack ; stir the sugar with a spatula, that 
it may grain and adhere to the nuts ; 
when cold, pound with the sugar quite 
fine ; make a custard, and mix them with 
it, allowing for the sugar that is used 
for the nuts ; mix, and freeze as the oth- 
ers. 

Fruit Ice Cream. — Milk, 1 generous 
pt. ; sugar, 2 cupfuls ; flour, 1 small table- 
spoonful ; eggs, 2 ; gelatine, 2 tablespoon- 
fuls, soaked in a little water ; cream, 1 
qt. ; bananas, 4 ; candied cherries, % lb., 
and other fruit if desired. Let the milk 
come to a boil, beat the flour, sugar and 
eggs together, and stir in boiling milk. 
Cool 20 minutes, then add the gelatine. 
When cold, add the cream. Put in the 
freezer, freeze 10 minutes, add the fruit, 
and finish freezing. 

Grape. — Sweet cream, 2 pt. ; granulated 
sugar, 12 oz. ; grape juice, 1 pt. Boil ooe- 
half the cream in a double boiler ; add 
the sugar, and stir until dissolved. When 
cool, add the grape juice and the rest of 
the cream, and freeze. 

Hazelnut. — Hazelnuts, 5 oz., roasted to 
a light brown color, then the skins re- 
moved. Tills is best done by rubbing 
them in a towel, then put in a sieve, and 
the skin is easily shaken off. Pound them 
in a stone mortar, with some milk, to a 
fine pulp. Next put 4 qt. of cream, with 
1 lb. 12 oz. of sugar, into a boiler, over 
the fire, and before it has reached the 
degree of boiling add 12 egg yolks, beaten 
up with some of the cream. The hazel- 
nuts should be added to the cream at the 
outset, thus increasing the flavor. Pass 
through a fine sieve, and when cold freeze 
in the usual manner. 

Lemon. — 1. — To make 20 qt. : Grate 
the rinds of 12 good, sound lemons on 1 
lb. of sugar. (Do not grate deeply, or 
your cream will be bitter.) Rub the 
gratings well into the sugar, then add 
the juice of the lemons. To 10 qt. of 
cream add 5 lb. of sugar, and strain into 
the machine can ; then strain in the lemon, 
and freeze. This cream will make up 
very fine, but must be watched closely, as 
it will butter easily. 

2. — Six large lemons ; cream, 1 qt. ; 
sugar, 12 oz., or % pt. of syrup. Grate 
the peels of 3 lemons into a basin, squeeze 

[553 



(Ice Creams) 



the juice to it, let stand for 2 or 3 hours, 
strain, add the cream and syrup, and 
freeze, or mix as orange. 

Macaroon. — Set the macaroons in the 
oven to dry before trying to grate them. 
Sift before using. Have ready a frozen 
vanilla ice cream ; into it stir the maca- 
roons, pack into a mold, and set deeply 
into a pail filled with ice and salt. There 
let it remain for 2 hours at least ; 3 or 4 
would be better. 

Maple. — Make a custard of 3 pt. of 
milk, 1 cupful of sugar and the well 
beaten yolks of 5 eggs. Moisten % lb. 
of maple sugar and boil until it candies. 
Stir into the custard, and when cool, and 
ready to freeze, add 1 pt. of whipped 
cream and the beaten whites of the eggs. 

Melon. — Scrape out the soft center of 
a cantaloupe, press through a colander, 
and add to it milk and cream in equal 
quantities, with the sugar that seems 
necessary. In serving, the obviously 
proper receptacle will be the rinds of the 
melons. 

Mille Fruit Ice Cream. — ^Flavor a 
lemon cream ice with elder flowers, mix 
in some preserved dried fruits and peels 
cut in small pieces. Before it is moulded 
sprinkle with prepared cochineal, and mix 
a little, that it may appear marbled. 

Nut Frappe. — Nut frappe, 1 qt. ; maple 
fudge, 1 qt. ; extract of vanilla, 1 oz. ; 
cream, 5 gal. ; powdered sugar, 1 lb. ; car- 
amel to color light brown. Freeze in 
usual way. 

Orange. — 1. — To 4 qt. of cream 2 large 
oranges and 1 lemon are required, with 
the addition of 2 lb. of sugar. Secure 
the orange flavor by rubbing off the rind 
on lump sugar. In default of hard sugar, 
grate off the yellow skin on a grater. Be 
careful not to rub off the white pith be- 
neath the surface. Using sugar, you will 
have the essential oil embedded in it, 
producing a flavor in all its purity and 
strength, and this, mixed in turn with the 
juice, will give a rich flavor for either 
confection, beverage or cream. 

2. — Six Seville oranges ; lemons, 3 ; 
cream, 1 qt. ; sugar or syrup, 12 oz. Rub 
the yellow rind of 2 or 3 oranges on part 
of the sugar, scrape off with a knife ; 
squeeze out the juice of the oranges and 
lemons and strain ; mix with the cream 
and the sugar on which the rind has been 
rubbed ; add the other part of the sugar, 
dissolve, and freeze. 

3. — Eight China oranges ; lemons, 2 ; 
cream, 1 qt. ; sugar, 12 oz. Rub the rind 
of 4 or 5 of the oranges and 1 lemon on 
sugar, squeeze, strain the juice; add the 
cream, mix, and freeze, 

] 



Ice Creams y Confectionery and Chewing Gum 



(Ice Creams) 



Peach. — 1. — To make 40 qt. : Pare and 
stone 1/^ peck of ripe peaches ; mash them 
with as much sugar as you would use 
to sweeten them for table use. To 20 
qt. of cream add 10 lb. of sugar and a 
drop of red color — just enough to give 
the cream a clean yellowish look. With- 
out a little color the cream will look 
dark and unappetizing. Strain the cream 
in the freezing can, pour in the peaches, 
and freeze. 

2. — Cream, 2 qt. ; sugar, 1 lb. ; enough 
good, ripe peaches, mashed and passed 
through a sieve, to make 1 pt. of juice, 
mixed with a little syrup or fine sugar. 
This is all stirred together and frozen at 
once. All fruits which contain acid, be- 
ing of a tart nature, cannot be left stand- 
ing after being incorporated with the 
cream ; therefore, it is advisable to add 
the juice when the batch is nearly frozen. 
A little pink coloring is preferred by 
some ice cream makers ; this, of course, 
is only a matter of taste. 

Philadelphia Ice Cream. — Cook 8 lb. of 
sugar in 2 gal. of cream ; bring it to a 
boil, when it should resemble skim milk ; 
add, and work in, an additional 3 gal. of 
cream, 6 eggs and 2 oz, of vanilla. It 
is now ready for freezing. 

Pineapple. — Pineapple juice, 8 oz. ; 
lemon juice, % oz. ; sugar, 8 oz. ; cream, 
2 pt. Heat the cream and part of the 
sugar in a farina boiler until dissolved, 
add to it the solution prepared from the 
balance of the ingredients, then freeze. 

Pistachio. — Cream, 1 qt. ; pistachios, 8 
oz. ; sugar, 12 oz. Blanch and pound the 
pistachios, with a little of the cream ; 
mix, and finish as orgeat, flavoring with 
essence of cedrat or the rind of a fresE 
citron rubbed on sugar ; or the custard 
may be flavored by boiling in it a little 
cinnamon and mace and the rind of a 
lemon ; color with spinach. 

Strawhernj. — 1. — Crushed strawberries, 
l^ gal. ; concentrated strawberry syrup, 
ll^ pt. ; pure cream, 10 gal.; granulated 
sugar, 5 lb. For strawberry color, use a 
little red fruit coloring. For fine trade 
a little more fruit can be added. Put 
color in as the cream starts to thicken 
or freeze. 

2. — Have 2 qt. of berries, hulled and 
perfectly clean ; mash, and press through 
a sieve ; then sweeten with powdered loaf 
sugar; add 3 pt. of milk and 1 qt. of 
cream ; color with a bit of carmine. 

Vanilla. — 1. — Boil 1 lb. of sugar with 2 
qt. of milk, and add it to 1 lb. of sugar, 10 
eggs and 10 yolks already prepared by 
whisking up together. Mix all these well 
together and boil until the mixture thick- 



( Water Ices) 



ens a little. Remove from the fire and 
add 3 qt. of cream, which thoroughly 
incorporate by whisking. Add vanilla 
flavoring just before finishing. Strain, 
and freeze in the usual way. 

2. — Cream, 2 qt. ; sugar, li/^ lb. ; yolks 
of 1 doz. eggs ; whites of 2 eggs ; vanilla 
bean or stick, a sufficient quantity, say 
% bean, grated very fine ; lemon peel, a 
small piece. The liquid flavoring may be 
used, but the product is not as fine as 
the Delmonico, made by using the bean. 

3. — Cream, 3 pt. ; milk, 1 pt. ; sugar, 
12 oz. ; extract of vanilla, 4 dr. Dis- 
solve the sugar in the cream and milk ; 
strain, and freeze. When nearly finished 
add the extract of vanilla. 

4. — Cream, 10 qt. ; milk, 5 qt. ; con- 
densed milk, 5 qt. ; sugar, 10 lb. ; gelatine, 
4 oz. ; extract of vanilla, 5 oz. ; hot water, 
1 pt. Make a solution of the gelatine in 
the water. 

WATER-ICES, SHERBETS AND 
FROZEN FRUITS 

Amhroisie Sheriet. — Take sugar syrup, 
1 qt. ; strawberry juice, 1 qt. ; juice of 4 
oranges and 2 lemons ; mix well, add a 
little champagne wine, and freeze. Now 
add enough of the champagne to make 

1 qt. in all, freeze a little more, then add 
a small liquor-glassful of good old kirsch 
and the same quantity of maraschino di 
zara. When serving, place a small ripe 
strawberry on top of each glass, either 
sugared first, or macerated in the mara- 
schino. 

Apple-Ice. — Pare and core some fine ap- 
ples, cut in pieces into a preserving pan, 
with sufficient water for them to float, 
and boil until reduced to a marmalade ; 
strain, and to 1 pt. of apple-water add 
% pt. of syrup, juice of 1 lemon and a 
little water ; when cold, freeze. 

Apricot (Fresh Fruit) . — 1. — Fine, ripe 
apricots, 24 ; cream, 1 qt. ; sugar, 12 oz. ; 
the juice of 2 lemons, with a few of the 
kernels, blanched ; mash the apricots, rub 
through a sieve, mix, and freeze. 

2. — From Jam. — Jam, 12 oz. ; cream, 1 
qt. ; the juice of 2 lemons ; sugar, 8 oz. ; 
a few kernels or bitter almonds, blanched 
and pounded fine ; rub the whole through 
a sieve, and freeze. 

Apricot-Ice. — Fine, ripe apricots, 18 or 
20 ; syrup, i^ pt. ; water, % pt ; juice of 

2 lemons. Mash the apricots, pass 
through a sieve, mix the pulp with the 
syrup, water and lemon juice, break the 
stones, blanch the kernels, pound fine, 
with a little water, pass through a sieve, 
add to the mixture, and freeze. 

Apricot Sherhet. — Ripe apricots, 3 qt. ; 



[554] 



Ice Creams y Confectionery and Chewing Gum 



(Water Ices) 



water, 3 qt. ; icing sugar, 8 lb. ; citric- 
acid solution, 1 oz. Press the apricots 
through a colander and add the other in- 
gredients ; it is now ready to freeze. 

Cherry-Ice. — Cherries, 2 lb. ; cherry 
kernels, 1 doz. ; sugar, 2 lb. ; water, 1 qt. ; 
lemon juice, 1 oz. Seed the cherries and 
add them to the kernels, bruised in a 
stoneware mortar ; mash together ; add 
the sugar and water, stirring until all 
the sugar is dissolved ; strain the mixture, 
and freeze. 

Currant-Ice. — To make 16 qt. : Mash 
4 qt. of bright red currants with 11 lb. 
of sugar, squeeze in the juice of 8 lemons, 
add 8 qt. of clear water and a drop of 
red color ; strain and freeze. 

Custard for Ices. — Cream, 1 qt. ; eggs, 
6 ; powdered loaf sugar, 12 oz. Break the 
eggs into a stewpan, and whisk together ; 
add the cream and sugar ; when well 
mixed, place on the fire, and continue 
stirring from the bottom with the whisk, 
to prevent burning, until it gets thick ; 
take from the fire, continue to stir for 
a few minutes, and pass through a sieve. 
If the custard be suffered to boil it will 
curdle. 

Fruit-Ices. — 1. — With fruit-ices it is 
much the same as with creams. A boiled 
fruit will not have as fine aroma and 
strength of flavor as the fruit used in its 
natural state. The sugar, fully dissolved 
in the water and juice, will make the ice 
as smooth, and have a better flavor, pro- 
viding enough sugar is used — less than 
1 lb. to the quart. This will require a 
heavier salting for the making and keep- 
ing. 

2. — Take crushed cherries, % gal. ; 
crushed pineapple, 1 pt. ; crushed straw- 
berries, 1 pt ; sliced pineapple (chopped), 
1 can ; sliced bananas, % doz. ; chopped 
nuts, 1 lb. ; maraschino cherries, cut in 
two, % bottle ; syrup, 1 gal, ; then add 
1 oz. of solution of citric acid, and water 
enough to make 3 gal. Freeze, pack, and 
let stand. Then serve with a little 
whipped cream and a cherry on top. 
^ Fruit Pudding, Frozen. — French cher- 
ries, 4 oz.; candied lemon, orange peel, 
4 oz., also citron and currants. Saturate 
them well with rum. Next prepare the 
following custard : Raw cream, 2 qt. ; 
yolks of 8 eggs ; sugar, 12 oz. Make it 
after the manner of French ice cream. 
When frozen, incorporate the fruit, and 
let stand for 1 hour. Then fill into melon 
molds, sprinkle with picked and washed 
currants, and pack in ice until wanted. 
Serve with rum sauce. 

Ginger. — Preserved ginger, 6 oz. ; 
cream, 1 qt. ; syrup from the ginger, % 



(Water Ices) 



pt. ; sugar, sufficient to sweeten ; juice of 
2 lemons. Pound the ginger in a mor- 
tar, add the cream, and freeze. 

Grape-Ice.- — Sugar, 2 lb. ; 2 lemons ; 1 
orange ; red Tokay grapes, 2 qt. ; water, 
1 qt. Put the grapes, sugar and water 
in a kettle, and place over a slow fire, 
under constant stirring bring it to a boil, 
then pass it through a sieve, leaving skin 
and pits behind. Squeeze the lemons and 
orarge, and add the juice. When cold, 
freeze in the usual manner. If this is 
to be served in glasses, beat up quite stiff 
the whites of 4 eggs and mix into the 
batch, smooth and foamy. A few drops 
of red color should be added to give it 
a more positive appearance, and 2 or 3 
whole grapes placed on each portion. 

Grape-Juice Sherhet. — Sweeten 1 qt. of 
grape juice to taste, add ^ lb. of sugar to 
the juice of 6 oranges, stir till sugar dis- 
solves, mix together, and freeze slowly. 
Beat the white of an egg, adding 1 table- 
spoorful of powdered sugar, and stir into 
the sherbet ; repack, and set aside for 2 
hours. Serve in sherbet cups. 

Lemon-Ice. — 1. — Water, 4 qt. ; lemons, 
10 ; sugar, 4^^ lb. Grate half the lemons 
as described in the foregoing formulas, 
squeeze out, and put rind, juice, half the 
water, and the sugar into a pan, set it 
on fire, and stir until the sugar is dis- 
solved and it becomes quite warm. Then 
remove, and add the remaining 2 qt. of 
water, and strain into the freezer. If 
it is not tart enough, add a solution of 
citric acid to suit your taste ; then freeze 
in the usual manner. Some makers add 
a few egg whites before freezing, or when 
half frozen. This is not recommended, as 
it makes the ice too light, and the conse- 
quence is that the ice will become icy 
and rough after standing any length of 
time. 

2. — Lemon juice, % pt. ; water, % pt. ; 
syrup, 1 pt. ; peels of 4 lemons, rubbed 
on sugar (or the yellow rind, pared or 
grated off, and the juice squeezed to it 
in a basin) ; let remain for an hour or 
two, strain, mix, and freeze. Whip the 
whites of 3 eggs to a strong froth, with 
a little sugar, as for meringues ; when 
the ice is beginning to set, work well in ; 
freeze to required consistency. If to be 
served in glasses, the meringue may be 
added after it has been frozen. 

Liqueur Cream Ice. — Flavor with the 
different liqueurs from which each _ is 
named. Put 1 qt. of cream into the ice 
pot with 6 oz. of sugar, which place in 
the ice ; work well about the sides with a 
whisk for about 5 minutes ; add a glassful 
of liqueur, work together ; whisk the 



[555] 



Ice Creams., Confectionery and Chewing Gum 



(Water Ices) 



whites of 2 eggs to a strong froth, add 
2 oz. of sugar, mix well with the cream, 
and freeze to the required consistency. 

Liqueur-Ice. — Lemon ice, using less 
water, and making up the deficiency with 
liqueur. If the taste of the lemon pre- 
vails too much, add more water and syrup 
to correct. 

Nesselrode Pudding. — Blanched Span- 
ish chestnuts, % lb. ; yolks of 6 eggs ; 
milk, iy2 pt. ; sugar, i^ \h. ; cream, % pt. ; 
maraschino, % gill ; mixed glace, ^ lb., 
or candied peels, citron sultanas, pineap- 
ple, angelica and cherries. Scald and 
well clean the chestnuts, boil them in 
the milk until tender, then pulp them. 
Whisk the yolks and sugar, add them to 
the nuts and milk, and cook the mixture 
until it thickens. When cold, flavor with 
vanilla, and freeze in the usual manner. 
Meanwhile, pour the maraschino over the 
fruits, which must be cut in small pieces, 
and let them stand on ice for a time. 
Beat up the cream a^d add it to the part- 
ly frozen custard; freeze very dry, beat- 
ing all well up with the spatula. Stir 
in the prepared fruits, let it stand a few 
minutes in the freezer, then mold. A 
sauce, made as follows, is usually served 
with this pudding : Whisk or beat well 
together ^ pt. of good cream, 2 table- 
spoonfuls of sugar and 1 gill of mara- 
schino. It may be garnishedjvith molded 
dessert-ices and cut angelica"leaves. 

Noyau Cream-Ice. — Custard cream, 
and flavor with noyau ; finish as almond- 
ice. 

Orange Ice. — 1. — China orange juice, 1 
pt. ; syrup, 1 pt. ; water, ^ pt. ; juice of 
4 large lemons. Rub the yellow rind of 
4 oranges and 2 lemons on sugar, scrape 
off, and mix with the strained juice, 
syrup and water. 

2. — Orange juice, 2 pt. ; juice of 2 lem- 
ons ; orarge-flower water, ^^ dr. ; syrup, 
2 pt. ; water, 6 pt. ; beaten white of 1 
egg. Mix well, and freeze hard. 

3. — Orange juice, 1 qt. ; lemon juice, 1 
oz. ; grated rind of 1 orange ; syrup (35°), 
1 qt. ; water, 4 oz. Heat the syrup and 
mix with the other ingredients ; let the 
mixture stand in a well covered recep- 
tacle for an hour, then freeze. 

Oranges, Frozen. — Cut oranges, 2 lb. ; 
sugar, 2 lb. ; juice of 2 lemor-s ; water, 1 
qt. Choose a thin-skinned orange, grate 
some on a lump of sugar, and cut enough 
of the flesh into small pieces, or cut each 
quarter in half, and pick out the seeds. 
Mix all the ingredients together, and 
when the sugar is dissolved, freeze. It 
is not necessary, however, to freeze them 
extra, for every water-ice can be used for 



(Water Ices) 



frozen fruits ; all that is necessary is to 
mix some chopped fruits into the ice, 
while berries can be added whole. 

Peach. — The white or flesh-colored free- 
stone are the best for ices. They are 
of good flavor, and do not contain so 
much acid as different other varieties. 
They have to be worked up as quickly 
as possible, as the flavor of peaches is 
very delicate, and exposure to the air, 
if only for a short time, will not only 
discolor the pulp, but will also destroy 
the best part of the flavor. When used 
for cream, the peach should be pared and 
dropped into the cream ; but for water- 
ice the fruit needs only to be brushed, 
mashed, strained, and mixed with the 
necessary amount of sugar, to which may 
be added a few peach kernels to heighten 
the flavor. 

Peach-Ice. — 1. — Syrup, 2 qt. ; peach 
pulp, 2 qt. ; peach kernels, 4 or 5 ; lemon 
juice, 1 oz. ; water, enough. Use white- 
fleshed peaches ; mash them, with the ker- 
nels ; add the syrup, lemon juice, and 
enough water to bring the mixture to 18 
or 20° on the syrup gauge ; strain and 
freeze. 

2. — Pulp of ripe peaches, 1 lb. ; syrup, 
% pt. ; water, % pt. ; juice of 2 lemons. 
Mix as apricot. If the fruit is not ripe 
enough to pulp, open, and take out the 
stones, put in a stewpan with the syrup 
and water, boil until tender, and pass 
through a sieve ; mix in the pounded ker- 
nels ; when cold, freeze. 

Pear Water-ice. — As apple. 
^ Pineapple. — 1. — Fresh Fruit. — Fresh 
pineapple, 1 lb. ; syrup, % pt., in which 
a pine has been preserved ; 2 or 3 slices 
of pineapple cut in small dice ; juice of 3 
lemons. Pound or grate the pineapple, 
pass through a sieve, mix with 1 qt. of 
cream, and freeze. 

2. — Preserved Fruit. — Preserved pine- 
apple, 8 oz. ; cream, 1 qt. ; juice of 3 
lemons ; pine syrup, suflScient to sweeten. 
Pound the preserved pine, mix the lemons 
with the cream, and freeze. 

Pineapple, Frozen. — Two pineapples, 
grated ; water, 2 qt. ; sugar, 2 lb. ; beaten 
whites of 2 eggs. Freeze same as ice 
cream. 

Pineapple Sherbet. — Sugar, 9 lb. ; wa- 
ter, 10 qt. ; juice of 1 doz. lemons ; grated 
pineapple, 4 cans, or four fresh pineap- 
ples. Pour the boiling water over the 
sugar, add the lemon juice and the grated 
pineapples, or else use only the juice of 
the pineappfes, if desired ; stir it well ; 
when cold, add the whites of 12 eggs, 
mix well, and freeze. The addition of 
eggs makes the sherbet lighter and more 
frothy. 



[556] 



Ice Creams, Confectionery and Chewing Gum 



(Water Ices) 



Pineapple Water-ice. — 1. — Pine syrup, 
'V2 pt. ; water, 1 pt. ; juice of 2 lemons ; 
3 or 4 slices of preserved pine, cut into 
small dice ; mix, and freeze. 

2. — Fresh. — Pineapple, 1 lb. ; syrup, 1 
pt. ; water, % pt. ; juice of 2 lemons. Cut 
the pine in pieces, put into a stewpan 
with the syrup and water, and boil until 
tender ; pass through a sieve, add the 
lemon juice, with 2 or 3 slices of the 
pine cut in small dice, mix, and, when 
cold, freeze. 

3. — Pineapple juice, 2^/^ pt. ; juice of 2 
lemons ; syrup, 3 pt. ; water, 4 pt. 

Punch-Ice. — Make a good lemon-ice, or 
use some orange juice with the lemons, 
in the proportion of 1 orange to 2 lem- 
ons ; either rub off the yellow rind of the 
lemons on sugar, or pare it very thin 
and soak it in the spirit for a few hours ; 
when the ice is beginning to set work in 
the whites of 3 eggs to each qt., beaten 
to a strong froth, and mixed with sugar, 
as for meringue, or add the whites with- 
out whisking. When nearly frozen, take 
the pot from the ice, and mix well with 
it some rum and brandy (the prevailing 
flavor distinguishes it as rum punch or 
brandy punch-ice) ; after the spirit is 
well mixed replace the pot and finish 
freezing. Champagne, arrack or tea may 
be added. 

Raspberry. — 1. — Fresh Fruit. — Rasp- 
berries, 1 qt. ; cream, 1 qt. ; sugar, % to 
1 lb. ; a few ripe currants and gooseber- 
ries, or cherries, may be added, instead 
of all raspberries, and the juice of 2 lem- 
ons. Mash the fruit, pass through a sieve 
to take out the skins and seeds, mix with 
the other articles, add a little prepared 
cochineal to heighten the color, put it 
in the pot, and freeze. All ices made 
with red fruit require this addition of 
cochineal. 

2. — Jam. — Jam, 1 lb. ; cream, 1 qt. ; 
sugar or syrup, about 6 oz. ; juice of 2 
lemons. Mix as before. 

Raspberry, Frozen. — Raspberries, 2 
lb. ; sugar, 2 lb. ; water, 1 qt. Mix the 
berries and sugar, stir lightly once or 
twice until the sugar is dissolved, add 
the water, and freeze, beating only enough 
to congeal it. Color. If in any case 
the sugar does not dissolve entirely, add 
enough water, or, better still, juice of the 
same fruit, to accomplish it, and no 
more. 

Raspberry Ice. — Raspberry juice, IV^ 
pt. ; lemon juice, y^ pt. ; syrup, 3 . pt. ; 
water, 3^ pt. ; cochineal coloring, cara- 
mel, of each a sufficient quantity to color. 

Raspberry Sherbet. — One quart of ber- 
ries, mashed. Sprinkle over these 1 pt. 



(Water Ices) 



of sugar, add the juice of 1 lemon, and y^.. 
pt. of water in which has been dissolved' 
1 teaspoonful of gelatine. Freeze as you 
would ice cream. 

Ratafia Cream. — Cream, 1 qt., as for 
brown bread; ratafia cakes, crumbled 
quite fine, 6 or 8 oz. Mix with the cream 
when frozen. 

Roman Punch-Ice. — Make 1 qt. of 
lemon-ice, and flavor with rum, brandy, 
champagne and maraschino ; when frozen, 
to each qt. take the whites of 3 eggs, and 
whip to a very strong froth ; boil % lb. 
of sugar to the ball, and rub it with a 
spoon or spatula against the sides to 
grain it ; when it turns white, mix quick- 
ly with the white of egg, stir lightly to- 
gether, and serve in glasses ; less sugar 
must be used in the ice, so as to allow 
for that which is used in making the 
meringue. 

Straioberry. — As raspberry. 

Strawberry, Frozen. — Make a straw- 
berry water-ice, and, when frozen, add 
the smallest ripe, whole strawberries ; 
freeze a little longer, repack with ice 
and salt, and let stand to harden. 

Strawberry Ice. — l.^Strawberry juice, 
2l^ pt. ; syrup, 2^2 pt. ; water, 3 pt. ; juice 
of 1 lemon ; cochineal coloring, a suffi- 
cient quantity to color. 

2. — Best scarlet pines, 2 bottles ; syrup, 

1 pt. ; water, % pt. ; juice of 2 lemons. 
Mix as currant. All red fruits require 
a little prepared cochineal to heighten 
the color. 

Siviss Pudding. — Take 1% pt. of cream 
and % pt. of milk, and make into a cus- 
tard with yolks of 7 eggs ; flavor with 
curacoa, maraschiro or rum ; freeze the 
custard, and add about % lb. of dried 
cherries, orange, lemon and citron peel 
and currants ; mix in the iced custard. 
The curacoa or rum may be poured over 
the fruit when you commence freezing, or 
before. Prepare the mold, which is 
melon-shaped, opening in the center with 
a hinge. Strew over the inside with 
clean currants, fill and close ; immerse in 
some fresh ice mixed with salt. Before 
turning out prepare a dish as follows : 
Make a little custard, and flavor with 
brandy ; dissolve some isinglass in water 
or milk, and when nearly cold add suffi- 
cient to the custard to set it ; pour into 
the dish you intend to serve on. As soon 
as set, turn the pudding on it and serve. 

Tea-Ice. — Cream, 1 qt. ; best green tea, 

2 oz. ; sugar, 12 oz. Put the tea into a 
cup, pour on a little cold river water in 
which has been dissolved a portion of 
carbonate of soda (about as much as may 
be placed on a 10-cent piece), let re- 



f557] 



Ice Creams, Confectionery and Chewing Gum 



(Water Ices) 



main for an hour or two, add boiling 
water sufficient to make a very strong 
infusion, or cold water in proportion, let- 
ting it soak longer, when a superior in- 
fusion will be obtained ; strain, and add 
to the cream and eggs. Finish as the 
others. 

Tutu Frutti Ice. — Simple syrup, 1 pt. ; 
water, 1 pt. ; kirschwasser, 1 gill ; pure 
vanilla extract, 1 teaspoonful ; the juice 



(Water Ices) 



of 2 lemons ; mixed fruits, cut in small 
pieces, 1 pt. Mix the syrup, water, liquor, 
vanilla and lemon juice, and freeze the 
mixture ; then mix into it a meringue 
mass, made of the whites of 2 eggs and 2 
oz. of powdered sugar, freeze again, and 
then add the fruit ; mix them lightly, but 
thoroughly well in ; the ice may then be 
molded and buried in ice and salt till 
needed for use. 



t558J 



CHAPTER XV 



IJS^SECTICIDES AND EXTERMIJS^ATIOIS" OF YERMIJS^ 

DOMESTIC, AGRICITLTUEAL AIS^D 

HOETICIJLTUEAL 



Many formulas for insecticides have 
been published at considerable length for 
the use of agriculturists. As these for- 
mulas would not interest the average 
reader they are omitted, but can be 
readily obtained by consulting the Scien- 
tific American Supplement, Nos. 968, 
1124, 1594 and 1595, which have valua- 
ble articles on Agricultural Insecticides 
and methods of application. These papers 
describe the following insecticides : Ar- 
senate of lead, arseniate of lime, white 
arsenic, arsenic branmash, London pur- 
ple, Paris green, Scheele's green, white 
hellebore, fish oil soap, kerosene emul- 
sion, kerosene milk emulsion, lime, lime- 
salt, sulphur wash, lye and washing soda, 
sulphur, tobacco, whale oil, carbon bi- 
sulphate, hydrocyanic acid gas, spraying, 
etc. 

Animals, Protectives of, from Insects. 

1.— Bay oil, 500.0; naphthalin, 100.0; 
camphor, 60.0 ; animal oil, 25.0. 

2. — Bay oil, pressed, 400.0 ; naphthalin, 
100.0 ; crude carbolic acid, 10.0. 

3.— Lard, 450.0; ceresin, 300.0; bay 
oil, 800.0; camphor, 80.0; naphthalin, 
80.0 ; rosemary oil, 25.0. 

Ants. 

1. — To drive ants out of the room and 
keep them out use insect powder, ground 
mustard, sulphur, camphor, tobacco, 
cloves, oil of cedar, kerosene, persistence. 

2. — Peru balsam smeared on table legs 
or the feet of a cupboard keeps ants off 
furniture. 1 oz. of the balsam boiled in 
1 gal. of water and used as a wash has 
a similar effect 

3. — To poison ants, feed them on borax 
and sugar, or yeast cake and sugar. 

4. — To kill the insects by wholesale, 
drop some quicklime on the mouth of 
their nests and wash it in boiling water. 

5. — Pour into their retreats water in 
which camphor or tobacco has been 
steeped. 



6. — Grease a plate with lard and set 
it where the ants can readily get at it. 
They will gather by the plateful. The 
plate may be held over an open fire, when 
lard and ants will quickly disappear. Re- 
peat until the ants are exterminated. 

7. — Saturate a piece of cotton with 
chloroform and stuff into the entrance of 
their burrows and seal the entrance so as 
to keep the fumes inside. This must be 
done when the ants are at home. 

8. — Saturate a sponge with sweetened 
water and when the ants have gathered, 
plunge the sponge into boiling water. 

9. — A spray of benzine from an ato- 
mizer is sudden death to most insects. 
Benzine is so dangerous, on account of 
fire, that its use is not recommended ex- 
cept in the hands of careful and ex- 
perienced people ; perhaps carbon tetra- 
chloride would answer as well. 

10. — Powdered borax sprinkled around 
the infested places will exterminate both 
red ants and black ants. Powdered cloves 
is said to drive them away. 

11. — Lawns. — Tlie use of carbon disul- 
phide is recommended to destroy ants' 
nests on lawns. A little of the disulphide 
is poured into the openings of the hill or 
disk, stepping on each as it is treated to 
close it up. The volatile vapors of the 
disulphide will penetrate the chambers 
of the nest in every direction, and if sufl&- 
cient has been used will kill, not only the 
adult insects, but the larvae as well. A 
single treatment is generally suflScient. 

12. — Trees, To Prevent Anfs from In- 
juring. — Make a line of gas tar round the 
stem of the tree, or if it be trained on a 
wall, make a horizontal line near the 
ground on the wall, and one around the 
stem ; this will prevent ants from ascend- 
ing. 

Aphides, and Similar Plant Parasites. 

Spray the plant with a very weak solu- 
tion of alum — 1% to 2%. This solution 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[ 559 ] 



Insecticides and Extermination of Vermin 



(Bites of Insects) 



is said not to be liarmful to even tender 
plants, but fatal to parasites. 

Bedbugs. 

1. — Rub the joints of the bedstead with 
equal parts spirits of turpentine and ker- 
osene oil, and where there are many, the 
cracks in the surface of the room. Fill- 
ing up all the cracks with hard soap is 
a good remedy. 

2. — Take everything out of the infested 
room, plug up all the windows tightly, 
close all chimneys, and empty about 1 
oz. of powdered sulphur on a pan of hot 
coals, placed in the middle of the floor. 
Shut the doors and cover all the cracks ; 
let the sulphur burn as long as it will. 
Where the room is large, it is a good plan 
to fasten a bit of tin tube to the bottom 
of the pan, and to this connect enough 
small rubber pipe to lead out of the pipe 
with the bellows, the sulphur will be 
caused to burn more quickly by the 
draught created, and to give a denser 
smoke. After the sulphur has burned 
out, paint all the cracks in the floor and 
around the mop board with a strong solu- 
tion of corrosive sublimate, and treat the 
furniture to the same before replacing it. 
We have seen a room frightfully infested 
completely freed by this plan. 

3. — Corrosive sublimate, 1 oz. ; muri- 
atic acid, 2 oz. ; water, 4 oz. ; dissolve, 
then add tui-pentine, 1 pt. ; decoction of 
tobacco, 1 pt. Mix. For the decoction 
of tobacco boil 2 oz. of tobacco in 1 pt. of 
water. The mixture must be applied 
with a paint brush. This wash is a 
deadly poison. 

4. — Mix together : camphor, 2 oz. ; 
spirits of turpentine, 4 oz. ; corrosive 
sublimate, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 1 pt. 

5. — Strong mercurial ointment, 1 oz. ; 
soft soap, 1 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 1 pt. 

6. — Benzine, gasoline or coal oil will 
kill these pests as fast as they can be 
reached. By using a spring bottom oiler 
the fluid can be forced into all the cracks 
and crevices. As the fluid is inflammable, 
contact with fire must be avoided. The 
room should- be well aired. 

Beetles, To Exterminate. 

1. — Red lead, sugar and flour, equal 
parts ; mix ; sprinkle near the holes. 

2. — Powdered borax, 20 parts ; precipi- 
tated carbonate of baryta, 10 parts. The 
precipitated carbonate of baryta should 
be used, and not the native witherite. 

Bites of Insects. 

Protection Against Insects. — 1. — Yel- 
low wax, 85.0 ; spermaceti, 60.0 ; sweet 



(Buffalo Moths) 



oil, 500.0. Melt and add : Boiling dis- 
tilled water, 150.0. After cooling add : 
Clove oil, 2.0 ; thyme oil, 3.0 ; eucalyptus 
oil, 4.5. 

2. — Bay oil, pressed, 100.0 ; acetic 
ether, 12.0 ; clove oil, 4.0 ; eucalyptus oil, 
3.0. 

3.— Yellow wax, 75.0; bay oil, 160.0; 
thyme oil, 8.0 ; eucalyptus oil, 8.0. 

4. — 'White vaseline, 120.0 ; patchouli 
oil, 4.0 ; valerian oil, 3.0. 

5.— Alcohol, 130.0; thymol, 10.0; eu- 
calyptus oil, 5.0 ; marjoram oil, 3.0. 

Remedies for Insect Bites. — 1. — Car- 
bolic acid, 15 gr. ; glycerine, 2 dr. ; rose 
water, 4 oz. 

2. — Salicylic acid, 15 gr. ; collodion, 2^ 
dr. ; spirit of ammonia, 5^ dr. 

3. — Fid. ext. Rhus toxicendron, 1 dr. ; 
water, 8 oz. 

4. — Ipecac, in powder, 1 dr. ; alcohol, 
1 oz. ; ether, 1 oz. 

5. — One of the very best applications 
for the bites of mosquitoes and fleas, also 
for other eruptions attended with in- 
tense itchings, is : Menthol in alcohol, 1 
part to 10. This is very cooling and 
immediately effectual. It is an excellent 
lotion for application to the forehead 
and temples in headache, often at once 
subduing the same. 

6. — Ammonia water, 5 dr. ; collodion, 
6 dr. ; salicyclic acid, 3 gr. Mix and ap- 
ply. 
Buffalo Moths. 

It may be well to explain as a pre- 
liminary that the insect commonly spoken 
of as the "buffalo moth" is not really a 
moth but a beetle or carpet bug, a name 
quite appropriate, as it has been known 
to effect sad havoc among floor coverings. 

1. — Common salt sprinkled freely on 
the floor underneath the edges of the car- 
pet reduced the ravages of the bug mater- 
ially. 

2. — Benzine, kerosene and insect pow- 
der are also credited with being efficient 
in the destruction of the grub. Regarding 
the latter there may be room for doubt. 
When using benzine, its highly inflam- 
mable character should aways be borne 
in mind. It should be applied only in 
the entire absence of fire or light, as the 
vapor formed by its evaporation readily 
ignites at long distances from its source. 

3. — The best protection for woolen gar- 
ments which are out of use is to thorough- 
ly dust them and then enclose in paper, 
the joints of the parcel being accurately 
sealed so as to prevent the incursion of 
any insect pest. The inclusion of cam- 
phor or naphthaline is an additional safe- 



[ 5'60 ] 



Insecticides and Extermination of Vermi/n 



(Dogs) 



guard in keeping away some kinds, per- 
haps all ; but if eggs remain undisturbed 
when the fabric is put away, there is no 
evidence that we are aware of that they 
will not hatch. 

Caterpillars, To Destroy. 

1. — There are no fewer than 19 insect 
enemies of the grape, and of these, 7 or 
8 assume the caterpillar form at some 
stage of their development. If the fruit 
has not been formed, they may as a gen- 
eral thing be destroyed by sprinkling the 
vines with a solution of Paris green or 
London purple with water, say a heaping 
teaspoonful of the former to 2 gal. of 
the latter. The vines may be dusted with 
a mixture of the poisons and plaster or 
flour, in the proportion of 1 to 100. 
After the fruit has formed, a kerosene 
soap emulsion sprinkled on the vines 
would be destructive to the pests without 
endangering human life. Take about 4 lb. 
of common yellow bar soap, 1 gal. of 
kerosene, and 1 gal. of water ; heat the 
mass over the stove, stirring it till it 
forms a homogeneous, thick yellowish 
liquid, then remove the mixture from the 
stove and continue the stirring until it 
becomes cool. This should be largely di- 
luted with warm soft water, and it will 
be permanent. 

2. — Spraying with a decoction of to- 
bacco, or with 2% carbolic acid water. 

3. — Or with 0.5% solution of copperas. 

4. — Or cautious dusting Avith burnt 
lime. 

5. — Venice turpentine, 200 parts ; rosin, 
1,000 parts ; turpentine, 140 parts ; tar, 
80 parts ; lard, 500 parts ; rape oil, 240 
parts ; tallow, 200 parts. 

6. — Rosin, 50 parts ; lard, 40 parts ; 
stearine oil, 40 parts. 

7. — Rosin, 3 parts ; rape oil, 4 parts ; 
lard, 2 parts ; soft soap, 1 part ; wood tar, 
10 parts. 

8. — Rosin, 36 parts ; rape oil, 36 parts ; 
Venice turpentine, 20 parts ; wood tar, 5 
parts ; turpentine, 3 parts. Paint the mix- 
ture while warm on strips of paper 
smoothly on the tree trunk about a yard 
above the ground. This should be done 
at the end of October or the beginning of 
November, to prevent the females of the 
winter moth from climbing tree. 

Dogs. 

1. — A soap for washing dogs and other 
animals is sometimes made by mixing 
Stockholm tar (wood tar) with melted 
soap. The tar should first be dissolved 
in pyroxylic spirit (wood naphtha). 

2. — Petroleum, 5 grams ; wax, 4 grams ; 



(Flies in Houses) 



alcohol, 5 CO. ; good laundry soap, 15 
grams. Heat the petroleum, wax and al- 
cohol in a water bath until they are well 
mixed, and dissolve in the mixture the 
soap cut in fine shavings. This may be 
used on man or beast for driving away 
vermin. 

3. — Soft soap, 2 oz. ; creolin, 1^^ oz. ; 
alcohol, 10 oz. ; water, 20 oz. Dissolve 
the soap and creolin in the alcohol, and 
add the water gradually. 

Fleas, Lice, Ticks, etc., on Domestic 
Animals. 

For fleas on a dog or cat, place the 
animal in a box without a top, and rub 
a good insect powder plentifully into its 
hair. The fleas will drop off, and if a 
little straw is in the bottom of the box 
to hold them, they may be burned with 
it. The powder must be of good quality 
and the application should be made on 
a clear, dry day. 

1. — Oil of pennyroyal, or a decoction of 
the herb, applied to animals is said to 
drive fleas off. 

2. — It is also said that the insects will 
not remain where chamomile flowers are. 

3. — Insect powder well sprinkled about 
a room will tend to discourage the pests. 

4. — Clove oil, 4 dr. ; Cologne water, 5 
oz. ; alcohol, 7 oz. Mix and filter. 

Flies, House. 

Essences for Spraying. — 1. — Eucalyp- 
tol, 10 parts ; bergamot oil, 3 parts ; 
acetic ether, 10 parts ; Cologne water, 50 
parts; alcohol, 9%, 100 parts. Mix. 1 
part of this "essence" is to be added to 
10 parts of water and sprayed around the 
rooms frequently. 

Fly Papers. — Fly papers are of two 
kinds. One is a non-poisonous variety to 
which the flies adhere once they have 
alighted upon it. By their struggles to 
get free, the flies then smear themselves 
all over with the sticky compound, and 
getting their spiracles stopped up, perish 
of suffocation. The other kind contains 
a poison, generally arsenic, which is made 
palatable by means of sugar in some 
form, and which the flies, in imbibing 
the sugar, take into their stomachs with 
fatal results. Of course, sweet substances 
are added to the sticky fly papers to 
attract the insects. 

Liquids, Non-poisonous. — 1. — Quassia 
chips, 20 parts ; molasses, 3 parts ; alco- 
hol, 1 part ; water, 115 parts. Macerate 
the quassia in 100 parts of water for 24 
hours, boil for half an hour, set aside for 
24 hours, then press out the liquid. Mix 
this with the molasses and evaporate to 



[5611 



Insecticides and Eoc termination of Vermin 



(Flies in Houses) 



4 parts. Add the alcohol and the remain- 
ing 15 parts of water, add without filter- 
ing, saturate absorbent paper with it. 
This being set out on a plate with a little 
water attracts the flies, which are killed 
by partaljing of the liquid. 

2. — Infusion quassia, 1 pint ; brown 
sugar, 4 oz. ; ground pepper, 2 oz. Mix 
well and place in small shallow dishes. 

3. — Ground pepper, 1 dr. ; brown sugar, 
1 dr. ; milk or cream, 2 fl.dr. As above. 

4. — Cobalt Ply Paper. — Vomacka gives 
the following : Quassia chips, 150 parts ; 
chloride of cobalt, 10 parts ; tartar 
emetic, 2 parts ; tincture of long pepper 
(1 to 4 of good spirit), 80 parts; water, 
400 parts. 

5. — Quassia, 40 parts ; colocynth, 5 
parts ; piper longum, 8 parts, boiled with 
water to 120 parts filtrate, adding 10 
parts of syrup ; the paper is saturated 
with this and to prevent souring it is 
dried as quickly as possible. 

Liquids, Poisonous. — These are pre- 
pared by saturating absorbent paper with 
poisonous solutions. 

1. — Honey, 12 oz. ; orpiment, 1 oz. 
Sugar may be used in place of the honey 
if a powder is desired. 

2. — Make a solution of 2 parts arsen- 
iate of potassium or arseniate of sodium, 

4 parts white sugar, 40 parts water. Sat- 
urate stout unsized paper in this solu- 
tion, then dry. To use the paper, mois- 
ten it with water, and place in saucers. 
Great care should* be taken with this 
paper, as it is poisonous. 

3. — As strong a solution of white ar- 
senic las can be made in sweetened water. 

4. — A mixture of molasses, honey, or 
moist sugar, with about 1-12 of its weight 
of King's yellow or orpiment. 

5. — Boil 2 oz. of small quassia chips 
in 1 gal. of water for 10 minutes. Strain 
and sweeten with 2 lb. of molasses. Ven- 
ice turpentine may also be added. 

6. — Mix together : Black pepper, 1 oz. ; 
brown sugar, 2 oz. ; cream, 4 oz. 

7. — Dissolve 2 oz. of arsenic or potash 
or soda and 4 oz. of sugar in a quart of 
water. 

Fumigating Paper. — Apply to bibulous 
paper a strong ethereal or alcoholic solu- 
tion of benzoin, tolu, storax, olibanum or 
labdanum. To burn well the paper should 
first be impregnated with an aqueous so- 
lution of saltpeter and dried. 

Powders. — 1. — Powdered long pepper, 

5 parts ; powdered quassia, 5 parts, pow- 
dered sugar, 10 parts ; alcohol, 68%, 4 
parts. Mix the powders, moisten with the 
alcohol, dry, and powder again. Keep 
well stoppered. For use, a little is placed 



(Gophers and Ants) 



in a saucer and set where the flies are 
most abundant. 

2. — Eucalyptol, 1 part ; powdered orris 
root, 4 parts ; powdered starch, 15 parts. 
Dispense in sprinkle-top tin boxes. 

3. — Eucalyptol, 5 parts; chalk, 10 
parts ; starch, 85 parts. Mix. To use, 
cover the hands, head and other exposed 
parts. The flies will not come near them. 

Skin Applications. — Hagar says mix- 
tures like the following are to be applied 
to the skin : Pure oil tar, 1 oz. ; olive 
oil, 1 oz. ; oil of pennyroyal, % oz. ; spirit 
of camphor, % oz. ; glycerine, ^ oz. ; car- 
bolic acid, 2 dr. 

Flies, Gnats, etc., To Keep from Stock. 

1. — The best protection for animals, 
says the Pharmaceutische Zeitung, Berlin, 
against flies, gnats, gadflies, and even hor- 
nets, is eucalyptus oil, but on account of 
fts dearness it is generally mixed with 
laurel oil. The following has proven 
highly effective : To eucalyptus water 
add enough creolin to cause a milky tur- 
bulence, and with this wet the parts of 
the body exposed to attack, using a sponge 
as a vehicle. Be careful not to get too 
much creolin, as this has a tendency to 
make the hair rough and unsightly. 

2. — a. — As a sure protection against 
gadflies, the following is recommended : 
Laurel oil, 1,000 parts ; acetic ether, 200 
parts ; naphthaline, 200 parts ; clove oil, 
20 parts. Mix. 

b. — Animal oil, 100 parts ; alcohol, 200 
parts ; acetic acid, 5,000 parts. Mix. 

Flower Pots, Worms in. 

Corrosive sublimate, 2 oz. ; ammonium 
chloride, 4 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pt. When 
cold add this solution to 2 gal. cold water. 

Fungous Diseases of Trees. 

Copper carbonate, 1 oz, ; ammonia, 
enough to dissolve the copper ; water, 9 
gal. The copper carbonate is best dis- 
solved in large bottles, where it will keep 
indefinitely, and it should be diluted with 
water as required. Copper sulphate, 1 
lb. ; water, 15 gal. Dissolve the copper 
sulphate in the water, when it is ready 
for use. This should never he applied to 
foliage, htit must he used hefore the huds 
hreak. For peaches and nectarines use 
25 gallons of water. 

Gophers and Ants, To Exterminate. 

Add % oz. of strychnine to 1 pt. of 
hot vinegar — more if the vinegar is of 
poor grade — and after the strychnine has 
all dissolved, mix the vinegar solution 
with three quarts of water. In this solu- 
tion soak 10 lbs. of wheat for eighteen or 



[562 1 



Insecticides and Extermiiiation of Vermin 



(Lice) 



twenty hours, by which time the solution 
will be entirely absorbed by the grain. 
Then spread the wheat in the sun to dry. 
Frequent and vigorous stirring is neces- 
sary while the wheat is soaking, in order 
that the grain may be uniformly saturated 
with the poison. If properly prepared 
according to this formula, each kernel of 
grain will contain a fatal dose of one 
gopher. 

Next dissolve 3 lbs. of sugar in 1 gal. 
of water and boil down to % gal. This 
gives a good, thick syrup. When cold, 
stir in one teaspoonful of oil of anise. 
When the poisoned wheat is dry, or near- 
ly so, the syrup is poured over it and 
thoroughly stirred until each grain of 
wheat is more or less covered with a coat- 
ing of the syrup. It is then thoroughly 
dried. A few grains, % to % teaspoon- 
ful, are buried near each burrow. A 
word of caution, however, is necessary. 
Wheat so poisoned is a dangerous prep- 
aration and should be kept out of the 
reach of fowls and animals. It should be 
labeled poison and put in some place 
where there is no possible danger of its 
being used for any other purpose than 
that for which it is intended. When 
using, it is advisable to bury it to prevent 
the destruction of useful birds. 

Insecticides, House. 

Liquid. — 1. — Paraffine, 10 parts ; ben- 
zine, 70 parts ; balsam of copaiba, 5 
parts. 

2. — Carbolic acid, 5 parts ; ether, 50 
parts ; benzine, 150 parts. 

3. — Naphthalin, 12 oz. ; benzine, 2 gal. 
Any of these mixtures may be tinted with 
aniline dye or alkanet root. 

4. — Concentrated vinegar, 6 parts ; 
oil of cloves, 2 parts ; oleo-balsamic mix- 
ture, 25 parts ; rectified spirit, 100 parts. 

5. — Tartaric acid, 5 parts ; cologne 
water, 20 parts ; alcohol, 20 parts. 

Powder, Insect. — 1. — Insect powder, 8 
oz. ; borax, 8 oz. ; oil of pennyroyal, 2 dr. 

2. — Insect powder, 8 oz, ; borax, 8 oz. ; 
sulphur, 4 oz. ; oil eucalyptus, 2 dr. 
This formula is especially good for cock- 
roaches. 

3. — Insect powder, 14 oz. ; quassia, 6 
oz. ; white hellebore, 2 oz. 

Lice on Human Beings. 

1. — Borax, % oz. ; glycerine, 1 oz. ; 
decoction of quassia (1 in 5), 15 oz. Ap- 
ply once daily. 

2. — Naphthalin, 4 dr. ; white wax, 1^^ 
dr. ; olive oil, 6 dr. ; petrolatum, 6 dr. ; 
oil of bergamot, 10 min. ; oil of cloves, 10 
min. : oil of cassia, 10 min. 



(Mice) 



Lice on Plants. 

Plant Lice. — 1. — Green soap, 5 parts ; 
tobacco extract, 5 parts ; tincture of 
quassia, 80 parts ; ordinary alcohol, 30 
parts ; sulphate of copper, 5 parts. 

2. — The following process is employed 
at the National School of Horticulture 
at Versailles. The portion of the plant 
attacked is sprinkled with the following 
insecticide : Rich tobacco juice, 1 1. ; 
black soap, 1 to 2 kgm. ; carbonate of 
soda, 1 kgm. ; lamp alcohol, 1 1. ; water, 
100 1. Dissolve the soap in the alcohol, 
and the crystals of soda in water. The 
liquid is applied with a sprayer. A 
single application is not sufficient. The 
treatment should be renewed several times 
when the spots reappear. — Le Cosmos. 

3. — An effective insecticide for vari- 
ous insect pests on greenhouse plants is 
composed of the following : Alcohol, 200 
parts ; soft soap, 20 parts ; quassia wood, 
6 parts; salicylic acid, 2i/^ parts. Macer- 
ate for several days ; dilute with suffi- 
cient water, and apply to the infested 
parts by means of a brush. Allow to 
dry, on the following day wash off with 
plenty of water. 

4. — Salicylic acid, 1 oz. ; soft soap, 2 
oz. ; quassia. 10 oz. ; alcohol, 40 oz. Make 
a tincture and use as a spray. 

5. — Spray the plants with a decoction 
of 100 parts by weight of quassia wood in 
1,000 parts of water. 

Locusts. 

We give from Revue Scientifique a 
remedy against locusts, which has proved 
efficient in Natal : Dissolve equal parts of 
caustic soda and arsenic in thirty-two 
times their combined bulk of boil- 
ing water. Of this stock solution take 
1 gal., dilute it up to 40 gal., add 10 lbs. 
of brown sugar or syrup. In this solu- 
tion sofik straw or Indian corn stems, 
etc., and spread on the fields. The locusts, 
attracted by the sugar, eat the poisonous 
stems and die, others come and eat the 
dead locusts and are also killed. 

Mice. 

1. — 12 parts nitrate of potash (potash- 
niter) dissolved in 24 parts of hot water 
thoroughly mixed with 30 parts of saw- 
dust and 7 parts of coal tar, dried in the 
air, mixed with starch paste (about 10% 
starch and 90% water) into a mass, 
divided into pieces of about i/^ inch thick 
and 1^/4 inches long, well dried and coated 
with melted sulphur. For the destruction 
of field mice. 

2. — Lard, 500 parts ; salicylic acid, 5 



[563] 



Insecticides and Extermination of Vermin 



(Mosquitoes) 



parts; one onion; suet, 0.50 part; bari- 
um carbonate, 500 parts ; solution of am- 
monia, acetate of copper or of verdigris, 
50 parts. The onion is cut up fine and 
fried with the fats until dark brown. The 
salicylic acid is then added and the mix- 
ture strained and stirred until the fat 
nearly sets. The barium is next added, 
and, finally, the copper solution. 

3. — Trees, To Protect. — A mixture of 
tallow, 3 parts ; tar, 1 part. Applied to 
the bark while hot, will protect fruit trees 
against mice. 

Moles. 

Bisulphide is effectual for destroying 
moles on lawns, and for suffocating wasps. 
It should be poured down the entrance to 
the nest at night and the orifice immedi- 
ately closed with a clod of earth. 

Mosquitoes. 

Bites. — Remedies. — 1. — Carbolate of 
lime, 10 gr. ; water, 1 dr. It is said that 
a weak solution of carbolic acid — 1 part 
in 50 — used as a wash will prevent their 
attacks. Also good for gnat bites. 

2. — To alleviate the unpleasant sensa- 
tion caused by the bite of the mosquito, 
various remedies have been suggested. 
Among them are oil of cloves, ammonia, 
bicarbonate of soda, chloroform, thymol 
and ordinary soap. Doctors say we have 
in our own experience obtained more re- 
lief from solution of cocaine, 4%, than 
from anything else. 

3. — Oil of tar, 1 oz. ; olive oil, 1 oz. ; 
oil of pennyroyal, ^^ oz. ; spirit of cam- 
phor, y^ oz. ; glycerine, ^^ oz. ; carbolic 
acid, 2 dr. Mix. Shake well before using. 

4. — Eucalyptol, 10 parts ; acetic ether, 
5 parts ; eau de cologne, 40 parts ; tincture 
of insect powder (1 to 5 S. V. R.), 50 
parts. Mix. For sponging the skin a 
mixture of 1 part of this with 3 to 6 parts 
of water may be used. The tincture is 
also useful for spraying in apartments ; 
for this purpose 1 part may be mixed with 
10 parts water and used in a spray pro- 
ducer. 

5. — Naphthalin, 1 dr. ; oil of lavender, 
2 dr. ; alcohol, 2 oz. 

Extermination. — 1. — To clear a room of 
mosquitoes, take a small piece of gum 
camphor in a tin vessel and evaporate it 
over a flame, taking care it does not 
ignite. A sponge dipped in camphorated 
spirits and made fast to the top of the 
bedstead will be found serviceable in the 
sleeping-room. Decoction of pennyroyal, 
applied to the exposed parts, will effectu- 
ally keep off these troublesome insects. 

2. — A small amount of pennyroyal 



(Moths) 



sprinkled around the room wiir drive away 
mosquitoes. 

3. — Burning a small quantity of Per- 
sian insect powder in a room is said to be 
efficient in driving away mosquitoes. 

4. — Make a paste with mucilage of 
tragacanth of 500 parts charcoal in pow- 
der, 60 parts saltpeter, 40 parts carbolic 
acid, 250 parts insect powder. Divide 
into suitable-sized cones and use as fumi- 
gating pastilles. 

5. — Carbolic acid, 4 grams ; potassium 
nitrate, 6 grams ; insect powder, 25 
grams ; wood charcoal, 50 grams ; traga- 
canth, 9.3 grams. Make a mass and form 
into pastilles, which are to be ignited in 
the infested room. 

6. — Benzoin, 100 parts ; balsam tolu, 
100 parts ; charcoal, 500 parts ; insect 
powder, 150 parts ; saltpeter, 50 parts. 
Make into a mass with water and form 
pastilles as above. 

7. — Dieterich gives the following : Po- 
tassium nitrate, ly^ oz. ; mucilage of 
tragacanth, 2 fl.oz. ; insect powder, 2 oz. ; 
althaea, powdered, 125 gr. ; tragacanth, 
125 gr. Intimately mix the potassium 
nitrate with the mucilage ; also mix the 
other ingredients together, then incorpo- 
rate the powdery mixture with the paste, 
divide the whole into pastilles weighing 30 
gr., and dry at a temperature of 20° to 
25° C. The pastilles may be bronzed or 
gilded if desired. 

Preventives. — 1. — Oil of eucalyptus, 30 
parts ; talc, 60 parts ; starch, 420 parts. 
Apply to hands, face and other exposed 
portions of the body with a powder puff. 

2. — Naphthalin, 1 av.oz. ; talcum, 2 
av.oz. ; starch, 16 av.oz. ; oil of pennyroyal, 
2 fl.dr. Reduce to fine powder. Rub the 
powder into the exposed parts of the 
body. 

Moths. 

Liquids. — 1. — Carbolic acid, 10 grams ; 
oil of cloves, oil of lemon, camphor, of 
each 5 grams; alcohol (90%), 500 grams. 

2. — Benzine is said to be more effective 
than anything else for exterminating 
moths, roaches, etc. 

3. — Carbolic acid, 1 dr. ; camphor, 1 
dr. ; benzine, 3 oz. Mix and dissolve. 
May be sprinkled or sprayed where it is 
required. 

4. — Take of cloves, caraway seeds, nut- 
meg, mace, cinnamon and Tonquin beans, 
of each 1 oz. ; then add as much Floren- 
tine orris root as will equal the other 
ingredients put together ; grind the whole 
well to powder, and then put it in little 
bags among your clothes, etc. Almost 
anything aromatic will keep off moths. 



[564] 



Insecticides and Extermination of Vermin 



(Plants) 



The common bog myrtle which grows so 
freely in swampy places is an excellent 
antidote. A piece of linen, moistened with 
turpentine and put into the wardrobe or 
drawers for a single day, two or three 
times a year, is also a sufficient preserva- 
tive against moths. 

5. — Alcohol, 40 oz. ; tincture of capsi- 
cum, 5 oz. ; naphthalene, 1 oz. ; absolute 
phenol, 1 oz. ; menthol, % oz. ; oil of 
lemon grass, % oz. Mix and filter. To 
be used in the form of a spray by means 
of an atomizer, where the moths frequent. 

Paper. — 1. — Carbolic acid, 1 oz. ; cere- 
sine, 1 oz. ; naphtalin, 2 oz. Melt, im- 
merse pieces of bibulous paper and dry 
these on plates. 

2. — Naphthalin, 4 oz. ; paraffine wax, 
8 oz. Melt together and while warm paint 
unsized paper and pack away with the 
goods. 

Pastilles. — Camphor, 5 parts ; black 
pepper, 10 parts ; absynthe, 10 parts ; 
patchouli, 2 parts ; essence of lavender, 2 
parts ; essence of cloves, 1 part ; paraffine, 
100 parts. Melt together and make into 
pastilles, which are to be burned in clos- 
ets, drawers, etc., in which furs and cloth- 
ing are stored. 

Poioder. — 1. — Lupulin (flour of hops), 
1 dr. ; Scotch snufP, 2 oz. ; gum camphor, 
1 oz. ; black pepper, 1 oz. ; cedar sawdust, 
4 oz. Mix thoroughly and strew or put in 
papers among the furs or woolens to be 
protected. 

2. — Naphthalin, 2 parts ; camphor, 4 
parts ; oil of cinnamon, 2 parts ; oil of 
eucalyptus, 2 parts ; patchouli, 10 parts ; 
valerian, 5 parts ; tobacco, 2 parts ; orris 
root, 5 parts ; sumbul root, 5 parts. AH 
the ingredients to be powdered. 

3. — Naphthalin, 8,000 parts ; camphor, 
1,000 parts ; cumarin, 2 parts ; nitroben- 
zine, 10 parts ; oil neroli, 1 part. 

Sleigh Roles. — Alcohol, 1 pt. ; camphor, 
% oz. ; dissolve. Spray with this liquid 
before storing. 

Plants. ( See also Aphides ; Flower Pots. ) 
To Discover Insects. — 1. — If the leaves 
of the plant turn reddish or yellow, or if 
they curl up, a close inspection will gen- 
erally disclose that the plants are infested 
with a very small green insect, or else 
with the red spider, either of which must 
be destroyed. For this purpose scald some 
common tobacco with water until the lat- 
ter is colored to a yellow, and when cold 
sprinkle the leaves of the plants with it; 
but a better plan is to pass the stems and 
leaves of the plants between the fingers, 
and to then shake the plant and well 
water the bed immediately afterward. 



(Rats) 



The latter operation destroys a large pro- 
portion of the insects shaken from the 
plant. This latter method is the only in- 
fallible one. 

2. — For plants, tobacco is of historic 
usage, in the form of tobacco water or 
infusion of the tobacco in the form in 
which it is smoked, and also as part of 
various kinds of incense used for fumi- 
gating plants and greenhouses. Snuff is 
also used for these powders. The follow- 
ing are two formulae for making them : 

a. — Snuff, 50 lb. ; powdered white helle- 
bore, 5 lb. ; asafetida, 3 lb. ; cayenne pep- 
per, 2 lb. ; flour, 6 lb. Enough saltpeter 
is added to make the stuff smolder when 
set fire to. 

b. — Tobacco, 75 lbs.: sulphur, 28 lb.; 
asafetida, 5 lb. ; flour, 3 lb. 

Rats. 

A number of the following formulas 
have been taken from Farmers' Bulletin, 
No. 369, of the United States Department 
of Agriculture. 

Information concerning rat-proof build- 
ings, traps, and so forth, may be obtained 
from the same source. 

1. — When a house is infested with rats 
which refuse to be caught by cheese and 
other baits, a few drops of the highly 
scented oil of rhodium poured on the bot- 
tom of the trap will be an attraction 
which they cannot refuse. 

2. — Place on the floor near where their 
holes are supposed to be a thin layer of 
moist caustic potash. When the rats 
travel on this, it will cause their feet to 
become sore, which they lick, and their 
tongues become likewise sore. The con- 
sequence is that they shun this locality, 
and seem to inform all the neighboring 
rats about it, and the result is that they 
soon abandon a house that has such a 
preventive. 

Fumigation. — Rats may be destroyed in 
their burrows in the fields and along river 
banks, levees and dikes by carbon bisul- 
phide. A wad of cotton or other absor- 
bent material is saturated with the liquid 
and then pushed into the burrow, the 
opening being packed with earth to pre- 
vent the escape of the gas. All animals 
in the burrow are asphyxiated. Fumiga- 
tion in buildings is not so effective, be- 
cause it is difficult to confine the gases. 
Moreover, when effective, the odor from 
the dead rats is highly objectionable in 
occupied buildings. 

Chlorine, carbon monoxide, sulphur di- 
oxide and hydrocyanic acid are the gases 
most used for destroying rats and mice in 
sheds, warehouses and stores. Each is 



[565] 



Insecticides and Extermination of Vermm 



(Rats) 



(Rats) 



effective if the gas can be confined and 
made to reach the retreats of the animals. 
Owing to the great danger from fire in- 
cident to burning charcoal or sulphur m 
open pans, a special furnace provided 
with means for forcing the gas into the 
compartments of vessels or buildings is 
generally employed. _ . 

Hydrocyanic-acid gas is effective in de- 
stroying all animal life in buildings. It 
has been successfully used to free ele- 
vator and warehouses of rats, mice and 
insects. However, it is so dangerous to 
human life that the novice should not at- 
tempt fumigation with it, except under 
careful instructions. Directions for pre- 
paring and using the gas may be found m 
a publication entiled "Hydrocyanic Gas 
Against Household Insects,' by Dr. Li. U. 
Howard, Circular 46, Bureau of Ento- 
mology, United States Department of 
Agriculture, 1907. 

Chlorine gas has a strong bleaching ac- 
tion upon textile fabrics, and for this 
reason cannot be used in many situations. 
Sulphur dioxide also has a bleaching 
effect upon textiles, but less marked than 
that of chlorine and ordinarily not notice- 
able with the small percentage of the gas 
it is necessary to use. On the whole this 
gas has many advantages as a fumigator 
and disinfectant. Special furnaces for 
generating the gas and forcing it into the 
compartments of ships and buildings are 
on the market, and many steamships and 
docks are now fitted with the apparatus. 
— Farmers' Bulletin, No. 369. 

Non-poisonous Spanish Fly Rat Exter- 
minator.— Gsinthsivides, powder, 10 dr. ; 
brown sugar, 2 oz. ; malt, ground, 16 oz.; 
musk, 1 gr. ; oil rhodium, 6 gtt. ; oil of 
caraw, 6 gtt. Make into pellets of 5 to 
10 gr. The rats, it is claimed, invariably 
leave the building to die. ^ 

Poigons.— While the use of poison is the 
best and quickest way to get rid of rats, 
the odor from the dead animals makes tbe 
method impracticable in occupied houses. 
Poison, however, may be effectively used 
in barns, stables, sheds, cribs and other 
outbuildings. Among the principal poi- 
sons that have been recommended for kill- 
ing rats are barium carbonate, strychnine, 
arsenic and phosphorus. , „ ^ ^, 

Caution.— In the United States there 
are few laws which prohibit the laying ot 
poisons on lands owned or controlled by 
the poisoner. Hence it is all the^ more 
necessary to exercise extreme caution to 
prevent accidents. In several States no- 
tice of intention to lay poison must be 
given to persons living in the neighbor- 
hood. Poison for rats should never be 



placed in open or unsheltered places. This 
applies particularly, to strychnine or ar- 
senic on meat. , 

Arsenic— Arsenic is probably the most 
popular of the rat poisons, owing to its 
cheapness; yet experiments prove that, 
measured by the results obtained, arsenic 
is dearer than strychnine. Besides, ar- 
senic is extremely variable in its eftect 
upon rats ; and if the animals survive a 
first dose it is very difficult to induce 
them to take another. Powdered white 
arsenic (arsenious acid) may be fed to 
rats in almost any of the baits mentioned 
under barium carbonate and strychnine. 
It has been used successfully when rubbed 
into fresh fish or spread on buttered toast. 
Another method is to mix 12 parts by 
weight of corn meal and 1 part of arsenic 
with whites of eggs into a stiff dough.— 
Farmers' Bulletin, No. 369. 

Barium Carbonate.— 1.— One of the 
cheapest and most effective poisons for 
rats and mice is barium carbonate. IMs 
mineral has the advantage of being with- 
out taste or smell. It has a corrosive 
action on the mucous lining of the stom- 
ach and is dangerous to larger animals if 
taken in sufficient quantity. In the small 
doses fed to rats and mice it would be 
harmless to domestic animals. Its action 
upon rats is slow, and if exit is possible 
thev usually leave the premises m search 
of water. For this reason the poison may 
frequently, though not always, be used in 
houses without disagreeable consequences^ 
Barium carbonate may be fed in the form 
of dough composed of 4 parts of meal or 
flour and 1 part of the mineral. 

2— A more convenient bait is ordinary 
oatmeal with about one-eighth of its bulk 
of the mineral mixed with water into a 

^ 3 —^Spread the barium carbonate upon 
fish! toasted bread (moistened) or ordi- 
nary bread and butter. The prepared bait 
should be placed in rat runs, about a tea- 
spoonful at a place. If a single applica- 
tion of the poison fails to kill or drive 
away all rats from the premises it should 
be repeated with a change of bait.— /farm- 
ers' Bulletin, No. 369. 

4.— Barium carbonate, fresh, 50 grams ; 
barley flour, 10 grams ; glycerine,^ 20 
grams: cheese (old), 100 granas Divide 
into 100 tablets and sprinkle with flour. 

5.— Salicylic acid, 5 grams ; garlic, 
chopped, 1 head ; ammoniacal solution ver- 
digris (20%), 50 grams; barium carbo- 
nate, fresh, 50 to 100 grams ; lard, 500 
grams; tallow. 300 to 500 grams. Fry 
the garlic in the fats, varying the amount 
of tallow with the season. When the 
566] 



Insecticides mid Extermination of Vermin 



(Rats) 



garlic is brown, add the barium, then the 
verdigris. 

Phosphorus. — Phosphorus is used al- 
most as commonly as arsenic, and un- 
doubtedly it is effective when given in an 
attractive bait. The phosphorus paste of 
the drug stores is usually dissolved yel- 
low phosphorus, mixed with glucose or 
other substances. The proportion of 
phosphorus varies from i^ of 1% to 4%. 
The first amount is too small to be al- 
ways effective, and the last is dangerously 
inflammable. When home-made prepara- 
tions of phosphorus are used there is 
much danger of burning the person or 
of setting fire to crops or buildings. The 
Biological Survey does not recommend 
the use of phosphorus as a poison for ro- 
dents. — Farmers^ Bulletin, No. 369. 

A few formulas follow : 

1. — For preparing the electuary, when 
needed, a phosphorated syrup may be 
made as f pllows : 

a. — To 200 parts of simple syrup, in 
a strong flask, add 50 parts of phos- 
phorus and 10 parts of talc powder ; place 
the container in a suitable vessel, and 
surround it with water heated to 120 to 
130° F., and let it stand until the phos- 
phorus is melted. Now cork the flask 
well, tie down the cork, and agitate until 
the mixture is completely cold. As a 
measure of precaution the flask should 
be wrapped with a cloth. 

b. — While it is best to make the phos- 
phorated syrup fresh every time that it 
is required, a stable syrup can be made 
as follows : Heat together, very care- 
fully, in a water bath, 5 parts of phos- 
phorus, 3 parts of sublimed sulphur and 
30 parts of water, until the phosphorus 
is completely melted and taken up ; then 
add 30 parts of wheat flour and 6 parts 
of ground mustard seed, and work up, 
with the addition of warm water from 
time to time, if necessary, into a stiff 
paste, and finally adding and working in 
from 1 to 2 parts of oil of anise. 

2. — Borax, in powder, it may be no- 
ticed, is also useful as a preservative of 
phosphorated paste or the electuary. To 
make the poison, take 50 parts of rye 
flour and mix with it 10 parts of pow- 
dered sugar. To the mixture add about 
40 parts of water and from 30 to 40 
parts of the phosphorated syrup, and mix 
the mass thoroughly. 

3. — Miihsam gives the following for- 
mula for an electuary of phosphorus for 
this purpose : Granulated phosphorus, 1 
part ; rye flour, 30 parts ; simple syrup, 
10 parts ; powdered mustard seed, 1 part ; 



(Rats) 



sublimed sulphur, 1 part ; water, 10 parts. 
Proceed as indicated above. 

Strychnine. — 1. — Strychnine is too 
rapid in its action to make its use for 
rats desirable in houses, but elsewhere it 
may be employed effectively. Strychnia 
sulphate is the best form to use. The 
dry crystals may be inserted in small 
pieces of raw meat, Vienna sausage or 
toasted cheese, and these placed in rat 
runs or burrows ; or oatmeal may be 
moistened with a strychnine syrup, and 
small quantities laid in the same way ; or 
the heads of fried fish are opened, and 
the powder strewn on the inside. The 
latter is an especially deadly method, since 
the odor of the fish acts as a powerful 
lure, as also do the bits of bacon or other 
fats used in frying fish. Strong cheese 
is also a good vehicle for strychnine, act- 
ing as a powerful lure for the rodents. 

2. — Strychnine syrup is prepared as 
follows : Dissolve ^ oz. of strychnia sul- 
phate in 1 pt. of boiling water; add 1 
pt. of thick sugar syrup, and stir thor- 
oughly. A smaller quantity may be pre- 
pared with a proportional quantity of 
Avater and syrup. Jn preparing the bait 
it is necessary to moisten all the oatmeal 
with the syrup. Wheat and corn are 
excellent alternative baits. The grain 
should be soaked overnight in the strych- 
nine syrup. 

3. — Strychnine wheat, or strychnine 
oats ( strychnin weizen or strychninha- 
fer), in the proportion of 1 part of strych- 
nine to 100 or 150 parts of wheat or oat 
flour, is prepared by dissolving 1 gram of 
strychnine in 40 to 50 grams of hot water, 
mixing well with the flour, and drying in 
the water bath. 

Squill. — 1. — The preparation of the 
squill as a rat poison can be effected in 
several different ways. Usually, after 
the removal of the outer peel, the bulb 
is cut up into little slices and mixed with 
milk and flour ; these are stirred into a 
dough or paste, which, with bits of bacon 
rind, is put into the oven and baked. 

2. — Another plan is to grate the squill 
on a grater and mingle the gratings with 
mashed, boiled or roasted potato. This 
method of preparing them necessitates the 
immediate use of the poison. 

3. — The following is, however, a stable 
preparation that keeps well : Hog's lard, 
500 grams ; acid salicylic, 5 grams ; squill, 
1 bulb ; beef suet, 50 to 100 grams ; ba- 
rium carbonate, 500 grams ; solution of 
ammonium copper acetate, 20%, 50 grams. 
Cut or grate the squill into very small 
pieces, and fry it in the lard and suet un- 
til it has acquired a dark brown color and 



[567] 



Insecticides and Extermination of Vermin 



( Roaches ) 



the fats have taken up the characteristic 
squill odor ; then to the mess add the other 
substances, and stir well together. 

Poultry Houses, Poison in. — For poi- 
soning rats in buildings and yards occu- 
pied by poultry, the following method is 
recommended : Two wooden boxes should 
be used, one considerably larger than the 
other, and each having two or more holes 
in the sides large enough to admit rats. 
The poisoned bait should be placed on 
the bottom, and near the middle of the 
smaller box, and the larger box should 
then be inverted over the other. Rats 
thus have free access to the bait, but 
fowls are excluded. 

Roaches and Water Bugs. 

1. — Borax is the best cockroach ex- 
terminator yet discovered. This trouble- 
some insect has a peculiar aversion to it, 
and will ne^-er return where it has once 
been scattered. As the salt is perfectly 
harmless to human beings, it is much to 
be preferred for this purpose to the poi- 
sonous substances commonly used. 

2. — Mixture of red lead, Indian meal 
and molasses will be eagerly eaten by 
them, and will soon exterminate them. 
Paris green, phosphorus, or arsenic, are 
sometimes used, but are very dangerous. 
Borax, to which cockroaches have a great 
antipathy, will drive them away. 

3. — Corrosive sublimate, sprinkled 
around the places which the roaches in- 
fest will kill them quickly. Be careful, 
however, with this substance. 

4. — A good plan is to render the place 
which the roaches frequent perfectly dry, 
and then coat the boards or shelves with 
a strong decoction of quassia. When this 
has become thoroughly dry cover the 
boards, etc., with clean paper. Other bit- 
ter substances may be used in place of 
quassia. 

5. — A good plan is to dissolve a little 
shellac in solution of borax, add a very 
small quantity of bichloride, and to paint 
the solution into the cracks and corners. 
If water or dampness is kept away from 
the shelves or closets, the roaches will 
leave the place of their own accord. 

6. — Chamomile, 2 oz. ; borax, 12 oz. ; 
insect powder, 2 oz. ; plaster of paris, 1 
oz. ; sulphur, 3 oz. ; crude arsenic (so- 
called cobalt), 120 gr. 

7. — You can make a roach poison which 
is practically harmless to man by the 
following formula : Borax, 9 oz. ; starch, 
2% oz. ; cocoa, 1 oz. 

8. — Another preparation, not so inact- 
ive as to human beings, is made by mix- 
ing angelica root, in fine powder, 5 oz., 



(Trees, Protecting) 



and oil of eucalyptus, 1 oz. Scatter at 
night plentifully around the haunts of 
the pests. 

9.— Ethereal oil of cherry laurel, 2 
parts ; essence of cloves, 2 parts ; essence 
of bergamot, 2 parts ; oil of turpentine, 
2 parts ; camphor, 5 parts ; garden pep- 
per, 15 parts; alcohol, 1,000 parts. Di- 
gest, and filter. 

10. — Corn starch, 8 oz. ; powdered 
sugar, 16 oz. ; powdered quicklime, 4 oz. ; 
powdered borax, 4 oz. Have the ingredi- 
ents thoroughly dry before mixing, and 
preserve in a tight box. Scatter where 
the insects frequent, or use with a pow- 
der blower. This is said to be quite 
efficient. 

Sheep Dips. 

1. — White arsenic, 6 av.oz. ; potassium 
carbonate, 6 av.oz. ; water, 14 gal. Add 
the arsenic and potash to a portion of 
the water, and boil until solution is ef- 
fected, then add the rest of the water. 

2. — White arsenic, 6 av.oz. ; soft soap, 
6 av.oz, ; potassium carbonate, 6 av.oz. ; 
sulphur, 4 av.oz. ; bruised hellebore, 2 
av.oz. ; water, 14 gal. Boil the ingredi- 
ents in a portion of the water for half 
an hour, then strain through a sieve, and 
add the rest of the water, 

3, — Corrosive sublimate, 1 av,oz. Dis- 
solve the salt in 4 gal. of water. This 
dip has been used with success in Aus- 
tralia. 

4.— Tar oil (30% carbolic oil), 50%; 
rosin soap, potash base, 20% ; water, 
30%. Dissolve the rosin soap in the wa- 
ter, then incorporate the carbolic oil. Use 
1 lb. of this solution to 14 gal. of water 
as a dip. May also add some arsenic to 
increase its germicidal effect. 

Trees, To Protect from Climbing Insects. 

Any combination of cheap greases with 
tar, pitch, rosin or ozokerite, which will 
remain sticky when cold, and not melt too 
easily, may be smeared around the trunks 
of trees to prevent insects from crawling 
up them. The following combinations are 
suggestive, and may be modified to suit. 
Any combination which is soft or sticky 
at 40°, and will not run at 130°, can be 
used : 

1. — Pitch, 12 parts ; rosin, 10 parts ; 
rosin oil, 2 parts. 

2. — Tallow, 7 parts ; palm oil, 5 parts. 

3. — Ozokerite, 15 parts ; petroleum, 3 
to 6 parts. 

4. — Rosin, 4 parts ; linseed oil, 1 part ; 
molasses, 1 part. Boil together. 

5. — Rosin, 12 parts ; rosin oil, 12 parts ; 
soda lye, 1 part. Boil together. 



[ 568 ] 



Insecticides and Extermination of Vermin 



(Trees, Protecting) 



6. — Tar, 10 parts ; rosin, 5 parts ; palm 
oil, 8 parts. 

7. — Prussic acid has recently been 
largely and very successfully employed 
for freeing trees from insect pests, espe- 
cially in America. The tree is covered 
up for the time being in a sort of tent, 
under which the fumes of the acid are 
set free, and by which they are confined 



(Trees, Protecting) 



for a sufficiently long time in contact with 
the tree. Prussic acid, being the most 
deadly poison with which we are ac- 
quainted, naturally requires careful and 
responsible handling, but its efficacy 
against insects is unquestionable, as 
every entomologist who keeps a cyanide 
bottle is well aware. (See also Ants; 
Mice.) 



[569] 



CHAPTER XVI 



LAPIDAEY ARTS AETIFICma m HAED MIJS^EE- 

ALS, lYOEY, BOIN^E, HOEJST, SHELL COEAL^ JET^ 
MEEESCHAUM, SOFT MIIS^EEALS, ETC, 



Agates. 

Coloring and Dyeing. — 1. — Red agates 
are often made in Oberstein by soaking 
them for a fortnight in nitric acid con- 
taining iron, and after drying them two 
weeks they are baked. 

2. — The black colors are produced by 
warming them for 14 days in a sweet 
liquid that contains honey, and then boil- 
ing them several days in oil of vitriol. 

3. — Bright blue colors are obtained by 
the use of a bath of perchloride of iron, 
followed by yellow prussiate of potash. 

4. — A favorite shade of green is ob- 
tained by the use of nickel salts, followed 
by a soda bath. 

Yellows are obtained by crude muri- 
atic acid or bichromate of potash. 

Polishing. — 1. — Quartz and agate are 
slit with a thin iron disk supplied with 
diamond dust moistened with brick oil. 
The rough grinding is done on a lead 
wheel supplied with coarse emery and 
water. The smoothing is done with a 
lead lap and fine emery, and the polish- 
ing may be accomplished by means of a 
lead lap whose surface is hacked and sup- 
plied with rotten stone and water. 

2. — This substance, although much 
harder than carnelian, is cut and polished 
in the same manner. (See Carnelian.) 

Alabaster. 

The general modes of working ala- 
baster, as regards its configuration, are 
with saws, chisels, files, hard turning 
tools ; but it is polished quite differently 
by the sculptor, in chiseled or carved 
works ; by the marble-worker, in turned 
works ; and by the lapidary, in small 
objects of bijouterie and vertu. 
■ 1. — Chiseled or Sculptured Works. — 
The dull or dead parts of sculpture, after 
having been carved with chisels, are first 
smoothed with bent rasps and files, known 
as riflers ; and, secondly, are afterwards 



scraped with a triangular scraper. Third- 
ly, they are additionally smoothed with 
fish-skin or glass-paper, and, fourthly, 
with Dutch rush used with water. (See 
Marble.) 

2. — Turned and Polished Works. — 
When the article is finished with the turn- 
ing tool, take first a piece of very fine 
soft sandstone, and apply it with water 
to the work, whilst it is in quick revolu- 
tion, moving the stone all over until 
there is worked up a body of mud ; sec- 
ondly, take a wet rag, and work this 
sludge well on the alabaster, then wash 
the work clean ; and, thirdly, apply a rag, 
charged with putty powder and water, 
until there is a gloss upon the work. 
Fourthly and lastly, apply another rag, 
charged with a mixture of putty powder 
and soap and water, for a short time, and 
wipe the alabaster dry, which completes 
the polish. 

3. — Treated hy the Lapidary. — In 
working alabaster to the required forms, 
the lapidary first employs, as usual, the 
slitting mill, which is a thin plate of 
iron fixed on a vertical spindle, and made 
to revolve with moderate velocity. The 
edge of the slicer is charged with dia- 
mond powder, and lubricated with the 
oil of brick. This instrument, which may 
be considered as the circular saw for 
small stones, is used with light pressure 
and plenty of brick oil. Secondly, the 
alabaster is roughed, or roughly ground 
on what the lapidary terms a roughing 
or lead mill, namely, a flat circular plate 
of lead, fixed on a spindle similar to that 
of the slicer ; the mill, or lap, therefore, 
travels in a horizontal plane, and is 
abundantly supplied with coarse emery 
and water by means of a brush. The 
stone is moved to and from the center of 
the rapidly revolving lap, until all the 
marks from the slitting mill are removed, 
and the stone is reduced to a flat surface. 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[ 571 ] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Alabaster) 



Thirdly, the alabaster is smoothed on the 
same lead mill with coarse emery ; but 
prior to smoothing the stone, the grains 
of the coarse emery previously used, and 
that remain on the lap, are rubbed down 
fine with a smooth lump of emery stone. 
It would apparently be a better practice 
to use two different laps, and, together 
with them, emery of two different sizes; 
as, in the first place, the operation of 
smoothing the mill is tedious ; it also 
tends to wear away the lap towards the 
edge ; thus degenerating the plane or fiat 
surface into an irregularly coned surface, 
with which it is impossible to grind works 
accurately flat ; and, moreover, if any 
coarse grains of emery are left in the lap, 
they greatly retard the smoothing, and 
consequently the polishing also. Indeed, 
it will be found a most erroneous prac- 
tice to hurry over any one process with 
the intention of making up for it in the 
next ; for, as each stage of the work re- 
quires successively finer polishing pow- 
ders, the various steps should be continued 
the proportional times, or ultimate success 
will be more tediously if at all attained. 
As it is difficult to polish alabaster, and 
substances equally soft, on the inelastic 
lead lap with rottensto-ie (the means 
usually employed for harder stones), the 
following is the course ordinarily followed. 
After the roughing-mill has been used, 
the stone is smoothed on a icood-mill, or 
a disk of mahogany, used with flour- 
emery and water. On account of the 
greater elasticity of the wood-mill, and 
the slight roughness of its face from the 
rubbing up of the fibres, it acts more 
quickly and satisfactorily than the metal 
tool. Fourthly, the earlier stage of the 
polishing is accomplished on a list-mill 
with pumice stone and water ; but as the 
list, which is wound on spirally, is very 
elastic, flat works must be lightly applied, 
or they will sink into the soft face of the 
list-mill and become rounded at the edges. 
Fifthly, the polishing is completed on a 
leather lap, or a thick piece of buff 
leather pasted securely on a wooden disk, 
and supplied with fine putty powder and 
water. Sometimes, indeed, the naked 
hand and a little moistened putty powder 
are finally used for the last polish. The 
following substances are worked by the 
lapidary in nearly or exactly the same 
manner as alabaster : Amber, cannel coal, 
coral, enamels, glass, jet, lava, malachite, 
mother of pearl, nacreous shells, opal, 
satinstone, steatite, turquoise. 

4. — Staining or Coloring. — 1. — ^INIix va- 
rious colored powders or solutions with the 
plaster, at the time of mixing it up with 



(Amber) 



water. A little terra de Sienna, in very 
fine powder, or ground with water, added 
to the water employed to mix up the plas- 
ter, imparts a pleasing color to busts, 
statues, medallions, etc. 

2. — Objects formed from the solid ala- 
baster may be stained in the same way, 
and with the same materials as marble. 
(See Marble.) 

Amber. 

Bending. — Drop it into hot beeswax. 
After it has been inwnersed for a few 
minutes, remove it, and, holding it before 
the fire, bend it to the desired shape. 

Cement. — 1, — Cement for amber may 
be made by dissolving gum copal in ether 
to form a syrupy fluid. The broken 
pieces should be warmed slightly, the 
cement quickly applied, and two pieces 
brought close together and bound with 
wire. The cement sets quickly, and the 
excess may be pared off with a sharp 
knife. 

2. — Smear the parts which are to be 
united with linseed oil, hold the oiled part 
carefully over a small charcoal fire, a hot 
cinder, or a blue gas fiame, being careful 
to cover the rest of the object loosely 
with paper ; when the oiled parts have 
begun to feel the heat, so as to be sticky, 
pinch or press them together, and hold 
them so till nearly cold. Only that part 
where the edges are to be united must be 
warmed, and even that with care, lest 
the form or polish of 4;he other parts 
should be disturbed ; the part joined gen- 
erally requires a little repolishing. A 
solution of potash, or a solution of mastic 
in linseed oil, may replace the boiled oil. 

Etching. — Use a ground of white wax 
and oil of turpentine, %, thickened with 
very finely powdered white lead, and etch 
with very dilute acetic or hydrochloric 
acid. 

Imitation Amher. — 1. — Dissolve shel- 
lac in an alkaline lye, then pass chlorine 
through the solution until the whole of 
the lac is precipitated. After washing 
in water, this must be melted and kept 
over the fire until it runs clear, taking 
care that it does not burn ; it should then 
be poured into molds of the size of the 
pieces required. 

2. — Mix pure bleached shellac and 
keep it over the fire until it runs clear, 
with care to prevent burning. It may be 
poured into molds of the size of pieces 
required. The operation requires con- 
siderable management. The darkest and 
hardest pieces of gum copal are also sub- 
stituted for amber. The copal may be 
fused with the shellac. 



[572] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Amber) 



Molding Amher. — If amber is to be 
molded, it should be boiled in rape or 
linseed oil for several hours ; this makes 
it plastic, when it can easily be molded. 
This process softens but does not dissolve 
it. (See also Bending, above.) 

Polishing Amier. — 1. — A simple process 
of polishing amber is to smooth it with 
whetstone and water, and then rub with 
whiting and water, followed by oil ap- 
plied on a piece of flannel. When the 
friction heats and electrifies the amber, 
lay it aside to cool, or it may fly to 
pieces. 

2. — The more general method of polish- 
ing amber is the following : First it is 
filed to a fairly smooth surface. It is 
then rubbed with rotten stone and oil with 
a flannel, followed by dry rotten stone ap- 
plied with the palm of the hand. 

3. — Amber turned in the lathe is 
smoothed with glasspaper and polished 
with rotten stone and oil. 

4. — The lapidary polishes amber first 
on an iron lap with diamond dust and 
oil ; then on a lead lap with coarse emery 
and water, followed by fine emery and 
water; then with flour emery and water 
on a mahogany lap ; then on a list-mill 
with pumice powder and water ; and, 
finally, on a leather lap or piece of buff 
leather with fine putty powder and water. 
Sometimes moist putty powder applied 
by the palm of the hand follows the 
leather lap. 

5. — Amber that has facets is polished 
on pewter laps with crocus. Except that 
the amber is held in the unaided fingers, 
the process resembles the cutting and 
polishing of gems. 

Varnish. — (See Paints and Var- 
nishes.) 

Working. — 1. — Amber in the rough is 
first split and cut rudely into the shape 
required by a leaden wheel worked with 
emery powder, or by a bow saw having 
a wire for the blade, tripoli or emery 
powder being used with it. The roughly 
formed pieces are then smoothed with a 
piece of whetstone and water. The pol- 
ishing is effected by friction with whiting 
and water, and finally with a little olive 
oil laid on and well rubbed with a piece 
of flannel, until the polish is complete. 
In this process the amber becomes hot 
and highly electrical ; as soon as this hap- 
pens it must be laid aside to recover 
itself before the polishing is continued, 
otherwise the article will be apt to fly 
into pieces. 

2. — Amber is worked in a lathe, pol- 
ished with whiting and water or oil, and 
finished off by friction with flannel. Dur- 



(Bone) 



ing the operation the pieces often become 
hot and electrical, and fly into fragments, 
to avoid which they should be kept cool, 
and only worked for a short period at a 
time. 

3. — Anoint the edges to be joined with 
linseed oil, and hold them over a charcoal 
brazier or near a gas jet until the parts 
become sticky, taking the precaution to 
wrap paper round the other parts. Press 
them together, and hold till cold. Polish- 
ing is effected first with whiting and 
water and then with olive oil and a bit 
of felt or cloth. 

Amethyst, 

or violet quartz, is cut and polished by 
the lapidary like Carnelian. 

Aquamarine, 

Called also beryl and ancient beryl, is of 
various shades of pale yellow, green and 
blue ; it was so named from its resem- 
blance to sea-water, and is worked like 
Carnelian, which see. 

Artificial Gems. 

For information on the Manufacture of 
Artificial Diamonds, Rubies, Sapphires, 
etc., see Scientific American Supplement, 
Nos. 1107, 1472, *1535, 1716, 1717, 1738 
and *1803. (*) Denotes illustrated ar- 
ticles. 

Bone. 

Bending. — If the bone is thin, prepare a 
solution of common washing soda and 
water, and heat to boiling point. Im- 
merse the bone, and boil for 30 minutes"; 
then, assuming it to be a bone mouth- 
piece, push through it a piece of soft steel 
wire the size of the bore of the bone, bend 
to the required curve, and withdraw the 
wire, leaving the bone to set. If the bone 
shows a tendency to go back to its orig- 
inal curve, bind a bit of soft doubled wire 
round each end, slip a bit of wood or 
metal between the strands, and screw 
tight after the manner of the "stretcher" 
of a bow-saw. Thick bone should be im- 
mersed in phosphoric acid, which may re- 
quire dilution. 

Bleaching. — 1. — Bone has a great ten- 
dency to become yellow, both by use and 
by exposure to the atmosphere. For com- 
mercial and artistic uses the bones are 
steamed at a very high temperature, and 
in this way all the fatty matter contained 
therein is extracted. After the bone is 
dressed with file and scraper, polish with 
a revolving brush with whiting and water, 
and finish in the same way with dry 
whiting. 



[573] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Cameo Cutting) 



2. — Previous to the bleaching proper, 
the bones should be boiled in a solution 
of soda to remove the grease, after which 
they may be placed in an earthenware 
pot and covered with a mixture of hydro- 
gen peroxide and dilute ammonia. If the 
earthenware pot be now placed in a 
warm situation the bleaching will pro- 
ceed rather rapidly, a final washing in 
water being all that is required. A mix- 
ture of equal parts of ammonia (weak) 
and hydrogen peroxide, followed by clear 
water, may be used as baths for bleach- 
ing bone. 

Cleaning. — Stains partly due to fat or 
grease can be removed by soaking the ar- 
ticles for 24 hours in benzine, and allow- 
ing to dry slowly. Many other stains and 
discolorations can be removed by steep- 
ing the bones in a solution of hydrogen 
peroxide to which a little ammonia has 
been added to render it alkaline, as shown 
above. 

Hardening. — (See also Ivory; Horn.) 

Bones can be hardened and the soft 
pores closed by soaking for a week or 
two in a solution of silicate of soda, 1 
part, and water, 3 parts, and then for a 
similar length of time in chloride of cal- 
cium solution, 1 part, and water, 3 parts. 
The process could no doubt be hastened 
by boiling the bones alternately in these 
liquids. It will be best to rinse the bones 
in water after the first treatment and be- 
fore putting them in the second solution, 
otherwise there will be formed on the out- 
side of the bones a deposit which will 
render them unsightly in appearance. 

Polishing. — After the turning-tool or 
scraper has been used, bone is polished : 
First, with glasspaper ; secondly, with 
Trent sand or Flanders brick with water 
on flannel ; thirdly, whiting and water on 
woolen rag ; fourthly, a small quantity 
of white wax is rubbed on the work with 
a very quick motion ; the wax fills the 
minute pores ; but only a very small quan- 
tity should be allowed to remain on the 
work. Common bone works, such as nail 
and tooth brushes, are frequently polished 
only with slaked lime used wet on flannel 
or woolen cloth. 

Cameo Cutting. 

Take the common helmet, or the red 
helmet shell (those shells whose inner 
surface is pink or dark-colored are most 
suitable), cut them into squares with a 
lapidary's mill, round o£E the corners, and 
shape them into an oval on a wet grind- 
stone. Fix the enamel side on a short 
stick with jewelers' cement, grind off the 
brittle surface, sketch the subject with 



(Carnelian) 



a black-lead pencil, cut the subject with 
engraver's tools, namely, a chisel tool to 
clear the bare places ; a lozenge shape 
for forming the subject, and a scraper, 
made of a three-angled file, ground off 
taper to the point, for cleaning the enam- 
el surface around the subject and also 
for forming the lineaments and other del- 
icate parts. The color on the cheeks and 
hair is produced by leaving the layer 
of colored shell on those places. Tlie 
stick must be grasped in the left hand, 
and held firmly against a steady bench, 
and with the tool resting in the hollow 
of the right hand, dig away the shell. 
A convenient length for the tools is 3i/^ 
in. ; they must be kept in good condition 
to v/ork with accuracy. The cameos are 
polished with a cedar stick, or a piece 
of cork dipped in oil of vitriol and putty 
powder, and cleaned with soap and water. 
Mother-of-pearl is carved in the same 
way. 

Cannel Coal. 

In polishing flat works of this mate- 
rial, such as inkstands, water of ayr stone, 
in the stick, is first used with water ; 
secondly, charcoal dust and soft soap on 
a flannel ; and although, thirdly, for fine 
works, rotten stone on the hand or flan- 
nel have been used, it is better to con- 
tinue the second process until the com- 
pletion, adding only additional soft soap, 
with water, as a lubricator. For objects 
turned in the lathe the water of ayr stone 
is superseded by emery paper. The lap- 
idary works cannel coal just as he would 
alabaster. 

Carnelian 

This substance has been selected as 
the example of the mode of cutting and 
polishing stones of a medium degree of 
hardness, the two other examples being 
alabaster for the softest stones, and 
sapphire for the hardest, excepting alone 
the diamond, which last is worked in a 
manner peculiar to itself, and is separ- 
ately considered. 

1. — Carnelian, when operated upon by 
a lapidary, is first slit with the thin iron 
slicer, fed with diamond dust and mois- 
tened with brick oil ; secondly, it is rough- 
ground on the lead mill, with coarse 
emery and water ; and thirdly, it is 
smoothed either on the same lap rubbed 
down fine, or with a similar lap used 
with fine emery ; thus far, the steps are 
precisely as explained with regard to ala- 
baster. Fourthly, carnelian, and stones 
of similar or superior hardness, which are 
not smaller than about 1-3 of an inch 



[574] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Carnelian) 



in diameter, are in almost all cases pol- 
ished on a lead mill plentifully supplied 
with rotten stone and water; but this 
fine powder will scarcely adhere after 
the manner of the coarser and granular 
emery, or by simple pressure ; and there- 
fore to expedite the process, the face of 
the polishing lap is hacked, or jarred, al- 
though in a manner quite different from 
that pursued by the cutler. 

The lapidary employs the blade of an 
old table-knife, which he holds slenderly 
between the thumb and the finger, placed 
near the middle of the blade, while the 
front part of the edge rests on the lap, 
not perpendicularly, but slanted a little 
forwards, so as to meet the lap edge 
foremost during its revolution. The un- 
stable position of the knife causes it to 
jump, vibrate, or chatter on the lap, and 
at each jump it makes a very slight fur- 
row ; these fill the face of the mill with 
minute lines, or grooves, that serve for 
the lodgment of the finely powdered rot- 
ten stone. It is, however, to be observed 
that the wheel should be made first to 
revolve in the one direction and then in 
the opposite, that the marks of the hack- 
ing-knife may cross each other. 

2. — Smaller and harder stones are more 
commonly polished on a pewter than a 
lead lap, and for the smallest and hardest 
stones a copper lap is preferred ; but all 
the polishing tools, of what metal so- 
ever they may be made, are hacked as 
above described, and used with rotten 
stone and water. 

3. — Rounded or Convex Stones, or 
those said to be cut en cahoclion, wheth- 
er of carnelian or even several of the 
harder stones, are in many cases succes- 
sively wrought by means of the wood mill 
with fine emery, the list mill with pumice 
stone, and leather lap with putty powder, 
precisely as described under the head 
Alabaster. This is done on account of 
the greater elasticity of these apparatuses, 
which enables them to ply more conven- 
iently to the globular forms of the works 
to be polished, and avoid wearing them 
in ridges or flat places. 

4. — Faceted Avorks, on all stones and 
hard substances, are, for the most part, 
cut by the lapidary after one of three 
different modes. First, for pastes, or ai'- 
tificial stones, and many soft stones, as 
amber, carnelian, jet, etc., the facets are 
usually cut on a lead wheel with emery, 
and polished on pewter with rotten stone. 
Secondly, for some of a harder kind, but 
inferior in hardness to sapphires, the suc- 
cession of tools is a pewter lap and fine 
emery for the cutting, and a copper lap 

[57 



(Coral) 



with rotten stone for the polishing. Third- 
ly, for sapphires, the chrysoberyl, and 
rarely for some few others likewise, a 
copper lap with diamond powder is used 
for cutting the facets, and a copper lap 
with rotten stone for polishing them. And 
fourthly, with the diamond, two stones 
are rubbed in a peculiar manner, the one 
against the other, to cut the facets, and 
they are polished by means of the drop, 
and an iron lap, or skive, fed with dia- 
mond powder. 

5. — From the comparatively small size 
of the stones and gems that are cut into 
facets, they cannot generally be held un- 
assistedly in the fingers ; the stone is con- 
sequently cemented centrally upon the 
end of a round stick of wood, nearly like 
a drawing pencil. Tbe stick, when held 
vertically, gives the position for grinding 
the central facet or taMe of the stone ; 
the stick is inclined to a certain angle 
for the 8, 12 or more facets contiguous 
to the table, of which facets, 2, 3 or 4 
series are commonly required at different 
inclinations ; and lastly, the horizontal 
position of the stick serves in cutting the 
girdle or central band around the exte- 
rior edge of the stones. The several in- 
clinations of the stick on which the stone 
is cemented are easily determined by plac- 
ing the upper end of the stick into one 
of several holes in a vertical post, fixed 
alongside the lap, and this retains the in- 
clination very accurately and simply. 

6. — The following substances are 
worked by the lapidary in nearly or ex- 
actly the same manner as carnelian, and 
descriptive articles are introduced in the 
catalogue upon each of these particular 
substances, pointing out their principal 
external features, and also by any pe- 
culiarities of method pursued, either by 
the lapidary or other artisan, as the case 
may be, in working them. 

Substances treated by the lapidary like 
carnelian : Agate, amethyst, aquamarine, 
beryl, bloodstone, carbuncle, catseye, chal- 
cedony, chrysolite, chrysoprase, cr;ystal, 
emerald, felspar, flint, fluorspar, gar- 
net, granite, heliotrope, jade, jasper, lapis 
lazuli, marble, onyx, opal, pastes, peridot, 
porphyry, quartz, sard, sardonyx, serpen- 
tine, topazes. 

Coral. 

Bleaching and Cleaning. — To bleach 
coral, wash it in clean water with a soft 
toothbrush ; then steep it for about an 
hour in a chloride of lime solution con- 
taining 2 oz. of chloride of lime and % 
oz. of hydrochloric acid in 1 pt. of water; 
finally wash it in running water for an- 
T>1 



Lapidary Arts 



(Coral) 



other hour. The following method an- 
swers for large pieces of white coral that 
have been soiled with dust, etc. : Dis- 
solve 4 oz. of strong hydrochloric acid in 
4 pt. of water ; place this in an earthen- 
ware basin, as the acid attacks metal. 
Dip the coral in the solution for a few 
seconds only ; the upper layer of the coral 
will be dissolved off, carrying the dirt 
with it, leaving the coral perfectly white. 
Now place it in clean water, changing 
the water two or three times ; then re- 
move, shake, and dry in a warm place. 
Another method : In a large pan full of 
soapsuds hang the coral in a net so that 
it is submerged, but does not touch either 
the sides or bottom of the pan, and place 
the pan on the fire, and boil. Next take 
it off, throw away the water, wash the 
coral in clean water, replace it in the 
net, and put it back in the pan, as be- 
fore ; fill up with clean water, and again 
bring to the boil. Then take the coral 
out, rinse in clean water, and alloTV to 
drain. 

Cutting and PolisTivng. — Coral can be 
cut with a hard steel saw, such as watch- 
makers use for cutting metals, but it is 
slow work, and the saw will require fre- 
quent sharpening. It can be drilled by 
a hard steel drill. Pumice powder on a 
rag or a revolving buff will polish it. 

Polishing. — ^The red variety of this sin- 
gular substance is somewhat used in jew- 
elry, and admits of an excellent polish. 
When in rounded pieces, it is polished 
after the routine followed by the lapidary 
with Alabaster; when coral is cut in 
facets, as for beads, etc., it is worked 
like Carnelian. 

Imitation Coral. — To 2 dr. of vermilion 
add 1 oz. of rosin, and melt them togeth- 
er. Have ready the branches or twigs, 
peeled and dried, and paint them over 
with this mixture while hot. The twigs 
being covered, hold them over a gentle 
fire ; turn them around till they are per- 
fectly smooth. White coral may also be 
made with white lead, and black with 
lampblack mixed with rosin. 

2. — Artificial coral can be made of 4 
parts of yellow rosin and 1 part of ver- 
milion, melted very thoroughly together. 

3. — To Color Imitation Coral, Made 
from Alabaster. — Bath : Cream of tartar, 
1 part ; tin composition, 0.5 part ; water, 
1,000 parts. Tin composition : Nitric 
acid, 8 parts ; sal ammoniac, 1 part ; 
tin, 1 part ; water, 25 parts. Add pow- 
dered cochineal to saturation, and boil ; 
allow to cool, and decant. Place the ala- 
baster in the clear fluid, keep it boiling 
there for 1 hour, dry it in the air, and 



(Diamond) 



finally place it for 3 hours in a bath of 
equal parts of stearic acid and wax. Take 
it out, wipe and polish it. 

Stringing. — If the perforations in the 
coral are sufficiently large, it will be best 
to string the coral on the finest steel or 
copper wire. If the perforations are 
small, use a fine silk or linen thread ; 
these are much stronger than the ordi- 
nary cotton thread. 

Crystal or Rock Crystal. 

A popular name for quartz. The Bra- 
zilian pebbles for spectacles are lenses 
ground out of pure, transparent, colorless 
quartz ; the stone is cut into slices by the 
lapidary ; afterward it is snipped into the 
form of the lenses with nippers which re- 
semble wide, flat pliers, and made of soft 
iron, in order that the quartz or glass 
may slightly imbed itself, to gain a hold, 
which could not take place with the hard 
steel faces of ordinary pliers ; lastly, the 
pieces of crystal are ground into the form 
of lenses, and polished by the optician, 
exactly in the same mode that he employs 
for glass lenses. 

Diamond. 

1. — Diamond Powder for Lapidaries' 
Use. — Lapidaries generally purchase 
small, imperfect diamonds and the frag- 
ments removed by splitting or cleavage in 
preparing stones for jewelry. These frag- 
ments are crushed in a hardened steel 
mortar, with a cylindrical hole about % 
in. in diameter, and nearly 2 in. deep ; 
the bottom of the cavity is hemispherical, 
or constitutes perhaps the third part only 
of the circle ; the pestle almost fits the 
aperture of the mortar, and is curved 
to the same degree ; there is also a cover 
that fits the recess in the mortar to pre- 
vent the escape of any of the valuable 
dust. The pestle is struck a few blows 
with a light hammer, and is twisted 
around between each blow ; this readily 
crushes the diamond, which, although so 
incomparably hard, is brittle from its 
crystalline structure. The fragments are 
carefully collected and mixed with a lit- 
tle of the oil of brick, in a small cup. 
or any convenient vessel, which should 
have a cover to keep the prepared dia- 
mond from being wasted. When not 
wanted for immediate use, the prepared 
diamond is kept in a pasty condition be- 
tween two very small watch glasses, ce- 
mented with soft wax around their edges. 

2. — Diamond Powder for Seal Engrav- 
ers. — This is required to be much more 
finely pulverized than for lapidary work ; 
therefore, having been crushed as above, 



[576] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Diamond) 



the fragments are ground into a thick 
paste, with a few drops of olive oil, in 
another pestle and mortar of hardened 
steel, the surfaces of which are both ex- 
actly spherical, with a curvature of from 
1 to 2 in. radius; this mortar has a tin 
cover, that it may serve as the recipient 
for the powder which has been ground. 
►Sometimes, for reducing the powder after 
it has been crushed, flat grinders of hard- 
ened steel are employed, but these are less 
generally used than the spherical form. 
Rough diamonds of a dark steely color 
are generally selected by the seal engrav- 
ers, as these are considered the hardest 
stones. 

3. — Diamond Potvder for Watch Jew- 
elers. — These artisans, who use much 
larger quantities of diamond powder than 
the above, for cutting as well as for pol- 
ishing rubies, sapphires and topazes, pur- 
sue a different method. They purchase 
the fine dust, or diamond hort, that is 
rubbed off stones used for jewelry in the 
act of cutting them into facets, in which 
process two diamonds are operated upon 
at once, and caused mutually to abrade 
each other in forming the one facet on 
each stone. The diamond bort is usually 
washed for its separation into two or 
three sizes, exactly after the manner of 
washing emery, except that the process 
is carried on upon a very much smaller 
scale, and the finest olive oil is used in- 
stead of water. The diamond powder is 
generally laid by under a stratum of oil 
to prevent waste ; oil is employed because 
of its viscidity ; it does not allow the dia- 
mond to subside so quickly as water, and 
it is, moreover, the fluid always employed 
in the using and preservation of the dia- 
mond by these artisans. 

4. — The Application of Diamond Pow- 
der to the Splitting or Sawing of Miner- 
als. — The coarser diamond powder used 
for grinding or cutting is generally bur- 
nished into the surface of the iron lap, 
or shive, of the diamond worker, and fre- 
quently also into the iron, copper, or oth- 
er laps used by different artisans. In cut- 
ting sapphires, the lapidary works the 
diamond powder into the copper lap with 
a smooth piece of agate applied with gen- 
tle pressure. The finer diamond powder 
used for polishing is simply applied on 
the surface of the tools, with the finger, 
or a small flattened wire used as a 
spatula. The gem engraver puts the dia- 
mond in minute hollowed disks of tin, 
two of which, in fact, are soldered to a 
strip of tin, and worn on the forefinger 
of the left hand as a ring ; the one disk, 
1/^ in. in diameter, contains the mixed 



(Emery Wheels) 



diamond paste, the other disk one or two 
drops of the oil of brick, with which the 
tool is frequently lubricated. Diamonds 
themselves can cnly be recut by experts, 
and is far beyond the amateur's province. 

Emery Paper. 

Emery paper is extensively employed 
for cleaning and polishing metals, but all 
the kinds in use hitherto have the great 
disadvantage of not retaining an equal 
efiiciency. The fresh parts bite too much, 
and the paper itself soon gets worn 
through in places. Emery on linen has 
been tried, with good success. The em- 
ery paper recommended by the Manufac- 
turer and Builder is not a pasteboard 
with emery on both sides, but a board 
in which emery enters as a constituent 
part. Fine and uniform cardboard pulp 
must be procured, and 1-3 to % its weight 
of emery powder thoroughly mixed with 
it, so that the emery may be equally dis- 
tributed. The mass is then poured out 
in cakes of 1 to 10 in. in thickness. They 
must not be pressed hard, however, but 
allowed to retain a medium pliability. 
This paper will adapt itself to the forms 
of the articles, and will serve until com- 
pletely worn out. 

Emery Wheels. 

1. — Can be made with shellac, pow- 
dered fine, and a small portion of rosin, 
a piece about the size of a walnut, to 
1 oz. of shellac, and a piece of old vul- 
canized india-rubber about the same size, 
which gives it toughness. Shellac about 
1 oz. to 1 lb. of emery, well melt, and 
stir about in a small fryingpan ; well mix 
the powders before applying heat. Be 
careful not to bum it, or get grease in 
it ; have a ring of iron and a piece of 
plate iron prepared with black lead and 
beer pretty thick ; place the ring upon 
the plate and make a mold, turn the stuff 
into it, and well ram down evenly ; put on 
one side to cool ; when cold, turn out 
and chuck in lathe, and with a piece of 
red-hot iron bore a hole for spindle ; after 
spindled put between centers, and trice 
up with hot iron. Very good grindstones 
may be made with silver sand mixed with 
powdered glass, and it is necessary to 
have some body besides shellac for coarse 
emery to form a body to bed the grains 
in. Emery dust from grinding glass, and 
turkey stone slips, and slate, may be used 
as a substitute for the flour. 

2. — Good emery wheels are formed of 
clean emery compounded with just enough 
boiled linseed oil, the mixture being agi- 
tated for a suflficient period under ex- 



[577] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Gold) 



posure to a considerable heat and free 
access of atmospheric air, or some still 
more powerful oxidizing agent, until it 
assumes the necessary degree of tenacity, 
and, while warm, being exposed to hy- 
draulic pressure in a suitable mold, and 
subsequent drying in a stove, when the 
emery wheel is complete. 

Fluorspar. 

This substance, from the confusion in 
the arrangement and the frangibility of 
its crystals, requires a peculiar and care- 
ful treatment while being turned into 
form. The smoothing and polishing are 
conducted almost the same as in marble; 
but as fluorspar requires a longer continu- 
ance of the polishing process, it demands 
considerable care to preserve the square 
fillets of the work from being rounded 
in the polishing, and with which object 
the powders are sometimes applied on 
small square slips of metal or wood, the 
sides of which are used somewhat as a 
file, so as to present a superior degree 
of definition and permanence in the form 
of the polishers, than would be obtained 
by the exclusive use of cloth applied with 
the fingers. The lapidary pursues the 
same method in polishing fluorspar as 
carnelian. 

Garnets. 

Worked by the lapidary just like 
carnelian, so far as the succession of the 
tools is concerned. 

Glass. 

Glass is polished in various different 
manners, some of which are elsewhere 
particularized. Thus, plate glass is 
roughed with sand, smoothed with emery, 
and polished with crocus. Glass lenses 
are roughed out with sand, figured with 
emery, and polished with putty powder. 
Cut glass for household purposes and toys 
is roughed with sand, smoothed on a grit- 
stone, then with pumice stone, and lastly 
is polished with rouge, putty or rotten 
stone. 

Gold. 

Gold is, in general, polished much the 
same as silver, although some variation 
is made, as works in gold are, in general, 
much smaller, and do not require such 
active means as those in silver. 

1. — Gold is first polished with water 
of ayr stone, in the stick, used with 
water ; secondly, with slips of wood, with 
coarse crocus ; and thirdly, with a buff 
stick and fine crocus or rouge. The black 
polish, which is so much esteemed, is 



(Horn) 



given with the naked hand and rouge, 
but the perfection of the polish depends 
on the peculiar texture of the skin, as 
the hands of some individuals do not at 
all answer the purpose. 

2. — Flat works in gold are treated by 
cutlers and others first with water of 
ayr stone, in the stick, with water ; sec- 
ondly, charcoal, in the stick, with water ; 
thirdly, boxwood and rouge, very nearly 
dry. 

3. — Cut or faceted gold is wrought upon 
pewter laps, with crocus ; the process 
closely resembles the cutting of facets on 
gems. 

Horn. 

Bleaching. — To bleach horn white, try 
soaking in ammonia solution and then 
in hydrogen peroxide. Only light-colored 
horn would be suitable for bleaching. 

Buffalo Horns. — To color the brown 
streaks black on buffalo horns, after they 
have been polished, apply a dilute solu- 
tion of nitrate of silver with a brush or 
rag several times, until the desired in- 
tensity is obtained. Allow it to dry in 
the sun after each application before ap- 
plying the next coat. Polish when suffi- 
ciently black. 

Coloring Light Horn in Imitation of 
Tortoise Shell. — To effect this, prepare a 
mixture of equal parts of burned lime, 
potash, oxide of iron and pulverized graph- 
ite, ru'b all the ingredients thoroughly to- 
gether, and add enough water to make 
them into a thin paste. The horn, pol- 
ishea to a finish, is dipped for a short 
period in warm dilute nitric acid, and 
then laid in cold water, then dried thor- 
oughly, and after a time the paste above 
described is applied to the parts to be 
colored brown by means of a small pad 
of wadding, the paste being allowed to re- 
main on the parts for two hours or long- 
er, according as the color is to be lighter 
or darker. After this time the paste ap- 
plied is removed by means of a stick 
(for it colors the fingers black), the horn 
is washed off and left for 8 to 10 hours. 
Finally, it is polished with soft soap and 
Vienna lime. The natural appearance is 
obtained with a little practice. 

Cows'* Horns, Polishing. — Rasp the 
horn with a file until the surface is 
smooth ; then scrape with glass until 
there is a fine, clean surface. Rub with 
a cloth and putty powder, wet to a paste 
with water. Polish with a cloth and ox- 
ide of tin, wet with water to a paste. 

Handles for razors, knives, and similar 
works, when molded, are scraped, and 
then buffed with fine sand and oil, and 



[578] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Horn) 



afterward with rotten stone and oil, as 
more fully explained under the head 
"Tortoise Shell ;" but upon which latter 
material the sand is not used in its nat- 
ural state, as it would be too coarse and 
vigorous in its action on that soft and 
expensive substance ; for buffing tortoise 
shell, therefore, the sand is first calcined 
and pounded, and then passed through a 
muslin sieve. (See Tortoiseshell. ) 

Staining Horn. — 1. — After having fine 
sandpapered the horns, dissolve 50 to 60 
grams of nitrate of silver in 1 oz. of dis- 
tilled water. It will be colorless. Dip 
a small brush in, and paint the horns 
where they are to be black. When dry, 
put them where the sun can shine on 
them, and you will find that they will turn 
jet black. When done, polish off. 

2. — By boiling well in infusions of va- 
rious colored ingredients, and is done to 
imitate tortoise shell. Mix together pearl- 
ash, quicklime and litharge with a suffi- 
cient quantity of water, and a little 
pounded dragon's blood, and boil them to- 
gether for 1/^ hour; apply this hot. For 
black — iron, iron filings, copperas, with 
vinegar applied on this. 

3. — Black. — a. — Burned lime, 5.5 lb., 
are slaked in a little water, so that a 
powderlike hydrate of lime is obtained ; 
this is mixed with 2.2 lb. of minium, and 
this mixture is formed into a thick paste 
with such lye as soap boilers use, having 
a specific weight of 1.036. The articles 
of horn are placed in this solution for 
24 hours ; they are then taken out, rinsed 
off with water, dried with a cloth, brushed 
over with rape-seed oil, and then again 
rubbed dry. 

b. — Dissolve 0.1 oz. of silver in 2.1 oz. 
of nitric acid (aquafortis), and this solu- 
tion is applied several times to the arti- 
cle to be stained, but it is absolutely 
necessary that the first coat should be 
entirely dry before another is applied. 
The articles are then burnished and made 
bright. 

4. — Blue. — Stain green, and then steep 
for a short time in a weak solution of 
sulphate of indigo, containing a little 
cream of tartar. 

5. — Brown. — Immerse in aqueous solu- 
tion of potassium ferrocyanide, dry, and 
treat with a hot dilute solution of cop- 
per sulphate. 

6. — Green. — a. — Dissolve 0.52 oz. of 
fine indigo carmine in 2.1 oz. of rain 
water. Then 0.175 oz. of pure picric 
acid are dissolved in 2.1 oz. of boiling- 
hot rain water, and both solutions are 
mixed together. A very beautiful, dur- 
able green color will in this manner be 

[ 



(Horn) 



obtained, and can be used for the various 
manipulations. 

b. — Aniline green, 0.35. Dissolve in 4.2 
oz. of 90% alcohol, and the horn to be 
stained is treated with this solution. All 
the different shades of green may be pro- 
duced by adding blue or yellow stain. 

c. — Copper, 4.2 oz. Cut up finely, and 
gradually dissolved in 13 oz. of nitric acid 
(aquafortis), and the articles to be 
stained in this solution until they have 
assumed a fine green color. 

d. — Steep in a solution of 2 parts of 
verdigris and 1 part of sal ammoniac. 

7. — Purple. — a. — Logwood, 17.5 oz., are 
boiled in 4.4 lb. of milk of lime, and the 
same method is observed as given in red. 

b. — Use a strong aqueous solution of 
gold chloride. 

8. — Red. — a. — Red Brazil wood, 17.5 
oz., are boiled for 1 hour in 4.4 lb. of 
milk of lime, and filtered through a cloth. 
The articles of horn, ivory or bone to be 
stained are boiled for 1 hour in a solu- 
tion of 1.05 oz. of alum in 17.5 oz. of 
water. They are then placed in the 
above stain, and allowed to remain there 
until the desired color has been produced. 
Articles stained in this manner will ac- 
quire a beautiful purple color by dipping 
them in alum water. 

b. — Soak in very dilute nitric acid for 
a few minutes and apply a strong infu- 
sion of cochineal in aqua ammonia. 

c. — Bright Red. — Logwood, 8.75 oz., 
and red Brazil wood, 8.75 oz., are boiled 
in 4.4 lb. of milk of lime. It is applied 
in the same manner as 1. 

d. — Tortoise Shell. — A rough dough is 
prepared from 17.5 oz. of white litharge, 

2.2 lb. of finely powdered unslaked lime, 

3.3 lb. of soap boilers' lye, having a spe- 
cific weight of 1.036. The places on the 
horn which are to become dark are cov- 
ered with this dough, and the horn is al- 
lowed to remain in contact with the 
dough for about 24 hours, until the latter 
has become entirely dry. The horn is then 
cleansed with a brush* 

e. — Yellow. — Alum, 17.5 oz., free from 
iron, are dissolved in 4.4 lb. of rain wa- 
ter. The articles are allowed to lie in 
this for 1 or 2 hours. In the meantime 
7 oz. of yellow berries are boiled with 
4.2 oz. of carbonate of potash in 2.2 lb. 
of water for 1 hour, and then strained. 
The articles stained with alum are placed 
in this decoction, and allowed to lie in 
it for one hour. They are then taken 
out and dried. 

f. — Steep them in a solution of lead ace- 
tate, and then, after drying, in a solution 
of bichromate of potash. 
579] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Horn) 



Polishing Horn and Bone. — 1. — Use 
finely ground pumice stone and water, 
applied with a felt polishing wheel ; fin- 
ish with rotten stone applied in the same 
way. 

2. — Having scraped the work perfectly 
smooth and level, rub it with very fine 
sandpaper, repeat the rubbing with a 
bit of felt dipped in finely powdered char- 
coal with water, and lastly with rotten 
stone or putty powder, and finish with a 
piece of soft wash leather damped with 
a little sweet oil ; or, still better, rub 
it with subnitrate of bismuth by the palm 
of the hand. 

3. — First scrape off the glass to take 
off any roughness, then grind some pum- 
ice stone to powder, and with a piece of 
cloth, wetted, and dipped in the powder, 
rub them until a smooth face is obtained. 
Next polish with rotten stone and linseed 
oil, and finish with dry flour and a piece 
of clean linen rag. The more rubbing 
with the stone and oil the better the pol- 
ish. It is a very fine and sharp sand, 
and is prepared for use by calcining and 
sifting. 

Softening Horn. — The bony core of the 
horn is first removed ; the next process 
is to cut off with a saw the tip of the 
horn ; that is, the whole of its solid part, 
which is used by cutlers for knife han- 
dles and sundry other purposes. The re- 
mainder of the horn is left entire, or is 
sawn across into lengths, according to the 
use to which it is destined. Next, it is 
immersed in boiling water for half an 
hour, by which it is softened, and while 
still hot is held in the flame of a coal 
or wood fire, taking care to bring the 
inside as well as the outside of the horn, 
if from an old animal, in contact with 
the blaze. It is kept there till it acquires 
the temperature of molten lead, or there- 
about, and in consequence becomes very 
soft. In this state it is slit lengthwise 
by a strong pointed knife, like a pruning 
knife, and by means of two pairs of 
pincers, applied one to each edge of the 
slit, the cylinder is opened nearly flat. 
The degree of compression is regulated 
by the use to which the horn is afterward 
to be put. When it is intended for leaves 
of lanterns, the pressure is to be suffi- 
ciently strong (in the language of the 
workmen) to break the grain, by which is 
meant separating in a slight degree the 
laminse of which it is composed, so as to 
allow the round-pointed knife to be in- 
troduced between them, in order to effect 
a complete separation. For combs, the 
plates of horn should be pressed as little 
as possible, so that the teeth may not 



(Ivory) 



split at the points. They are shaped 
chiefly by means of rasps and scrapers of 
various forms, after having been roughed 
out by a hatchet or saw ; the teeth are cut 
by a double saw fixed in a back, the two 
plates being set to different depths, so 
that the first cuts the teeth only half 
way down, and is followed by the other, 
which cuts the whole length ; the teeth are 
then finished and pointed by triangular 
rasps. Horn for knife handles is sawn 
into blanks, slit, pared and partially 
shaped, then heated in water and pressed 
between dies. It is afterward scraped, 
buffed and polished. 

Waste Mass. — The horn chips are laid 
in a fluid consisting of a cold saturated 
solution of boracic acid in water and a 
cold saturated solution of arsenic acid 
in dilute hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1). 
After working for a time, the mass is 
heated in a water bath for a short period 
to about 140° F. The horn substance is 
then transferred to closed iron molds, 
which, by means of a suitable heating ar- 
rangement, are heated to about 248° F., 
and by means of a piston, working in. the 
mold, subjected to heavy pressure until 
all the fluid is removed. When the mass, 
thus pressed, has been allowed to cool, 
the horn chips will be found transformed 
into a solid mass, which can be worked 
like the ordinary horn substance. 

Welding Horn. — Pieces of horn may be 

joined by heating the edges until they 

are quite soft, and pressing them together 

until they are cold. (See also Bone; 

Ivory. ) 

Ivory. 

Bleaching. — 1. — Ivory that has become 
yellow by exposure can be whitened by 
washing in a solution composed of 1 oz. 
of nitric acid and 10 oz. of soft water; 
apply with a rough brush ; cleanse thor- 
oughly in clean water. 

2. — Rub the ivory with fine pumice and 
water, and, while damp, expose it to the 
sun under a glass vessel. 

3. — Peroxide of hydrogen is used in 
Sheffield to bleach the inferior ivory for 
knife handles. The mode of procedure 
is as follows : Place, say, 2 qt. of the 
liquid in a stone pot, adding 4 oz. of 
liquor ammon. fort. ; immerse the han- 
dle, and put over a common shop stove 
for 24 to 36 hours ; the handles are then 
taken out and gradually dried in the air, 
not too quickly, or they would split. The 
deep color of the ivory is removed, and 
a beautiful pearly white results when 
polished. The ivory is previously treated 



[580] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Ivory) 



with a solution of common soda, to get 
rid of greasy matter, and open the pores. 

4.— Take 2 handfuls of lime, slake it 
by sprinkling it with water ; then add 
3 pt, of water, and stir the whole to- 
gether ; let it settle 10 minutes, and pour 
the water into a pan for your purpose. 
Then take your ivory and steep it in the 
limewater for 24 hours, after which boil 
it in a strong alum water for 1 hour, and 
dry it in the air. 

5. — Slake some lime in water ; put your 
ivory in that water, after being decanted 
from the grounds, and boil it till it looks 
quite white. To polish it afterward, set 
it in the turner's wheel ; and, after hav- 
ing worked, take.rushes and pumice stone, 
subtile powder, with water, and rub it 
till it looks perfectly smooth. Next to 
that, heat it by turning it against a piece 
of linen or sheepskin leather, and, when 
hot, rub it over with a little whiting di- 
luted in oil of olive; then with a little 
dry whiting alone; finally with a piece 
of soft white rag. When all this is per- 
formed as directed the ivory will look 
very white. 

Cement for Ivory. (See Cements.) 

Cleansing Ivory. — 1. — Removing Grain 
Marks, — Scrape the ivory, being careful 
to keep to the original contour. A plan 
adopted with valuable pieces is to engrave 
a design on the surface, and to fill with 
black ink, made by dissolving sealing wax 
with spirit. Leave this to set, then pol- 
ish off, thus hiding the objectionable 
marks. 

2. — Grease Stains. — Soak the ivory in 
best turpentine, letting it remain for a 
night and a day, and then rub off with 
whiting. This will bleach the ivory and 
remove the stains. Be careful not to al- 
low the turpentine to soak into the joints 
of the article. 

Dyeing. — L. Miiller finds that objects 
of this material may be stained by boil- 
ing them for a long time in a perfectly 
clear solution of the desired coloring mat- 
ter. Aniline red, picric acid or potassium 
dichromate, iodine green, sumac, aniline 
dyes, etc., may be used conveniently. The 
ivory must be thoroughly clean. It may 
be bleached by immersion for several 
hours in a solution of permanganate, and 
then in sulphurous acid. 

Black for Ivory or Bone. — 1. — Water, 
1 gal. ; logwood, 1 lb. ; acetate of iron, 
% lb. Soak the articles in this until 
the color penetrates deeply by boiling in. 

2. — Dissolve lunar caustic (nitrate of 
silver) in water to a strong solution, and 
steep your articles in the solution for 4 
or 5 hours, and afterward develop the 



(Ivory) 



color by exposing to the sunlight. A pair 
of wooden tongs should be used to lift 
the articles out of the dye vat or bath, 
as the solution is injurious to the hands. 

3. — If the ivory is well washed in an 
alkaline lye, and is then laid for several 
hours in a dilute solution of neutral ni- 
trate of pure silver, with access of light, 
it will assume a black color, having a 
slightly green cast. 

4. — A still finer black may be obtained 
by boiling the ivory for some time in a 
strained decoction of logwood, and then 
steeping it in a solution of red sulphate or 
red acetate of iron. 

5. — Immerse frequently in common 
black ink. 

6. — Steep for 2 or 3 days in a decoc- 
tion made with 1 lb. of galls and 2 lb. of 
logwood, then steep for a few hours in 
iron liquor (acetate of iron). 

7. — The pieces are always first polished 
with whiting and water, and when washed 
quite clean from the whiting are then 
prepared for the stain by a short immer- 
sion of from 3 to 5 minutes in acidulated 
cold water, in the proportion of 1 part of 
muriatic acid, the ordinary acid of com- 
merce, to 40 or 50 parts of water, or in 
an equally weak solution of nitric acid. 
This cleansing fluid extracts the gelatine 
from the surface of the ivory, and is 
essential to the attainment of a perfectly 
uniform color. Extreme cleanliness, and 
the absence of any grease or accidental 
soiling are as necessary, with which view 
the work in process of staining is at no 
time touched by the fingers, but is re- 
moved from one vessel to another by 
flat pieces of wood attached to each other 
at one end by 'a flat metal spring, after 
the form of a pair of sugar tongs, sepa- 
rate pairs being kept for different col- 
ors. Subsequently to its treatment with 
the acid the ivory is invariably again 
placed in cold water that has been boiled, 
before it is transferred to the stain. Log- 
wood stain is : Make a decoction of 2 oz. 
of logwood dust in 1 qt. of water, and 
strain; dissolve 1 oz. of sulphate of iron 
in 1 qt. of water, then heat the two stains 
in separate vessels, to 100° F., and im- 
merse the ivory in the logwood stain for 
15 minutes ; well wash, and then place 
it for 5 minutes in the sulphate of iron 
stain. 

8. — Finely powdered gall nuts, 1 part; 
pulverized verdigris, 4 parts, boiled in 
water, 30 parts by weight, the fluid to 
be strained, and again brought to boil- 
ing. The ivory to be immersed in it, and 
afterward placed in the following bath : 
Campeachy wood extract, 1 part (tied 



[581] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Ivory) 



in a linen bag) ; acetate of iron, 0.5 part ; 
gum arabic, 0.1 part ; water, 12 parts ; 
alum, 1-12 part ; boiled for 1 hour, and 
strained. 

Blue for Ivory or Bone. — 1. — Boil to- 
gether, sulphate of indigo, % oz. ; potash, 
^ oz. ; water, 2 qt. ; and steep the goods 
in the decoction until of a deep blue. 

2. — Sulphate of copper, 1 lb. ; water, 
2 qt. Boil together, and steep your arti- 
cles in the liquor, in a boiling heat. 

3. — a. — Stain them green, then steep 
them in a hot and strong solution of 
pearlash. 

b. — Boil them in a strong decoction of 
logwood, and afterward steep them in a 
solution of blue vitriol. 

c. — Steep them for a short time in a 
weak solution of sulphate of indigO' to 
which a little salt of tartar has been 
added ; or, still better, boil them in a 
dyer's green indigo vat. 

4. — Immerse for a short time in a di- 
lute solution of indigo carmine. 

5. — Brown. — Apply several coats of an 
ammoniacal solution of potassium per- 
manganate. Similar results are obtained 
if the solution is diluted with vinegar, 
and the ivory article allowed to remain 
in the liquid for some time. 

Gray Stain. — Lay the parts in a solu- 
tion of 1 part of pyrogallic acid in 20 
parts of water, for about 20 minutes ; 
allow them to dry thoroughly, then im- 
merse in a solution of 1 part of green 
vitriol in 25 parts of water. 

Green for Ivory or Bone. — 1. — Vine- 
gar, 1 qt. ; verdigris, 1 oz. Dissolve to- 
gether, and then boil your articles in it 
until of the desired hue. The vessel in 
which the operation is made must not 
afterward be used for any household pur- 
pose, for the dye is highly poisonous, and 
liable to penetrate any vessel in which it 
has been made or put. 

2. — Steep in a solution of 2 parts of 
verdigris and 1 part of sal ammoniac. 
Observe not to use a metallic vessel for 
the above. 

3. — Dip blued ivory for a little while 
in a solution of nitro-muriate of tin, and 
then in a hot decoction of fustic. 

4. — Boil in a solution of verdigris, in 
vinegar, until dark enough. 

5. — Steep in a solution of verdigris to 
which a little nitric acid has been added, 
or in a solution of distilled verdigris in 
acetic acid. 

6. — Green. — Dye yellow first, and after- 
ward dip into a solution of indigo car- 
mine. 

Pui"ple. — 1. — ^Make a solution of sal 



(Ivory) 



ammoniac into 4 times its weight of 
nitrous oxide. Soak the ivory in this. 

2. — Steep in a weak solution of ter- 
chloride of gold. Boil for 6 hours in a 
decoction of 1 lb. of logwood in % gal. 
of water, adding more water as it wastes 
by boiling, then add 2 oz. of alum, anfl 
boil for 1 hour more. 

Red Ivory. — 1. — Steep in good red writ- 
ing ink, if not intended to be afterward 
used in water, or to be washed. 

2. — This red, if to be used on an article 
liable to contact with water, needs to 
be applied upon a mordant, or fixer, made 
as follows: Aquafortis, 2 oz. ; sal am- 
moniac, ';4 oz. Mix. Then add tin, in 
powder, % oz. ; water, 1 oz. When all 
are dissolved, steep the ivory or bone 
articles in the liquor, and allow them 
to dry. Afterward boil Brazil wood, % 
lb. ; water, 1 gal. ; and again steep your 
articles in it when at boiling heat. 

3. — Red. — a. — Make an infusion _ of 
cochineal in water of ammonia, then im- 
merse the pieces therein, having previ- 
ously soaked them for a few minutes in 
very weak nitric acid and water. 

b. — Boil the bones with 1 lb. of Brazil 
dust in 1 gal. of water for 3 hours, then 
add 14 lb. of alum, and boil for 1 hour 
more. 

4. — Boil Brazil wood chips in weak 
alum water, and filter. The ivory should 
be previously treated with dilute muriate 
of tin solution. 

5. — Alum, 2 parts, dissolved in water, 
25 parts ; then the ivory is treated with 
a Brazil wood decoction. 

6. — Solution of 4 parts of cochineal, 
4 parts of cream of tartar, 12 parts of 
tin solution (finely powdered cochineal 
to be dissolved in warm tin solution and 
cream of tartar added). After solution 
is effected, spirit of sal ammoniac is add- 
ed, drop by drop. 

7. — Macerate cochineal in vinegar, and 
boil in the liquid for a few minutes. 

8. — For red, dip the articles first in a 
tin mordant, and then into a hot decoc- 
tion of Brazil wood or cochineal. 

Scarlet for Ivory or Bone. — Proceed as 
in the red, but use solution of lac dye 
instead of Brazil wood. 

Violet for Ivory or Bone. — 1. — Tin, in 
powder, ^% oz. ; sal ammoniac, % oz. ; 
nitric acid, 2 oz. ; water, 1 oz. Dissolve 
all completely, and then steep your ivory 
or bone in the liquor, taking care not to 
let it touch your hands, or it will produce 
painful sores and discoloration. Also 
avoid breathing the gas evolved from 
the liquor. After dipping in the above, 



[582] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Ivory) 



steep the articles in a decoction of log- 
wood. 

2. — Dip in tlie tin mordant and immerse 
in a decoction of logwood. 

3. — Dye red first, then immerse for an 
instant in a solution of indigo carmine. 

4. — Immerse for about 15 minutes in 
a solution of potassium chromate. 

5. — For yellow, impregnate with nitro- 
hydrochlorate of tin, and then digest in 
a strong decoction of fustic. The coal-tar 
colors are now generally used for this and 
similar purposes. 

6. — Finely powdered circuma root, 60 
parts ; digested in 500 parts of 80% al- 
cohol for a day, and filtered through blot- 
ting paper. 

7. — Aniline yellow, 95 parts, dissolved 
in 750 parts of 80% alcohol, and filtered 
through blotting paper. 

Etching Ivory. — 1. — Take dilute sul- 
phuric acid, dilute muriatic acid, equal 
parts ; mix. For etching varnish, take 
white wax, 2 parts ; tears of mastic, 2 
parts ; mix, 

2. — Etching ground, white wax, 66 
parts ; mastic, 66 parts ; asphalt, 2 parts ; 
melted together. The design must be 
drawn with a graving needle. Etching 
fluid : Pure silver, 2 parts, dissolved in 
nitric acid, 33 1-3 parts, and diluted with 
distilled water, 750 parts. After etch- 
ing, wash repeatedly in distilled water. 
After a few hours, wash out with oil of 
turpentine and carefully dry ; the draw- 
ing will be black. For brown drawing, in 
place of the silver solution use a solution 
of 1 part of permanganate of potash in 
16 parts of distilled water. The ivory 
must be absolutely free from fat. 

FlexiMe Ivory. — Immerse the ivory in 
a solution of pure phosphoric acid, sp. 
gr. 1.13, until it partially loses its opac- 
ity ; then wash in cold soft water, and 
dry. This renders ivory very flexible, 
but it regains its hardness if long ex- 
posed to dry air. Its pliability may, how- 
ever, be restored by immersion in hot 
water. 

Gilding Ivory. — 1. — Put the ivory into 
a solution of sulphate of iron (copperas), 
and then into a solution of nitro-muriate 
of gold ; on withdrawing it from the latter 
it will be beautifully gilded. 

2. — The pattern (ornamentation) is 
traced with a fine camel's-hair brush, 
moistened with chloride of gold. Then 
the glass or ivory is held over the mouth 
of a flask in which hydrogen gas is in 
process of generation (by the action of 
dilute sulphuric acid on zinc waste). The 
hydrogen reduces the chloride of gold on 
the painted places to metallic gold, and 



(Ivory) 



the metallic film of gold thus deposited 
will soon develop quite a shine or glit- 
ter. The gold film is very thin. 

3. — Ivory is not so easy to gild as arti- 
cles made of wood : wood, being porous, 
retains a portion of the gold size ; yet, 
on the other hand, bone or ivory may be 
so gilt that it shall resemble gold. Free 
the ivory from dirt or grease ; when quite 
dry, give the article a thin coat of gold 
size laid on evenly with a fine hair brush ; 
lay aside until set, which may be known 
by feeling whether tacky to the finger. 
The gold size should be just the least 
warm ; the article may, with advantage, 
be warmed before applying the gold size ; 
great care must be used to keep the dust 
from the article until gilt and quite dry. 
Cut the gold leaf in suitably sized pieces, 
and apply with the tip ; the gold leaf may 
then be pressed into shape with a piece 
of white wool. Should any part appear 
not gilt, apply a dab of gild size, then 
a piece of gold leaf. When quite dry, it 
may be burnished with an ivory paper- 
knife, or even a glass pen-holder, always 
inserting a piece of tissue paper between 
the burnished and the article that is 
gilt. When finished off, the appearance 
will be much improved by giving the arti- 
cle a coat of gild lacquer. 

4. — Immerse it in a solution of nitro- 
muriate of gold, and then expose it to 
hydrogen gas while damp. Wash it after- 
wards in clean water. 

Hardening Ivory. — To harden ivory 
after it has been softened, wrap in a 
sheet of white paper, cover with dry, de- 
crepitated salt, let it remain for 24 hours, 
when it will be restored to its original 
hardness. 

Imitation of Ivory. — 1. — The composi- 
tion for making imitation ivory is as fol- 
lows : Powder very finely some egg shell. 
Make isinglass and brandy into a paste 
with the egg shell. Color it as desired. 
The mold must be oiled, and the paste 
poured in warm. When dry it is ready 
for use. 

2. — One of the disadvantages of cellu- 
loid is the fact that it burns very readily 
when a flame is applied ; but a new com- 
pound, said to be fireproof, and suitable 
as a substitute for ivory, is thus made: 
A solution is prepared of 200 parts of 
casein in 50 parts of ammonia and 400 
of water, or 150 parts of albumen in 400 
of water. To the solution the following 
are added : Quicklime, 240 parts ; acetate 
of alumina, 150 parts ; alum, 50 parts ; 
sulphate of lime, 1,200 parts ; oil, 100 
parts. The oil is to be mixed in last. 
When dark objects are to be made, from 



[583] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Ivory) 



75 to 100 parts of tannin are to be sub- 
stituted for the acetate of alumina. When 
the mixture has been well kneaded to- 
gether, and made into a smooth paste, it 
is passed through rollers to form plates of 
the desired shape. These are dried and 
pressed into metallic molds previously 
heated, or they may be reduced to a very 
fine powder, which is introduced into 
heated molds and submitted to a strong 
pressure. The objects are afterward 
dipped into the following bath : Water, 
100 parts ; white glue, 1 part ; phosphoric 
acid, 10 parts. Finally, they are dried, 
polished, and varnished with shellac. 

Miniature Painting, Preparation for. — 
It is usual to paint miniatures upon ivory 
which is sold prepared for the purpose by 
the artist's colorman, after being sub- 
jected to a bleaching process by boiling, 
or exposure to the rays of the sun ; but 
the bleaching can be more expeditiously 
performed by placing the ivory before a 
good fire, which will dispel the wavy 
lines, if they are not very strongly 
marked, that frequently destroy the req- 
uisite uniformity of surface. Ivory of 
the best quality has but few of these wavy 
lines, but it is frequently expedient to 
employ that of inferior quality. 

Mounting. — The ivory should be fas- 
tened at the four corners to a piece of 
cardboard for the convenience of paint- 
ing on ; the back of the ivory should be 
kept perfectly clean, as any application 
of gum or glue to its surface destroys 
the transparent quality upon which its 
usefulness depends. After the surface to 
be painted on is properly cleaned, it 
should on no account be touched with the 
fingers, as the employment of oxgall to 
remove greasiness must be scrupulously 
avoided. An ivory palette is best adapted 
for miniature painting, because the tints 
appear on it the same as when worked 
on the miniature, a matter of considerable 
importance. 

Polishing Ivory. — 1. — This may be 
done by hard, medium, and soft revolv- 
ing brushes with wet whiting and water, 
finishing with a soft polishing bob 
charged with dry whiting or with putty 
powder. 

2. — To polish ivory by hand, make a 
pad of thick flannel or blanketing and 
rub with whiting and water ; finish with 
a new pad and dry whiting or putty pow- 
der. When finished, stand in the sun to 
bleach, if desired. 

3. — The following directions apply to 
the cleaning and polishing of an ivory 
tusk, the surface of which is somewhat 
corroded. With a blunt knife first scrape 



(Ivory) 



away the scaly matter until the ivory be- 
low begins to show up all over. Then 
scrape with pieces of broken glass, using 
the sharp edges, or a steel wood scraper. 
Continue this operation until all protuber- 
ances are worn down and the entire sur- 
face is moderately smooth. Next use 
coarse glasspaper, followed by medium, 
and then fine. Now rub well with fine 
emery powder, moistened into a paste 
with lard oil. Follow this application 
with one of powdered pumice and oil for 
a considerable time until a polish be- 
gins to appear. Finally, a vigorous fric- 
tion with putty powder and the palm of 
the hand will complete the operation. 

4. — The modes of polishing objects 
made of this useful and ornamental sub- 
stance, differ according to the nature of 
the works ; and although the following 
directions offered refer especially to the 
ivory of the elephant, that of the tusks 
of other animals, also the corosos, or 
vegetable ivory, and bone are treated 
nearly or quite the same, when applied 
to similar uses. Turned works v/ith plain 
surfaces may in general be left so smooth 
from the tool as to require but very little 
polishing, a point always aimed at, with 
superior workmen, by the employment of 
sharp tools. In the polishing of turned 
works, very fine glasspaper or emerv 
paper is first used, and it is rendered still 
finer and smoother by rubbing two pieces 
together face to face ; secondly, whiting 
and water as thick as cream is then ap- 
plied on wash leather, linen or cotton 
rag, which should be thio, that the fingers 
may the more readily feel and avoid the 
keen fillets and edges of the ivory work, 
that would be rounded by excessive polish- 
ing ; thirdly, when the work feels smooth, 
or to hang less to the rag than at first, 
the work is washed with clean water on 
the same or another rag ; fourthly, it is 
rubbed with a clean dry cloth until all 
the moisture is absorbed, and lastly, a 
very minute quantity of oil or tallow is 
put on the rag to give a gloss. Scarcely 
any of the oil remains behind, and the 
apprehension of its being absorbed by 
the ivory and disposing it to turn yellow 
may be discarded ; indeed, the quantity 
of oil used is quite insignificant, and its 
main purpose is to keep the surface of 
the ivory slightly lubricated, so that the 
rag may not hang to it and wear it into 
rings or groovy marks. Putty powder is 
sometimes used for polishing ivory work, 
but it is more expensive and scarcely bet- 
ter suited than whiting, which is suffi- 
ciently hard for the purpose. 

5. — Turned Works consisting of many 



[584] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Ivory) 



(Ivory) 



parts are best polished separately, as they 
are then more accessible, and the whiting 
and water do not penetrate and clog the 
joinings of the several parts, and prevent 
their easy separation. Accurate work- 
men frequently polish screw threads ^ in 
order to make them' move the more easily, 
and to endure the longer without wearing 
loose ; this is sometimes done with screws 
in ivorv and the woods, as well as those 
in the metals, and is to be highly recom- 
mended. . 

6. — Turned Works ornamented with the 
eccentric chuck, revolving cutters, etc., 
are also required to be cut with exceed- 
ingly sharp tools, in order that but little 
polishing may be necessary. The polish- 
ing of irregular surfaces is generally done 
with a moderately hard nail brush, sup- 
plied with whiting and water, and lightly 
applied in all directions, to penetrate 
every interstice ; after a period, the work 
is brushed with plain water and a clean 
brush, to remove every vestige of the 
whiting. The ivory is dried by wiping 
and pressing it with a clean linen or cot- 
ton rag, and is afterwards allowed to dry 
in the air, or at a good distance from the 
fire; when dry, a gloss is given with a 
clean brush, on which a minute drop of 
oil is first applied. It is better to do too 
little polishing at first, so as to need a 
repetition of the process, ^rather than, by 
injudicious activity, to round and obliter- 
ate all the delicate points and edges of 
the works, upon the preservation of which 
their beauty mainly depends. 

7, — Superior Flat Works are accurately 
filed and scraped, then cleaned with fine 
glasspaper folded around a square stick, 
afterwards with whiting also on a stick 
of deal, planed very flat and square and 
used as a file; some workmen cover the 
wood with one or two layers of flannel or 
cloth, but the naked wood, although some- 
what tedious, will produce more exact 
surfaces and better defined edges. 

8,_Common Filed and Carved Works 
are finished — first, with Trent sand and 
water on fla'^nel or a brush; secondly, 
scraped Flanders brick, used in like man- 
ner; thirdly, wet linen or woolen rag, 
with powdered chalk, which soon rubs 
down smooth, and to the condition of 
ordinary whiting. 

9. — Razors and Knife Handles are 
most generally finished by shaving or 
scraping ; and secondly, by bufiing them 
on the wheels, as more fully explained 
under the head Tortoise-shell ; but the 
following methods are by some preferred. 
10. — Common Razor Handles. — These 
are sawn out and filed, then scraped with 



an old razor blade called a shaving blade ; 
two razor handles or scales are then held 
at the one end in a pair of clamps in the 
vise, and rubbed lengthwise ; first, with 
chalk and water on felt or cloth, which 
cuts very quickly ; and secondly, with 
whiting and water for the finish. 

11. — Best Razor Handles. — Two scales 
are slightly riveted together and buffed; 
first, on a bufie-wheel fed with Trent 
sand ; secondly, buffed with rotten stone ; 
thirdly, they are handed up or polished 
with the naked hand and rotten stone. 
Other workmen entirely omit the rotten 
stone, which requires oil, and conduct the 
work with chalk and whiting, so that 
water may be used throughout the work. 
12. — Umbrella and Parasol Handles, 
and many similar pieces, are polished first 
with sand and then with whiting, on 
cloth wheels consisting of several circles 
of thick cloth or felt, clamped between 
two smaller disks of wood ; the cloth pro- 
jects about an inch around the margin 
to make a soft elastic edge. 

Polishing in the Lathe. — Ivory and 
fine hard woods may be polished in a 
turning lathe by mixing with tripoli the 
dust and shavings that turn off, and 
pressing it against the work while turn- 
ing. 

Silvering Ivory. — 1. — Take a small 
piece of nitrate of silver, and pound it in 
a mortar. Add some soft water to it, mix 
thoroughly and put in a bottle. Place the 
ivory article to be silvered in this solu- 
tion, allow it to remain until it is of a 
deep yellow color. Put it then in clear 
water, and place in the sun. If desired 
to draw any figure or name upon the 
ivory, it may be done with a camel's-hair 
pencil, dipped in the solution. Wash 
well with water after the drawing has 
become a deep yellow, and put in the sun- 
light, occasionally wetting with clean 
water. Rub it after it has turned a 
deep black color, and it will change to 
a brilliant silver. 

2. — Make a weak solution of nitrate 
of silver, immerse the ivory in it, and al- 
low it to remain until the solution gives it 
a deep yellow color. Immerse in clear 
water, and expose it in the water to the 
sun. It becomes black in about three 
hours. The black surface becomes bril- 
liant silver by rubbing. 

Softening Ivory.— \.— In 3 oz. of spirits 
of niter, and 15 of water, mixed, put the 
ivory and leave for 3 or 4 days. 

2._To Make Ivory Soft and Flexible. 
— Take a solution of phosphoric acid of 
1.130 sp. gr. Put the ivory in this solu- 
tion, and let it remain until it has a 



[ 585 ] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Lapis Lazuli) 



transparent appearance. Take out, wash 
carefullj', dry between soft linen. The 
ivory will be soft as thick leather. It 
will become hard if it is exposed to the 
air, but become soft again if placed in 
warm water. (See also Bone; Horn.) 

Jade. 

Polished by lapidaries like carnelian, 
but it only takes a greasy and not a bril- 
liant polish. 

Jasper. 

Obtains just the same treatment as car- 
nelian in the lapidary's art ; it occurs of 
numerous colors and varieties, and is 
nearly equal to agate in point of hard- 
ness. 

Jet. 

A soft bituminous mineral, and, like 
cannel coal, receives in the hand of the 
lapidary the same routine as alabaster. 
(See also Cannel Coal.) 

Worldng Jet. — 1. — Small chisels of or- 
dinary shape are used in turning jet on 
a lathe. The action is more of a scrape 
than a distinct cut. A knife the size of a 
penknife, with the point beveled off and 
then set like a chisel, is used in carving 
jet. Jet is first polished on a revolving 
wooden wheel with rotten stone and 
water, and then finished off on a board 
covered with stout leather — often por- 
poise hide — ^^impregnated with rouge or 
lampblack mixed with a very small quan- 
tity of oil. 

2. — The tools used for turning jet are 
beveled from both sides like a turner's 
soft wood chisel, only they are held with 
the edge horizontal and scrape rather 
than cut. Their edges are very thin and 
keen. A small gouge, also beveled from 
both sides, is used for roughing out. For 
polishing use first fine emery cloth, then 
charcoal dust and soft soap on a flannel. 
Finish with the same, only adding more 
soft soap. Sometimes rotten stone on 
the hand or flannel is used as a finish. 
No heat is required. 

Lapis Lazuli. 

Used in jewelry, but chiefly important 
as affording that beautiful pigment, ultra- 
marine, so highly valued by painters on 
account of its great advantage in not 
changing by time or exposure. Lapis 
lazuli is difficult to polish on account of 
the irregularity of its substance, which 
abounds in soft parts that wear away 
more quickly than the remainder; it is 
treated as carnelian. 

Lavas, which are occasionally arranged 



(Marble) 



as specimens, do not in general admit of 
being well polished, because of their be- 
ing irregularly hard and soft, and also 
scoriaceous ; they are worked by the 
lapidary just like alabaster. 

Malacliite. 

Malachite, or the massive green car- 
bonate of copper, is much used for jewel- 
ry and articles of vertu. The finest mala- 
chite is from Russia, and as it is tra- 
versed by numerous circular fissures — 
from the imperfect joinings of the botry- 
oidal masses of which it may be consid- 
ered to be composed — it is difficult to 
polish, and requires great care and atten- 
tion ; notwithstanding its hardness, it is 
considered by some lapidaries better to 
treat it as alabaster than carnelian, but 
each method is followed. 

Marble. 

1. — If the piece to be polished is a 
plane surface, it is first rubbed by means 
of another piece of marble, or hard stone, 
with the intervention of water and two 
sorts of sand ; first with the finest river 
or drift sand, and then with common 
house or white sand, which latter leaves 
the surface sufficiently smooth for the 
process of gritting. Three sorts of grit 
stone are employed : first, Newcastle grit ; 
second, a fine grit brought from the 
neighborhood of Leeds ; and lastly, a still 
finer, called snake grit, procured at Ayr, 
in Scotland. These are rubbed succes- 
sively on the surface with water alone ; 
by these means, the surface is gradually 
reduced to closeness of texture, fitting it 
for the process of glazing, which is per- 
formed by means of a wooden block hav- 
ing a thick piece of woolen stuff wound 
tightly round it ; the interstices of the 
fibers of this are filled with prepared 
putty powder (peroxide of tin), and 
moistened with water ; this being laid 
on the marble and loaded, it is drawn up 
and down the marble by means of a 
handle, being occasionally wetted, until 
the desired gloss is produced. The polish- 
ing of moldings is done with the same 
materials, but with rubbers varied in 
shape according to that of the molding. 
The block is not used in this case ; in its 
stead a piece of linen cloth is folded to 
make a handful ; this also contains the 
putty powder and water. Sand rubbers 
employed to polish a slab of large dimen- 
sions should never exceed 2-3 of its 
length nor 1-3 of its width ; but if the 
piece of marble is small, it may be sanded 
itself on a larger piece of stone. The 
grit rubbers are never larger than that 



[586] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Meerschaum) 



they may be easily held in one hand ; the 
largest block is about 14 in. in length and 
41^ in, in breadth. 

2. — To Polish Imitation Marbles, when 
you have finished marbling, let the work 
stand for a day or two ; then gently rub 
it down with the back or smooth side of 
a sheet of sandpaper ; this will take off 
the knits or bits of skin which may be 
upon it, without scratching it ; now give 
it three coats of the best pale polishing 
copal varnish, allowing an interval of two 
days after each coat. Let this stand for 
three weeks ; then cut it down with 
ground pumice and water, using a piece 
of wash leather or 'rag for that purpose. 
When you have got it tolerably smooth 
and level, wash it well with plenty of 
clean water, taking particular care to 
clean off all the pumice ; give it five coats 
of varnish. It ought now to stand for 
three to six months before it is polished, 
for if it is done before it is almost cer- 
tain to crack. When the varnish is suffi- 
ciently hard, cut it down with finely 
ground pumice as before ; then use rotten 
stone and olive oil, with the ball of the 
hand ; then flour and oil ; finish off with 
dry flour. This takes a deal of time to 
do it properly. 

3. — Pure beeswax, 10 parts ; Japan gold 
size, 2 parts ; spirits of turpentine, 88 
parts. The mixture is of creamy con- 
sistency, and should be applied in small 
quantities, with the aid of a piece of 
white flannel. If it is desired for use 
upon white marble, white wax may be 
substituted. The same preparation can 
be used to advantage on woodwork. The 
Japan size prevents the stickiness which 
exists when wax alone is used. 

Meerschaum. 

Meerschaum is scraped to a smooth 
surface ; but it is so soft as scarcely to 
admit of being polished, otherwise than 
by dipping the meerschaum into melted 
wax to fill up its pores, and rubbing it 
when dry with a flannel, which is the 
us-ual process. 

Mending. — If the material is genuine 
(natural) meerschaum you can ^ake a 
lasting joint between the parts jy pro- 
ceeding as follows : Clean a clove or 
two of garlic (the fresher the better) by 
removing all the outside hull or skin ; 
throw into a little mortar, and mash to a 
paste. Rub this paste over each surface 
to be united and join quickly. Bring the 
parts as closely together as possible and 
fasten in this position. Have ready some 
boiling fresh milk ; place the article in it 
and continue boiling for 30 minutes. Re- 



( Meerschaum) 



move and let cool slowly. If properly 
done, this makes a joint that will stand 
any ordinary treatment, and is nearly in- 
visible. If of composition, use a cement 
made of quicklime, rubbed to a thick 
cream with egg albumen. 

Pipes. — 1. — ^Meerschaum is worked in 
the following way : The large pieces 
of meerschaum are cut with a band saw 
to a convenient size, after which the ma- 
terial is soaked in water until it becomes 
quite soft. When wet it becomes very 
soapy, and will produce quite a lather if 
rubbed. After being thoroughly soaked, 
the meerschaum . can be cut like cheese, 
and it is then roughly shaped with a 
knife to the form of a pipe. When dry, 
the bowl and stem shanks are drilled, 
and then if the pipe is of a plain pattern, 
it is turned on a lathe to the desired form. 
If a square stem shank is desired, it is 
shaped with a file. The shank is now 
shouldered and threaded to receive the 
amber stem piece. 

2. — Cleaning. — A very simple and effec- 
tive way of cleaning the inside of a pipe 
is to plug Uip the bowl with a cork in 
which a hole has been bored. Fit the 
cork against the water tap and turn on 
the water. To clean the outside of the 
pipe, make a thick paste of whiting and 
turpentine, and brush it over with a hard 
brush. Leave the paste pretty thick on 
the pipe and allow it to become quite dry, 
when it should be brushed off with a 
clean hard brush. Finish cleaning the 
pipe by rubbing over with a soft cloth 
and sweet oil. 

3. — Discoloration, Removing. — To clean 
the carving on a meerschaum pipe and 
remove the black around the top, wash 
the bowl with hot milk, using a tooth or 
nail brush to clean the dirt out of the 
carved portion. For the black part try 
the effect of very fine pumice powder and 
benzoline ; bring up the gloss again with 
putty powder and a trace of olive oil. 
The greater part of the coloring of a 
meerschaum may be removed by steeping 
it for some time in moderately strong 
ammonia solution, 1 part of strong am- 
monia to 2 parts of water. 

4. — Imitation. — These are said to be 
prepared from a mixture of the artificially 
prepared silicates of magnesia, alumina, 
and lime, and sulphate of lime ; these are 
mixed together in the state of pastes, 
dried at the ordinary temperature, cut 
into small blocks, and dried on a stove. 
The blocks are then turned in the lathe 
in a similar manner to real meerschaum. 
Imitation meerschaum pipes should not be 
varnished ; the varnish will burn or crack 



[587] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Meerschaum) 



when the pipes are smoked. They may 
be warmed and rubbed with a little white 
wax, and then polished with a soft rag. 
The best way, however, is to polish them 
with a revolving wooden polishing wheel 
covered with leather or felt, using dry 
putty powder or whiting. 

5. — Suistitute for Meerschaum (Berto- 
lio^s). — a. — Make a hot solution of silicate 
of potash. Place in it carbonate of mag- 
nesia, cut in small pieces. Lret the pieces 
remain in the solution a few days, and 
then dry. Repeat several times, using 
fresh hot solution of water glass instead 
of silicate of potash. Expose the pieces 
to the air for a few months. In 6 or 7 
months the pieces are hard enough to be 
worked, and closely resemble meerschaum. 

b. — Make a solution of 4 parts of sul- 
phuric acid in 50 parts of water. TreTt 
peeled potatoes with this solution for 36 
hours. Di-y the mass between blotting 
paper and press. Pipes may be made of 
this material which closely resemble meer- 
schaum. By using very strong pressure, 
billiard balls have been made, closely re- 
sembling ivory. The material can be 
carved. 

6. — Rewaxing. — Carefullv clean the 
pipe by rubbing all over with soft rag 
wetted with methylated spirit and dipped 
in pumice nowder, finishing with clean, 
soft rag. To rewax, place a small spirit 
lamp beneath the pipe, but near enough 
to the pipe to keep it sufficiently warm to 
melt a piece of white wax held against it. 
Let the wax touch those parts onlv whioh 
are intended to be colored, and when the 
pipe is cold, wipe off the superfluous wax 
with a soft rag. Pipes can also be re- 
waxed by merely making them hot enough 
with smoking to melt the wax. Anv col- 
oring wrongly placed can be removed by 
dipping the bowl to the required depth in 
chloroform. Rewaxing demands care and 
patience. Another method is to cnt 1 lb. 
of white castile soap into thin shavings, 
boil with 2 pt. of water till dissolved, thpu 
add 1 lb. of white bpe«wax. nlso in t>im 
shavings, and stir till cold. Well rub this 
paste into the meerschaum and polish with 
a silk rag. A harder polish can be ob- 
tained by using carnauba wax in place of 
beeswax, but this is difficult to emulsify 
with the soap. 

Meerschaum, To Color. — 1. — Ordinar- 
ily, the pipe is boiled for coloring in a 
preparation of wax, which is absorbed, 
and a thin coating of wax is held on the 
surface of the pine, and made to take a 
high polish. Under the wax is retained 
the oil of tobacco, which is absorbed bv 
the pipe, and its hue grows darker in 



(Mussel Shells) 



[588] 



proportion to the tobacco used. A meer- 
schaum pipe at first should be smoked 
very slowly, and before a second bowlful 
is lighted the pipe should cool off. This 
is to keep the wax as far up on the bowl 
as possible, and rapid smoking will over- 
heat, driving the wax off and leaving the 
pipe dry and raw. A new pipe should 
never be smoked outdoors in extremely 
cold weather. 

2. — Fill the pipe, and smoke down about 
one-third, or to the height to which you 
wish to color. Leave the remainder of 
the tobacco in the pipe, and do not empty 
or disturb it for several weeks, or until 
the desired color is ohtained. When smok- 
ing, put fresh tobacco on the top, and 
smoke to the same level. 

3. — When once burnt, the pipe cannot 
he satisfactorily colored, unless the burnt 
portion is removed and the surface again 
treated by the process by which meer- 
schaum is prepared. The coloring is pro- 
duced by action of the smoke upon the 
oils and wax which are superficially on 
the exterior of the pipe, and are applied 
in the process of manufacture. 

4. — The «fmr>Tac!t mpfhofl of performing 
this is as follows: Fill the pipe, and 
smoke down about one-third, or to the 
height to which you wish to color. Leave 
the remainder of the tobacco in the pipe, 
a"d do not emnty or disturb it for seveml 
weeks, or until the desired color is ob- 
tained. When smoking, uut fresh tobacco 
on the top, and smoke to the same level. 
A^nfhoT- method is as follows: The pine 
js! boilofi for colorinsr in a (prenaration 
of wax, whinh is ab-aorbed. and a thin 
poafina: of wax is held on the surface of 
the nine, and marie to take a hiali polish. 
TT"der tho wax i<3 refainpf^ fhe oil of to- 
bacco, which is absorbed bv the pipe, and 
its hue grows darker in nronortion to the 
tohafno used. A mf^rschanm pine at first 
should hp sTnokpd vPT-v slowlv, and before 
a second bowifni jg lighted the pine should 
cool off. This is to k^pn the wax as far 
UD on the 'bowl as noosible : ranid smok- 
ing will ovprheai-. di'i'vinsr the wax off. 
and 1( ivinsr the ninp drv and raw. A upw 
nine s.ionld never be smoked outdoors in 
extremely cold weather. 

M"ssp1 v^Tiells. 

Polhhmn. — First rub tTie shells wUh 
the finest emerv nowder. wet. on a piece 
of flannel, then polish with oxi'^e of tin or 
puttv nowder. and finally with whitin?, 
apnlied by the ball of the thumb without 
a cloth. To polish many shells a weak 
solution of hydrochloric acid has to be 



Lapidary Arts 



(Pearls) 



used to remove the rough "skin." The 
polishing then proceeds as above. 

Onyx. 

A variety of chalcedony that is wrought 
by the lapidary like Carnelian. 

Opal. 

This beautiful iridescent gem, although 
soft, is very brittle and tender, on account 
of the numerous fissures by which it is 
traversed, and that apparently give rise to 
the splendid play of colors seen in pre- 
cious opals of fine quality. Opals are al- 
ways cut with rounded faces, and are 
more generally treated like alabaster than 
carnelian. 

Pearls and Pearl Working. 

For information on pearl, uses of shells, 
manufacture of buttons, culture pearls, 
etc., see our Scientific American Supple- 
ment, Nos. *1203, *1694, 1743, 1385, 
1592, *1700 and *1786. (*) Denotes il- 
lustrated articles. 

Cleaning. — 1. — For cleaning pearls, one 
safe method is to wash them in lukewarm 
water with light suds made from white 
castile soap, and then to dry them by 
shaking in a box filled with jewelers' saw- 
dust, for if left wet the gems may be 
injured. 

2. — To free the setting round a pearl 
from dust, a soft-bristled tooth-brush 
should be used, for nothing but fine hairs 
can get into the small corners and clean 
the prongs without danger of loosening 
the jewels. 

3. — Tn cloar. in w a pearl ring or scarf 
pin snrroimded bv a cluster of diamonds 
the best plan is to put the article into a 
bowl of clear lukewarm water. Next dip 
the brush in the water, rub it ovpr a prre 
toilet soap, and make a thin suds on tbe 
hand: then brush the jewels and setti^ig 
carefully until thev look olpin. Care 
mnst be takf^n that no bits of soor» srpt on 
the gems. Occasionally they will have to 
be isjoaped several times to make tb'^m 
brieht. The moment the dirt is remo^pd 
rin=e thprn in Inkevsrarm water and blow 
it off oni'^T^lv, so that the pearl will dry 
more ranidlv when nut in the sawdust. 
DroT) them in a bowl filled with jeweler's 
sawdust and sh^Ve them gently for sev- 
eral minutes. WhfTi taken out, if any fine 
particles of wood clinsr to the setting th^v 
should be whisked off with a small, soft, 
drv tooth-brn«h. Ipnvine the pearl and 
diamondc! bright and Instrons. Some tx^o- 
pie nrefer nsin? alcohol in«t.ead of boT 
Rawdn«t to dr^^ th^ stonp«. bnt unless tTi'<? 
is used exceedingly carefully, the setting 



(Pearl Shells) 



may be loosened. Dip the ring just once 
in alcohol and quickly blow or brush it 
dry. The whole process of cleaning pearls 
should not take more than from gix to 
ten minutes, and should be done every 
two or three weeks when they are con- 
stantly worn. 

Deterioration. — Pearls are liable to de- 
terioration from various causes. The acid 
secretions of the skin, foul gases, salt 
water and soap injure them, and sudden 
changes of temperature may cause them 
to crack or even to burst. In the course 
of time the pearl becomes dull, or "old," 
to use the technical term. When it has 
completely lost its luster it is said to be 
dead. Attempts have been made to re- 
store the luster of dead pearls by various 
methods, none of which produces very sat- 
isfactory results. 

Glass-gilding, Fixing Pearl to Glass. — 
First gild the outline, and when quite fin- 
ished fill the spaces between the lines with 
very clear varnish. "WTien this becomes 
tacky, put a little size on the end of the 
finger, pick up some of the flakes of pearl, 
and put them on different narts of the let- 
ter. Fill in w'th smaller flakes, and lastly 
press on some pearl powder to cover the 
space completplv. Apply the varnish with 
a soft hair-fitch, and to fix the pearl at 
the back, when the work is quite dry, 
press a laver of tinfoil well into the 
breaks. Paint over this with white lead, 
tinted as may be required, and mixed stiff 
in boiled oil with enough japan gold size 
to drv quickly. 

Inlaying on Metal. — "Pearl-in lay in a:" 
is the name given to a process by which 
pieces of pearl are attached to the sur- 
faces of metal and sometimes of papier 
mache. 

1. — Mother of pearl, known also as 
pearl oyster and white pearl, is chiefly 
u^'pd for the purpose. It has a clear white 
surface covered with minute grooves 
which decompose and reflect the light, im- 
parting a number of beautiful tints. 

2. — Aurora shell is used ; this has a 
wrinkled appearance and is known also by 
its various colors. It is made from the 
shell of the mollusc known as the sea-ear 
or ear-shell. 

3. — iVnother pearl used for the purpose 
oom.es from the green snail shell ; this is 
distinguished by its glistening shades of 
green, yellow and pink, blended together. 

4. — in prenaring the pearl for inlaying, 
the rough shells are cut with fine saws, 
the pieces being then ground on both sides 
on a grindstone until of the requisite 
t^iHrnpss. With a pair of ordinary scis- 
pors the pearl is now cut into the form 



t 589 ] 



Lapidary Arts 



Pearl Shells 



of leaves, flowers, etc., or when many 
pieces of the same size and shape are re- 
quired, a die press operated by foot power 
may be employed. 

5. — Another method by which a number 
of similar pieces may be obtained consists 
in cementing the several thiclfnesses to- 
gether and, holding the composite lump in 
a vise, shaping with a fine saw. Files and 
drills also assist in the shaping. If the 
cement employed is glue, soaking in water 
will separate the pieces, from which the 
glue can then be washed. To prepare the 
iron or other material to receive the pearl, 
it should be well cleaned and then coated 
with lampblack worked up with varnish. 
When this is thoroughly dry, a coat of 
black japan is applied, and when this is 
tacky the pieces of pearl are pressed on 
with the finger. Being left two or three 
hours in a hot oven, the japan dries, and 
then the whole is varnished and again 
stoved, this process being repeated several 
times. The varnish should be applied 
quickly, so as to bring up the surrounding 
surface to the level of the pearl ; the var- 
nish is scraped off the latter with a knife 
when the stoving operations are finished. 
The pearl is then polished with pumice 
stone and water, and the varnish is rubbed 
smooth with very fine pumice powder 
moistened with water. The article now 
has the appearance of being inlaid, if the 
film of varnish applied is sufficiently 
thick. It is obvious that the whole proc- 
ess is not one of real inlaying. The next 
stages of the work can be successfully 
carried out only by a person possessed of 
an eye for the artistic. The pieces of 
pearl are made to assume the forms of 
flowers, etc., their stem and leaves being 
sketched in with a camel's-hair pencil 
dipped in gold size or in a mixture of var- 
nish and turpentine. When tacky, gold 
leaf is applied, superfluous gold being 
rubbed off with a piece of silk when the 
size or varnish is dry. The flowers and 
leaves are further touched up with paint, 
and the job is finished by coating with the 
very best varnish. 

Mother of Pearl. — Mother of pearl of 
moderate size may be obtained of dealers. 
It may be sliced with a circular saw, 
ground on an ordinary grindstone, then 
polished with Trent sand, of various de- 
grees of fineness, on a revolving leather 
buff, and finished with lime or whiting. 
The slitting and grinding operations are 
conducted with the saw and stone running 
in troughs of water. It may also be in- 
cised with the graver, fret-sawn (with the 
addition of water to keep the saw cool). 



Pearl Shells 



and shaped with a smooth file, but could 
hardly be cut with a knife. 

1. — Mother-of-Pearl Gloss on Gelatine 
Films. — This is produced, according to the 
patent of G. A. Poussole, Paris, by mixing 
an aqueous gelatine solution with ammo- 
nium bromide, the product obtained after 
drying being dipped into a silver nitrate 
solution. The gelatine is dried again and 
again dipped, this time in a clear collodion 
solution ; a final drying completes the 
process. 

2. — Imitation. — a. — Imitation of mother 
of pearl for inlaid work is obtained by 
varnishing smooth surface of paper, card- 
board, leather, bone, celluloid, etc. When 
dry, the surface is daubed with colored 
bronze powder and is subjected to pres- 
sure by means of a die having the desired 
design upon its face, the die being heated 
to 105° to 150° F. This method is cheap, 
and the results are durable and can be 
varied almost indefinitely. Practical 
working details are missing, however. 

b. — Small articles may be made of imi- 
tation mother of pearl by producing the 
articles in horn, which is boiled in a solu- 
tion of sugar of lead and then laid in 
very dilute hydrochloric acid. 

c. — Buttons. — White horn buttons may 
be made to imitate mother of pearl by 
being boiled in a saturated solution of 
sugar of lead and then laid in very dilute 
hydrochloric acid. Combs, to which the 
boiling process is not applicable, as it dis- 
torts the teeth, may be treated by being 
kept overnight in a moderately concen- 
trated cold solution of nitrate of lead, 
then laid for l^ hour in a bath containing 
3 per cent, of nitric acid, finally being 
rinsed in water. The use of sugar of lead 
is, however, prejudicial and should be 
avoided, 

3. — Iridescent. — The following is said 
to be the process used in the Vienna shell 
button works. In a wide-mouth jar large 
enough to hold the shells, and fitted with 
a ground glass stopper, put as much am- 
monia water as will cover the shells. To 
this add silver chloride in powder until 
the liquid becomes saturated and a slight 
excess of the silver salt is established. 
Into this put the shell and, applying the 
stopper, set aside in a dark place for a 
few days. At the end of a week, more or 
less according to the heat of the weather, 
density or porosity of the shell, etc.. re- 
move the shell and place it, without wash- 
ing, in the direct sunlight for two or three 
days. The play of colors is usually estab- 
lished in a few hours, but its permanency 
is made surer by a little longer exposure 
to the sun. As a general rule, one week's 



[590] 



Lapidary Arts 



Pearl Shells 



contact with the ammonia water, with 
two days' exposure to the direct light, are 
all-sufficient. 

To Give to Articles the Luster of 
Mother of Pearl. — Make a solution of co- 
pal, 1 part ; sandarac, 1 part ; solution of 
damnmr, 2 parts ; rosin, % part ; absolute 
alcohol, % part. Mix these ingredients 
with % their volume of oil of bergamot 
or rosemary. Distil until it is reduced to 
the consistency of castor oil. Take a ves- 
sel which is a little larger than the article 
to be coated ; fill with water to which 
has been added about 5% of pure glue 
solution. Apply the varnish with a 
feather or brush to the 'surface of the 
water ; a beautiful iridescent film will be 
formed, which is laid on the articles to be 
made iridescent. Keep the water at a 
temperature of about 70° F. 

4. — Polishing. — a. — Take some finely 
powdered rotten stone and add suflacient 
olive oil to it to make a thick paste — like 
the thickest cream. Thin this with sulphuric 
acid to a thin cream, then apply it with a 
cork rubber which is covered with selvyt 
or similar velvet material. When the pol- 
ish is obtained, wash the surface of the 
shell with plain water. 

b. — In dealing with large numbers of 
shells a lathe, or grinding spindle, is pro- 
vided with polishing bobs. These would 
be for the various stages of grinding level 
with emery, smoothing with rotten stone 
and polishing with whiting on buff 
leather. The polishing materials are 
moistened to a thin paste with vinegar or 
dilute sulphuric acid. 

c. — Go over it with pumice, finely pow- 
dered, washed to separate the impurities 
and dirt, with which polish it very 
smooth ; then apply putty powder and 
water by a rubber, which will produce a 
fine gloss and good color. 

d. — Make a thick paste of finely ground 
rotten stone with olive oil, then add suffi- 
cient sulphuric acid to make it a thin 
cream. When the polish is applied, rub 
with a cork covered with velvet. When 
the polish on the shell is obtained, wash 
the shell well. 

Polishing. — 1. — Add olive oil to finely 
pulverized rotten stone, so as to make a 
thick paste. Then add sulphuric acid in 
sufficient quantity to make a thin paste. 
Apply this paste and rub quickly with a 
cork covered with velvet, and, as soon as 
the pearl takes the polish wash off. This 
is a fine polish. 

2. — Go over it with pumice stone finely 
powdered, washed to separate the impuri- 
ties and dirt, with which polish it very 
smooth ; then apply putty powder and 

[ 



(Sapphire) 



water by a rubber, which will produce a 
fine gloss and good color. 

Working of Pearl. — There are two 
kinds of shells used in the manufacture of 
^mall articles ; «the porcelaneous and the 
nacreous. The former are extremely 
hard, and can be worked only with the 
apparatus employed by the lapidary. The 
latter are more generally used, and may 
be sawn, filed, and turned, with some 
facility. The pieces should be roughed 
out on a common grindstone. After turn- 
ing, they should be smoothed with pumice 
stone and water, and polished with rotten 
stone wet with sulphuric acid slightly 
diluted. 

Putty, Jewelers'. 

1. — Tin putty, an oxide of tin made by 
levigating the crusts of oxide that form 
upon the metal when kept for some time 
in fusion. It is used for polishing. 

2. — Melt tin, 1 oz., with an equal 
weight, or 1% oz. of lead, and then raise 
the heat so as to render the mixed metal 
red hot, when the tin will be immediate- 
ly flung out in the state of putty. Both 
are very hard, used for polishing glass 
and japan work, and to color opaque 
white enamel. 
Quartz. 

Pure silex occurs both crystalline and 
amorphous, and is polished after the 
mode describe* for Carnelian. The 
reader is also referred to the article 
Crystal, by which name quartz is very 
commonly known in the arts. 
Sapphire. 

1. — The previous articles on alabaster 
and carnelian may with advantage be here 
referred to, as containing much general 
information upon the lapidary art ; but 
it should be here observed that the hard- 
er and smaller the gems to be wrought, 
the harder are the metallic laps or mills 
respectively employed by the lapidary ; 
and although sapphire may, in truth, be 
entirely wrought by the method employed 
for carnelian, the present will be found 
the more usual as well as the more eco- 
nomical practice. As gems are usually re- 
tained of as great size as their irregulari- 
ties of surface will admit, sapphires and 
many other gems are seldom reduced in 
size except by grinding, or as it is more 
commonly called, by cutting them. When, 
however, they are divided, it is more com- 
monly done by cleavage or splitting, than 
by slitting or sawing : which process, 
when resorted to, is effected nearly as 
usual with an iron slicer fed with dia- 
mond dust, and lubricated with brick oil ; 
591] 



Lapidary Arts 



(Shells) 



the slicer for sapphires is, however, very 
much smaller than for general lapidary 
works, and is principally met with in the 
hands of watch jewelers. Secondly, the 
lapidary commonly grinds and cuts the 
facets on sapphires upon a copper lap, 
supplied with diamond dust and brick oil, 
which cuts more quickly and delicately 
than the lead mill with emery ; and third- 
ly, these gems are polished upon a copper 
lap with rotten stone and water, the tool 
being jagged, after the manner more fully 
described under the head Carnelian. 

2. — Diamond powder is used through- 
out, and of three degrees of fineness ; the 
coarsest on copper tools, the medium on 
glass, and the finest on pewter tools for 
the last polish. 

Sard. 

A variety of chalcedony, that is 
wrought by the lapidary like Carnelian. 

Serpentine. 

When in large pieces, is treated like 
marble ; when the serpentine is in small 
pieces, that are recent and soft, the lapi- 
dary employs much the same mode that 
he would in grinding and polishing ala- 
baster, or the routine for carnelian, when 
from exposure to the atmosphere the ser- 
pentine has attained its greatest degree of 
hardness. 

Shells. 

Some of these shells are cut through, 
to show their internal sections or struc- 
tures ; whilst others are simply polished 
exteriorly in their entire states, as speci- 
mens of natural history, or for their in- 
trinsic beauty. Some few of the shells 
are cut up in the manufacture of various 
useful and ornamental works. They are 
usually treated as follows : 

1. — Nacreous Shells, which are gener- 
ally bivalve shells, such as those of the 
various oysters, mussels, etc., are thus 
named from nacre, the French for mother 
of pearl, the covering of the ostera mar- 
garitifera of the Indian seas. The 
nacreous shells are much softer than the 
porcelaneous, and may be sawn, filed, and 
turned with moderate facility ; but, from 
the quantity of lime they contain, they 
feel harsh and scratchy under the tools. 
The pearl shell is much employed in the 
ornamental art, and the usual course for 
its preparation into square, angular, and 
circular plates, and cylindrical pieces, is 
first, with saws of different and ordinary 
kinds ; the pieces are then roughly shaped 
on the edge of a grindstone turned into 
grooves, and afterwards smoothed on the 
flat side of the stone ; many use soap and 



(Shells) 



water with the stone, which lessens its 
liability to become clogged. 

2. — Pearl Handles for Razors. — The 
manufacturers slightly rivet the handles 
together in pairs, after which they are, 
first, scraped; secondly, sand luffed on 
the wheel with Trent sand and water ; 
thirdly, gloss luffed on the wheel with 
rotten stone and oil. or sometimes with 
dry chalk rubbed on the same wheel ; and 
fourthly, they are handed up or polished 
with dry rotten stone and the naked hand. 

3. — Pearl Shell, when polished bv the 
lapidary, is treated in the mode followed 
with Alabaster. 

4. — Pearl Shell in Detached Pieces, 
such as counters, silk winders, etc., im- 
mediately after having been ground, and 
when shaped on their edges, are smoothed 
with Trent sand or pumice stone and 
water, on a buff-wheel or hand-polisher, 
and are finished with rotten stone. The 
latter powder, although sometimes used 
with oil or water, is more frequently 
moistened with a little sulphuric acid, 
nearly or quite undiluted ; this produces 
a far more brilliant polish, which may 
possibly arise from the partial destruc- 
tion of the surface, thus developing in a 
more decided manner the striated forma- 
tion of the pearl-shell, and to which pecu- 
liarity of structure its variegated lustre 
is ascribed. 

5. — Pearl Works Combined, as in 
Boxes, are most generally reduced to a 
flat surface by filing and scraping. First, 
pumice stone and then putty powder are 
used on buff-sticks with water, and the 
final polish is given with a buff-stick and 
rotten stone moistened with sulphuric 
acid ; this mode is available for inlaid 
works with gold or silver, but not for 
those having tortoiseshell or other sub- 
stances that would be attacked by the 
acid. The buff-stick is expeditious, but 
for very flat surfaces, a flat deal stick 
covered with one layer of linen rag is 
preferable, although slower. 

6. — Porcelaneous Shells, which are gen- 
erally univalve or single shells, such as 
the whelks, limpets, and cowries, so far 
resemble porcelain or enamel as not to 
admit of being otherwise cut than with 
the apparatus employed by the lapidary ; 
and accordingly, when porcelaneous shells 
are divided, to exhibit their sections, it 
is effected by the slicer, with diamond 
powder. The porcelaneous shells do not, 
in general, require the coarser or grind- 
ing tools, as few of them present the 
ronarh coat or epidermis of the nacreous 
shells ; and it is therefore only commonly 
needful to restore or increase their 



[592] 



Lapidtiry Arts 



(Shells) 



natural polish with the list or brush 
wheel of the lapidary. Tutty powder 
may be used, but rotten stone, from its 
greater hardness, is m^re effective on 
porcelaneous shells. Of course, similar 
wheels running in a vertical plane, such 
as those of the cutler and workers in 
horn and ivory, may be also used with 
equally good effect. 

7. — Shell Cameos. — A very suitable ma- 
terial for cameos is found in the vari- 
ous conch-shells or stromhs, the substance 
of which consists of two distinct layers 
of different colors, textures, and hardness, 
and which may be considered respective- 
ly to partake of the nature of nacreous 
and porcelaneous shells. The outer coat 
or layer in the most suitable specimens of 
conch-shells is nearly colorless, of uni- 
form texture, and, like that on the 
nacreous shells, admits of being readily 
operated upon by steel cutting-tools, and 
which may be made to produce a smooth 
and well-finished surface ; this outer layer 
is therefore suited for the carved parts 
of cameos, the ground being formed of 
the under laj'er of the shell, which in the 
most suitable kinds is of a dark color, and 
allied to the porcelaneous shells, being 
somewhat brittle and so hard and com- 
pact as not to admit of being readily cut 
with steel tools. 

8. — Turned Works in general only re- 
quire fine emery paper, and then rotten 
stone on woolen rag with sulphuric acid, 
but oil may be used instead of the latter. 

Aquarium Shells, Cleaning. — It is im- 
possible to keep delicate shells fresh and 
clean at the bottom of an aquarium. The 
shells mny be cleaned by plunging them 
in a boiling mixture of 1 part of hydro- 
chloric acid to 10 parts of water. Hold 
the shells with a pair of wooden tongs, 
plunsre them into the boiling mixture, and 
let them stay there for one second only. 
Then place them immediately into clean 
cold water. Repeat the operation if neces- 
sary, but if the shells remain in the acid 
bevond the prescribed time, they will be 
eaten in holes, if not altogether dissolved. 
If the shells are to be replaced in the 
aquarium, it is not worth while to clean 
them repeatedly. Introduce a few fresh- 
w^tpr snails into the aquarium, and they 
will keep down the green growth. 

Cleaning and Polishing Shells. — Shells 
to be preserved and polished may be 
ronehly divided into three classes: (a) 
Shplls having a natural polish, or re- 
quiring very little preparation; (b) those 
which have no natural polish, but which 
may be polished without much trouble ; 
(c) rough shells, requiring their rough- 



(Shells) 



r.'^;^s to be removed by mechanical means 
before they can be polished. 

1. — Shells in the first class need very 
little attention, especially those found in 
a natural state with a glossy surface, and 
o^ten of very beautiful variegated hues. 
Simply cleaning will answer with some 
of these ; with others the colors and pol- 
ish will not be so bright when dry as in 
a wet state, but the brightness can easily 
be restored by brushing over them water 
in which a little gum arable has been dis- 
solved ; or white of an egg or colorless 
transparent varnish can be used. The 
bst can of course be washed should the 
shells get dirty. 

2. — With some, the polish and colors 
may be obscured by a dull epidermis, or 
outer skin ; this must be removed by soak- 
ing in warm water, and rubbing it off 
with a brush or a rag dipped in common 
hydrochloric acid, afterwards well wash- 
ing the shells in water, and proceeding as 
before. But after removing the dull skin, 
it will be found that most shells will have 
no natural polish ; these constitute the 
second class. After removing the skin, 
wash well in warm water and dry in hot 
sawdust ; then a polish may be induced 
by simply rubbing with chamois leather, 
or chamois leather and a little olive-oil. 
Some will probably require to be 
sm.oothed down with emery paper, then 
rubbed with wash-leather dipped in tur- 
pentine and dressed with tripoli powder, 
then with fine tripoli alone, and finally 
with olive-oil and chamois leather for the 
finishing touches. 

3. — Shells belonging to the third class 
are the most difficult, and take the longest 
time to polish ; but these will be found 
to subdivide themselves. Ordinary files, 
followed by emery cloth, will remove the 
rouahness of some, and they can then be 
polished in the same way as mentioned 
for the second class. Others must be 
g'-onnd with wheels of different degrees 
of fineness, or wooden and other discs 
dressed with different substances, such as 
washed emery, rotten stone and water, and 
leather with putty powder or tripoli. All 
rough shells should first be boiled in a 
strong solution of potash. When grinding 
some shells, the outer stratum or strata 
may be ground through, so as to show the 
underlying ones. Grinding shells is by 
no means an easy operation, and in some 
cases it may be positively dangerous to 
the hands, which may be crippled if the 
work is much indulged in. 

Coloring. — A little lac dye is boiled and 
left standing to settle, it is then dissolved 
in a solution of tin chloride. The shells 



[5^3] 



Lapidary Arts 



Tortoiseshell) 



having been well cleaned, are dipped in 
this until they become the proper color. 

Slate Polishing. 

Slate is faced first with an iron plate 
with river sand and water, smoothed with 
pumice stone ; then japanned and baked 
to harden the japan, and again smoothed 
with pumice stone and polished with 
rotten stone. 

Tortoiseshell. 

Gomhs, Reviving. — To revive tortoise- 
shell combs, which often get dull and 
dingy-looking, dip the finger in lin- 
seed oil and rub over the whole 
surface of the comb. Use but very 
little oil. If there is a pattern on the 
comb, it may be necessary to use a soft 
brush to get it into the crevices. Then 
rub with the palm of the hand until all 
oil has disappeared, when the shell feels 
hot and looks bright and shiny. A very 
dull comb will need a good deal of rub- 
bing. 

Cutting Tortoiseshell. — Tortoiseshell 
may be roughly cut to shape with a fine 
fret-saw. and trimmed with a fine file or 
with a sharp knife or graver. Any carv- 
ing upon it should be done with gravers 
similar to those used by metal engravers, 
the cuts being made very shallow owing 
to the thinnfess of the material. The 
original rough surface may be removed 
with powdered pumice stone and water, 
and the polishing should be done with 
dry rouge on a soft rag, the final polish 
being obtained by rubbing with a soft 
cloth or velvet pad. 

Polishing. — 1, — The process of polish- 
ing depends on whether the entire cara- 
pace (shell) or detached plates are to be 
treated. Too vigorous methods should 
not be employed in the former instance, 
or disconnection of the plates from the 
skeleton will result. General instructions 
are therefore given as follows : First well 
wash the shell in warm water and soap 
powder, and subsequently further cleanse 
it by means of dilute sulphuric acid, % 
oz. to 1 pt. of water, removing all traces 
afterwards by washing. Then proceed to 
reduce the corrugated surface of each 
plate by means of the edges of broken 
glass and coarse, medium, and fine glass- 
paper, until a perfectly smooth surface 
is obtained. Powdered pumice should 
next be rubbed on by means of a soft 
cloth, and polishing can then be proceeded 
with. The material used is stannous 
oxide ( putty powder) moistened to a 
thick paste with lard oil. This is applied 
continuously with a soft cloth, until a 



Tortoiseshell) 



polish begins to appear, when the oil may 
be omitted, and the dry powder used alone 
until a brilliant polish is obtained. In the 
final stages, the palm of the hand should 
be used instead of the cloth, slightly mois- 
tening the work by breathing on it. 

2. — Handles for razors and penknives, 
combs, spectacle frames, and many simi- 
lar works, after they have been sawn out 
and molded into form, are smoothed with 
a float or single cut file technically known 
as a quannet, and then shaved or scraped 
smooth with a scraper like that used by 
joiners. Cutlers often use an old razor 
blade, the edge of which has been sharp- 
ened at right angles, by placing the blade 
perpendicularly on the oil-stone. The 
works are then very sparingly polished on 
a wheel covered with thick buff leather, 
such as the bull-neck or seacow, and fed 
with calcined Trent sand and oil, and 
they are finished on a similar wheel sup- 
plied with rotten stone and oil ; occasion- 
ally the latter wheel is alone used. Razor 
handles and some other works are often 
handed up, or finished with the naked 
hand and dry rotten stone, and works re- 
quired to be very nice and flat are more 
generally treated as follows : 

3. — Flat Works in Tortoiseshell, such 
as card and needle cases, and others that 
require to be kept flat, are floated and 
scraped as above, successively employing 
pumice stone, putty powder and rotten 
stone on three different buff-sticks, and 
all generally with water, but sometimes 
with oil, as the treatment varies according 
to the material inlaid in the tortoiseshell, 
which is lastly finished with the hand and 
rotten stone or whiting. 

4. — Tortoiseshell, when turned in the 
lathe, is usually smoothed with fine glass 
or emery paper, and finished with rotten 
stone and oil, on linen or woolen rag. 

Welding Tortoiseshell. — The edges to be 
united are shaved and scraped to a 
feather edge, and laid together with a 
piece of fresh shell upon them ; the whole 
is next subjected to a moist heat (as of 
hot water), which softens it, and it is 
then put under great pressure until the 
parts are united, after which the surplus 
thickness is removed as waste. Another 
method of welding tortoiseshell is first to 
file it clean, and lap one edge over the 
other, taking care that no grease remains ; 
wet the joint with water and hold it in 
a hot pair of pincers, so constructed as to 
cover 4 in. or 5 in. of the joint. Remove 
the pincers and apply more water and 
the joint will be found secure. The pin- 
cers must not be so hot as to burn the 
shell. 



[594 1 



CHAPTER XYII 



LEATHER 



Bags, Dressing Cases, etc., To Restore. 

Water, 3 qts. ; chip logwood, 7l^ oz. ; 
sugar, 1 oz. ; genuine gum arabic, 6 oz. ; 
solution of sulphate of iron ; methyl alco- 
hol. Put the water and logwood chips 
into a copper boiler or saucepan, and let 
the water boil until reduced one-half in 
bulk. Then stir in the sugar and gum, 
and when they are dissolved stir in suffi- 
cient of the sulphate of iron solution to 
cause the reddish brown color of the solu- 
tion to assume a plum or bluish tint. 
Then add the alcohol, and after a few 
days' digestion strain off for use. Apply 
one or more coats of this solution to the 
shabby leather with a sponge. If the 
grain of the leather is very much abraded 
or rubbed off, a final coat of a spirit gloss 
or lacquer will restore the new appear- 
ance of the bag, or whatever the article 
may be. 

Belting. 

Dressing. — As materials for the manu- 
facture of belt dressing, we may enu- 
merate tallow, wax, paraffine, cod liver 
oil and castor oil. These ingredients must 
be as free as possible from acid. To de- 
prive tallow and train oil, which usually 
contain free acid, of acid, we stir into 
the melted tallow about 5% of soda lye, 
of about 30° B6. After about a quarter 
of an hour, add about 10% of common 
salt solution, of 24° Be ; stir it in and 
allow to cool. The free acid combines 
with the lye, added to form a soap, which 
is separated by the salt solution. It is 
allowed to cool and the cake of fat lifted 
off. By combining the above mentioned 
substances, we obtain, according to their 
proportions, a soft or hard preparation. 
We may choose from the following com- 
binations : Tallow, 10 parts ; wax, 7 
parts ; train oil. 3 parts. The tallow is 
reduced, and after it is completely dis- 
solved, add the train oil. While it is still 
fluid pour it into sticks. The molds are 
best made from tinned steel plate. 

Lacing Belts. — The ends of a belt 
should always be cut off square, not 



guessed at by the eye, but laid off with a 
tool. The holes ought to be made with a 
small punch at a proper distance from 
the end; the size of the holes and the dis- 
tances of them depending on the width 
of the belt. The use of an awl is repre- 
hensible, for the holes are apt to be made 
irregular by it, and much larger than 
there is need of. The end of the lace 
should be tied with a square knot in the 
middle of the outside, for the corners of 
the belt where it is cut are most exposed 
and apt to whip out. Tying a belt lace 
does not look so neat as where the ends 
are put through an incision, but tying 
saves the belt from having extra holes 
made in it, from end to end, or as nearly 
so as possible. It often happens that 
laces have very thin spots in them ; such 
should be kept for short belts, and never 
used for long ones. Moreover, the holes 
must be made at equal distances apart 
and not too many of them. Every hole 
weakens the belt, and none that are not 
absolutely essential should be cut. All 
new laces, as well as new belts, should be 
stretched by hanging weights on them be- 
fore they are used ; petroleum, sawdust, 
rosin, and similar substances should never 
be used. When a belt gets harsh or dry, 
neat's-foot oil is the best thing to apply 
to it. 

Preserving. — A very little pure lard oil 
or neat's-foot oil will preserve belts and 
prevent them from cracking. Castor oil 
and vaseline are also used. 

Slipping of Leather Belts. — The slip- 
ping of belts is a great annoyance, not 
always remedied by tightening. 1. — When 
a ready remedy is demanded for a slip- 
ping belt, the powder known as whiting, 
sprinkled sparingly on the inside of the 
belt, is least harmful of any similar ap- 
plication. 

2. — Powdered rosin is bad, as it soon 
dries the leather and cracks the belt, 
while it is difficult to get it out of the 
leather; whereas whiting may be wiped 
off or washed out with water. 

3. — A piece of rubber belting fastened 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[ 595 1 



Leather 



(Bookbinders' Leather) 



around the belt pulley of an engine will 
keep the belt from slipping. 

4. — Use a piece of beeswax rubbed on 
the inside of the belt or on the pulleys as 
a temporary remedy in cases of emer- 
gency, though with proper size belts and 
pulleys, properly put in, there should not 
ordinarily be any slipping. 

Which Side to Run. — All the best belt 
makers say, run grain side to the pulley, 
and it is claimed that 33% more power 
can thus be transmitted than with the 
flesh side next the pulley. The grain of 
the leather has a velvety surface, which 
enables it to hug the pulley closer than 
will the hard flesh side. Some users run 
the flesh side to the pulley for small belts, 
and then daub and stick up the belt with 
beeswax or rosin to make it take hold, but 
this is not economical for the life of a 
belt, is unworkmanlike, and there is al- 
ways more or less fussiness in running 
machinery where the belts are so treated, 
instead of their running for years without 
any attention, as they will sometimes do 
when run grain side to the pulley, and of 
proper size to transmit the desired power. 

Bookbinders' Leather or Cloth. 

Cheap Varnish. — Orange shellac, % lb. ; 
crystallized carbonate of soda, 1 oz. ; 
water, 3 pt. Put the soda into the water 
and bring the latter to a boil, then put in 
the shellac and continue the boiling until 
no more shellac will dissolve, strain the 
fluid while hot through a cloth or hair 
sieve, and keep the clear solution for use. 
The best solvent of shellac, to make an 
aqueous solution, is ammonia, in the pro- 
portion of 1 part of ammonia to 2 parts 
of shellac and 40 parts of water. Borax 
is the general agent used, but water will 
not dissolve more than 4 oz. of shellac 
per gallon of water. To make a liquid 
solution a larger proportion of shellac can 
be dissolved, but the result is a pasty 
compound. 

Gloss. — Methyl alcohol, 3 pt. ; shellac, 
orange or ruby, according to color de- 
sired, 1^4 lb. ; oil of turpentine, 2 fl.oz. 
Dissolve the shellac by slow digestion in 
the alcohol, and then add the turpentine. 

Brown Gloss. — Rectified alcohol, 5l^ 
pt. ; orange shellac, 17% oz. ; gam- 
boge, powdered, 2 oz. ; oil of lavender 
(avoirdupois weight), 1 oz. Digest the 
gamboge in the alcohol until the fluid 
ceases to deepen in color, then dissolve 
therein the shellac, and when this is dis- 
solved add the oil of lavender. 

Colorless Gloss. — 1. — Methyl alcohol, 
1% pt. ; bleached shellac, 21 oz. ; oil of 
lavender, % fl.oz. Use the freshly 



(Carriage Leather) 



bleached shellac. Dissolve this in the 
alcohol by slow digestion at a gentle heat, 
and then add the essential oil ; the latter 
ingredient renders the gloss flexible and 
prevents it being brittle. 

2. — Methyl alcohol, 5 pt. ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 5 pt. ; West Indian copal rosin, 
5 pt. ; mastic rosin, 1 pt. Digest for a 
few hours separately the mastic in the 
turpentine and the copal in the alcohol, 
and then mix the two compounds and 
gently heat the mixture until the solids 
are dissolved. 

Fkxible Gloss. — Linseed oil varnish 
(manganese linoleate), 1 qt. ; oil of tur- 
pentine, ^2 pt. ; benzole, % pt. ; rectified 
alcohol, % pt. ; mineral asphaltum, 10 
oz. ; tar asphaltum, 10 oz. ; white wax, 
2 oz. ; paraffine wax, 3 oz. ; American pine 
rosin, 10 oz. ; Paris blue, 2 oz. ; methyl 
violet (magenta), 11 oz. Dissolve the 
aniline dye (methyl violet) in the alcohol 
separately. In a suitable vessel melt to- 
gether the asphaltum, rosin, wax, and 
paraflBne wax. When this is melted stir 
it well, and then put in the linseed oil 
and blue pigment. Stand the vessel on 
a sand bath, and heat until heavy vapor 
begins to be evolved, stirring it all the 
time. Sample the compound from time to 
time by testing how far it can be drawn 
into thread and leave no fat-like edges 
when dropped hot on a piece of paper ; 
when this stage is reached, let the com- 
pound cool down sufficiently to add the 
turpentine and benzole safely (if the 
temperature be too high, this highly in- 
flammable fluid will ignite), and well mix 
the whole by stirring. This gloss is a 
very useful one for general purposes, and 
for use on leather ; several coats of it 
will produce an enamel-like appearance 
resembling patent leather. 

Bronzing for Leather. 

A small amount of so-called insoluble 
aniline violet is dissolved in a little water, 
and the solution is brushed over the arti- 
cles ; it will dry quickly, and perhaps may 
have to be repeated. Shoes that are 
treated in this way present a beautiful 
bronze color. 

Carriage Leather. 

Aprons, Dressing for. — Glue, 2 parts ; 
white soap, 4 parts ; yellow wax, 1 part ; 
neat's-foot oil. 1 part ; lampblack, q. s. 
Soften glue, melt over water, dissolve 
soap in water, q. s., and stir into the glue ; 
add wax in shavings, then oil ; lastly, 
black to color. 

Carriage Top Dressing. — Carriage 
tops that have faded and become gray can 



[596] 



Leather 



(Dyeing) 



be restored by washing with a solution 
composed of : Nutgalls, 4 oz. ; logwood, 
1 oz. ; copperas, 1 oz. ; clean iron filings, 

1 oz. ; sumach berries, 1 oz. Put all but 
the iron filings and copperas in 1 qt. of 
the best white wine vinegar, and heat 
nearly to the boiling point ; then add the 
copperas and iron filings. Let stand for 
24 hours, and strain off the liquid ; apply 
with a sponge. This is equally good for 
restoring black cloth. The top should 
be washed with warm water and thor- 
oughly dried ; then with a sponge give 
one or two coats of the formula as given 
above, as may be required by the condi- 
tion of the top. When dry, apply one 
coat of lampblack, using oil or varnish 
enough to give a gloss. Moss off when 
dry and give a coat of drop black mixed 
a little quicker than the first coat. Follow 
up with a little coach japan in it. 

Cements for. (See Cements.) 

Depilating Hides, Process for. 

1. — Make a dilute solution of ammonia 
and sulphurous acid and place the hides 
in it. Coat woolly hides on the flesh side 
with a paste made of potter's clay and 
the above solution. The salts of ammonia 
may be used. 

2. — Thick skins are allowed to sweat, 
that is, they are rubbed on the fleshy side 
with common salt or saturated with wood 
vinegar and exposed at ordinary or higher 
temperature to moisture ; this causes a 
slight or more pronounced putrefaction 
and the hair can then be removed with 
scraping knives. Thinner skins are placed 
in pits, with lime or sulphide of sodium ; 
very delicate skins are coated with rusma, 
sulphate of calcium, or gas lime. Rusma 
is a salve-like mixture of 1 part of orpi- 
ment (yellow sulphide of arsenic) and 

2 to 3 parts of lime. The preparation 
last described is poisonous. 

Dyeing Leather. 

Black. — 1. — Dissolve 1% oz. solid log- 
wood extract and % oz. solid fustic ex- 
tract in boiling water, and make up to 
35 fl.oz. The leather, which must have 
been previously cleaned and stretched out, 
is brushed over five times at 100° F. ; 
155 gr. of chromate of potash and 77 gr. 
bluestone are then dissolved in the same 
quantity of water ; the leather is brushed 
twice with the solution, and then again 
with the decoction of logwood ; 150 gr. of 
liquid ammonia are then poured into 35 
fl.oz. of water, and the leather is gone 
over with that. To make the leather 
supple, stir up 150 gr. yolk of egg in 75 
gr. of glycerine, make it up with water 



(Dyeing) 



to 35 fl.oz., and rub the leather with 
it. Let it get half dry, and rub with a 
clean woolen rag. 

2. — Blue Black. — The following is 
recommended as a good composition for 
dyeing leather a blue black : Beeswax, 3 
oz. ; black rosin, 2 oz. ; melt together, and 
then add Prussian blue, 1 oz. ; lampblack, 
% oz. While the mixture is cooling, add 
turpentine till a suitable consistency is 
obtained. It should be applied with a 
soft rag, and the leather afterward pol- 
ished with a brush. 

3. — Staining Light Leather, Black. — 
Simple treatment with solution of iron 
sulphate or copperas will dye leather 
black. Acetate of iron may be used in- 
stead of above with advantage. The 
leather may first be mordanted with solu- 
tion of logwood extract. 

Blue. — Extract 155 gr. of gallnuts 
in 35 fl.oz. of water and brush over. 
Dissolve 155 gr. of soluble aniline blue 
and 75 gr. of glue in 35 fl.oz. of water. 
Brush over three times; dry and finish 
with yolk of egg. 

Brown. — 1. — Extract of fustic, 5 oz. ; 
extract of hypernic, 1 oz. ; extract of log- 
wood, % oz. ; water, 2 gal. Boil all these 
ingredients for 15 minutes, and then di- 
lute with water to make 10 gal. of dye 
liquor. Use the dye liquor at a tempera- 
ture of 110° F. As a Mordant. — Dis- 
solve 3 oz. of white tartar and 4 oz. of 
alum in 10 sal. of water. 

2. — Prepare a dye liquor by dissolving 
1% oz. fast brown in 1 gal. of water, and 
make a 10 gal. bulk of this. Use at a 
temperature of 110° F., and employ the 
same mordanting liquor as in last recipe. 

3. — Bismarck Brown. — Extract of fus- 
tic, 4 oz. ; extract of hypernic, 1 oz. ; 
extract of logwood, % oz. ; water, 2 gal. 
Preparation. — Boil all together for 15 
minutes. Method of Dyeing. — First mor- 
dant the skins with a mordanting fluid 
made by dissolving 3 oz. tartar and ^ 
oz. borax in 10 gal. of water. Then put 
the skins into the above foundation bath 
at a temperature of 100° F. Take them 
out, and then put in 1 oz. of Bismarck 
brown, dissolved in boiling water. Put 
the skins in again until colored deep 
enough, then lift out, drip and dry. 

4. — Russets, Reds, Yellows. — a. — The 
use of russet and brown leather for reins 
necessitates the employment of stains of 
various shades in the workshop in order 
that the reins or other straps may be of 
a uniform color after being worked. In 
most cases rein leather is stained by the 
currier, but when worked the freshly cut 
edges need, to be stained to correspond 



.[ 597 ] 



Leather 



(Dyeing) 



with the grain. The stains used are gen- 
erally made of Spanish saffron and an- 
natto, or of saffron alone, made up in 
various ways, the most common and reli- 
able being the following : Boil a given 
amount of saffron in water until the color 
is extracted ; cut a quantity of annatto 
in urine and mix the two together, the 
proportions of each determining the shade. 
The more annatto used the darker is the 
color. 

b. — Another manner of preparing 
this stain is to boil i/^ oz. Spanish saffron 
and % oz. annatto in water until the dye 
is extracted, to which must be added some 
alcohol to set the color. 

Crimson. — A bright crimson stain is 
alum or tin salts and a decoction of cochi- 
neal. 

Gray. — Dissolve 155 gr. of tannin in 
35 fl.oz. of water, and brush. Dissolve 
30 gr. of copperas in 35 fl.oz. of water 
and brush. If not dark enough, repeat. 
Dry and rub with rye meal. 

Green. — 1. — 1.57 oz. verdigris and 0.52 
oz, sal ammoniac are dissolved in 8.75 oz. 
wine vinegar. If a small quantity of saf- 
fron extract is added to this, a yellowish- 
green color, the so-called parrot-green, is 
obtained. 

2. — If leather is first coated with a 
solution of Berlin blue, and then with a 
yellow stain, a beautiful durable green 
will be obtained. 

Lilac. — Dissolve 155 gr. of tannin in 
35 oz. of water, and brush. Then dissolve 
77, 155, or 30 gr. methyl violet, accord- 
ing to shade, in 35 fl.oz. of water, and 
brush over thrice. Dissolve 155 gr. of 
glue and the same weight of glycerine in 
35 fl.oz. of water, brush and dry. 

Mahogany. — To stain a sole leather bag 
somewhat abraded a dark mahogany 
color. — Alkanet root, 15 gr. ; aloes, 30 gr. ; 
dragon's blood (all in powder), 30 gr. ; 
95% alcohol, 500 gr. Moisten the bag 
with dilute nitric acid (1 part acid to 5 
parts water by volume) and then apply 
above solution. Repeat until dark enough. 

Mode. — Extract 45 gr. of logwood in 
35 fl.oz. of water, and dissolve it in 30 
gr. of orchil. Brush the leather with the 
solution at 110° F. Next dissolve 30 gr. 
copperas in 35 fl.oz. of water ; brush with 
the solution, and then brush with water. 
If a reddish tint is desired, dissolve along 
with the copperas 30 gr. of alum. When 
dry rub the leather with a woolen rag 
and rye meal. 

Purple. — 8.75 oz. Brazil wood shavings, 
or 2.1 oz. scarlet berries, are boiled in 2.2 
lb. water in an earthen pot or in a bright 
copper boiler. The decoction is filtered 



(Furs and Skins) 



and compounded with a sufficient quan- 
tity of fluid chloride of zinc to obtain 
either a lighter or a darker color. 

Scarlet. — Boil 1 lb. of logwood, 8 oz. 
of Brazil wood, 2 oz. of onion peels, some 
common salt, and alum, in 4 gal. of water. 

Yellow. — Most yellow dyes derived 
from coal-tar produce dark spots on such 
portions of the grain-side of the leather 
as have been scratched or scraped. Cer- 
tain colors, however, prepared by the Ber- 
lin Company are free from this defect. 
Phosphine-orange gives the "brightest" 
and most intensely yellow of the yellow- 
ish-brown shades, commonly termed 
"almond-yellow." It requires 500 parts 
of water for solution, and must be boiled 
till no residue remains. The liquid is 
then ready for use at once without dilu- 
tion. If a less fiery shade is wanted, 
treatment with a solution of bichromate 
of potash lessens the vividness of the dye. 

Furs and Skins, To Preserve. 

1. — The following is Dr. Lettsom's 
recipe for a mixture found to answer both 
for animals in cases and skins, in the 
open air. For birds it is equally good and 
effective : Corrosive sublimate, ^ lb. ; 
saltpeter, prepared or burnt, % lb. ; alum, 
burnt, y^ lb. ; flowers of sulphur, % lb. ; 
camphor, % lb. ; black pepper, 1 lb. ; to- 
bacco, ground coarse, 1 lb. Keep in 
glass stoppered bottle. Give two or three 
good rubbings with it. 

2. — Swan Skin. — Six oz. arsenic, 3 oz. 
corrosive sublimate, 2 oz. yellow soap, 1 
oz. camphor and % pt. 90% alcohol. Put 
all these ingredients in a saucepan, which 
place over a slow fire, stirring the mix- 
ture briskly till the several parts are dis- 
solved and form one homogeneous mass. 
This may be poured into a wide-mouthed 
bottle, and allowed to stand till quite cold, 
when it will be ready for use. Of course 
these quantities may be increased or de- 
creased, according to the size of the ani- 
mal or bird to be operated on. If the 
soap and arsenic are left out, it will 
answer better, as they leave it greasy. 
To be put on with a sponge fastened on 
the end of a stick. Use very cautiously ; 
mark poison. 

3. — To preserve skins of any kind. 
First stretch them out on a board with 
tacks as soon as taken from the body ; 
then cover them with wood ashes ; let 
them remain a fortnight, and renew the 
ashes every three days. 

4. — The following soap is recommended 
by Ward, of London : The skins must 
be well scraped and divested of all fat, 
and well rubbed with the soap; yellow 



[598] 



Leather 



(Gilding) 



soap, 1 lb. ; lime, 1 oz. ; camplior, 1 oz. ; 
arsenic, 1 oz. ; alum, 1 oz. ; mixed to- 
gether. 

5. — Sublimed sulphur and nitrate of 
potash, of each 2 dr. ; black pepper, 
camphor, bichloride of mercury, burnt 
alum, and tobacco, of each ^4 oz. ; reduce 
to a fine powder. 

6. — Bichloride of mercury, 1 oz. ; hydro- 
chloric acid, 3 dr. ; methylated spirit of 
wine, add to, 2 oz. Use as follows : Pour 
suflScient into a cup, and paint it freely 
on with a brush, especially about the 
cavities of the skull, the arms, wings, and 
thighs. A liberal supply of the powder 
(No. 3) afterward to the same parts will 
insure their keeping any length of time 
(that is, if you have any doubt about 
their keeping). If you would prefer it, 
you may use the powder alone. 

Gilding or Silvering. 

The cover is first washed with clear 
gum water. The parts to be gilded are 
then coated twice with white of egg 
beaten to a froth and allowed to subside 
into a clear liquid. A little ammonia 
may be added. To gild spread a leaf of 
gold on the gilding cushion with a knife, 
and blow it flat, then cut it into strips 
about one-fifth inch wide. Heat the tool 
until it is just hot enough to fizz under 
the wet finger ; if it sputters it is too hot 
and will burn the leather; touch its edge 
with a rag slightly moistened with sweet 
oil, and with the same rag rub over the 
part of the book to be gilt. Roll the 
tool softly on the strips of gold, which 
will adhere to it, and when enough is 
taken up roll it with a heavier pressure 
along the places to be gilt, and the gold 
will be transferred to the leather, the 
excess being wiped away with a soft rag. 

Lettering. — a. — Glair. — An albumen 
paste, or size, used for many purposes 
connected with gilding, is made as follows : 
Whisk up the white of an egg in from 
4 to 6 oz. of warm water. 

b. — Gold Blocking. — For fixing gold 
lettering on leather books a process is 
employed known as gold blocking. The 
leather is first prepared by a thin coat- 
ing of glair. This is allowed to dry and 
is then rubbed over with a pad or soft 
cloth that has been dipped in olive oil. 
The gold leaf is then laid on, and the 
metal die, heated to about the temperature 
of a laundry iron when in use, is pressed 
firmly upon it, driving the lettering so 
far into the leather and the board under- 
neath it that the letters become perma- 
nent. At the same time the heat of the 
type unites the oil with the glair, and the 



(Harness) 



gold with both, and leaves those parts not 
so impressed quite free from fixed adhe- 
sion. The surplus gold and oil are then 
easily removed with a soft cotton pad, 
after which the surplus glair may be re- 
moved with tepid water and a fresh pad. 

Hardening Leather. 

Leather, To Harden. — Ordinary hem- 
lock tanned sole leather may be said to be 
hardened without any material alteration 
of its nature by the following treatment. 
Prepare a bath as follows : Slaked lime, 
Va lb. ; sal soda, 2 lb. ; water, i/^ gal. Boil 
together, cool, and add — Slaked lime, 
Vz lb. ; water, ^^ gal. Put the leather 
into this for three days, then remove and 
put it into a bath of — Slaked lime, 3 lb. ; 
water, 1^^ gal. ; and let it soak in this 
for from two days in summer to three 
days — or even four days — in winter. 
When taken out of this, pass through 
water heated to about 180° F., and then 
pass between heavily weighted rolls, or 
if a denser material is demanded, press in 
a hydraulic press. When subjected to the 
latter, a product nearly as hard as vul- 
canite is obtained, but one still possessing 
the appearance and nature of leather 
quite distinctly. 

Harness. 

Blackings. — 1. — Melt 2 oz. of mutton 
suet and 6 oz. of beeswax together, add 6 
oz. of sugar candy, 2 oz. of soft soap, 2% 
oz. of lampblack, i/^ oz. of powdered indi- 
go, and when thoroughly mixed add % 
pt. oil of turpentine. 

2. — Take i/4 oz. of isinglass, % oz. of 
finely powdered indigo, 4 oz. of soft soap, 
5 oz. of glue, 4 oz. of logwood, 2 pt. of 
vinegar, i/^ oz. of ground animal char- 
coal, and 1 oz. of beeswax. The color of 
the logwood is to be extracted by putting 
it into the vinegar and applying a gentle 
heat, then strain it and add the other 
ingredients, boil till perfect solution takes 
place, and store up in glass or stoneware 
jars. This is very useful for army har- 
ness. 

3. — A good blacking for a working har- 
ness, which is to be applied with a sponge 
and polished with a brush, is prepared as 
follows, and should be applied at least 
once a week. Melt 4 oz. of mutton suet 
with 12 oz. of beeswax, then add 12 oz. 
of sugar candy, 4 oz. of soft soap dis- 
solved in water, and 2 oz. of finely pow- 
dered indigo. This, when well mixed, is 
thinned out with % pt. of turpentine. 

4.— -Molasses, 8 oz. ; lampblack, 1 oz. ; 1 
teaspoonful of yeast ; sugar candy, 1 oz. ; 
olive oil, 1 oz. ; gum tragacanth, 1 oz. ; and 



[&99] 



Leather 



(Harness) 



1 oz. of isinglass. To this is added a 
cow's gall, then mix with 2 pt, of stale 
beer, and stand by the fire for one hour. 

5. — Mutton suet, 2 oz. ; beeswax, 6 oz. ; 
melt and add — Sugar (in fine powder), 
6 oz. ; soft soap, 2 oz. ; lampblack, 2^2 
oz. ; indigo (in fine powder), ^ oz. When 
thoroughly incorporated, add turpentine, 
and pour into tins or other receptacles. 

6. — Brown shellac, 370 parts ; Venice 
turpentine, 190; alcohol, 1,600; lavender 
oil, 60 ; lampblack, 30. 

7. — Shellac, 24 parts; sandarac, 4; 
elemi, 4 ; Venice turpentine, 16 ; oil of 
turpentine, 12; alcohol, 100; lampblack, 
40. The rosins and turpentine are mixed 
with the oil of turpentine and heated to 
boiling, the alcohol being stirred into the 
cooled mass, and followed by the lamp- 
black. 

Grease. — 1. — Take ammonia soap, 4 
parts ; palm oil, 1 part ; ordinary hard 
soap, 3 parts ; solution of tannin (9 to 
16 of tannin in 4 of water) 1% parts; 
melt the oil and soap together, then add 
the ammonia soap and the tannin solution 
and thoroughly mix. No more of this 
grease is to be used than the leather will 
absorb, and it should be kept in a stone 
bottle well corked. The ammonia soap 
is previously made by heating olive oil to 
boiling point, and adding sesquicarbon* 
ate of ammonium until the odor of the 
ammonia no longer disappears. 

2. — Soap, 2 parts ; sugar, 2 ; water, 4 ; 
potash, 1 ; rape oil, 20. The solids are 
dissolved in the water, and stirred with 
the rape oil, in the warm, until a uniform 
mixture is obtained. 

Oil. — 1. — A good oil for farm and team 
harness is made by melting 3 lb. of beef 
tallow, but do not let it boil, then pour 
in gradually 1 lb. of neat's-foot oil and 
stir till cold. If properly prepared the 
grease will be perfectly smooth and soft; 
if not it will be more or less granulated. 
A little lampblack may be used to color. 

2. — Melt together 2 oz. asphaltum and 
3 oz. beeswax, remove from the fire and 
add % oz. fine lampblack and % dr. of 
Prussian blue in fine powder ; then reduce 
to a thin paste with neat's-foot oil. 

3. — Black aniline, 35 gr. ; muriatic 
acid, 50 minims ; bone black, 175 gr. ; 
lampblack, 18 gr. ; yellow wax, 2^^ av. 
oz. ; oil of turpentine, 22 fl. oz. 

4. — Oil of turpentine, 8 fl.oz. ; yellow 
wax, 2 av.oz. ; Prussian blue, % av.oz. ; 
lampblack, ^^ av.oz. Melt the wax, add 
the turpentine, a portion first to the finely 
powdered Prussian blue and lampblack, 
and thin with neat's-foot oil. 

Polish. — 1. — Harness polish is made by 



(Harness) 



[600] 



breaking 4 oz. of glue in pieces and pour- 
ing over it 1 pt. of vinegar. This is al- 
lowed to remain until perfectly soft, then 
make another solution of 2 oz. of gum 
arable and half a pt. of black ink; to 
mix add another half pt. of vinegar to the 
glue solution over a moderate fire, but 
do not let it boil. When it is dissolved 
add the gum solution, keep at a tempera- 
ture of 180° F., and further add 2 dr. 
of isinglass in a little water, then remove 
from the fire and draw off for use. It is 
to be applied by a sponge, and a very 
thin coat given, allowing to dry quick, 
which gives a better polish. 

2. — Mutton suet, 2 oz. ; beeswax, 6 oz. ; 
sugar, 6 oz. ; soft soap, 2 oz. ; lampblack, 
1 oz. ; spirit of turpentine, 4 oz. ; water, 
4 oz. 

3. — 'French Polish. — Logwood chips, % 
lb. ; glue, 14 lb. ; indigo, 14 oz. ; soft soap, 
% oz. ; isinglass, % oz. ; boil in 2 pt. vine- 
gar and 1 pt. water for quarter of an 
hour; strain and bottle for use. The 
leather must be freed from dirt, and the 
polish applied with a piece of sponge. 

Preserving. — To preserve harness and 
leather exposed to the action of ammonia 
given off in stables, and which causes it 
to rot, although it may be protected by 
grease, is to add to the oil or fat that is 
employed a small quantity of glycerine, 
which is said to keep the leather always 
soft and pliable. 

Restoring. — 1, — Harness that has be- 
come soiled can be restored by the use of 
the following French blacking : Stearine, 
41/^ lb. ; turpentine, 6% lb. ; animal char- 
coal, 3 oz. It is prepared by beating the 
stearine into thin sheets, then mixing with 
the turpentine, and heating in a water 
bath during continual stirring, then the 
charcoal is added and the whole placed in 
another vessel and stirred so as to prevent 
its crystallizing. It must be warmed when 
using and rubbed on with a cloth as 
quickly as possible, giving it a very thin 
coat, and when nearly dry polish with a 
silk cloth. 

2. — Leather-covered Mountings, — Melt 
3 parts white wax, then add 1 part gum 
copal, dissolved in linseed oil, and 1 of 
ivory black ; allow the mass to boil for 
five minutes, remove it from the fire, stir 
until cold, and roll up into balls. 

Russet Leather. — Mix together 1 part 
palm oil and 3 parts common soap, and 
heat up to 100° F. ; then add 4 parts oleic 
acid, and 1% of tanning solution, con- 
taining at least 1-16 of tannic acid (all 
parts by weight) and stir until cold. 
This is recommended as a valuable grease 



Leather 



( Harness ) 



for russet leather, and as a preventive of 
gumming. 

Vaseline Harness Composition. — Prus- 
sian blue, in fine powder, % oz, ; lamp- 
black, 4 oz. ; molasses, 2 oz. ; soft soap, 
2 oz. Mix together in a large Wedgwood 
mortar, previously warmed, and add : 
Vaseline, 6 oz. ; ceresine, 5 oz. ; yellow 
rosin, % oz. Melted together, then suffi- 
cient turpentine to give the composition 
the proper consistency. Mix thoroughly. 

Waterproof Dressing. — 1. — A water- 
proof liquid is made from India rubber 
in chips, 1 oz., and boiled oil 1 pt., dis- 
solving by the aid of heat, then finally 
stir in another pt. of hot boiled oil. An- 
other waterproof composition is boiled oil, 
1 pt. ; beeswax, 2 oz. ; yellow rosin, 2 oz. ; 
and melted all together. 

2. — Take salad oil, 1 pt. ; mutton 
suet, 4 oz. ; spermaceti, 1 oz. ; white wax, 
1 oz. ; and melt together. 

3. — Bisulphide of carbon, 2 oz. ; gutta 
percha, Mi oz. ; asphaltum, 2 oz. ; brown 
amber, % oz. ; linseed oil, 1 oz. First 
dissolve the gutta percha in bisulphide of 
carbon, and the asphaltum and amber in 
the oil and thoroughly mix together. 

4. — Waterproof harness paste is made 
by putting into a glazed vessel 2 oz. of 
black rosin, which is melted over a fire. 
When dissolved add 3 oz. of beeswax, and 
when this is melted remove from the fire, 
then add % oz. of fine lampblack, % 
dr. of Prussian blue in powder. These 
are stirred well together, and enough tur- 
pentine is added to form into a thin paste. 
Allow to cool, apply with a sponge, and 
finally polish with a soft brush. 

Wax. — 1. — Mix together l^/^ pt. red 
acid (chromic) ; beer, 1 pt. ; thick glue, 
1 gill ; ivory black, 2 oz. ; indigo, 1 dr. 
Boil for half hour and apply with a 
sponge. 

2. — Melt together, white wax, 1 lb. ; 
crown soap, 1 lb. ; ivory black, 2 oz. ; in- 
digo, 5 oz. ; nut oil, i/^ pt. Dissolve over 
a slow fire, stir until cool, and turn into 
small molds. 

3. — Oil of turpentine, 900 parts ; yellow 
wax, 90 parts ; Prussian blue, 10 parts ; 
indigo, 5 parts ; bone black, 50 parts. Dis- 
solve the wax in the oil, by aid of low 
heat, in a water-bath. Mix the remain- 
ing ingredients, which must be well pow- 
dered, and work up with a portion of the 
solution of wax. Finally, add the mi^'- 
ture to the solution, and mix thoroughly 
in the bath. When a homogeneous liquid 
is obtained, pour into earthen boxes. 



(Harness) 



[•601] 



Hides. 

Buffalo Hides, To Soften.— Apply cod 
oil or dubbing, either of which can be 
obtained at a currier's shop. 

Preserving. — An immersion of hides for 
twenty-four hours in a 2% solution of 
carbolic acid, and subsequently drying 
them, has been successfully substituted 
for process of salting. 

Polish. 

1. — Yellow wax, 1 oz. ; carnauba wax, 
2 oz. ; oil turpentine, 10 fl.oz. ; benzine 

10 fl.oz. Melt the waxes carefully, add 
the oil and benzine, and stir until cold. 

2. — Yellow wax, 5 oz. ; oil turpentine, 

11 fl.oz.; amber varnish, 5 fl.oz. Melt 
the wax, add the oil, and then the var- 
nish. 

3.— Stick-lac, 25 parts; shellac, 20 
parts ; gum benzoin, 4 parts ; alcohol, 
96%, 100 parts; oil of rosemary, 1 part. 
Powder the gums and dissolve in the 
alcohol, adding the oil to the solution. 
After standing several days filter. 

4. — Suet, 50 parts ; yellow wax, 150 
parts ; sugar, 150 parts ; black soap, 50 
parts ; oil of turpentine, 10 parts ; water, 
30 parts. Melt the suet and wax together. 
Dissolve the soap in the water by the aid 
of heat and add to the wax and suet. Add 
the sugar under constant stirring and re- 
move from the fire. Let cool down and 
stir in the oil of turpentine. 

5. — Turpentine, 50 parts ; shellac, 100 
parts ; alcohol, 420 parts ; logwood ex- 
tract, 10 parts ; potassium dichromate, 3 
parts ; indigo sulphate, 5 parts. The shel- 
lac is dissolved in the alcohol and the 
other ingredients added to the solution. 

Preserving and Restoring. 

1. — For leather preservatives that are 
waterproof: Beeswax, 38 parts; sper- 
maceti, 6 parts ; oil turpentine, 66 parts ; 
asphalt varnish, 5 parts ; borax, pow- 
dered, 1 part ; vine twig, black, 5 parts ; 
Prussian blue, 2 parts ; nitro benzol, 1 
part. Melt the wax, add powdered borax 
and stir till a kind of jelly has formed. 
In another pan melt spermaceti, add. the 
asphalt varnish, previously mixed with 
oil of turpentine, stir well, and add to the 
wax. Lastly add the color, previously 
rubbed smooth with a little of the mass. 
Perfume with nitro benzol and pour into 
boxes. Apply in small quantities, wipe 
with a cloth, and brush. Use only once 
a week. 

2. — There is nothing as good as castor 
oil for preserving leather. Applied once 
a month, or once or twice a week in 



Leather 



(Shoe Polishes) 



snowy weather, it not only keeps the 
leather soft, but makes it waterproof. 
Copal varnish is the best thing to apply 
to the soles ; but the latter should be thor- 
oughly dry, and if they have been worn, 
they should be previously roughed on the 
surface before applying the varnish. Lin- 
seed oil is perhaps better than nothing, 
but it rots the leather ; hence the objec- 
tion to dubbings and other mix-ups of 
mutton suet, linseed oil, etc. With re- 
gard to castor oil. it may further be said 
that it does not prevent a polish being 
produced on the boots ; and that leather 
so treated is avoided by rats, if even its 
proportion be only one-third to two-thirds 
tallow. 

3. — Equal parts of mutton fat and lin- 
seed oil, mixed with one-tenth their 
weight of Venice turpentine, and melted 
together in an earthen pipkin, will pro- 
duce a "dubbin" which is very efficacious 
in preserving leather when exposed to wet 
or snow, etc. The mixture should be 
applied when the leather is quite dry and 
warm. 

Shoe Polishes and Leather Softening 
Preparations. 

Most of the preparations used as shoe 
polishes consist of syrup, sulphuric acid, 
and bone black or lampblack, incorpo- 
rated with a suitable proportion of low- 
class fat, such as fish blubber, rancid lard, 
etc. When bone black, i. e., powdered 
carbonized bones, is mixed with sulphuric 
acid, the calcium phosphate in the black 
combines with the acid to form potassium 
acid phosphate and calcium sulphate, the 
finely divided carbon in the black being 
set free and imparting to the polish its 
deep black color. The syrup also under- 
goes a change when brought into con- 
tact with the acid, carbon being liberated. 
The addition of fat facilitates the applica- 
tion of the polish to the leather, and pro- 
duces the polish when brushed for a short 
time. Bone black may also be replaced 
by lampblack or vine black ; and this 
modification is attended with certain ad- 
vantages over recipes containing sulphuric 
acid. When this acid is used it is 
necessary to employ only just so much 
as will be fully neutralized by combina- 
tion with the calcium phosphate of the 
bone black, since any excess of free acid 
will gradually destroy the leather to 
which the polish is applied. The leather 
will become covered with fine cracks, and 
will finally break in a number of places 
at once. When one is not afraid of the 
trouble involved in intimately mixing with 
fat the finely divided carbon obtained in 



(Shoe Polishes) 



lampblack or Frankfort black, this mix- 
ture, when incorporated with the other 
ingredients, will form shoe polishes of 
unimpeachable color, that not only do not 
corrode the leather but actually preserve 
it, owing to the presence of the fatty con- 
stituents. 

Beach Shoes. — 1. — Pale Brown. — 
Water, 150 kilos; borax, crystallized, 5 
kilos ; glycerine, technical, 2 kilos ; 
spirit of sal ammoniac, technical, 0.25 k. ; 
white shellac, 25 k. ; yellow. No. 690, 
water-soluble, 8 k. ; orange R, 0.3 k. ; 
formalin, 0.125 k. Stir the glycerine 
and the spirit of sal ammoniac together 
in a special vessel before putting both 
into the kettle. It is also advisable, be- 
fore the water is boiling, to pour a 
little of the nearly boiling water into a 
clean vessel and to dissolve the colors 
therein with good stirring, adding this 
solution to the kettle after the shellac has 
been dissolved. 

2. — Orange. — Water, 150 kilos ; borax, 
crystallized, 5 k. ; glycerine, technical, 2.5 
k. ; spirit of sal ammoniac, technical, 0.25 
k. ; ruby shellac, 22.5 k. ; orange R, water- 
soluble, 0.8 k.; brown, No. 2923, 0.3 k. ; 
formalin, 0.125 k. 

3. — Yellow. — Water, 150 kilos ; borax, 
crystallized, 5 k. ; glycerine, technical, 2.5 
k. ; spirit of sal ammoniac technical. 0.25 
k. : white shellac, 25 k. ; yellow pigment 
(No. 690), water-soluble, 0.8 k. ; forma- 
lin, 0.125 k. 

Blackwgs. — 1. — Ivory black, 120 parts : 
brown sugar, 90 parts ; olive oil, 15 parts ; 
stale beer, 500 parts. Mix the black, 
sugar, and olive oil into a smooth paste, 
adding the beer, a little at a time, under 
constant stirring. Let stand for 24 hours, 
then put into flasks, lightly stoppered. 

2. — Ivory black, 200 parts; molasses, 
200 parts; gall nuts, bruised, 12 parts; 
iron sulphate, 12 parts; sulphuric acid, 
40 parts ; boiling water, 700 parts. Mix 
the molasses and ivory black in an 
earthen vessel. In an iron vessel let the 
gall nuts infuse in 100 parts of boiling 
water, for 1 hour, then strain and set 
aside. In another vessel, dissolve the iron 
sulphate in another 100 parts of the boil- 
ing water. One half of this solution is 
added at once to the molasses mixture. 
To the remaining half add the sulphuric 
acid, and pour the mixture, a little at a 
time, under constant stirring, into the 
earthen vessel containing the molasses 
mixture. The mass will swell up and 
thicken, but as soon as it commences to 
subside, add the infusion of gall nuts, 
also under vigorous stirring. If a paste 
blacking is desired the preparation is now 



[6021 



Leather 



(Shoe Polishes) 



complete. For a liquid black add the re- 
maining portion of the boiling water (500 
parts), stir thoroughly and bottle. 

3. — Nicolet's "French Polish" for 
ladies' shoes is, according to the specifica- 
tions of his patent, prepared as follows : 
Beeswax, 150 parts ; tallow, 15 parts ; 
linseed oil, 200 parts ; litharge, 20 parts ; 
molasses, 100 parts; lampblack, 103 
parts ; oil turpentine, 280 parts. Mix the 
oil, litharge, and molasses, and heat to 
240° or 250° F,, stirring until thorough- 
ly incorporated, then add the wax and 
talloWj and stir in. Add the lampblack 
and incorporate thoroughly. Remove 
from the fire and add the oil of turpen- 
tine. Finally make a solution of the fol- 
lowing and incorporate with the above : 
shellac, 5 parts ; aniline black, 2 parts ; 
alcohol, 95%, 35 parts. 

4. — Bone black, 120 parts ; olive oil, 30 
parts : syrup. 60 parts ; sulphuric acid, 
30 parts. These bodies are mixed, the 
black being first rubbed down in the oil, 
the syrup stirred in next, and the acid 
last. 

5. — Gum arable, 30 parts ; grape sugar, 
30 parts ; water, 500 parts. The gum 
and sugar are dissolved in the warmed 
water, and the solution is gradually 
mixed with the first mixture. The fin- 
ished article is filled into bottles. 

6. — Dressings for ladies' shoes must be 
somewhat varnish-like, so as not to rub 
off when the leather becomes damp. They 
of course tend to harden the leather. 
Aniline black, 5 parts ; camphor, 10 parts ; 
shellac, 120 parts ; wood alcohol, 365 
parts. The wood alcohol is used only 
because it is cheaper than grain alcohol ; 
the latter may be employed if desired. 
Shellac, which is the ingredient giving 
lustre to the dressing, may also be dis- 
solved in an aqueous alkaline solution, ac- 
cording to the appended recipe : Shellac, 
2 oz. ; ammonia water, 1 oz, ; water. 6 oz. ; 
aniline black sufiicient to color. Boil all 
the ingredients together, except the aniline, 
until the shellac is dissolved ; then add 
the aniline and sufficient water to make 
the liquid up to the measure of 16 oz. 

7. — Hager gives the following formula 
for producing a similar result in a differ- 
ent way : Gallic acid, 5 grams ; borax, 
5 grams ; logwood extract, 2.5 grams ; 
aniline black, 10 grams ; ammonia water, 
10 grams ; hot water, 50 grams : aqueous 
shellac varnish (as below), 2,000 grams. 
The aqueous shellac varnish is prepared 
as follows : Borax. 100 grams ; water, 
2,250 grams; powdered shellac, 300 
grams. Heat the water to the boiling 
point, dissolve in it the borax, and then 



(Shoe Polishes) 



add the shellac in small portions, stirring 
the liquid constantly until solution is ef- 
fected. When cool, strain. 

8. — The following makes a very bril- 
liant and durable black polish for shoes : 
Bone black, 40 parts ; sulphuric acid, 10 
parts ; fish oil, 10 parts ; sodium carbon- 
ate, crystal, 18 parts ; sugar, common 
brown, or molasses, 20 parts ; liquid glue, 
prepared as below, 20 parts ; water, 
enough. Soak 10 parts of good white 
glue in 40 parts of cold water for four 
hours, then dissolve by the application 
of gentle heat, and add 1.8 parts of glycer- 
ine (commercial). Set aside. Dissolve 
the sodium carbonate in suflScient water 
to make a cold saturated solution (about 
3 parts of_ water at 15° C, or 60° F.), 
and set aside. In an earthenware vessel 
moisten the bone black with a very little 
water, and stirring it about with a stick, 
add the sulphuric acid, slowly. Agitate 
until a thick dough-like mass is obtained, 
then add and incorporate the fish oil (any 
sort of animal oil, or even colza will 
answer, but it is best to avoid high-smel- 
ling oils). Now add a little at a time. 
and under vigorous stirring, sufBcient of 
the saturated sodium carbonate solution 
to cause effervescence. Be careful not to 
add so freely as to liquefy the mass. Stir 
until effervescence ceases, then add the 
molasses or sugar, the first, if you want 
a soft, damp paste, and the latter if you 
desire a dryer one. Finally add, a little 
at a time, and under constant stirring, 
sufficient of the solution of glue to make 
a paste of the desired consistency. The 
exact amount of this last ingredient that 
is necessary must be learned by experi- 
ence. It is, however, a very important 
factor, as it gives the finished product a 
depth and brilliancy that it could not 
otherwise have, as well as a certain dur- 
ability in which most of the blackings 
now on the market are deficient. Made 
as described, this is a superb article, one 
well worth the extra expense and trouble 
of preparing it. 

9. — Belgian Blacking. — Potatoes, 10 
parts ; sulphuric acid, 1 part ; bone black, 
5 parts ; lard, 20 parts ; fish oil, 40 parts. 
The potatoes are pulped, suffused with 
the sulphuric acid and heated, with con- 
stant stirring, in a stoneware or porce- 
lain vessel, until the mass has turned 
dark brown. The bone black is next 
added, followed by the fat and fish oil in 
the warm. Vigorous stirring is impor- 
tant. Should the mass prove too stiff, it 
is suitably thinned down by gradual addi- 
tions of fish oil. Care, however, is needed 
here to prevent the mass keeping too thin 



[603] 



Leather 



(Shoe Polishes; 



and becoming greasy, in which event a 
little bone black must be added. 

10. — Collapsible Tubes. — Ozokerite, 5^/^ 
oz. ; ceresine, 2 lb. ; carnauba wax, 5% 
oz. ; beeswax, 1% oz. ; oil of turpentine, 
4 pt. ; lampblack, 2 lb. ; black aniline dye, 
30 gr. ; perfume, enough. As you proceed 
with your work doubtless desirable 
changes will suggest themselves to you. 

11. — Ferrocyanide Blacking. — a. — Po- 
tassium ferrocyanide, 32 parts ; water, 
9,000 parts. 

b. — Green vitriol, 100 parts; water, 
1,000 parts ; nitric acid, 15 parts. 

12. — Lyons Blacking. — This French 
preparation is distinguished by its prop- 
erty of producing a beautiful black polish 
on leather without injurying the quality 
of the latter, whilst at the same time its 
prolonged use renders the leather nearly 
waterproof. On this account the article 
deserves close attention, especially since 
it can be produced cheaply. The follow- 
ing recipe will furnish an article of the 
highest quality : a. — Soap, 20 parts ; 
starch, 10 parts ; gall nuts, 10 parts ; 
green vitriol, 10 parts ; water, 2,000 parts, 
b. — Syrup, 60 parts ; bone black, 30 
parts. The substances grouped under 
(a) are boiled together for an hour, then 
strained through a linen cloth, and stirred 
carefully with the remaining ingredients 
while still warm. 

13. — Pastes and Creams. — a. — Car- 
nauba wax, 10 parts ; beeswax, 20 parts ; 
liquor sodse, 40° B, 4 parts ; nigrosine, fat- 
soluble, 15 parts ; water, hot, 160 parts ; 
turpentine oil, 60 parts. Melt the car- 
nauba and beeswax together, add the 
liquor, and continue the heat until saponi- 
fication takes place, and the mass becomes 
homogeneous. Let the mass cool down 
to about 140° F., and gradually add the 
color, which is dissolved in the turpentine 
oil, warmed to 125° F. in the water bath. 

b. — Parafiine, 30 parts ; ceresine, 10 
parts ; wool fat, crude, 10 parts ; liquor 
caustic soda, 38° B, 2 parts ; nigrosine, fat- 
soluble, solid, 5 parts ; oil of turpentine, 
180 parts. Melt the parafBne, ceresine and 
wool fat together, heat to 120° C. (248° 
F.), add very cautiously, a little at a 
time, and under constant stirring, the 
liquor sodse. When the foam caused by 
adding the liquor vanishes, let cool down 
to 100" C. (212° F.), and dissolve the 
nigrosine in the mass. Cool down to 
80° O. (175° F.), add the oil of turpen- 
tine, and stir in thoroughly. Continue 
the stirring until the mass cools off. It 
makes a beautiful, shining mass which, 
when ready for filling into small packages. 



(Shoe Polishes) 



must be heated just enough to make suflB- 
ciently soft to flow slowly. 

c. — Without Oil. — Carnauba wax, 600 
parts ; beeswax, 150 parts ; sodium car- 
bonate, 60 parts ; tallow soap, hard, yel- 
low, 65 parts ; water, 5,500 parts ; forma- 
lin, 10 parts. Melt the carnauba and 
beeswax together. Dissolve the soap, the 
soda, and the color in the water, by the 
aid of heat, and add the hot solution to 
the melted wax, in a slow, small stream, 
and under constant stirring. As a color, 
use about 2% of water-soluble aniline 
color, such as nigrosine, Bismarck brown, 
crysanilin yellow, etc. 

d. — ParaflBne, high melting, 20 parts; 
wool fat, crude, 10 parts; liquor sodse, 
38° B, 5 parts ; carnauba wax, 20 parts ; 
nigrosine, fat-soluble, 5 parts; water, 250 
parts ; nigrosine, water-soluble, 4 parts. 
Warm the paraffine and wool fat together 
to 100° C. (212° F.), add the liquor sodse, 
all at once, and heat for 20 minutes, until 
it forms a smooth, homogeneous mass. 
Now add the carnauba wax, all at once, 
and continue boiling until it is saponi- 
fied and homogeneous, then add and dis- 
solve the fat-soluble nigrosine, and stir in. 
Add under constant stirring, 150 parts of 
hot water, in small quantities, gradually. 
Finally, dissolve the water-soluble nigro- 
sine in the remainder Of the water, 
and add the solution to the mass, and stir 
in. As a preservative a half part of 
formalin may be added. 

e. — Soap, 122 parts; potassium car- 
bonate, 61 parts; beeswax, 500 parts; 
water, 2,000 parts. Mix and boil together 
until a smooth, homogeneous paste is ob- 
tained, then add — Ivory black, 1,000 
parts ; rock candy, powdered, 153 parts ; 
gum arable, powdered, 61 parts ; and mix 
thoroughly. Remove from the fire and 
pour while still hot into boxes. 

14. — Spermaceti Polish. — a. — Beeswax, 
90 parts ; spermaceti, 30 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 350 parts, are melted together, 
and asphalt lac, 20 parts ; lampblack, 10 
parts; Prussian blue, 10 parts, are 
stirred into the liquid, the mass being 
scented, if desired, with 5 parts of nitro- 
benzol. 

b. — Yellow wax, 18 parts ; spermaceti, 
6 parts ; oil of turpentine, 66 parts ; as- 
phalt varnish, 5 parts ; borax in powder, 
1 part ; vine-twig black, 5 parts ; Prus- 
sian blue, 2 parts ; nitrobenzol, 1 part. 
Melt the wax and stir in the borax. In 
another vessel melt the spermaceti, and 
when hot remove from the fire and stir 
in the asphalt varnish, previously mixed 
with the turpentine. Now add the wax 
and borax under vigorous stirring. Rub 



[604] 



Leather 



(Shoe Polishes) 



up the colors with a portion of the wax 
and borax, reserved for the purpose, to 
a smooth paste, and incorporate it with 
the rest of the mixture. The nitroben- 
zol is used simply as a perfume. To use : 
With a brush or rolled rag apply to 
the leather, and spread well ; wipe with 
a cloth, and polish with a brush. Any 
good vegetable black may be used, instead 
of that specified, and a portion of nigro- 
sine may be added as an intensifier. 

c. — Ivory black, 2 lb. ; sperm oil, 4 oz. ; 
molasses, 1 lb. ; vinegar, 5 oz. ; strong sul- 
phuric acid, 4 oz. ; sulphate of iron, 4 dr. ; 
gum arable, 6 dr. ; hot water, 5 oz. Mix 
the black, sperm oil, molasses and vine- 
gar together in the order named, and 
gradually add the sulphuric acid. Heat, 
if necessary, until effervescence ceases ; 
then add the iron and gum arable, previ- 
ously dissolved in the hot water. 

Stick Polish. — Tallow, 40 parts ; yellow 
wax, 10 parts ; oil of turpentine, 5 parts. 
Melted together and stirred with a previ- 
ously prepared mixture of 5 parts of fine 
black and 10 parts of olive oil. The fluid 
mass is cast into sticks, and these are 
rubbed against the leather, which is then 
polished with a woolen rag. 

"Treer's" Blacking. — Gum tragacanth, 
dissolved in water ; then add a little ink 
to make it black, and finally add a small 
quantity of neatsfoot oil. It must be 
quite thin, or else, if thick, it is likely to 
cake. 

Boots. — 1. — Antacid Boot-Leather Var- 
nish. — As the name implies, this prepara- 
tion is free from acid. It forms a kind 
of stain, containing the necessary adhes- 
ive substances to enable it to stick prop- 
erly to the leather. It is prepared as 
follows : Powdered gallnuts, 50 parts ; 
logwood, 30 parts ; water, 200 parts. 
These are boiled for 2 hours, filtered, and 
syrup, 200 parts, and green vitriol, 30 
parts, are dissolved in the liquid, which 
is next boiled until it begins to thicken, 
whereupon a solution of ruby shellac, 1 
part, and alcohol, 20 parts, is added, and 
well stirred in, the liquid product being 
then filled into bottles. 

2. — Boot-top Liquid. — ^^a. — Wash the 
tops with soap and water and scrape them 
with the back of a knife. Then apply 
the following with a hare-foot brush : Ox- 
alic acid, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pt. ; use the 
back of a knife as before; then polish 
with the following : Powdered gum ara- 
ble, ^ 02. ; red spirits of lavender, 2 oz. ; 
powdered turmeric, i/^ oz. ; pencil this 
over the top, let it half dry, then polish 
by rubbing it, one way only, with a flan- 
nel, till it shines. 



(Shoe Polishes) 



b. — White top : Magnesia, alum, cream 
of tartar and oxalic acid, ^ oz. each ; po- 
tassium binoxalate, 44 oz. ; sugar of lead, 
^ oz. Dissolve in 1 qt. of water, and 
apply with a sponge. 

c. — Brown top : Oxalic acid, alum, an- 
natto, each 1 oz. ; isinglass, % oz. ; sugar 
of lead, % oz. ; salt of sorrel, ^ oz. Boil 
together in 1 qt. of water for 10 minutes. 
Apply with a sponge. 

d. — Boot Uppers. — Soap, 100 parts, dis- 
solved in water, 1,000 parts ; to which 
are added, glycerine, 100 parts ; beef tal- 
low, 25 parts ; fish oil, 25 parts ; colo- 
phony, 25 parts. The whole is boiled for 
some time, and then stirred until cold. 

3. — Varnish. — Shellac, 100 parts ; pine 
rosin, 20 parts ; Venice turpentine, 50 
parts ; oil of turpentine, 40 parts ; alco- 
hol, 1,000 parts ; lampblack, 40 parts. 
When applied to belts, this varnish, which 
is fairly elastic, soon forms a fine uni- 
form coating, which dries rapidly, and 
does not easily crack, even when the 
leather is strongly bent. For this reason 
it is very useful for boot leather. 

Brown Dressing. — 1. — For Untanned 
Shoes. — Yellow wax, 300 parts ; soap, 120 
parts ; Nankin yellow, 25 parts ; oil of 
turpentine, 1,000 parts ; alcohol, 120 
parts ; water, 1,000 parts. Dissolve in 
the water bath the wax in the oil of tur- 
pentine ; dissolve, also by the aid of heat, 
the soap in the water, and the Nankin 
yellow (or in place of that any of the 
yellow coal-tar colors) in the alcohol. 
Mix the solutions while hot, and stir con- 
stantly until cold. The preparation is 
smeared over the shoes in the usual way, 
rubbed with a brush until evenly dis- 
tributed, and finally polished with an old 
silk or linen cloth. 

2. — *'Ne Plus Ultra" is produced as 
follows : Take water, 18 1. ; rosin oil, 
4^ 1. ; spirit of sal ammoniac, concen- 
trated, 1 1-5 1. ; white-grain soap, 1.930 
kgm. ; Russian glue, 1.590 kgm. ; brown 
rock candy, 0.570 kgm. ; Bismarck brown, 
0.070 kgm. Boil all the ingredients to- 
gether, excepting the pigment ; after all 
has been dissolved add the Bismarck 
brown, and filter. The dressing is applied 
with a sponge. 

Buckskin Shoes, etc., To Restore the 
Black, Velvety Appearance of. — First wet 
the surface well with strong alum water, 
and when nearly dry treat with a decoc- 
tion of logwood, boiled and filtered, to 
which is added a little acetate of iron. 
The skin will not be as soft as it origi- 
nally was. 

Cleaning. — 1. — One way of making a 
combination shoe dressing and cleaner is 



[605] 



Leather 



(Shoe Polishes) 



to melt beeswax, and, while it is hot, add- 
ing about 2^2 times its weight of muci- 
lage of gum arable to it, and then twice 
as much water as mucilage. 

2. — Yellow wax, 4 oz. ; pearlash, i^ oz. ; 
yellow soap, i/4 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 8 
oz. ; water, enough to make 24 oz. Scrape 
the wax fine, and add it, together with the 
ash and soap, to 12 oz. of water. Boil 
all together until a smooth, creamy con- 
sistency is obtained ; remove the heat and 
add the turpentine. Mix thoroughly, and 
add enough water to make the finished 
product measure 24 oz. 

3. — Eggs, 5 ; sperm oil, 6 oz. ; acetic 
acid, 6 dr. ; glycerine, 6 dr. ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 5 oz. ; lampblack, 
1 oz. ; water, enough to make 30 oz. Beat 
up the eggs thoroughly with an egg beat- 
er. Mix the oils, acid and glycerine, and 
add gradually to the eggs, using the beat- 
er constantly. Transfer to a bottle, and 
add gradually the alcohol (or wood 
spirit), diluted with its own volume of 
water ; finally make up to 30 oz. with 
water, and incorporate the lampblack. 

Edges of Shoes, Varnish for. — Alcohol, 
8 fl.oz. ; shellac, 2 oz. ; rosin, 1 oz. ; tur- 
pentine, % oz. ; lampblack, ^^ or % oz. 

Enameled Leather, Liquid Renovator 
for. — Paraffine oil, 48 parts ; oil of lav- 
ender, 1 part ; essence of citronelle, 1 
part; spirits of ammonia, 2 parts. Mix 
all together, and shake the bottle well 
before using, laying on a coating with a 
sponge, and polishing with a soft cloth 
or leather afterward. 

Green Boots, Polish for. — A polishing 
cream for the fashionable green boots 
may be prepared by melting together 20 
parts of yellow wax and 3 parts of pale 
rosin over a water bath, and stirring in 
18 parts of turpentine oil, the whole 
being colored with four parts of chloro- 
phyl and packed in metal boxes. 

Heel Polish for Shoemakers. — Melt to- 
gether Japanese wax, 1,000 ; carnauba 
wax, 1,000 ; paraffine, 1,000 ; and mix 
with turpentine oil, 5,000, as well as a 
trituration of lampblack, 100; wine 
black, 200 ; turpentine oil, 700. 

1. — Crushed galls, 1 lb. ; extract of log- 
wood, 4 oz. ; copperas, % lb. ; gum arable, 
% lb. ; fine lampblack, 6 oz. ; salicylic 
acid, 3 dr. ; alcohol, 8 oz. ; water, enough. 
Boil the galls and logwood in % gal. of 
water for half an hour, strain, and wash 
the strainer with enough water to make 
the decoction measure ^^ gal. Dissolve 
the copperas and gum arable in 3 pt. of 
water, add this to the first solution, and 
again boil for 10 minutes, and strain. 
Mix the lampblack, salicylic acid and al- 



(Shoe Polishes) 



cohol together, and form a smooth cream 
with them by the addition of a small 
quantity of the liquid. Finally, mix the 
cream with the remaining portion of the 
liquid, 

2. — Nigrosine, 1 oz. ; gall ink (without 
gum), 2 pt. ; ground shellac, 2 oz. ; pow- 
dered borax, 1 oz. ; water, 12 oz. Dis- 
solve the nigrosine in the gall ink by 
vigorous shaking. Dissolve the borax and 
shellac in the water, mix all together, and 
strain. 

3. — Powdered galls, 2 oz. ; copperas, 1 
oz. ; copper sulphate, 30 gr. ; powdered 
gum arable, 1 dr. This may be dispensed 
as a powder, with directions to dissolve 
in a quart of boiling water and allow the 
whole to stand a week before using. 

Kid Leather. — 1. — Cream for greasing 
fine varieties of leather, such as kid, 
patent leather, etc., is produced as fol- 
lows, according to tried receipts : 

a. — Black Cream. — Lard, 100 ; yellow 
vaseline, 20 ; glycerine, technical, 10 ; 
castor oil, technical, 10, Dye black with 
lampblack and perfume with oil of mir- 
bane. 

b. — Colored Cream. — Lard, 100 ; castor 
oil, 20 ; yellow wax, 25 ; white vaseline, 
30, Dye with any desired dye stuff, e. g., 
red with anchusine, green with chloro- 
phyl. In summer it is well to add some 
wax to the first and second prescriptions. 

c. — White cream. — Lard, 75 ; glycerine, 
technical, 25 ; mirbane oil, ad libitum. 

2. — Dressing for Kid Shoes. — Yellow 
ceresine, 25 parts ; oil of turpentine, 25 
parts ; castor oil, 25 parts ; linseed oil, 
250 parts ; wood tar, 7 parts. Dissolve 
the ceresine and tar in the oil of turpen- 
tine, mix the heavy oils, pour the liquids 
together and stir until homogeneous. Add 
mirbane oil sufiicient to disguise the tur- 
pentine odor. 

Oil for Preserving Shoe Leather. — 1. — 
Olein (olive, almond or lard oil), 60 
parts ; liquid vaseline, 15 parts ; castor 
oil, 5 parts ; rosin oil, 25 parts. Mix, 
Apply very lightly to the leather, and do 
not repeat until the former application 
has been completely absorbed. 

Patent Leather. — 1. — Wax, 22 parts ; 
olive oil, 60 parts ; oil of turpentine, 30 
parts. Melt with gentle heat the wax in 
the olive oil, and as soon as melted re- 
move from the fire. When nearly cold 
stir in the turpentine. 

2. — Cracks, To Cover. — Use the follow- 
ing : Take molasses or sugar, % lb. ; gum 
arable, 1 oz. ; and ivory black, 2 lb. ; boil 
them well together, then let the vessel 
stand until quite cooled ; after which 
bottle off. This is an excellent reviver, 



[606] 



Leather 



(Shoe Polishes) 



and may be used as a blacking in the or- 
dinary way, no brushes for polishing 
being required. The first coats of the 
japan for patent leather are made with 
linseed oil and Prussian blue, boiled to- 
gether for some hours ; the last coat or 
varnish, with linseed oil and lampblack, 
similarly boiled. Each coat is separately 
dried at a temperature of 160 to 180° F. 
(71 to 82° C), and rubbed on the leather 
by the hand, the skin being nailed on to 
the surface of a board. As the process 
is a very delicate one, and requires 
special knowledge in each part of the 
operation, it would be useless for any one 
to attempt to produce japanned leather, 
except as an experiment, for his own 
amusement, without serving an appren- 
ticeship to the trade. 

3. — Polish. — To restore patent leather 
to its original appearance after it has lost 
its fine gloss or become cracked is a task 
which, we think, cannot be satisfactorily 
accomplished. Attempts made in this 
direction have resulted in the formula- 
tion of the following recipes : 

a. — Yellow wax, 6 dr. ; olive oil, 2 oz. ; 
oil of turpentine, % oz. ; oil of lavender, 
^ oz. Melt the wax and olive oil together, 
add the turpentine, and when nearly cool 
the oil of lavender. This is said to 
restore the flexibility of patent leather 
which has become hardened and to renew 
its gloss to a certain extent. 

b. — Yellow wax (or ceresine), 3 oz. ; 
spermaceti, 1 oz. ; turpentine oil, 11 oz. ; 
asphaltum varnish, 1 oz. ; borax, 80 gr. ; 
Frankfort black, 1 oz. ; Prussian blue, 
% oz. Melt the wax and stir well with 
the borax ; melt the spermaceti separately, 
adding to it the turpentine in which has 
previously been dissolved the varnish ; stir 
the second mixture into the wax and add 
the colors. 

c. — As a coloring matter where the 
leather has been scratched, the follow- 
ing may be of service, applied, of course, 
before the polish : Gum arable, 4 oz. ; 
molasses, 1 oz. ; nutgall ink, 8 oz. ; vine- 
gar, % oz. ; sweet oil, % oz. ; alcohol, 1 
oz. ; lampblack, 1 dr. 

4. — Preserving Patent Leather. — a. — 
The following is a French recipe for pre- 
serving the gloss of patent leather: Melt 
pure wax over a water bath, place on a 
moderate coal fire, add first some olive oil, 
then some lard, and mix intimately by 
stirring ; next add some oil of turpentine, 
and finally some oil of lavender, fill the 
resulting paste in boxes, where, on solidi- 
fying, the necessary consistency will be 
acquired. To restore the gloss to the 
leather apply a little of the paste and rub 



(Shoe Polishes) 



with a linen rag. This will keep the 
leather soft, and prevent cracking. 

b. — Melt wax with a little oil of tur- 
pentine, olive oil and lard. Mix thor- 
oughly together. When cool it should be 
a thick paste. Vaseline is excellent. Al- 
low it to remain on one half hour, then 
dry with Canton flannel. 

Soles. — 1. — English Oak Stain for Bot- 
toms of Boots and Shoes. — The process 
used by the best English shoe manufac- 
turers to stain our hemlock and union 
sole, so that it shall resemble English 
oak, is simply as follows : Take equal 
quantities, say, 1 oz., of borax and oxalic 
acid and put in 1 qt. of water. Be sure 
the acid does not predominate, and in 
some cases a very little more of the borax 
will be better. Then, when the shoe goes 
to the finishers, after sandpapering the 
bottom, when dry, dampen down or wet 
the grain with this solution, and, when 
nearly dry, apply French chalk or pipe- 
clay in the usual way. This brings out 
a white bottom, finely tinted with a 
shade of pink. If n^ore yellow, and not 
so much red, is wanted, put in a little 
turmeric root or chrome yellow. Care 
must be taken that the sole is not after- 
ward wet while in stock, or the hemlock 
color will come out again. 

2. — Hardening Soles. — a. — If a pair of 
new shoes, warm the soles by holding 
them near a fire or stove, and then var- 
nish them with copal varnish, dry them, 
warm, and apply a second and third coat. 
The leather will become waterproof and 
very hard, lasting about twice as long as 
if not thus treated. 

b. — Stockholm tar rubbed on the soles 
of shoes hardens the leather materially, 
renders it impervious to water, and makes 
it wear much longer than leather not 
thus treated. 

3. — Polish for Shoe Soles. — a. — Melt 
1 part of stearine in an iron pot over a 
fire; remove the pot and place it in an- 
other room or in the open air ; add 4 to 5 
parts of benzine, stirring vigorously. 
Paint the soles with this mixture and 
polish with a linen rag. 

b. — Dissolve together 5 parts stearine 
and 1 part of white beeswax. This mix- 
ture will be found admirably adapted for 
polishing shoe soles. A little of the com- 
position should be cut off and rubbed into 
the soles and the latter afterward pol- 
ished with a clean rag. Both these 
preparations are preferable to the ordi- 
nary tragacanth solutions. 

Tan and Russet Shoe PolisJh-^1, — Soft 
or green soap, 2 oz. ; linseed oil, raw, 3 
oz. ; annatto solution (in oil), 8 oz. ; yel- 



[607] 



Leather 



(Shoe Polishes) 



low wax, 3 oz. ; gum turpentine, 8 oz. ; 
water, 8 oz. Dissolve the soap in the 
water and add the annatto ; melt the wax 
in the oil and turpentine, and gradually 
stir in the soap solution, stirring until 
cold. 

2. — Yellow wax, 2 oz. ; fish oil, raw, 
2 oz. ; spirit of turpentine, 15 oz. ; tinc- 
ture of green soap, 1 oz. ; yellow ocher, 
% oz. 

3. — Yellow wax, 4 oz. ; pearlash, % 
oz. ; yellow soap, % oz. ; spirit of tur- 
pentine, 8 oz. ; phosphate (aniline), 4 gr. ; 
alcohol, % oz. ; water, a sufficient quan- 
tity. Scrape the wax fine, and add it, 
together with the ash and soap, to 12 oz. 
of water. Boil all together until a 
smooth creamy mass is obtained ; remove 
the heat and add the turpentine, and the 
aniline (previously dissolved in the alco- 
hol). Mix thoroughly, and add sufficient 
water to bring the finished product up to 
24 oz. 

4. — Yellow wax (dark), 1 oz. ; palm 
oil, 1 oz. ; spirit of turpentine, 3 oz. 
Melt together on a water bath, and color 
if desired with Nankin brown (5 gr.) 
dissolved in a little alcohol. 

Russet Leather Shoes. — 1. — Yellow. — 
Borax, in crystals, 40 parts ; glycerine, 
20 parts ; ammonia, 2 parts ; shellac, 
bleached, 200 parts; aniline yello'w (No. 
690) water-soluble, 6 parts; formalin, 
1 part ; water, 1,200 parts. 

2. — Orange. — The same as above, ex- 
cept that instead of 200 parts of bleached 
shellac, 180 parts of ruby shellac, and 
instead of yellow, 6.4 parts of orange R. 
and 2.4 parts of brown (No. 2923), 
water-soluble are used. 

3. — Light Brown. — The same as the 
first, with the exception of the color, in- 
stead of which use 6.4 parts of yellow 
(690) and 2.4 of orange R. The follow- 
ing is the method of procedure : Bring the 
water to a boil, but just before it com- 
mences to do so withdraw a portion and 
in it dissolve the color or colors. To the 
residue add the borax, and a little later 
the shellac. As soon as the shellac is 
dissolved draw the fire, and after the 
solution cools down a little add the color 
solution and finally the glycerine and am- 
monia, which should be mixed prior to 
addition. 

Treeing Shoes, Composition for. — Dis- 
solve gum tragacanth in water, then add 
a little ink to make it black, and finally 
a small quantity of neatsfoot oil. It 
must be quite thin, or else, if thick, it is 
liable to cake. Take of — Gum shellac, 
y2 lb. ; alcohol, 2 qt. Dissolve and add — 
Camphor, 1^ oz. ; lampblack, 2 oz. 



(Shoe Polishes) 



Upper Leather, Dressing for. — Over a 
water bath melt : oil of turpentine, 50 
grams ; olive oil, 100 grams ; train oil, 
100 grams ; carnauba wax, 40 grams ; 
asphaltum, 15 grams; oil of bitter al- 
monds, 2 grams. 

Vici Shoe Polish and Cleaner. — This 
class of preparations may be made to 
serve for either black or tan-colored leath- 
er, according to the pigment kdded. 
Soft soap, 4 dr. ; linseed oil, 6 dr. ; 
carnauba wax, 1 oz. ; aniline blue, 10 
gr?; aniline black, 1 dr. ; oil turpentine, 
2 oz. ; water, 3 oz. Dissolve the soap in 
the water. Melt the wax in the oil and 
turpentine, then gradually stir in the 
soap solution. Stir till cold. 

Waterproofiing Boots and Shoes. — 1. — 
A coat of gum copal varnish applied to 
the soles of boots and shoes, and repeated 
as it dries until the pores are filled and 
the surface shines like polished mahogany, 
will make the sole waterproof, and it lasts 
three times longer. 

2. — Linseed oil, 1 part ; mutton tal- 
low, 1/^ lb. ; beeswax, % lb. Melt and 
mix thoroughly together and apply to the 
warm dry leather with a brush. A small 
quantity of ivory black is sometimes 
added to this mixture. 

3.— Rosin, 500 grams; tallow, 400 
grams ; fish oil, 1 1. ; oil of citronella, 15 
grams. 

4. — Oleic acid, 8 oz. ; stearic acid, 
crude, 2 oz. ; ammonia soap (see below), 
6 oz. ; solution of tannin (25%), 1 oz. ; 
iron sulphate, % oz. ; water, 27 oz. Melt 
the acids together, and stir in gradually 
the ammonia soap, then the solution of 
tannin and 24 oz. of water, and stir the 
solution into the greasy mixture. This 
gives a black product ; for tan shoes re- 
place the iron sulphate with 2 oz. of 
rosin soap. 

5. — Beeswax, 18 parts ; spermaceti, 6 
parts ; spirit of turpentine, 65 parts ; as- 
phaltum varnish, 5 parts ; powdered 
borax, 1 part ; Frankford black, 5 parts ; 
Prussian blue, 2 parts. Melt the wax and 
add the borax, stirring well, and heating 
until the mass resembles jelly. In an- 
other vessel melt the spermaceti, add the 
varnish, previously mixed with the tur- 
pentine, stir well, and add to the wax. 
Finally, add the coloring material, pre- 
viously rubbed smooth with a little of the 
mass. 

6. — Spermaceti, 3 oz. ; India rubber, % 
oz. ; tallow, 8 oz. ; lard, 2 oz. ; amber var- 
nish, 4 oz. ; lampblack, 1 oz. ^ Melt the 
rubber in the spermaceti by a long- 
continued gentle heat, and add the other 
ingredients. 



[608] 



Leather 



(Softening) 



White Canvas Shoes. — 1. — Pipeclay, 16 
oz. ; Spanish whiting, 8 oz. ; flake white, 
6 oz. ; precipitated chalk, 4 oz. ; powdered 
tragacanth, 2 dr. ; carbolic acid, 2 dr. ; 
water, q. s. to make thick paste. Mix 
the powders, and then add water enough 
to make a thick paste or cream. 

2. — Bleached shellac, 1 oz. ; borax, 3 
oz. ; hot water, 16 oz. Digest until dis- 
solved, and then add pipeclay or prepared 
chalk, in fine powder, until a creamy li- 
quid is made. The proper amount of 
chalk or clay to use can easily be ascer- 
tained by a trial or two, using less water 
and adding a little soap. A paste prep- 
aration may also be made should one be 
desired. 

3. — Wash the canvas shoes with a lit- 
tle soap and water and apply with a nail 
brush. Use as little water as possible 
to remove the dirt. Then mix some pipe- 
clay and water to a paste, apply the paste 
to the shoes with a rag, after cleaning ; 
rub well, and hang shoes up to dry. When 
dry, beat out the superfluous clay with 
the hand, and rub the shoes until they 
look smooth. 

4. — Zinc oxide, 2 av.oz. ; pipeclay, 4 
av.oz. ; bleached shellac, 3 av.oz. ; borax, 
1 av.oz.; sugar, 2 av.oz.; glycerine, 1 
fl.oz. ; boiling water, 10 fl.oz. Dissolve 
the borax in the boiling water, add the 
shellac, continue the heat until the shel- 
lac is dissolved. Then remove from the 
fire, add sugar and glycerine, stir in the 
pipeclay and zinc. 

White Satin Shoes, To Glean. — Put in 
the shoe something which will fill it out. 
T^'hen rub the shoe gently with a piece 
of muslin, dipped in spirits of wine. Do 
this several times. Tlien wipe the shoe 
carefully with a piece of dry muslin. 

Silvering. (See Gilding or Silvering.) 

Softening Preparations. 

Caoutchouc Grease. — Caoutchouc, 8 
parts ; oil of turpentine, 8 parts ; lard, 10 
parts ; fish oil, 50 parts ; tallow, 10 parts ; 
lampblack, 2 parts. The caoutchouc is 
dissolved in the warmed oil of turpen- 
tine, and the filtered solution is poured 
into the melted fat, which has previously 
been stirred up with the lampblack. 

Vaseline as a Grease and Preservative. 
— Vaseline is an exceedingly valuable 
emollient for any kind of leather, since 
the very hardest '^leather can be softened 
by repeatedly rubbing in vaseline till it 
will not take up any more. At the same 
time the leather is enabled to offer great- 
er resistance to the penetration of mois- 
ture, and is preserved from becoming brit- 
tle. Vaseline can be used on natural 



(Tanning) 



leather by itself, but for black leather the 
following composition is recommended : 
Vaseline, 100 parts ; lampblack, 5 parts ; 
Prussian blue, 5 parts. A small portion 
of the vaseline is melted in an enameled 
iron pan, the lampblack and Prussian blue 
being added, and stirred until the mass 
is uniform. The rest of the vaseline is 
afterward stirred in by degrees. 

Straps, Polishing the Edges of. 

First you will want an edge tool. If 
only a light single strap, a No. 1 will do, 
which is run down the edge to take it off 
and make it round. Next rub it down with 
fine sandpaper ; then, if for brown leather, 
get some good harness blacking, put as 
much as you want to use into a cup, dis- 
solve some oxalic acid in water, and 
pour in as much as will turn it a light 
brown, apply it to the edge of the strap, 
and rub it down with a clean cloth till 
the edge is smooth and glossy. Next you 
will want a screw crease (which you can 
procure at the tool shops), which is 
heated in the fire or gas till it is just hot 
enough to mark the leather without burn- 
ing it ; you can set it with the thumb- 
screw to any width you like, up to ^ or 
% in. Lay the strap on a flat piece of 
planed board ; then, holding the crease 
firmly in the hand, you run it down the 
strap ; alter the width for every mark or 
line. 

Tanning. 

Buckskin, To Tan. — Take a skin, either 
green, or well soaked, and flesh it with 
a dull knife ; spread the skin on a smooth 
log, and grain it by scraping with a sharp 
instrument ; rub nearly dry over the oval 
end of a board held upright. Take the 
brains of a deer or a calf, dry by the 
fire gently, put them into a cloth, and 
boil until soft ; cool off the liquid until 
blood-warm, with water suflScient to soak 
the skin in, and soak until quite soft and 
pliable, and then wring out as dry as pos- 
sible ; wash in strong soapsuds, and rub 
dry, and smoke well with wood smoke. 
Instead of brains, oil or lard may be used, 
and the skin soaked therein 6 hours. This 
is called Indian tan. 

Fur Skins. — 1. — To tan or taw skins 
with the hair on, for rugs and other uses, 
first thoroughly , wash the skin and re- 
move all fleshy matter from the inner 
surface ; then clean the hair or wool with 
warm water and soft soap, and rinse 
well. Take % lb. each of common soap 
and ground alum, and 14 oz. of borax, 
dissolve in hot water, and add sufficient 
rye meal to make a thick paste, which 



[609] 



Leather 



(Tanning) 



spread on the flesh side of the skin. Fold 
it lengthwise, the flesh side in, the skin 
being quite moist, and let it remain for 
10 days or 2 weeks in an airy and shady 
place ; then shake out and remove the 
paste from the surface, and wash and 
dry. For a heavy skin a second similar 
application of the salt and alum may 
be made. Afterward pull and stretch the 
skin with the hands, or over a beam, and 
work on the flesh side with a blunt knife. 

2, — After cutting off the useless parts 
and softening the skins by soaking in 
warm water, take away the fatty part 
from the inside, after which soak the 
skins in tepid water for 2 hours. Mix 
equal parts of borax, saltpeter and Glau- 
ber salts (sulphate of soda), in the pro- 
portion of about 1-3 oz. of each for each 
skin, with sufficient water to make a thin 
paste. Spread with a brush over the 
inside of the skin, applying more on the 
thicker parts than on the thinner. Double 
the skin together, flesh side inward, and 
place in a cool place. After standing 24 
hours, wash the skin clean, and apply the 
following mixture in the same manner as 
before : Sal soda, 1 oz. ; borax, 1-3 oz. ; 
hard white soap, 2 oz. ; melted slowly to- 
gether, without being allowed to boil ; fold 
together again, and put in a warm place 
24 hours. After this dissolve 3 oz. of 
alum, 7 oz. of salt, and li/^ oz. of sal- 
eratus in -sufficient hot rain water to sat- 
urate the skin ; when cool enough not to 
scald the hands, soak the skin in it for 
l2 hours ; wring out, and hang it up to 
dry. When dry, repeat the soaking and 
drying 2 or 3 times till the skin is suffi- 
ciently soft. Lastly, smooth the inside 
with fine sandpaper and pumice stone. 

3.^ — Stretch the skin tightly and smooth- 
ly upon a board, hair side down, and 
tack it by the edges to its place. Scrape 
off the loose flesh and fat with a blunt 
knife, and work in chalk freely, with 
plenty of hard rubbing. When the chalk 
begins to powder, and fall off, remove the 
skin from the board, rub in plenty of pow- 
dered alum, wrap up closely, and keep 
it in a dry place for a few days. By 
this means it will be made pliable, and 
will retain the hair. 

4. — Soft water, 10 gal. ; wheat bran, Mi 
bu. ; salt, 7 lb. ; sulphuric acid, 2% lb. 
Dissolve all together and place the skins 
in the solution and allow them to remain 
12 hours ; then remove, and clean them 
well, and again immerse for 12 hours, or 
longer, if necessary. The skins may then 
be taken out, well washed and dried. They 
can be beaten soft, if desired. 

5. — Saltpeter, 2 parts ; alum, 1 part. 



(Tanning) 



Mix. Sprinkle uniformly on the flesh 
side, roll up, and lay in a cool place. 
Spread it out to dry, scrape off the fat, 
and rub till pliable. 

Hides for Rohes. — The hides should be 
very thoroughly soaked in order to get a 
complete softening. For dry hides this 
will require a longer time than for salted. 
A heavy hide requires longer soaking than 
a skin. Thus, it is impossible, says Hide 
and Leather, to fix a certain length of 
time. After soaking, the hide is fleshed 
clean, and is now ready to go into the 
tan liquor, which is made up as follows : 
Alum, 1 part ; salt, 1 part ; japonica, 44 
to % part. These are dissolved in hot 
water in sufficient quantity to make a 
35° liquor. The hide, according to the 
thickness, is left in the tan from 5 to 
10 days. Skins are finished in about 2 
or 3 days. The hide should be run in a 
drum for about 2 hours before going into 
the tan, and again after that process. In 
tanning hides for robes, shaving them 
down is a main requisite for success, as 
it is impossible to get soft leather other- 
wise. After shaving, put back into the 
tan liquor again for a day or two, and 
hang up to dry. When good and hard, 
shave again, and lay away in moist saw- 
dust and give a heavy coat of oil. When 
dry, apply a solution of soft soap ; roll 
up, and lay away in moist sawdust again. 
Now run the hides on a drum or wheel 
until thoroughly soft. The composition 
of the tan liquor may be changed con- 
siderably. If the brownish tinge of the 
japonica be objectionable, that article may 
be left out entirely. The japonica has 
the effect of making the robe more able 
to resist water, as the alum and salt 
alone are readily soaked out by rain. 

Mats. — 1.— To prepare sheepskins for 
mats, make a strong lather with hot water 
and let it stand till cold ; wash the skin 
in it, carefully squeezing out all the dirt 
from the wool ; wash it in cold water till 
all the soap is taken out. Dissolve 1 lb. 
each of salt and alum in 2 gal. of hot 
water, and put the skin into a tub suffi- 
cient to cover it ; let it soak for 12 hours, 
and hang it over a pole to drain. When 
well drained, stretch it carefully on a 
board to dry, and stretch several times 
while drying. Before it is quite dry, 
sprinkle on the flesh side 1 oz. each of 
finely pulverized alum and saltpeter, rub- 
bing it in well. Try if the wool be firm 
on the skin ; if not, let it remain a day 
or two, then rub again with alum ; fold 
the flesh sides together, and hang in the 
shade for 2 or 3 days, turning them over 
each day till quite dry. Scrape the flesh 



[610] 



Leather 



(Tanning) 



side with a blunt knife and rub it with 
pumice or rotten stone. 

2. — Wash the hide in warm water, and 
remove all the fleshy matter from the in- 
ner surface and loose dirt from the woolly 
side. Now wash in strong, rather warm 
soapsuds. The old-fashioned soft soap, 
made from wood ashes, is hesit. Either 
rub by hand or gently on a washboard. 
As soon as thoroughly cleansed and rinsed, 
press as much of the water out as pos- 
sible. Add the following mixture to the 
flesh side : Common salt and ground 
alum, 34 oz. each ; borax, ^^ oz. ; dis- 
solved in 1 qt. of hot water. When suffi- 
ciently cool to work with the hand, add 
enough rye meal to make a thick paste. 
Spread the mixture on the flesh side ; fold, 
and let remain in a shady airy place for 2 
weeks ; remove the paste, and wash. They 
may now be dyed with any color used 
on woolen cloths, if so desired, being 



(Tanning) 



careful not to have the dye hot enough to 
cook the skin. When nearly dry, scrape 
the flesh side thoroughly with a dull knife, 
and rub with the hands until the skin is 
soft and pliable. Comb the wool when 
dry. 

3. — A speedier, and perhaps as reliable 
a method is (for 1 sheepskin) : Salt, 1 
lb. ; alum, ^ lb. ; saltpeter, 2 tablespoon- 
fuls. Spread the hide out smoothly as 
soon as taken from the sheep. Rub the 
mixture well in, on the flesh side, turn 
the head to the tail, leaving the woolly 
side out, roll smoothly and closely, tie 
with a string, and let remain 5 days. 
Spread and tack it, woolly side in, against 
the side of an outhouse. Scrape all the 
flesh and grease ofE with a dull knife, 
wash with warm water and soap, using 
as much suds as required to remove all 
fatty and oily matter. While drying, rub 
sufficiently to keep it soft. 



cmj 



CHAPTEE XVIII 



LUBRICAl^TS 
BRIEF SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 

GENERAL INFORMATION MINERAL LUBRICANTS 



SOLID LUBRICANTS 
LIQUID LUBRICANTS 



SPECIAL USES 



General Information on Lubricants. 

The general experience gained of vari- 
ous oils used for lubricating tends to the 
following results : 

1. — A mineral oil flashing below 300° 
F., 149° C, is unsafe, on account of caus- 
ing fire. 

2. — A mineral oil evaporating more 
than 5% in 10 hours at 140° F., 60° C, 
is inadmissible, as the evaporation creates 
a viscous residue, or leaves the bearing 
dry. 

3. — The most fluid oil that will remain 
in its place, fulfilling other conditions, is 
the best for all light bearings at high 
speeds. 

4. — The best oil is that which has the 
greatest adhesion to metallic surfaces and 
the least cohesion in its own particles. 
In this respect, fine mineral oils are first, 
sperm oil second, neatsfoot oil third, lard 
oil fourth. 

5. — Consequently, the finest mineral oils 
are best for light bearings and high ve- 
locities. 

6. — The best animal oil to give body 
to fine mineral oils is sperm oil. 

7. — Lard and neatsfoot oils may replace 
sperm oil when greater tenacity is re- 
quired. 

8. — The best mineral oil for cylinders 
is one having sp. gr. 0.898 at 60° F., 
151/2° C. ; evaporating point, 550° F., 
288° C, and flashing point, 680° F., 360° 
C. 

9. — The best mineral oil for heavy ma- 
chinery has sp. gr. 0.880 at 60° F., 151/2° 
C. ; evaporating point, 443° F., 229° C, 
and flashing point, 518° F., 269° C. 

10. — The best mineral oil for light 
bearings and high velocities has sp. gr. 
0.871 at 60° F., 151/2° C. ; evaporating 
point, 424° F., 218° C, and flashing point, 
505° F., 262° C. 

11. — Mineral oils alone are not suited 
for the heaviest machinery, on account 



of want of body and higher degree of in- 
flammability. 

12. — Well purified animal oils are ap- 
plicable to very heavy machinery. 

13. — Olive oil is foremost among vege- 
table oils, as it can be purified without 
the aid of mineral acids. 

14. — The other vegetable oils admiss- 
ible, but far inferior, stated in their order 
of merit, are gingelly, ground nut, colza 
and cotton-seed oils. 

15. — No oil is admissible which has 
been purified by means of mineral acids. 

16. — In the case of all lubricants it is 
necessary to remember that a given recipe 
is suitable for a certain climate only, and 
must be correspondingly modified to suit 
warmer or colder districts. 

Gleaning Lubricating Oil. — Agitate it 
with a small percentage of oil of vitriol, 
and then thoroughly wash it with water 
by agitation ; siphon off the oil and let 
stand over quicklime. To filter oil from 
mechanically contained impurities, fit a 
small cork, cut star-shaped, in the angle 
of a funnel, so that it will not impede 
the passage of liquids; and cover this 
loosely with cotton wool (raw cotton). 
If properly arranged, the oil will pass 
through, leaving the impurities in the 
cotton. 

Purifying Lubricating Oil. — The fol- 
lowing is a good method of purifying lu- 
bricating oil : A tub holding 63 qt. has 
a tap inserted close to the bottom and 
another about 4 in. higher. In this re- 
ceptacle are placed 7 qt. of boiling water, 
31/^ oz. of carbonate of soda, 314 oz. of 
chloride of calcium, and 9 oz. of common 
salt. When all these are in solution, 45 
qt. of the oil to be purified are let in, 
and well stirred for 5 or 10 minutes ; the 
whole is then left for a week in a warm 
place, at the expiration of which time 
the clear, pure oil can be drawn off 
through the upper tap without disturbing 
the bottom one. 



Always consult the index when usinsr this boolc. 

[ 613 ] 



Lubricants 



(Solid Lubricants) 



Testing Luhricating Oil. — To test lubri- 
cating oil for acid, dissolve a crystallized 
piece of carbonate of soda, about as large 
as a walnut, in an equal bulk of water, 
and place the solution in a flask with 
some of the oil. If, on settling, _ after 
thorough agitation, a large quantity of 
precipitate forms, the oil should be re- 
jected as impure. 

Solid Lubricants. 

Caoutchouc Lubricants. — 1. — Caout- 
chouc grease. — Train oil, 200 parts ; 
caoutchouc, 20 parts. The train oil is 
heated in a pan until it begins to de- 
compose, this condition being revealed by 
an ebullition resembling boiling, and by 
the evolution of a disagreeable smell, the 
caoutchouc, cut into small pieces, being 
introduced by degrees, and the entire mass 
vigorously stirred after each addition. For 
ordinary purposes, this grease is inap- 
plicable, owing to the high price of caout- 
chouc, the more so because lubricants of 
at least equal efficiency can be prepared 
at a far cheaper cost. 

2. — Caoutchouc and Fat Grease. — 
Caoutchouc, 5 parts ; palm oil, 100 parts ; 
rape oil, 100 parts ; tallow, 50 parts. The 
caoutchouc is dissolved in the rape oil 
by the aid of a high temperature, and 
the filtered solution is incorporated with 
the solid fats. It has been found by ex- 
periment that actual filtration of the mass 
is impracticable, it being difficult to strain 
even through a linen cloth. 

Lead Soap Lubricants. — The lead salts 
possess the property of saponifying fats 
or fatty oils to form fairly solid com- 
pounds, known as lead soaps, which are 
hard in the cold, and smeary at the or- 
dinary temperature, but attain the neces- 
sary degree of fluidity when warmed by 
friction. This latter property is highly 
important in the case of the axles of ve- 
hicles, since it reduces the loss of grease, 
by dropping, to a minimum. For the 
preparation of these lubricants it is, first 
of all, necessary to make a solution of 
basic lead acetate, or sugar of lead, which 
is then incorporated with a suitable pro- 
portion of fat. The solution is prepared 
from sugar of lead, 10 parts ; litharge, 10 
parts ; water, 110 parts. Boil 1% to 2 
hours, stirring repeatedly, at the end of 
which time the mass is left to rest, and the 
clear liquid drawn off. The latter is made 
up to 100 parts, by weight, by the addi- 
tion of water, and after being warmed to 
about 120 to 140° F., is mixed with com- 
mon fat (rape oil and pork fat, or neats- 
foot oil), in the following proportions: 
Sugar of lead, 100 parts ; rape oil, 80 

[61 



(Solid Lubricants) 



parts ; pork fat, 80 parts. The resulting 
preparation should be of a uniform gray 
color, and when melted should set again 
at 85 to 105° F. 

Naphthalene Grease. — Naphthalene, 100 
parts ; rape oil, 50 to 100 parts. The 
naphthalene — a crystalline hydrocarbon 
recovered from coal tar — is melted, and 
stirred up with a larger or smaller quan- 
tity of rape oil, the product varying in 
consistency between firm, buttery and 
fluid, and forming a useful lubricant. The 
expensive purified naphthalene is not 
meant here, purity not being an essential 
feature for the purpose in view ; so that 
the crude article, which is very impure, 
is sufficient. These remarks apply equally 
to paraffine. 

Palm-Oil Greases, American. — 1. — Tal- 
low, 150 parts ; palm oil, 100 parts; soda, 
25 parts ; water, 160 parts. 

2.— Tallow, 100 parts; palm oil, 160 
parts ; soda, 35 parts ; water, 300 parts. 

Soap Greases. — The soap greases, prop- 
erly so called, are prepared with ordinary 
soft soap (a compound of potash with 
fatty acids), or from fats and potash, 
these forming the emulsions already re- 
ferred to. Tallow, 420 parts ; olive oil, 
360 parts; potash, 60 parts; water, 650 
parts. The potash is dissolved in water, 
the solution heated to boiling, and the 
whole of the fat is added at once, the fire 
being made up so as to keep the whole 
in a liquid state. Boiling is continued, 
with constant stirring, until complete sa- 
ponification is indicated by the thicken- 
ing of the mass and the way in which a 
sample will draw into threads on cooling. 
The resulting product is, in a chemical 
sense, really a dilute solution of potash 
mixed with an excess of fat, and may, 
therefore, be regarded as an emulsion lu- 
bricant in the true sense of the term. 

Solidified OtZ.— Petroleum jelly, 120 
parts ; ceresine wax, 5 parts ; slaked lime. 
1/^ part ; water, 4% parts. Heat petro- 
leum jelly and wax to liquid ; mix to- 
gether 'the water and lime. Decant the 
jelly and wax into packing receptacle, and 
add lime and water, periodically stirring 
until it sets. For cheaper quality, use 
cream cylinder oil instead of petroleum 
jelly. 

Tallow Lubricants. — Tallow grease is 
always a serviceable article, but it is 
somewhat dearer than other lubricants. 
Tallow changes in consistency very con- 
siderably according to the temperature. 
In the height of summer it is on a par 
with soft butter, but perfectly hard and 
friable in very cold weather. 

]. — Booth's Patent Grease. — a. — Re- 

4] 



Lubricants 



(Liquid Lubricants) 



fined tallow, 6 parts ; palm oil, 12 parts ; 
water, 8 parts ; soda, 1 part. 

b. — Refined tallow, 8 parts ; palm oil, 
20 parts ; water, 10 parts ; soda, 1% 
parts. 

For both recipes the tallow is melted 
first, and heated to about 265° F„ the 
palm oil being stirred in. The soda is dis- 
solved in water, in a separate vessel, 
either at ordinary temperature or by the 
aid of warmth, and the solution is run, 
in the form of a thin stream, into the 
mixture of tallow and palm oil, which is 
kept constantly stirred the while. After 
the whole of the soda has been added the 
fire is drawn, and the mass is stirred un- 
til it begins to set and to offer consider- 
able resistance to the stirrers, 

2, — Tallow and Neatsfoot-oil Grease. — 
Tallow, 100 parts ; neatsfoot oil, 100 
parts. This grease was used for a long 
time on the Wiirttemberg railways ; it is 
very thick, and, therefore, specially suit- 
able for summer use ; but is rather dear. 

3, — Tallow, Rape-Oil and Soda Greases. 
— a, — Winter Grease. — Tallow, 180 parts ; 
refined rape oil. 120 parts ; soda, 20 
parts ; water, .360 parts. 

b. — Spring and Autumn Grease.-^Tal- 
low, 230 parts ; refined rape oil, 85 parts ; 
soda, 20 parts ; water, 350 parts. 

c. — Summer Grease. — Tallow, 260 
parts ; refined rape oil, 55 parts ; soda, 
20 parts ; water, 340 parts, 

d. — French Tallow and Train-oil 
Grease, — Tallow 260 parts ; train oil, 230 
parts ; soda, 23 parts ; water, 500 parts. 

e. — Tallow and Train-oil Grease. — Re- 
fined tallow, 2 parts ; train oil, 1 part. 
The tallow is melted, at a moderate tem- 
perature, in a pan, and as soon as this 
has been done the train oil is added, the 
mass being crutched until a perfectly uni- 
form mixture has been produced. 

Liquid Lubricants. 

The liquid lubricants possess many im- 
portant advantages over the greases, and, 
in consequence, are often preferred by 
railway companies and machinery mak- 
ers. Their chief superiority is that they 
do not require such complicated appliances 
(grease boxes) in use, they begin to act 
as soon as they are applied, without need- 
ing the heat generated by friction to make 
them suflSciently fluid ; and, besides, the 
oiling vessels can be of a simple type, 
even on the axles of vehicles. Finally, 
they exhibit the valuable feature of hav- 
ing their consistency less affected by the 
temperature of the air than is the case 
with greases. The best materials for the 
preparation of the liquid lubricants are: 



(Liquid Lubricants) 



1, rape and colza oils ; 2, olive oils ; 3, 
rosin oil, either alone or in association 
with lime or certain products of dry dis- 
tillation (paraffine) ; 4, train oil ; 5, 
neatsfoot oil and bone oil ; 6, the so-called 
mineral oils (solar oil, coal oil) ; 7, pe- 
troleum and ozokerite ; 8, soap solutions. 

Fat and Rosin Oil. — Rosin oil is mis- 
cible with solid and liquid fats in all pro- 
portions, and the products exhibit proper- 
ties corresponding to those of the compo- 
nents of the mixture, 

1, — Rosin Oil and Train Oil Lubricant. 
— Rosin oil, 100 parts ; refined train oil, 
50 parts. Since this mixture deposits a 
sediment after standing for some time, it 
is important that it should not be used 
as soon as made, but should be stored in 
vats or casks for a while, 

2,— Solar Oil Lubricant.— Solar oil, 30 
parts ; refined rape oil, 20 parts. This lu- 
bricating oil is particularly suitable for 
brass and bronze machine parts, as it 
does not corrode these metals to more 
than an appreciable extent. 

3.— Thick Oil Lubricants.— a.— For 
winter use : Tallow, 35 parts ; rosin oil, 
10 parts ; rape oil or olive oil, 65 parts. 

b. — For summer use : Tallow, 60 parts : 
rosin oil, 8 parts; rape oil or olive oil, 
40 parts. 

Paraffine Oil Grease. — 1. — Summer 
grease : Paraffine oil, 10 parts ; refined 
rape oil, 90 parts. 

2, — Winter grease : Paraffine oil, 6 
parts ; refined rape oil, 94 parts. 

It is self-evident that these recipes can 
also be modified to furnish greases suit- 
able for medium temperatures — i.e., spring 
and autumn use — all that is necessary 
being to increase or diminish the propor- 
tion of rape oil accordingly. These par- 
affine-oil greases, which have hitherto 
been insufficiently appreciated, form ex- 
cellent lubricants both for axles and ma- 
chinery, and can be produced cheaply 
wherever paraffine oil is easily obtainable. 
In addition to perfect lubrication they 
have the advantage of not corroding the 
machine parts. 

3. — Paraffine and Vaseline Grease. — 
Pure white paraffine and vaseline can be 
mixed in any proportion by melting them 
together, and furnishes greases ranging 
in consistency from that of soft butter 
to thick salve, by varying the quantities. 
Being perfectly free from acid, they are 
admirably suited for fine machinery and 
axles, whether running at high or low 
speed. 



[•615] 



Lubricants 



(Mineral Oils) 



Mineral Lubricating Oils. 

1. — Thick Mineral Lubricating Oils 
(Greases). — These oils are prepared by 
boiling together milk of lime, some vege- 
table oil and a mineral oil until a homo- 
geneous salve-like mass is obtained. A 
lime soap is formed, which dissolves in 
the oils ; and the larger the quantity of 
this soap the higher the melting point of 
the grease. On account of this high melt- 
ing point, and the viscosity of the mass 
when melted, these greases are specially 
suitable for high-pressure steam engines. 

a. — Mineral oil, 100 parts ; linseed oil, 
30 parts; ozokerite oil, 20 parts; lime, 
9 parts. 

b. — Mineral oil, 100 parts ; linseed oil, 
30 parts ; ozokerite oil, 20 parts ; lime, 5 
parts ; magnesia, 4 parts. 

c. — Mineral oil, 100 parts ; linseed oil, 
25 parts ; ozokerite oil, 35 parts ; lime, 10 
parts. 

d. — Mineral oil, 100 parts ; rape oil, 40 
parts ; cocoanut oil, 10 parts ; lime, 10 
parts. 

e. — Mineral oil, 100 parts ; rosin oil, 
100 parts ; rape oil, 50 parts ; linseed oil. 
75 parts ; lime, 25 parts. 

f. — Mineral oil, 100 parts ; rape oil, 80 
parts ; ozokerite oil, 20 parts ; lime, 15 
parts. 

2. — Lanoline Axle Grease. — a. — Rape 
oil, 10 parts ; quicklime, 5 parts ; water, 
20 parts ; crude vaseline, 500 parts ; crude 
lanoline, 40 parts. 

b. — Linseed oil, 10 parts ; quicklime, 5 
parts ; water, 20 parts ; crude vaseline, 
600 parts ; crude lanoline, 40 parts. 

The last two formulas mentioned above 
are mixed with clay, soapstone or infuso- 
rial earth, in the proportion of 10 to 25% 
of the whole mass. 

3. — Lanoline Lubricant. — In scouring 
sheep wool, a product known as wool fat, 
wool yolk, or suint, is obtained, and this 
in turn furnishes lanoline, or wool oil. 
Lanoline, when quite pure, is a soft mass 
of fatty character, but is not a fat, and 
therefore never turns rancid, so that it 
forms an excellent lubricant. It is par- 
ticularly adapted for axle grease, only 
the crude lanoline being, of course, used 
for this purpose. The method of prepa- 
ration adopted consists in heating some 
vegetable oil with milk of lime and crude 
vaseline until a liomogeneous mass is ob- 
tained, melted lanoline being then added 
in a thin stream, and stirred with the 
rest until the product has attained the 
consistency of soft salve. The mass may 
be stiffened to any desired extent by the 



(Axle Grease) 



addition of ground soapstone, clay or in- 
fusorial earth. 

4. — Paravaseline. — Lubricants of great- 
er fluidity can be easily obtained by mix- 
ing vaseline with petroleum ; and, con- 
versely, thicker lubricants can be pre- 
pared by the addition of crude paraffine or 
ozokerite. Paravaseline, for instance, is 
compounded of vaseline and paraffine. 
Generally, these lubricants are colored by 
means of cheap coloring matters : colothar 
for red, umber for brown, and so on. 

5. — Soap and Vaseline Greases. — a. — < 
Crude vaseline, mixed with ordinary or 
rosin soap, furnishes a very good railway 
grease, green to brown in color. Crude 
vaseline, 6 to 8 parts, melted along with 
1 part of tallow and 1 part of colophony, 
1% parts of soda lye (20° Bg.) being 
poured in as a thin stream, and the whole 
stirred continuously until the mass be- 
gins to get viscous, whereupon it is 
poured into cans, drums, etc., for send- 
ing out. 

b. — Tallow, iy2 parts ; crude palm oil, 
3 parts ; solution of carbonate of soda, 
15°, 1% parts; melt. 

LUBRICANTS FOR SPECIAL PUR- 
POSES 
Axle Grease. 

In making axle grease for cold coun- 
tries, the proportion of train oil must 
be increased to give the grease the neces- 
sary fluidity. The larger the quantity 
of train oil the softer, more buttery, and 
more easily melted the mixture will be. 
The following is a recipe for a thick oil 
grease : 

1. — For use in winter : Tallow, 35 
parts ; oil of rosin, 10 parts ; olive or 
rape oil, 65 parts. 

2. — For use in summer : Tallow, 60 
parts ; oil of rosin, 8 parts ; olive or rape 
oil, 40 parts. 

The blue color is due to the dark violet 
tint of the oil referred to, while the yel- 
low tint is produced by the addition of 
a solution of turmeric root in caustic 
soda. 

Asphaltum Axle Grease. — Asphaltum, 
32 parts ; black pitch, 8 parts ; petroleum, 
8 parts ; litharge, 8 parts ; water, 80 
parts. The asphaltum and pitch are first 
melted together in a pan, the petroleum 
being then added until the mass has be- 
come uniformly fluid. The litharge is 
next added, and finally the water is run 
in, in small quantities, the whole being 
stirred until perfectly uniform. The as- 
phaltum and pitch give this grease a lus- 
trous black color and a peculiar bitumin- 
ous smell. The fluidity of the mass can 



[616] 



Lubricants 



(Axle Grease) 



be increased or diminished by correspond- 
ingly varying the proportion of petro- 
leum. 

Car Axles. — Dark ozokerite, 15 parts ; 
heavy petroleum, 3 to 6 parts. Melt to- 
gether at a gentle heat. Suitable also for 
heavy wagons. 

Carriage Axle Greases. — 1. — Tallow, 
500 parts ; linseed oil, 500 parts ; pine 
rosin, 500 parts ; caustic soda lye, 315 
parts. 

2. — Tallow, 500 parts; linseed oil, 450 
parts ; pine rosin, 500 parts ; caustic soda 
lye, 500 parts. 

Both preparations, when suitably 
stirred during preparation, form solid 
masses, of the constituency of salve, and 
yellow in color. They are easily dis- 
tributed on the axles, and lubricate well. 
The rosin is melted first, the tallow and 
linseed oil being then added ; and when 
these have formed a uniform mixture, the 
caustic soda lye is added by degrees. The 
lye is used moderately strong, and the 
firmness of the grease can be heightened 
by increasing the concentration of the al- 
kaline solution. 

Caoutchouc Axle Grease. — Palm oil, 20 
parts ; train oil, 100 parts ; caoutchouc, 
2 parts ; litharge, 2 parts ; sugar of lead, 
2 parts. The caoutchouc is cut into 
small pieces, and heated, with the train 
oil, to about 390° F., the litharge and 
sugar of lead being then added, and the 
heating continued for an hour longer. 
Finally, the palm oil is stirred into the 
still hot mass. 

Frazer's Axle Grease. — Composed of 
partially saponified rosin oil, that is a 
rosin soap and rosin oil. In its prepara- 
tion V2 gal. of No. 1 and 2% gal. of No. 
4 rosin oil are saponified with a solution 
of Yq lb. of sal soda dissolved in 3 pt. 
of water, and 10 lb. of sifted lime. After 
standing for 6 hours or more, this is 
drawn off from the sediment and thor- 
oughly mixed with 1 gal. of No. 1, 3% 
gal. of No. 2, and 4 2-3 gal. of No. 3 
rosin oil. This rosin oil is obtained by 
the destructive distillation of common 
rosin, the products ranging from an ex- 
tremely light to a heavy fluorescent oil, 
or colophonic tar. 

Graphite Axle Grease. — Tallow, 36 
parts ; pork fat, 9 parts ; palm oil, 9 
parts ; graphite, 2 parts. 

Graphite Grease for Quick-Runninfj 
Axles. — Tallow, 100 parts ; graphite, 100 
parts. This is specially suitable for greas- 
ing the shafts of circular saws, ventilat- 
ing fans, etc., and, indeed, for any axles 
running at high speed under small load. 

Palm Oil Axle Greases for Very Heavy 



(Axle Grease) 



Wagons. — 1. — For winter use : Tallow, 
420 parts ; palm oil, 840 parts ; soda, 140 
parts ; water, 4,200 parts. 

2. — For summer use : Tallow, 420 
parts ; palm oil, 490 parts ; soda, 35 
parts ; water, 2,300 parts. The above are 
calculated for severe winter weather and 
high summer temperatures. For milder 
winter climates the proportion of soda 
may be somewhat reduced and the palm 
oil increased. 

Quick-Running Axles. — 1. — Soap, 1 
part ; rape oil, 1 part ; water, 5 parts ; 
powdered talc, 2 parts. 

2. — Brown ozokerite, 10 parts; petro- 
leum, 4 parts. 

In the case of No. 1, the ingredients 
are mixed by boiling and stirring them 
together, while for No. 2 melting together 
is suflScient. 

Railway Axles. — In a small boiler, dis- 
solve from 56 to 60 lb. of soda in about 
3 gal. of water. In a 60-gal. boiler, melt 
tallow, and to it add palm oil, each in 
quantity according to season. 

1. — In summer weather : Tallow, 1 
cwt. 3 qr. ; palm oil, 1 cwt. 1 qr. 

2. — In winter : Tallow, 1 cwt. 1 qr. ; 
palm oil, 1 cwt. 3 qr. 

3. — 'In spring or autumn : Tallow, 1 
cwt. 2 qr. ; palm oil, 1 cwt. 2 qr. As soon 
as the mixture boils, put out the fire, and 
let the mixture cool down gradually, fre- 
quently stirring it while cooling. When 
reduced to blood best run it off through 
a sieve into the solution of soda, stirring 
it well, to insure a perfect mixture of 
the ingredients. 

4. — Austrian Railway Grease. — a. — 
Winter: Tallow, 10 parts; olive oil, 20 
parts ; old grease, 13 parts. 

b. — Spring and autumn: Tallow, 100 
parts ; olive oil, 10 parts ; old grease, 10 
parts. 

c. — Summer : Tallow, 100 parts ; olive 
oil, 1 part ; old grease, 10 parts. 

5. — Eliglish Railway Axle Grease. — a. 
Summer : Tallow, 504 lb. ; palm oil, 
280 lb. ; sperm oil, 22 lb. ; caustic soda, 
120 lb.; water, 1,370 lb. 

b. — Winter ; Tallow, 420 lb. ; palm oil, 
280 lb. ; sperm oil, 35 lb. ; caustic soda, 
126 lb. ; water, 1,524 lb. 

6. — French Liard. — Dissolve 3 oz. of 
shredded india-rubber in 1 gal. of finest 
rape-seed oil by the application of heat. 

7. — German Railway Grease. — Tallow, 
24.60%; palm oil. 9.80%; rane-seed oil, 
1.10% ; soda, 5.20% ; water, 59.80%. 

Sulphur Axle Grease. — Refined tallow, 
2 parts ; train oil, 2 parts ; powdered sul- 
phur, 1 part. The tallow is melted, heat- 
ed to about the boiling point of water. 



[617] 



Lubricants 



(Cart Grease) 



and the train oil is added. The fats are 
mixed by vigorous crutching, and the 
powdered sulphur is thrown in. The 
whole is then kept for another 10 minutes 
at the above temperature, after which the 
fire is drawn and the mixture is stirred 
until it has set to a perfectly homogene- 
ous, buttery mass. It is important that 
the sulphur should not be added in any 
other form than that of a very fine floury 
powder, since larger fragments of sulphur 
would not give a uniform product. 

Wooden Axles. — Put 10 lb. of quick- 
lime into a tub, and pour water over to 
just cover well. Let stand a day or two, 
stirring occasionally. Strain, or pass 
through a fine sieve. Mix in 15 qt. of 
common rosin oil, and let stand one day. 
Pour off the water, then add 10 gal. of 
coal-tar-grease-oil and 10 lb. of plumbago. 
Heat the whole gently until amalgamation 
takes place. 

Belting Grease. 

1. — To 100 parts of castor oil add 10 
parts of tallow. Belts lubricated with 
this mixture are made flexible, and the 
friction on the pulleys is increased. 

2. — Linseed oil, 9 parts ; litharge, 4 
parts. Boil together, along with water, 
until a sample sets to the consistency of 
plaster, the mixture being then thinned 
down with oil of turpentine while still 
warm. 

3. — Driving-Beit Grease. — a. — Linseed 
oil, 45 parts ; litharge, 20 parts ; water, 
20 parts. These three substances are 
boiled together until the mass has as- 
sumed the consistency of plaster, and is 
thinned to about the same degree of flu- 
idity as varnish,- by adding oil of turpen- 
tine in the warm, 

b. — Caoutchouc Grease for Driving 
Belts. — (1) Caoutchouc, by weight, 500 
parts, dissolved in an equal weight of oil 
of turpentine at 122° F., and mixed with 
500 parts of colophony and 500 parts of 
yellow wax. (2) Fish oil, l^/^ parts, 
melted with 500 parts of tallow, and the 
mixture is stirred with solution (1) until 
the mass sets. The grease is laid on the 
belts with a brush, in the vicinity of a 
hot stove. 

Cart Grease. 

Palm-Oil Cart Grease. — Palm oil, 210 
parts ; tallow, 85 parts ; soda lye, 65 
parts ; water, 920 parts. The palm oil 
and tallow are melted together, the mix- 
ture rendered uniform by stirring, and 
the soda lye added. The density of the 
latter should be 20 to 21° Be.; that is 
to say, the Baume areometer should sink 



( Clockmakers' Oils ) 



into the solution down to the 20 or 21° 
mark on the scale. After the soda lye 
has been stirred in the water is added, 
and the mass is stirred until uniform, 
whereupon it is ladled out into vessels 
to set. 
Chain Lubricant. 

A mixture of powdered plumbago and 
glycerine has been warmly recommended 
at various times as a chain lubricant. 
Plumbago, 6 parts, mixed intimately with 
10 parts of petrolatum, also yields a sat- 
isfactory lubricant. (See also Cycle Oil.) 

Clockmakers* Oils. (See also Watch 
Oils.) 

Lubricants for clocks and delicately 
constructed machinery in general, are 
usually prepared from very carefully re- 
fined rape oil, or, preferably, fine olive 
oil. To remove the final traces of acid 
from the oil it is shaken with 1% by 
weight of caustic soda, this being repeated 
several times daily for 2 or 3 days. A 
large volume of water is then added, and 
the supernatant oil, which is now quite 
free from acid, is poured off. It, how- 
ever, still contains coloring matters and 
certain other constituents inimical to lu- 
brication, and to remove these the oil is 
shaken up with strong alcohol, which dis- 
solves them out. For this purpose, 10 
parts by volume of the oil are placed in 
a clear glass bottle holding about one- 
third as much again, along with 2 parts 
of 90% alcohol. The bottle is next well 
corked, and shaken up so as to thoroughly 
mix the oil and the spirit. The bottle 
is set out in the sun, and shaking re- 
peated several times a day. At the end 
of about 3 weeks — though in bright sum- 
mer weather 10 to 14 days often suffice — 
the oil will be water-white, the super- 
natant layer of spirit having assumed a 
strong yellow tinge through the coloring 
matter absorbed from the oil. The puri- 
fied oil is syphoned off and filled at once 
into small, tightly corked glass bottles, 
which should be kept in a cool, dark place. 
The spirit can be recovered by careful 
distillation, in a perfectly colorless con- 
dition, and used over again. 

Fatty Oil for Clocks. — For oiling 
clocks, the cost of the oil is a relatively 
unimportant consideration, experience 
showing that clockmakers and all other 
makers of the more delicate kinds of ma- 
chinery will readily pay very high prices 
for a lubricating oil that will meet their 
requirements. Lubricants for this pur- 
pose must, first of all, have no chemical 
action on metals, and m-ust not thicken 
or "gum" in course of time. 



[618] 



Lubricants 



(Cylinder Oil) 



Mineral Oil for Clockmakers^ Use. — 
The mineral oil far clockmakers' use is 
a specially refined heavy tar oil. One 
hundred parts of ordinary heavy tar oil 
are treated with 2 parts of bleaching pow- 
der, well stirred in, and followed by 3 
parts of crude hydrochloric acid. The 
mixture must then be vigorously stirred, 
and set aside for 6 hours. At the end of 
this time the oil is poured ofE from the 
watery liquid, and repeatedly shaken up 
with 5 parts of caustic soda lye each 
time. Finally, the refined oil is filtered 
through gray blotting paper. 

Olive Oil for Clockmakers^ Use. — ^To 
prepare this lubricant, an olive oil must 
be taken that has been refined by the 
sulphuric-acid method, very well known, 
and afterward shaken up with about 2% 
of weak lye to insure the complete elim- 
ination of the final traces of free acid. 
The oil and lye are left in contact for 
several days after a thorough shaking, 
the oil floating on the surface being then 
drawn off and bleached with spirits, as 
described above. Like all other fine lu- 
bricating oils, the olive oil so treated 
must be filled into small bottles, which 
are then tightly corked, and stored with 
care. 
Cog-wheel Grease. 

Any convenient buttery lubricant ia 
melted and stirred up with 5% by weight 
of finely ground and levigated powdered 
glass. In a short time this lubricant pol- 
ishes the cogwheel teeth perfectly smooth 
and even. 

Cycle Oil. 

1. — This is commonly made up of sperm 
oil and vaseline, 3 parts of the former 
to 1 part of the latter, by weight. A 
greater quantity of vaseline could be 
used, and some mineral oil as a thinning 
agent. 

2. — Cycle-Chain Lubricant. — a. — Melt 
some tallow (Russian for preference), 
then stir in powdered plumbago (graphite 
or black lead) until it is thick enough 
to set solid when cold. While fluid pour 
it into molds. 

b. — The foregoing recipe applies to 
blocks of hard lubricant that is rubbed 
on the chain. If the chain can be soaked 
and stirred about in the fluid mixture, 
it is much better. 

c. — Mix plumbago and vaseline to a 
stiff consistency. This does not set, but 
is applied with a brush. 
Cylinder Oil. 

Filtered cylinder oil, 3 parts ; black cyl- 
inder oil. 2 parts ; thickened rape oil, 1 



(Hemp Ropes) 



part. Heat to 200° F. in a steam-jack- 
eted pan for half an hour, stirring well. 
When settled, it can be run into barrels 
while warm. If desired, half the rape oil 
can be omitted and this quantity of lard 
oil added. What is known as A and B 
blend consists of 9 parts of steam-refined 
cylinder oil, 3 parts of thickened rape oil 
and 3 parts of lard oil. This is A blend. 
The B blend consists of 9, 4 and 4 parts, 
respectively. 

Drill Lubricator. 

For drilling wrought iron, use 1^ lb. 
of soft soap mixed with 1% gal. of boil- 
ing water. Insures ease in working, and 
clean cutting. 

Dynamo Oil. 

Refined cocoanut oil, 1 part ; 0.885 min- 
eral oil, 1 part ; 0.908 mineral oil, 2 parts. 
Put the cocoanut oil in a steam-jacketed 
pan, then run in the mineral oils. Heat 
to 170° F., and put on blower for about 
yi hour. Stop the heat, and let settle ; 
it is then finished. The mixture forming 
this lubricant can be varied by increas- 
ing the proportion of cocoanut oil up to 
double that given above. 

Gear and Pinion Grease. 

The Detroit United Railways is using 
on its cars a gear and pinion "dope" 
grease that is giving very satisfactory ser- 
vice. Through its use the cost of lu- 
bricating gears has been reduced 56 to 
80 cents per 1,000 miles, and the cost 
of lubricating pinions 32 to 40 cents per 
1,000 miles. About 25 lb. of the lubri- 
cant is packed in each gear case. The 
ingredients and the proportions used in 
mixing this dope are as follows : Animal 
fat (tallow and lard), 18%; oleic acid, 
3% ; lime, 3% ; Dixon's best graphite, 
8% ; special paraflSne stock, 48% ; 650 
fire cylinder stock, extremely viscous, 
20%. 

Hemp Ropes. 

Cut a quantity of tallow into small 
pieces, and place the latter in a clean 
vessel on a moderate fire. When melted, 
run the liquid fat through a wire sieve 
into another vessel, in which mix, with 
constant stirring, 1-5 part, by weight, of 
hot linseed-oil varnish, taking care that 
it is thoroughly incorporated. To this 
mixture add 1-15 part of vaseline. After 
cooling, this grease is applied by means 
of a wooden spatula on the rope, and 
rubbed in with a clean woolen rag. The 
grease should preferably be lukewarm 
when rubbed in. 



[619] 



Lubricants 



( Machinery ) 



Machine Oils and Solid Greases, Ameri- 
can. 

A number of these products have been 
found, on careful examination, to possess 
the following composition : 

1. — Oleic acid, 90 parts ; petroleum, 10 
parts. 

2. — Oleic acid, 100 parts ; glycerine, 50 
parts. 

3. — Oleic acid, 100 parts ; guaiacum oil, 
20 parts. 

4. — Glycerine, 100 parts ; petroleum, 10 
parts. 

5. — Glycerine, 100 parts ; olive oil, 50 
parts. 

6. — Gamber fat, 100 parts ; coal tar, 
30 parts. 

Machinery Lubricants. 

1. — Graphite, 28 parts ; talc, 20 parts ; 
sulphur, 16 parts ; wax or paraffine, 16 
parts. 

2. — Graphite, 15 parts ; bone glue, 7% 
parts ; water, 16 parts ; sulphur, 6 parts ; 
wax or paraffine, 5^ parts. A patent 
has been taken out in France for lubri- 
cants compounded in this manner. 

3. — Chard's Preparation for Heavy 
Bearings consists of: Petroleum (gravity 
25°), 12 oz. ; caoutchouc, 2 oz. ; sulphur, 
2 oz, ; plumbago, 4 oz. ; beeswax, 4 oz. ; 
sal soda, 2 oz. The composition is stirred 
and heated to 140° F. for half an hour. 

4. — Booth's. — Soda, ^2 ib ; rape-seed 
oil, 1 gal. ; water, 1 gal. ; tallow or palm 
oil, Vs lb. ; mix intimately, heat to boil- 
ing, and continue stirring till cooled down 
to 60 to 70° F. (I51/2 to 21° C.). 

5. — Boiling water, 4 gal. ; Scotch soda, 
V2 lb. ; mixture of palm oil and tallow in 
any proportions, 10 lb. ; treat as 4. 

6.— Scotch soda, 10 lb.; glue, 1 lb., 
dissolved in 10 gal. of water ; oil, 10 
gal. ; india-rubber, 4 lb., dissolved in oil 
of turpentine ; add the india-rubber last, 
and stir the whole thoroughly. 

7. — Dard, 2i/^ lb. ; camphor, 1 oz. ; 
graphite (black lead), % lb. Rub up 
the camphor into a paste with part of the 
lard in a mortar, add the graphite arid 
the rest of the lard, and intimately mix. 

8. — Dissolve 274 lb. sugar of lead (lead 
acetate) in 16 lb. melted but not boil- 
ing tallow, and add 3 lb. black antimony, 
stirring the mixture constantly till cold. 
For cooling necks of shafts. 

9. — Caoutchouc Machine Grease. — 
Caoutchouc, 20 parts ; linseed oil, 1,000 
parts. 20 parts each of caoutchouc and 
linseed oil are first melted together, an- 
other 20 parts of oil stirred in as soon as 
the mixture begins to disengage vapor. 



(Sewing Machine Oil) 



Subsequently the rest of the linseed oil 
is added, 100 parts at a time. 

10. — French's Machine Grease. — Petrol- 
eum, 500 parts ; graphite, 44 parts ; bees- 
wax, 1% parts ; tallow, 4% parts ; caustic 
soda, 1% parts. These are mixed togeth- 
er at a boiling heat. 

11. — Hendrick's lubricant is prepared 
from whale or fish oil, white lead and 
petroleum. The oil and white lead are, in 
about equal quantities, stirred and grad- 
ually heated to between 350 and 400° F., 
then mixed with a sufficient quantity of 
the petroleum to reduce the mixture to 
the proper gravity. 

12. — Munger's preparation consists of: 
Petroleum, 1 gal. ; tallow, 4 oz. ; palm 
oil, 4 oz. ; plumbago, 6 oz. ; soda, 1 oz. 
These are mixed and heated to 180° F. for 
an hour or more, cooled, and, after 24 
hours, well stirred together. 

Piston-rod Grease. 

Paraffine, 1 part ; powdered talc, 4 
parts, are stirred together whilst hot, 
wicks are then dipped in the mixture, and 
are afterwards pressed into position in 
the piston-rod gland. This lubricant will 
grease a piston rod for 8 to 14 days with 
one application. 

Sewing Machine Oil. 

1. — A mixture of : Olive oil, 3 parts ; 
almond oil, 2 parts ; rape oil, 1 part, is 
treated with alcohol as already described. 
This mixed lubricant is fairly fluid, and 
is therefore admirably suited for oiling 
very fine machine parts. 

2. — Best. — Pale oil of almonds, 9 oz. ; 
rectified benzoline, 3 oz. ; foreign oil of 
lavender, 1 oz. Mix and filter. 

3. — Common. — Petroleum, 3 oz. ; pale 
nut oil, 9 oz. ; essential oil of almonds, 40 
to 50 drops. Mix and filter. 

4. — 'The writer was given a simple rec- 
ipe of 2 parts of sperm oil and 1 part pe- 
troleum. He made a quart of this for 
domestic use, and it answered excellently. 
Through not having a great use for it, the 
quantity made was not finished for about 
12 years, and at the expiration of this 
time the oil was as good as at first, though 
a little darker in color. 

5. — Sperm oil, to which a little ker- 
osene oil has been added, makes a very 
satisfactory lubricant for sewing ma- 
chines and other light machinery. 

6. — Soft paraffine, 1 part ; paraffine oil, 
7 parts. Melt the soft paraffine and add 
the oil. Allow to stand for some hours, 
and then pour off the liquid. 



[620] 



Lubricants 



(Watch Oils) 



Turbine Oils. 

Yellow rosin oil. . 
Blue rosin oil,. . . . 

Olive oil, 

Rape oil, 

Olein 

Cotton seed oil, . . 
Paraffine oil, 



I. II. III. IV. 

200 200 40 40 
.. 33 .. .. 

1 .. 40 .. 
.. 33 .. .. 

.. 60 .. 

30 

30 

These oils are suitable for all quick-run- 
ning shafts or axles under light loads. 

Watch Oils. (See also Clockmakers' 
Oils.) 

An oil fit to be used as a lubricator 
for fine mechanism should possess the 
following essential qualities : It should 
neither thicken nor dry up nor get hard 
at a low temperature, nor should it be 
subject to oxidation. In spite of the vast 
progress natural science has made of late 
years, it has not succeeded in discovering 
an animal or vegetable oil possessing 
these combined properties without previ- 
ous artificial manipulation. Let us men- 
tion a few instances : 

1. — Almond oil has the valuable prop- 
erty of not becoming firm till below 17° 
R., but it oxidizes sooner than any other 
oil. 

2. — Poppy seed oil will withstand cold 
to 15° R. and preserves itself well from 
oxidation, but it is one of the drying oils 
and therefore useless as a watch oil. 

3. — Olive oil, up to the present the 
most useful among watch oils, does not 
dry or thicken, nor does it oxidate for a 
comparatively long time, but it hardens 
at 2° R. 

4. — The properties of neatsfoot oil are 
similar to those of olive oil, but it ex- 
ceeds the latter in resistance against oxi- 
dation. 

5. — Put 1 oz. of pure olive oil in a 
tumbler, add 2 oz. of 96° alcohol, stir- 
ring well ; set it away in a dark place 
for 24 hours or more, well covered, then 
pour into a clean bottle containing 10 
oz. distilled or clean rain water ; shake 
violently for 5 minutes, allow the mix- 
ture to stand a % hour or so, then freeze 
with salt and ice. You can find a good 
article of fine limpid watch oil, perfectly 
fluid at top. Draw oflE with a siphon. 
Be careful not to break the bottle in 
freezing. 

6. — Olive oil containing a strip of clean 
lead is exposed to the sun in a white glass 
vessel till all deposit ceases, and the su- 
pernatant oil is limpid and colorless. 

Wire Ropeways. 

1.— Tar, 100 parts ; brewer's pitch, 100 
parts ; colophony, 25 parts ; train oil, 10 

[ 621 



(Wood Lubricants I 



to 25 parts, are melted together and 
stirred until .the mass is cold. 

2. — For the lubrication of wire ropes 
use a mixture of mica, axle grease, tar, 
and summer oil. According to the En- 
gineering and Mining Journal this is un- 
patented, and can be made of any desired 
consistency. The tar and oil must be 
free from acid. It is claimed that it thor- 
oughly penetrates between the wires, pre- 
vents rust, and fills the cable, resists 
water, does not strip, and is very econom- 
ical if added sparingly, as all lubricants 
should be, after the first dose. It goes 
without saying that cables well taken 
care of will last very much longer than 
neglected ones ; besides which, there is the 
far more important matter of safety in 
mine hoists to be considered, one con- 
dition of this being the clean state of the 
interior wire surfaces. 

Wood, Lubricants for. 

1. — Wood screws or any wood surfaces 
that rub can be successfully lubricated 
with plain plumbago (black lead). It 
can be applied mixed with water to the 
consistency of paint, or it will do if it 
cna be dusted on dry. 

2. — To a quantity of good lard, ren- 
dered semi-fluid (but not liquid) by gentle 
heat in an iron pan, is gradually added 
1-5 part by weight of finely powdered 
and sifted graphite (black lead), with 
careful and continued stirring until the 
mass is homogeneous and smooth ; the 
heat is then steadily increased till the 
compound liquefies, when it is allowed 
to cool, the stirring having been mean- 
while kept up unceasingly. 

3.— Tallow, 8 lb.; palm oil, 10 lb.; 
graphite (black lead), 1 lb. 

4. — Lard, 2i^ lb. ; camphor, 1 oz. ; 
graphite (black lead), % lb. Rub up the 
camphor into a paste with part of the 
lard in a mortar, add the graphite and 
the rest of the lard, and intimately mix. 

Wooden Machinery, Palm Oil Grease for. 

Tallow, 30 parts; palm oil, 20 parts; 
train oil, 10 parts; graphite, 20 parts. 
The fats are melted by moderate warmth, 
and the graphite, which has been reduced 
to the_ finest powder and then levigated, 
is intimately mixed therewith by pro- 
tracted stirring. In respect of the quanti- 
ties consumed, the palm oil greases may 
be regarded as the most important of all 
lubricants, since they are employed, to the 
exclusion of all others, on many railways, 
and are often used for large machines as 
well. 

] . 



CHAPTER XIX 



PAIJSTTS, YAEIS^ISIIES, BROJS^ZIIN^G, LACQITEES 



STAIIS^S, SIZES, DRIERS, WHITEWASHES, ETC 



BRIEF SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 

PAINTS 



BRONZING 

DRIERS 

ENAMEL PAINTS 

FILLERS 

JAPANS AND JAPANNING 

LACQUERS AND LACQUERING 



SIZE 
STAINS 
VARNISHES 
WHITEWASH 



The subject of paints, pigments, var- 
nishes, japans and lacquers offer pecul- 
iar diflBculties when it comes to classifi- 
cation. Where does a varnish begin and 
a lacquer end? This is a question which 
is almost impossible to answer. The clas- 
sification in this book is based on certain 
well-known distinctions and is perhaps 
sufiiciently accurate for the ordinary user. 
A series of definitions from the Century 
Dictionary may, however, not come 
amiss, but as has already been remarked, 
the line of demarkation between the var- 
ious classes of paints, etc., is not well 
marked. 

Drier. — Any substance added to a paint 
to increase its drying qualities. It may 
be a liquid, such as japan, or a dry ma- 
terial, as oxide of lead, oxide of mangan- 
ese, burnt umber or sugar of lead. 

Japan. — A liquid having somewhat the 
nature of a varnish, made by cooking 
gum shellac with linseed oil in a varnish 
kettle. Litharge or some similar material 
is also usually added to quicken the dry- 
ing of the resulting japan. 

Lacquer. — An opaque varnish contain- 
ing lac, properly so called. Especially 
the kind of varnish consisting of shellac 
dissolved in alcohol, with the aid of other 
ingredients, particularly coloring matters. 
It is also applied to different materials 
to protect them from tarnishing and to 
give them luster, especially to brass. 

Paint. — A substance used in painting, 
composed of a dry coloring material in- 
timately mixed with a liquid vehicle. It 
differs from a dye in that it is not de- 
signed to sink into the substance to which 
it -is applied, but to form a superficial 
coating. 

Pigment. — Any substance that is or can 



be used by painters to impart color to 
bodies ; technically, a dry substance usu- 
ally in the form of powder or in lumps 
so lightly held together as to be easily 
pulverized, which, after it has been mixed 
with a liquid medium can be applied by 
painters to surfaces to be colored. Pig- 
ment is properly restricted to the dry 
coloring matter which, when mixed with 
a vehicle, becomes a paint, but the two 
words are commonly used without dis- 
crimination. 

Siccative. — In painting, any material 
added to an oil paint to hasten the drying 
of the oil ; a dryer. Siccative is more of 
a book word, dryer being the term com- 
monly used by painters. 

Stain. — To color by a process other 
than painting or coating or covering the 
surface. (a) To color (as glass) by 
something which combines chemically 
with a substance to be colored, (b) To 
color by the use of a thin liquid which 
penetrates the material, as in dyeing 
cloth or staining wool. 

Varnish. — A solution of resinous mat- 
ter, forming a clear, limpid fluid capable 
of hardening without losing its transpar- 
ency ; used by painters, gilders, cabinet 
makers and others for coating over the 
surface of their work in order to give it 
a shining, transparent and hard surface, 
capable of resisting, in a greater or less 
degree, the influences of air and moisture. 

BRONZING 

1. — Copper powder is obtained by sat- 
urating nitrous acid with copper, and 
then precipitating the copper by exposing 
iron bars in the solution. 

2. — Dutch foil, reduced to a powder by 
grinding, is also used, and powdered 
plumbago gives an iron-tolored shade. 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[623] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Bronzing) - 



3. — Another kind is made from ver- 
digris, 8 parts ; putty powder, 4 parts ; 
borax, 2 parts ; bichloride of mercury, ^4 
part ; grind into a paste with oil and 
fuse them together. 

4. — Another (red) : Sulph. copper, 100 
parts ; carb. soda, 60 parts ; mix and in- 
corporate by heat ; cool, powder, and 
add copper filings, 15 parts ; mix ; keep 
at a white heat for 20 minutes ; cool, 
powder, wash and dry. 

Aniline Bronzing Fluid. — Take 10 
parts of aniline red and 5 parts of aniline 
purple and dissolve in 100 parts of al- 
cohol at 95°, taking care to help the solu- 
tion by placing the vessel in a sand or 
water bath. As soon as the solution is 
effected, 5 parts of benzoic acid are added, 
and the whole is boiled from 5 to 10 
minutes until the greenish color of the 
mixture is transformed into a fine light- 
colored bronze. This bronze is stated to 
be very brilliant, and to be applicable to 
all metals, as well as to other substances. 
It is easily laid on with a brush, and 
dries promptly. 

Application. — Go over the part ^ou 
intend to bronze with gold size or var- 
nish. When it is sufficiently dry — that 
is, when it does not adhere to the finger, 
but feels clammy — dip a piece of cotton, 
rolled into a hard ball, in your bronze 
powder, and dab it on the place to be 
bronzed. 

Banana Oil for Bronzing Solutions. — • 
This oil, so named on account of the odor 
imparted by its amyl acetate constituent, 
seems to have no definite formula, but 
to vary in composition according to the 
ideas of those who prepare it. This is 
usually a mixture of equal parts of amyl 
acetate, acetone and benzine, with just 
enough pyroxylin dissolved therein to give 
the finished product sufficient body and 
to leave a protective covering after the 
liquids have evaporated. A solution of 
1 gram of celluloid in 25 c. c. of amyl 
acetate is sometimes sold for banana oil. 
This "oil," and its vapor, it should be 
remembered, are quite inflammable. 

Gold Paint. — 1. — Do not mix the gold 
size and powder together, but go over 
the article to be gilded with the size 
alone, giving an even and moderate coat- 
ing. Let it dry, which will not take 
long, till it is just sticky, or, as gilders 
call it, tacky. Then over a sheet of 
smooth writing paper dust on the dry 
gold powder by means of a stout, soft, 
sable brush. 

2. — Bisulphide of tin has a golden 
luster, flaky texture, and is used for or- 



( Bronzing) 



namental work, such as paper hangings, 
and as a substitute for gold leaf. 

3. — Gold Bronze Powder. — a. — Pure 
gold bronze powder may be made as fol- 
lows : Grind leaf gold with pure honey 
until the leaves are broken up and mi- 
nutely divided. Remove this mixture from 
the stone by a spatula and stir up in a 
basin of water ; the water will melt the 
honey and set the gold free. Leave the 
basin undisturbed until the gold subsides. 
Pour off the water and add fresh instead, 
until the honey is entirely washed away, 
after which collect the gold on filtering 
pans and dry for use. b. — A cheaper sort 
may be made thus : Melt 1 lb. of tin in 
a crucible and pour it on i/^ lb. of pure 
mercury ; when this is solid grind it into 
powder with 7 oz. of flowers of sulphur 
and % lb. of sal ammoniac. 

4. — Gold Enamel Paints. — The "green- 
ing" of the vehicle, which is very objec- 
tionable and unsightly, is set up by free 
acid in the medium, and as these bronzes 
are very readily attacked by acids, this 
is the reason of this greenish appearance 
developing, as chemical reaction takes 
place. It may be overcome by neutraliz- 
ing any acid in the liquid used as a binder 
by the additi'on of lime, etc., as in the 
Bessemer paint, for which the recipe fol- 
lowing is a modern formula, yet little 
different from the original : 

a. — Pure turps, 6 pt. ; copal varnish, 1 
pt. ; good gold bronze, 6% lb. ; calcis hy- 
drate (dry-slaked lime), % oz. Mix the 
varnish and turps at a gentle heat, then 
slake well with the lime, and settle for a 
few days, then pour off the clean portion 
and mix with the powder. 

b. — White hard varnish, 1 gal. ; methy- 
lated spirit, % gal. ; gold bronze, 12 lb. ; 
finely powdered mica, 3 oz. Mix the var- 
nish and the spirit, reduce the mica to an 
impalpable powder, mix with the gold, 
then add to the liquid. Many bronze 
powders contain a goodly proportion of 
mica, as it imparts brilliancy. Powdered 
mother of pearl is used also. 

c. — Benzole, 5 gal. ; white hard varnish, 
1 gal. ; sheet gutta percha, 2 lb. ; bronze 
powder, 34 lbs. Finely shred the gutta 
percha and dissolve in the benzole, then 
mix with the others. 

d. — Amylic alcohol, 1 gal. ; amyl 
acetate, 1 gal. ; gold bronze, 10 lb. ; cellu- 
loid chips, 9 oz. ; camphor, 4 oz. 

Mosaic Gold. — Mosaic gold is prepared 
by incorporating and grinding : Tin, 1(5 
parts ; flower of sulphur, 7 parts ; mer- 
cury, 8 parts ; sal ammoniac, 8 parts ; 
then subliming the amalgam. A flaky 



[624] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Driers) 



gold-colored powder remains in the mat- 
rass. 

Powder. — Bronze powder may be mixed 
into a paint by using japan drier with a 
small percentage of boiled linseed oil. 
Both should be fresh. 

Silver Bronze Powder. — Melt together 
1 oz. each of bismuth and tin, then add 
1 oz. quicksilver, cool and powder. 

DRIERS 

There are several kinds of driers, but 
the best usually have litharge or sugar 
of lead as the important "drying" agent. 
Litharge is best for dark and middle 
tints, while sugar of lead is better suited 
for light tints. 

1. — For a liquid drier, boil 1 qt. of lin- 
seed oil for 1 hour with 1 lb. finely pow- 
dered binoxide of manganese. For a solid 
drier use borate of manganese in powder, 
or mixed with oil. 

2. — A good drier for paints is made by 
grinding or dissolving a small quantity 
of sugar of lead in linseed oil. 

3. — Drier for Oil Colors and Varnishes. 
— Water, 100 parts ; gum lac, 12 parts ; 
borax, 4 parts. 

4. — Driers (Painters'). — Litharge 
(best) ground to a paste, with drying oil. 
For dark colors. 

5. — White copperas and drying oil. As 
the last. 

6. — Sugar of lead and drying oil. The 
last two are for pale colors. 

7. — White copperas and sugar of lead, 
of each 1 lb. ; pure white lead, 2 lb. For 
"whites," and opaque light colors, grays, 
etc. Driers are employed, as the name 
implies, to increase the drying and hard- 
ening properties of oil paints. A little 
is beat up with them at the time of mix- 
ing them with the oil of turpentine for 
use. 

8. — Concerning concentrated and liquid 
driers, Livache states in Les Corps Gras 
Industriels, that concentrated siccatives 
are produced by heating linseed oil with 
10 to 70% of litharge, red lead, or man- 
ganese borate to 250 to 300° C. In lieu 
of the above-named compounds, one may 
also employ lead acetate or zinc oxide. 
The concentrated driers thus obtained are 
thick, semi-liquid, brown masses, and 
serve for the production of varnishes from 
linseed oil by the cold process. Liquid 
driers are prepared in the same way, with 
the exception that they are diluted with 
turpentine oil after a short removal of 
the vessel from the fire and filtered. 
Take, for instance : Linseed oil, 7 kgm. ; 
litharge, 2 kgm. ; manganese dioxide, 2 
kgm. ; red lead, 1 kgm. ; oil turpentine, 



(Driers) 



14 kgm. Or for white liquid drier : Lin- 
seed oil 7 kgm. ; manganese borate, 2 
kgm. ; lead acetate, 1 ^ kgm. ; oil turpen- 
tine, 13 kgm. In boiling the latter kind, 
a white mass is obtained instead of a red 
one, which, however, slowly turns yel- 
lowish. For white paint the solid driers 
are preferred ; in the case of other oil 
paints the admixture of a little liquid 
siccative causes very rapid drying. Trials 
have also been made to manufacture 
driers by the cold process, e.g., by mixing 
10 parts of finely powdered lead acetate 
with 120 parts of poppy-seed oil, which 
mixture is exposed to sunlight in a glass 
vessel, shaking frequently. The colorless 
oil obtained, after admixture of 25 parts 
of oil of turpentine, dries quickly, form- 
ing a firm coating. If turpentine oil is 
simply agitated with powdered litharge 
and decanted, a constant liquid is ob- 
tained which gives a very resistive coat- 
ing that will not crack off. 

9. — Cobalt and Manganese Benzoates. — • 
Benzoic acid is dissolved in boiling water, 
the liquid being continually stirred, and 
neutralized with cobalt carbonate until 
effervescence ceases. Excess of carbonate 
is removed by filtration, and the liquor 
is evaporated to dryness. The salt thus 
prepared is an amorphous, hard, brownish 
material, which may be powdered like 
rosin, and kept in the pulverulent state in 
any climate, simply folded in paper. 
Painting executed with a paint composed 
of 3 parts of this drier with 1,000 of 
oil and 1,200 of zinc white, dries in 18 
to 20 hours. Manganese benzoate is pre- 
pared in the same way, substituting man- 
ganese carbonate for that of cobalt. Ap- 
plied under similar circumstances, it dries 
a little more rapidly, and a little less is 
required. Urobenzoic (hippuric) acid is 
equally efficacious. 

10. — Linoleate of Barium. — Raw lin- 
seed oil, 20 gal. ; caustic soda, 24 lb. 
Process. — As for linoleate of manganese, 
precipitating with barium chloride solu- 
tion. 

11. — Linoleate of Copper. — Raw linseed 
oil, 20 gal. ; cauS'tic soda, 24 lb. Process. 
— As for linoleate of manganese, precipi- 
tating with sulphate of copper solution. 

12. — Linoleate of Lead. — Raw linseed 
oil, 20 gal. ; caustic soda, 24 lb. Process. 
As for linoleate of manganese, using 
sugar of lead solution to precipitate. 

13. — Linoleate of Magnesium. — Raw 
linseed oil, 20 gal. ; caustic soda, 24 lb. 
Process. — As for linoleate of manganese, 
precipitating with sulphate of magnesia 
solution. Chloride of magnesia may be 
used, but the sulphate is recommended. 



[625] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Driers) 



14. — Linoleate of Manganese. — a. — ■ 
This is prepared by pouring a solution of 
soap, made by boiling linseed oil with 
caustic soda, into a solution of man- 
ganese sulphate or chloride. It forms a 
dark brown plaster-like mass, rather lia- 
ble to oxidation ; when exposed to the air 
the surface becomes covered with a hard 
and rather insoluble skin, which protects 
the under parts from further oxidation. 
It is important, therefore, to keep linol- 
eate of manganese in tightly-closed ves- 
sels. It is, or should be, readily soluble 
in hot linseed oil and chloroform. It acts 
both as a bleaching agent and dyer on 
linseed oil. 1 lb. first mixed with 5 lb. 
of linseed oil, and then poured into 10 
gal. of linseed oil at 250° F., gives a good 
drying oil. 

b. — Raw Linseed Oil, 20 gal. ; caustic 
soda, 24 lb. Process. — Saponify the oil 
with a lye made from the caustic soda, 
about 30° B. Dissolve the soap by addi- 
tion of hot water and add chloride or 
sulphate of manganese till thd liquor is 
exhausted of soap. Wash on cloth filter 
and melt with gentle heat, and run into 
kegs to stock for use. 

15. — Linoleate of Zinc. — Raw linseed 
oil, 20 gal. ; caustic soda, 24 lb. Process. 
— As for linoleate of manganese, precipi- 
tating with sulphate of zinc solution. 

16. — Litharge. — a. — Litharge, 1% lb. ; 
whiting, 5 lb. ; barytes, 3 lb. ; sugar of 
lead, 11/2 lb.; sulphate of zinc, 214 lb.; 
white lead, 1% lb. ; refined linseed oil, 
l^ gal. 

b. — Without Litharge or Sugar of Lead. 
— (1) Barytes, 5 lb.; whiting, 5 lb.; dry 
white lead, 1 lb, ; linseed oil, 1 qt. Well 
mix the dry ingredients, then grind with 
the oil. (2) Borate of manganese, % lb.; 
carbonate of zinc, 6 lb. ; linseed oil, 6 lb. 
Mix the two dry ingredients, then grind 
in the oil. 

17. — Manganese Oxide. — Purified lin- 
seed oil is boiled for 6 or 8 hours, and to 
every 100 lb. boiled oil are added 5 lb. of 
powdered manganese peroxide, which may 
be kept suspended in a bag, like litharge. 
The liquid is boiled and stirred for 5 or 
6 hours more, and then cooled and fil- 
tered. This drying oil is employed in the 
proportion of 5 to 10% of the zinc 
white. 

18. — Patent Drier. — Grind -together 
ground litharge, % lb. ; white sugar of 
lead, 1 lb. ; barytes, 12 lb. ; whiting, 2 
lb. ; dry white lead, % lb. ; sulphate of 
zinc, 1 lb. ; boiled linseed oil, 2i/^ lb. 

19.— Rosin, 98 lb. ; soda lye, 30° B., 12 
gal. Process. — As for rosinate of man- 



( Driers) 



ganese, precipitating with barium chlo- 
ride solution. 

20. — Rosinate of Copper. — Pale rosin. 
98 lb. ; soda lye, 30° B., 12 gal. Process. 
— As for rosinate of manganese, precipi- 
tating with sulphate of copper solution. 

21. — Rosinate of Lead. — a. — This is 
prepared by pouring a rosin soap solution, 
made as mentioned under Rosinate of 
Manganese, into a solution of lead ace- 
tate. It forms either a cream-colored pow- 
der or brownish lumps, according as it 
is dried at a low temperature or melted. 
It is easily soluble in hot linseed oil or 
chloroform. 3 lb. of the rosinate of lead 
dissolved in 10 gal. of hot linseed oil at 
250° F. make a good drying oil ; 6 lb. in 
the same quantity of oil give a quick dry- 
ing oil. 

b.— Rosin, 98 lb. ; soda lye, 30° B., 12 
gal. Process. — As for rosinate of man- 
ganese, using sugar of lead solution to 
precipitate. 

22. — Rosinate of Lead and Manganese 
is a preparation formed by combining 
the two last-named bodies. It possesses 
intermediate properties. 

23. — Rosinate of Lime. — Pale rosin, 
112 lb. ; quick lime, 16 lb. ; water, ad lib. 
Process. — Slake the lime in a steam- 
jacket pan, add the rosin, and boil the 
whole together till all water is evapor- 
ated. Fuse the rosinate of lime pro- 
duced at a gentle heat. Heat the powder 
when required for use. 

24. — Rosinate of Magnesium. — Rosin, 
98 lb. ; soda lye, 30° B., 12 gal. Process. 
— As for rosinate of manganese, precipi- 
tating with sulphate of magnesia solu- 
tion. Chloride of magnesia may be used, 
but the sulphate is recommended. 

25. — Rosinate of Manganese. — a. — This 
is prepared by pouring a solution of rosin 
soap, made by boiling rosin with caustic 
soda, into a solution of manganese sul- 
phate, when it precipitates out. On filter- 
ing, washing and drying, it forms a flesh- 
colored powder, readily soluble in hot lin- 
seed oil or in chloroform. By heating it 
melts, and then it forms dark brown 
lumps, which are also fairly soluble in 
hot linseed oil or chloroform. By dis- 
solving 2 lb. of this in 10 gal. of linseed 
oil at 250° F. a quick drying oil, leaving 
a glossy coat, is obtained. 

b.— Rosin, 98 lb. ; soda lye, 30° B., 12 
gal. Common or pale rosin may be used 
according as pale or dark rosinate is 
desired. Process. — Make a soap of the 
rosin and lye by boiling together. Dis- 
solve the soap in boiling water, and pour 
in a solution of chloride of manganese 
or sulphate of manganese till the rosin 



[626] 



Paint Sy VarnisheSy Etc. 



(Enamels) 



is all precipitated. Wash the precipitate 
on a cloth filter, dry and stock for use. 

26. — Rosinate of Zinc. — Rosin, 98 lb. ; 
soda lye, 30° B., 12 gal. Process.— As 
for rosinate of manganese, precipitating 
with sulphate of zinc solution. 

27. — Zinc Drier. — Dry manganese sul- 
phate, 6% lb. ; Dry manganese acetate, 
6% lb. ; dry zinc sulphate, 6^/^ lb., and 
zinc white, 980 lb., are ground together. 
From 2 to 3% of this is usually added 
to the paint. This is called zinc drier, be- 
cause it was brought out as a drier for 
zinc white. It is also known as Guyne- 
mer's drier. 

28. — Zumatic Drier. — 25 lb. of zinc 
white and 1 lb. of borate of manganese 
are ground together. The object of the 
zinc white is simply to dilute the man- 
ganese sa\t, and to form a powerful drier 
in a convenient form. The proportions 
generally used are 1 lb. of the drier to 
25 lb. of paint. 

ENAiAIELS 

Baths, etc., Transparent Enamel for. 

Pale manilla gum (clear as possible), 
30 lb. ; melt by heat (great heat is re- 
quired for this). Add, while on the fire, 
2 gal. hot Baltic linseed oil at 400° F. 
and work well in, then add 1 gal. more 
linseed oil. Take off the fire and beat the 
heat out until clear ; cool down, and add 
7 gal. turps. Take 8 lb. best zinc white 
ground in crystal paper varnish to each 
gallon of .the above. (For crystal var- 
nish, 4 lb. dammar dissolved in 1 gal. 
turps cold.) 

Brick Walls. 

1. — Wa«ter white 'rosin, 112 lb. ; sweat 4 
hours at 240° F., .cool to 150° F., and 
add : Zinc white, 168 lb. ; mineral 
naphtha, 16 gal. ; benzoline, 8 gal. Add 
V2 pt. hard oak varnish to each gallon of 
the above. 

2.— Red Enamel— -W. W. rosin, 112 
lb. ; turkey red, 112 lb. ; whiting, 56 lb. ; 
m.ineral naphtha, 16 gal. ; benzine, 8 gal. 
Process as above. 

Colors. 

The copal varnish being the same in 
every case, the following indicate how 
various shades may be obtained : 

1. — Black. — a. — Lampblack, .56 lb. ; 
carbon black, 2 lb. 

b. — Lampblack, 28 lb. ; mineral black, 
28 lb. ; carbon black, 2 lb. 

2. — /??«e. — a. — Royal Blue.— Ultra- 
marine blue, 28 lb. ; whiting, 14 lb. ; China 
clay, 14 lb. 



(Enamels) 



b.— Skyblue. — No. 1.— Zinc white, 56 
lb. ; Chinese blue, 1 lb. 

3. — Cerise. — Middle royal red, 70 lb. ; 
zinc white, 21 lb. 

4. — Chocolate. — Middle Indian red, 56 
lb.; lampblack, 3 lb. 

5. — Crimson. — Crimson lake, 28 lb. ; 
vermilionette, 14 lb.; Indian red, 14 lb. 

6. — Fawn. — Zinc white, 56 lb. ; mid- 
dle Indian red, 1 lb. ; English ocher, 4 lb. ; 
English umber, 4 lb. ; vermilionette, 1 lb. 

7. — Green. — a. — Apple Green. — Mid- 
dle Brunswick green, 28 lb. ; No. 2 lemon 
chrome, 28 lb. 

b. — Dark Green. — Use dark Bruns- 
wick green. 

c. — Early Green. — Zinc white, 28 lb. ; 
deep emerald tint Brunswick green, 28 lb. 

d. — Light Green. — Use light Brunswick 
green. 

e. — Middle Green. — Use middle Bruns- 
wick green. 

f. — Olive green. — Middle Brunswick 
green, 56 lb. ; lampblack, 1 lb. 

g. — Sea green. — Zinc white, 56 lb. ; 
Chinese blue, 1 lb. ; No. 1 lemon chrome, 
3 lb. 

8. — Gray, French. — Zinc white, 56 lb. ; 
lampblack, 1 lb. ; Venetian red, ^ lb. 

9. — Lemon Chrome. — Use No. 1 lemon 
chrome. 

10. — Mahogany. — Middle Indian red, 
42 lb. ; French ocher, 21 lb. 

11. — Maroon. — Middle Indian red, 28 
lb. ; burnt Turkey umber, 28 lb. 

12. — Primrose. — Zinc white, 28 lb. ; 
No. 1 lemon chrome, 28 lb. 

13. — i2crf.— a.— Dark Red. — Middle 
royal red, 28 lb. ; middle Indian red, 
28 lb. 

b. — Post Office Red. — Use middle roya 
red, or try middle royal red, 56 lb. ; whit 
ing, 14 lb. ; China clay, 14 lb. 

c. — Signal Red. — 1. — Middle roya' red 
42 lb.; bright red oxide, 14 lb. 2.— 
Middle royal red, 42 lb. ; bright red oxide, 
14 lb. ; whiting, 7 lb. ; China clay, 7 lb. 

14.— Rose Tint.— Zinc white 56 lb.; 
middle royal red, 2 lb. 

15. — Salmon Pink. — Zinc white, 56 lb. ; 
middle royal red, 3 lb. ; No. 1 lemon 
chrome. 

16. — Terra Cotta. — Middle Indian red, 
56 lb.; English ocher, 56 lb.; English 
umber, 2 lb. 

17. — Vermilion Tint. — -Vermilionette, 56 
lb. ; No. 1 lemon chrome, 4 lb. 

18.— White.— a.— Zinc white 56 lb.; 
ultramarine blue, 1 oz. 

b. — Best Quality.' -For the Varnish : 
Gum dammar, 56 lb. '. turps, 8 gal. 
Churn together cold and let stand to 
clear. Take: Pure zinc whic£, 6 lb. ; var- 



[ '627 ] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Enamels) 



nish as above, 1 gal. Grind together and 
thin to consistency with varnish as above. 

c. — Cheapest White Enamels. — 1. — W. 
"W. rosin, 56 lb. ; raw linseed oil, ^ gal. 
Sweat for about 4 hours, cool to about 
150° F., and thin with : Benzine, 2 gal. ; 
shale spirit, 1 gal. 

d. — Zinc oxide, 7 lb. ; ultramarine blue, 
% oz. ; varnish (copal), IV2 gal.; dam- 
mar varnish, 1 gal. ; French oil varnish, 
1/2 gal. 

19. — Yellow. — Pure Naples yellow, 112 
lb. ; copal varnish, 5 gal. ; special oil, 5 
gal. ; turpentine, 1% gal. The special oil 
referred to above should either be care- 
fully refined and racked linseed oil or 
pale boiled oil containing a minimum of 
sugar of lead or borate of manganese 
drier. 

Copal Varnish, Enamels Made with. 

1, — The copal varnish used must be a 
genuine copal, warranted free from rosin 
and soft gums, which will not stand great 
heat, but soften, thereby gathering dust, 
and so being spoilt. 

2. — Gray. — Gray zinc oxide, 112 lb. ; 
copal varnish, 6 gal. ; special oil, 6 gal. ; 
turpentine, 1% gal. 

3, — White. — Zinc white, 112 lb. ; copal 
varnish, 1^/^ gal. ; special oil, 12 gal. ; 
turpentine, 1% gal. 

Machinery. 

1. — Azure Blue Enamel. — Zinc oxide, 
31/2 oz. ; ultramarine blue, 1^^ oz. ; Prus- 
sian blue, a little ; boiled oil and varnish, 
1 pt. 

2. — Gray Coach Color. — Zinc oxide, 30 
lb. ; vegetable black, 1/2 lb. ; Prussian 
blue, 1/^ lb.; thinnings (as above), 4 gal. 

3. — Special Vermilion. — Vermilionette, 
6 oz. ; best Venetian red, % oz. ; lemon 
chrome, i/4 oz. ; zinc oxide, 1 oz. ; boiled 
oil varnish, 1 qt. 

4. — White Enamel. — Zinc white, 14 
lb.; ultramarine blue, V2 oz. ; raw oil, 11/2 
pt. ; dammar varnish, 2% gal. 

Safes. 

1. — Light Chocolate. — White lead, 40 
lb. ; zinc oxide, 70 lb. ; raw sienna, 20 
lb. ; lemon chrome, IVz lb. ; Venetian red, 
1% oz. ; ultramarine blue, 1% oz. ; oak 
varnish, 16 gal. ; raw oil, 2 gal. ; slow- 
drying. 

2. — Wine Color. — Rose pink, 3V2 lb. ; 
vermilionette, 1% lb. ; gold size and 
turps, each % pt. 

3. — Dark Brunswick Green (Dead Sur- 
face). — Dark Brunswick green, 5 lb. ; 
China clay, 1 lb. ; dark terebine, 6 pt. ; 
gold size, 2 pt. 



(Fillers) 



Silicate Enamel. 

To any quantity of pure dry zinc white 
or good quality pulp color add sufiicient 
silicate of soda diluted with water to 
render it of a consistency capable of 
being easily worked with a brush. One 
coat will show well, but if a second is 
applied after the first is thoroughly dry, 
the result will be much superior. If it 
be used on articles the size of which will 
allow of their being stoved at a tem- 
perature of 175° F., a surface like por- 
celain will be the result. It will be found 
to equal any enamel of the kind in 
present use. 

Transparent Enamel Varnish. 

Very pale manilla gum, 30 lb., must be 
run as clear as possible (great heat is 
required for this) ; then add, while on 
the fire, 2 gal. of Baltic linseed oil at 
400° F., and work well in ; then add 1 
gal. more of linseed oil. Take off the fire, 
and beat the heat out until clear, cool to 
250° F., and add 7 gal. turps. 

Wood, Black Enamel for. 

Prime the wood with linseed oil, turpen- 
tine and white lead ; then give it 2 or 3 
coats of black, mixed with copal varnish 
and turpentine. Rub it down, when dry, 
with pumice stone and water ; finally 
varnish with copal ; again rub down, and 
polish with oil and rotten stone to obtain 
a perfect smoothness. 

FILLERS FOR WOOD 
1. — Take equal parts of japan, boiled 
linseed oil and turpentine, and half that 
quantity of starch. Mix thoroughly, and 
apply with a sponge or flannel. When 
the polish is for walnut, a little burnt 
umber is added to the solution, and a 
little Venetian red when for cherry wood. 
2. — American Wood Filler. — Apply to 
the w^ood with a brush the following mix- 
ture : Pulverized starch, by weight, 3 
parts ; heavy spar, 3 parts ; 1^ by weight 
of siccative, with enough turpentine to 
make of the consistency of ordinary var- 
nish. For dark woods add to the sicca- 
tive, umber up to % part. Rub across 
the grain of the wood with a piece of 
felt fastened to a piece of wood. Let the 
wood dry about 8 hours, rub with glass 
paper, then polish and varnish. 

3. — Filling for Cracks. — A very com- 
plete filling for open cracks in floors may 
be made by thoroughly soaking newspa- 
pers in paste made of 1 lb. of flour, 3 qt. 
of water and 1 tablespoonful of alum, 
thoroughly boiled and mixed. Make the 



[628] 



Paint Sy Varnishes, Etc. 



(Japans) 



final mixture about as thick as putty, and 
it will harden like papier mach6. This 
paper may be used for molds for various 
purposes. 

4. — German Wood Filling. — Fill the 
pores of the wood with new tallow and 
plaster of paris, well amalgamated before 
a fire, if the weather is cold. Darken, 
if required, with any coloring to suit. 
When well rubbed in, give a coat of shel- 
lac and French polish or varnish. 

5. — Hard Wood Filler. — a. — Use boiled 
oil and enough corn starch to make a 
very thick paste ; add a little japan, and 
reduce with turpentine ; add no color for 
white oak ; for dark ash and chestnut, 
use a little raw sienna ; for walnut, burnt 
umber and a very little Venetian red ; 
for bay wood, burnt sienna. Use enough 
color to cover the white of the starch. 
Apply with brush and rags. Let it dry 
48 hours, or until it is in condition to 
rub down with No. sandpaper, without 
much gumming up, and if an extra fine 
finish is desired, fill again with the same 
materials, using less oil but more of 
japan and turpentine. The second coat 
will not shrink, it being supported by the 
first coat. When the second coat is hard 
the wood is ready for finishing up in any 
desired style or to any degree of nicety 
by following up the usual methods. This 
formula is not intended for rosewood, and 
will not be satisfactory if used therefor. 

b. — Boiled linseed oil, 1 qt. ; turpentine, 
3 qt. ; corn starch, 5 lb. ; japan, 1 qt. ; 
calcined magnesia, 2 oz. ; mix thoroughly. 

c. — Whitening, 6 oz. ; japan, ^ pt. ; 
boiled linseed oil, % pt. ; turpentine, % 
pt. ; corn starch, 1 oz. Mix well together 
and apply to the wood. Add coloring if 
required. 

JAPANS AND JAPANNING 

When finished, wood, papier mach6, 
composition or materials are varnished in 
the usual manner and left to dry in the 
air ; the drying is, in most cases, imper- 
fect, and the coating more or less un- 
even. If the surface thus varnished is 
heated for some time to a temperature of 
from 250 to 300° F., or higher, it is 
found that the whole of the solvent or 
vehicle of the gums or rosins in the var- 
nish is soon driven off, and the gummy 
residue becomes liquefied or semi-lique- 
fied, in which state it adapts itself to all 
inequalities, and, if the coating is thick 
enough, presents a uniform glossy sur- 
face, which it retains on cooling. This 
process of drying out and fusion secures 
a firm contact and adhesion of the gums 
or rosins to the surface of the substance 



(Japans) 



varnished, and greatly increases the den- 
sity of the coating, which enables it to 
resist wear and retain its gloss longer. 
This process of hardening and finishing 
varnished or lacquered work by the aid 
of heat constitutes the chief feature of 
the japanner's art. In practice, the work 
to be japanned is first thoroughly cleansed 
and dried. If of wood, composition, or 
other porous material, it is given, while 
warm, several coats of wood filler, or 
whiting mixed up with a rather thin glue 
size, and is, when this is hardened, rubbed 
down smooth with pumice stone. It is 
then ready for the japan grounds. Met- 
als, as a rule, require no special prepara- 
tion, receiving the grounds directly on the 
clean, dry surface. In japanning, wood 
and similar substances require a much 
lower degree of heat, and usually a longer 
exposure in the oven than metals, and 
again a higher temperature may be ad- 
vantageously employed when the japan is 
dark than when light-colored grounds are 
used ; so that a definite knowledge of just 
how much heat can be safely applied, 
and how long an exposure is required with 
different substances and different grounds 
can only be acquired by practical expe- 
rience. Large japanners seldom make 
their own varnishes, as they can procure 
them more cheaply from the varnish 
maker. The japanner's oven is usually a 
room, or large box, constructed of sheet 
metal, and heated by stove drums or flues, 
so that the temperature — which is indicat- 
ed by a thermometer or pyrometer hung 
up inside, or with its stem passing 
through the side wall midway between 
the top and bottom of the chamber — can 
be readily regulated by dampers. The 
ovens are also provided with a chimney 
to carry off the vapors derived from the 
drying varnish, a small door through 
which the work can be entered and re- 
moved, and wire shelves and hooks for its 
support in the chamber. The ovens must 
be kept perfectly free from dust, smoke 
and moisture. A good cheap priming var- 
nish for work to be japanned consists of 
pale shellac, 2 oz. ; pale rosin, 2 oz. ; rec- 
tified spirit, 1 pt. Two or three coats 
of this are put on the work in a warm, 
dry room. A good background is prepared 
by grinding fine ivory black with a sufii- 
cient quantity of alcoholic shellac var- 
nish on a stone slab with a muller until 
a perfectly smooth black varnish is ob- 
tained. If other colors are require'^, the 
clear varnish is mixed and grouna with 
the proper quantity of suitable '5'gments, 
in a similar manner; for red, vermilion 
or Indian red: green, chrome green or 



[629] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Japans) 



Prussian blue and chrome yellow ; blue, 
Prussian blue, ultramarine or indigo ; yel- 
low, chrome yellow, etc. But black is the 
hue commonly required. 

Application. — From 1 to 6 or more 
coats of varnish are applied to work in 
japanning, each coat being hardened in 
the oven before the next is put on. The 
last coat in colored work is usually of 
clear varnish, without coloring matters, 
and is, in fine work, sometimes finished 
with rotten stone and chamois. For ordi- 
nary work, the gloss developed in the 
oven, under favorable conditions, is suffi- 
cient. 

Black. — 1. — Asphaltum, 3 oz. ; boiled 
oil, 4 qt. ; burnt umber, 8 oz. Mix by 
heat, and, when cooling, thin with tur- 
pentine. 

2. — Amber, 12 oz. ; asphaltum, 2 oz. ; 
fuse by heat, and add boiled oil, l^ pt. ; 
rosin, 2 oz. ; when cooling, add 16 oz. of 
oil of turpentine. Both are used to var- 
nish metals. 

3. — Mix shellac varnish with either 
ivory black or lampblack, but the former 
is preferable. These may be always laid 
on with the shellac varnish, and have 
their upper or polishing coats of common 
seed lac varnish. 

4. — A common black japan may be 
made by painting a piece of work with 
drying oil and putting the work into a 
stove, not too hot, but of such a degree 
as will change the oil black without burn- 
ing it, gradually raising the heat and 
keeping it up a long time. This requires 
no polishing. 

5. — Asphaltum, i/^ lb. ; melt ; then add 
hot balsam of capivi, 1 lb. ; and when 
mixed, thin with hot oil of turpentine. 

6. — Grind lampblack very smooth on a 
marble slab, with a muller, with turpen- 
tine, and then add copal varnish to the 
proper consistency. 

7. — For Leather. — Burnt umber, 4 oz. ; 
true asphaltum, 2 oz. ; boiled oil, 2 qt. 
Dissolve the asphaltum by heat in a lit- 
tle of the oil, add the burnt umber, ground 
in oil, and the remainder of the oil ; mix, 
cool, and thin with turpentine. Flex- 
ible. 

Blue Grounds. — Blue japan grounds 
may be formed of bright Prussian blue. 
The color may be mixed with shellac var- 
nish, and brought to a polishing state 
by 5 or 6 coats of seed lac varnish. The 
varnish, however, is apt to give a green- 
ish tint to the blue, as the varnish has 
a yellowish tinge, and blue and yellow 
form a green. Whenever a light blue is 
desired, the purest varnish must always 
be used. 



(Japans) 



Carriage Japan. — Raw linseed oil, 40 
gal.; litharge, 40 lb.; red lead, 20 lb. ; 
black oxide of manganese, 10 lb. ; white 
gum shellac, 2 lb. Set the oil over the 
fire, and bring to the boiling point ; add, 
by degrees, litharge and red lead, alter- 
nately and slowly ; add the gum, and when 
this is melted put in the manganese, and 
keep the whole in rapid motion from the 
time the oil is 200° F. until the making 
is finished. When the mixture is cool 
enough to bear the finger in a moment, 
add from 20 to 30 gal. of spirits of tur- 
pentine. 

Green Grounds. — A good green may be 
made by mixing Prussian blue along with 
the chromate of lead, or with turmeric, 
or orpiment (sulphuret of arsenic), or 
ocher, only the two should be ground to- 
gether and dissolved in alcohol, and ap- 
plied as a ground, then coated with 4 or 
5 coats of shellac varnish in the manner 
already described. A very bright green 
is made by laying on a ground of Dutch 
metal or leaf of gold, and then coating it 
over with distilled verdigris dissolved in 
alcohol, then the varnishes on the top. 
This is a splendid green, brilliant and 
glowing. 

Imitation of Japanning. — The peculiar 
glossy surface on the so-called japan trays 
can only be given by practice, but a near 
imitation may be effected as follows : Mix 
ivory black with melted size, apply the 
mixture quite hot to the box, or any 
other wooden article that it may be de- 
sired to treat in this manner ; when dry, 
sandpaper the box, then give another coat 
of black ; when this second coat is dry, 
bring to smoothness with sandpaper, at 
the same time taking care not to remove 
the stain, so that the light wood below is 
exposed. Now procure 1 lb. of black 
japan and 1 gill of turpentine ; mix enough 
of the black japan for present use, with 
turpentine, of which only sufiicient should 
be used to make the japan fluid enough 
to run from the brush. A fine-haired 
paint brush should be employed. If prop- 
erly done, one coat will be sufficient. The 
box will look nearly equal to the japan 
goods. Dry the varnished box in a warm 
room free from dust. 

Orange-Colored Grounds. — These m^y 
be made of yellow mixed with vermilion 
or carmine, just as a bright or rather 
inferior color is wanted. The yellow 
should always be in quantity to make a 
good full color, and the red added in 
proportion to the depth of shade. If 
there is not a full good body of yellow 
the color will look watery or bare, as it 
is technically termed. 



[630] 



Paints, Varnishes^ Etc. 



(Japans) 



Purple Grounds. — These are made by 
a mixture of lake and Prussian blue or 
carmine, or for an inferior color vermil- 
ion, and treated as the foregoing. When 
the ground is laid on and perfectly dried, 
a fine coat of pure boiled nut oil, then 
laid on and perfectly dried, is a good 
method to have a japan not liable to 
crack. But a better plan is to use this 
oil in the varnish given the first coat, 
after the ground is laid on, and which 
should contain considerable of pure tur- 
pentine. In every case where oil is used 
for any purpose for varnish, it is all the 
better if tui-pentine is mixed with it. 
Turpentine enables oils to mix with either 
alcohol or water. Alkalies have this prop- 
erty also. 

Red Japan Ground. — The base of this 
japan ground must be made up with mad- 
der lake, ground with oil of turpentine ; 
this forms the first ground ; when per- 
fectly dry a second coat must be applied, 
composed of lake and white copal var- 
nish ; and the last with a coat composed 
of a mixture of copal and turpentine var- 
nish mixed -up with lake. Vermilion or 
carmine can also be used for red japan 
instead of lake. 

Tea Trays. — First clean them thor- 
oughly with soap and water and a little 
rotten stone ; then dry them by wiping 
and exposure at the fire. Now get some 
good copal varnish, mix it with some 
bronze powder, and apply with a brush to 
the denuded parts, after which set the 
tea tray in an oven at a heat of from 
212 to 300° F., until the varnish is dry. 
Two coats will make it equal to new. 

Tin, Japan Flow for. — 1. — Spirits of 
turpentine, 3 qt, ; balsam of tolu, 3 oz. ; 
linseed oil, % pt. ; acetate of lead, 3 oz. ; 
balsam of fir, 3 oz. ; gum sandarac, l^/^ 
lb. Put all these materials, except the 
turpentine, in a suitable vessel, place over 
a slow fire at first, then increase the heat 
until they are melted. When a little cool 
stir in the turpentine, and strain. This 
japan is transparent, but may be colored 
if desired. 

2. — Melt 50 lb. of Naples asphaltum 
and 8 lb. of dark gum anime ; boil for 
about 2 hours in 12 gal. of linseed oil ; 
then melt 12 lb. of dai-k gum amber, and 
boil it with 2 gal. of linseed oil ; add this 
to the other and add driers. Boil for 
about 2 hours, or until the mass, when 
cooled, may be rolled into little pellets. 
Withdraw the heat, and thin down with 
30 gal. of turpentine. During the boil- 
ing the mass must be constantly stirred to 
prevent boiling over. 

3. — Tin Lantern. — The following are 



(Lacquers) 



[631] 



the proportions for black japan : Asphal- 
tum, 1^ oz. ; boiled linseed oil, 4 pt. ; 
burnt umber, 4 oz. Heat till well mixed, 
and when cool add turpentine till of a 
proper consistency. 

4. — Transparent. — Oil of turpentine, 8 
oz. ; oil of lavender, 6 oz. ; camphor, 1 
dr. ; bruised copal, 2 oz. Dissolve. Used 
for japanning tin. Quick-drying copal 
varnish is usually substituted. 

Tortoiseshell Japan. — Tortoiseshell ja- 
pan is extremely pretty, and compara- 
tively easy to manipulate. The work is 
first coated with a japan made by boil- 
ing 2 pt. of linseed oil, to which % lb. 
of umber has been a-dd'Cd, till it becomes 
thickened ; the mixture is then strained, 
and further boiled until it becomes of a 
pitchy consistency. This is mixed with 
turpentine to a workable consistency, and 
then applied. On a thoroughly dry coat- 
ing of this japan lay a quantity of ver- 
milion spots to represent the clear por- 
tions of the shell. The vermilion japan 
is made by adding vermilion to shellac 
varnish ; it should be laid on thinly, and 
dried. The whole surface is then finally 
coated with a thin layer of the above 
described brown japan, still further di- 
luted with turpentine. A long course of 
stoving will be necessary to thoroughly 
harden the japanning. 

White. — A white ground is prepared 
from copal varnish and zinc white or 
starch. 

Yellow Japan Grounds. — 1. — King'g 
yellow may be used, and the effect will 
be heightened by dissolving powdered tur- 
meric root in the spirits of wine, of which 
the upper or polishing coat is made, which 
spirits of wine must be strained from off 
the dregs before the seed lac is added to 
it to form the varnish. 

2. — If turmeric be dissolved in the spir- 
its of wine and strained through a cloth, 
and then mixed with pure seed lac var- 
nish, it makes a good yellow japan. Saf- 
fron will answer for the same purpose in 
the same way, but the brightest yellow 
ground is made by a primary coat of pure 
chrome yellow, and coated successively 
with the varnish. 

LACQUERS AND LACQUERING 

Lac and the Art of Lacquering are 
treated of in our Scientific American 
Supplement Numbers 1377, 1415, 1426 
and 1797. 

Materials for Lacquering. — The lacquer 
= shellac -f alcohol. Other substances : 

A, spirits of turpentine, turpentine var- 
nish, mastic varnish, Canada balsam ; 

B, pyroacetic ether ; C = red, dragon's 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Lacquers) 



blood, annatto, red sanders ; D = yellow, 
turmeric, gamboge, safEron, sandarac, cape 
aloes. 

Directions for Making. — Mix the in- 
gredients, and let the vessel containing 
them stand in the sun, or in a place slight- 
ly warmed, 3 or 4 days, shaking it fre- 
quently till the gum is dissolved, after 
which let it settle from 24 to 48 hours, 
when the clear liquid may be poured off 
for use. Pulverized glass is sometimes 



(Lacquers) 



brush should have the ends of the hairs 
all exactly even. If not so, trim the 
ends with sharp scissors. 

5. — Scrape the brush as dry as possible 
on the wire, making a flat, smooth point 
at the same time. 

6. — Use the very tip of the brush to 
lacquer with, and carry a steady hand. 

7. — Put on at least 2 coats. It is well 
(to make a very durable coat) to blaze 
off after each coat with a spirit lamp or 



TABLE OF LACQUERS. 









Solutions 








Reds. 




Yellows. 












i 

c 




1 


C 

a 

s 

3 


1 
> 


i 




















1 


o 


2 

a 


o 


o 

s 

O 


H 
o 
.-2 


a 






T3 


6 

a 


1 


i 


1 


1 






xj 


a 


a 
a 


s 


>, 


a 


3 


ti 


2 a 




3 


^ 


p. 

C4 


% 






m 


^ 


O 


< 


dH 


m 


H 


m 


Q < 


m 


H 


O 


m 


O 


m 




No 


oz. 


dr. 


dr. 


pt. 


OZ. 


dr 


oz 


pt. 


dr. dr. 


KT. 


dr. 


dr. 


dr. 


dr. 


dr. 




1 








1 


























9 








1 


























3 








1 
















1 




3 




Fine pale. 


4 








1 














1 


1 


2 






Fine pale. 


5 








2 










1 1 






16 


4 




8 


Fine pale. 


6 


2 






2 










1 8 




32 








8 


Pale gold. 


7 


2 






1 
















2 




4 




Pale yellow. 


8 


5 






3 






. .. . 








.... 


5 







.... 


Pale yellow— (Ross's.) 


9 
















1 


.... 1 




4 




. .. . 






Full yellow. 


10 


3 






1 










.... 2 




16 




2 






Gold. 


11 


3 






4 






6 








64 


6 






14 


Gold. 


12 


1 






1 














20 






2 


5 


Gold. 


13 


3 







1 








.. 


4 .... 




16 










Deep gold. 


14 


3 






1 










4 .... 




1 




. .. . 




. ... 


Deep gold. 


15 


3 






1 










40 .... 




10 




. .. . 


. .. . 




Deep gold. 


Ifi 
















1 


8 32 














Red. 


17 


1 












1 




8 24 












27 


Red. 


18 


15 


30 


30 


6 










20 .... 




60 


.... 


10 






Tin lac^iuer. 


19 
















1 






4 


1 


.... 




.... 


Green, for bronze. 



The union of red with yellow produces a fine orange color, dr. = drachm; gr. = grain. 



used in making lacquer, to carry down 
the impurities. 

Brass. 

1. — Be sure there is no oil or grease 
on the brass ; do not touch the work with 
the fingers ; hold it with spring tongs or a 
taper stick in some of the holes. 

2. — Always handle with a piece of clean 
cloth. 

3. — Heat the work so hot that the brush 
will smoke when applied, but avoid over- 
heating, as it burns the lacquer. 

4. — It is well to fasten a small wire 
across the lacquer cup, from side to side, 
to scrape any superfluous lacquer. The 



Bunsen burner, taking care not to over- 
heat and burn the lacquer. 

8. — If the lacquer is too thick it^ will 
look gummy on the work. If too thin, it 
will show prismatic colors. In the first 
case add a little alcohol ; in the latter, set 
the cup on the stove and evaporate some. 

9. — A good deal of cheap work, like 
lamp burners, is dipped. Use a bath of ni- 
tric and sulphuric acids, equal parts ; dip 
work, hung on wire, into acid for a mo- 
ment ; remove, rinse in cold water thor- 
oughly : dip in hot water, remove, put 
in alcohol, rinse around, then dip momen- 
tarily in a lacquer, shaking vigorously 
en removing, to throw off extra lacquer, 



[632] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Lacquers) 



and lay on a warm metal plate till dry ; 
let cool, and it is done. 

10. — Avoid handling lacquered work un- 
til cold. 

Lacquers for Brass. — 1. — Seed lac, 
dragon's blood, annatto and gamboge, of 
each 4 oz. ; saffron, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 10 pt. 

2. — Turmeric, 1 lb. ; annatto, 2 oz. ; 
shellac and gum juniper, each 12 oz. ; 
alcohol, 12 oz. 

3. — Seed lac, 6 oz. ; dragon's blood, 40 
gr. ; amber and copal, triturated in a mor- 
tar, 2 oz. ; extract of red sanders, ^^ dr. ; 
Oriental saffron, 36 gr. ; coarsely pow- 
dered glass, 4 oz. ; absolute alcohol, 40 
oz. Very fine. 

4. — Seed lac, 3 oz. ; amber and gam- 
boge, each 2 oz. ; extract of red sanders, 
% dr. ; dragon's blood, 1 dr. ; saffron, ^^ 
dr. ; alcohol, 2 pt. 4 oz. 

5. — Turmeric, 6 dr. ; saffron, 15 gr. ; 
hot alcohol, 1 pt. ; draw the tincture, and 
add gamboge, 6 dr. ; gum sandarac and 
gum elemi, each 2 oz. ; dragon's blood 
and seed lac, each 1 oz. 

6. — Alcohol, 1 pt. ; turmeric, 1 oz. ; an- 
natto and saffron, each 2 dr. Agitate fre- 
quently for a week, filter into a clean 
bottle, and add seed lac, 3 oz. Let stand, 
with occasional agitation, for about 2 
weeks. 

7. — Gamboge, % oz. ; aloes, 1% oz. ; 
fine shellac, 8 oz. ; alcohol, 1 gal. 

8. — Put 3 oz. of seed lac, 2 dr. of 
dragon's blood and 1 oz. of tu«*meric pow- 
der into 1 pt. of alcohol. Let the whole 
remain for 14 days, but during that time 
agitate the bottle once a day at least. 
When properly combined, strain the liquid 
through muslin, when it is ready for use. 

9. — To 5 oz. of alcohol add gamboge 
enough to give a bright yellow color, and 
3 oz. of seed lac in fine powder. Put in 
a sand bath till dissolved. 

10. — Ground turmeric, as sold, 1 oz. ; 
saffron and Spanish annatto, each 2 dr. ; 
highly rectified alcohol, 1 pt. Place them 
in a moderate heat, shaking occasionally, 
for several days; then add 3 oz. of good 
seed lac, roughly powdered ; shake occa- 
sionally until the lac is dissolved. If a 
deep orange lacquer is required, increase 
the quantity of annatto ; if a bright yel- 
low, decrease it. Lay it on with a brush 
(warm), like you would paint. One or 
more coats, if necessary. Avoid using too 
much seed lac, as it has a tendency to 
prevent the lacquer lying evenly. 

11. — Pale gold lacquer is best for mi- 
croscope ; be sure and get the best qual- 
ity, and see that the things are sufficiemtly 
hot before putting on the lacquer ; heat 



(Lacquers) 



after lacquering, and it will stand well. 
Damp will affect the best lacquering. 

12. — No. 3 is the best for optical work. 
If it comes off, either the metal was not 
clean, when applied, or else it was put 
on cold. The metal should be heated to 
just such a point that it dries as fast 
as the brush passes over it. Work is 
often spoiled in lacquering. Circular 
things may be done in the lathe, going 
quite slow, and working a good body by 
going around several times. 

13. — Bronzed Brass.— To 1 pt. of the 
above lacquer add gamboge, 1 oz. ; and 
after mixing it add an equal quantity 
of the first lacquer. 

14. — Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, proof spe- 
cific gravity not less than 95-100, 2 gal. ; 
seed lac, 1 lb. ; gum copal, 1 oz. ; English 
saffron, 1 oz. ; annatto, 1 oz. 

15. — Gold-Colored Lacquer for Dipped 
Brass. — Alcohol, 36 oz. ; seed lac, 6 oz. ; 
amber, 2 oz. ; gum gutta, 2 oz. ; red san- 
dalwood, 24 gr. ; dragon's blood, 60 gr. ; 
Oriental saffron, 36 gr. ; pulverized glass, 
4 oz. 

16. — Gold-Colored Lacquer for Brass 
Not Dipped. — Alcohol, 4 gal. ; turmeric, 
3 lb. ; gamboge, 3 oz. ; gum sandarac, 7 
lb. ; shellac, 1% lb. ; turpentine varnish, 
1 pt. 

17. — Gold-Colored Lacquer for Brass 
Watch Cases, etc. — Seed lac, 6 oz. ; am- 
ber, 2 oz. ; gamboge, 2 oz. ; extract of red 
sanders wood in water, 24 gr. ; dragon's 
blood, 60 gr. ; oriental saffron, 36 gr. ; 
powdered glass, 4 oz. ; pure alcohol, 36 
oz. The seed lac, amber, gamboge and 
dragon's blood must be pounded very fine 
on porphyry or clean marble, and mixed 
with the pounded glass. Over this mix- 
ture is poured the tincture formed by 
infusing the saffron and the sanders wood 
extract in the alcohol for 24 hours, then 
straining. Metallic articles that are to 
be covered with this varnish are heated, 
and, if they admit of it, immersed in pack- 
ets. 

18. — For philosophical instruments : 
Gamboge, 1% oz. ; sandarac, 4 oz. ; 
elemi, 4 oz. ; best dragon's blood, 2 oz. ; 
terra merita (terra merita is the root of 
an Indian plant ; it is of a red color, and 
much used in dyeing ; in varnishing, it is 
only employed in the form of a tincture, 
and is particularly well adapted for the 
mixture of those coloring parts which 
contribute the most toward giving metals 
the color of gold ; in choosing it, be care- 
ful to observe that it is sound and com- 
pact), iy2 oz. ; oriental saffron, 4 gr. ; 
seed lac, 2 oz. ; pounded glass, 6 oz. ; pure 
alcohol, 40 oz. The dragon's blood, gum 



[633] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Lacquers) 



p]emi, seed lac and gamboge are all pound- 
ed and mixed with the glass. Over them 
is poured the tincture obtained by in- 
fusing the saffron and terra merita in 
the alcohol for 24 hours. This tincture, 
before being poured over the dragon's 
blood, etc., should be strained through a 
piece of clean linen cloth and strongly 
squeezed. If the dragon's blood gives too 
high a color the quantity may be less- 
ened, according to circumstances. The 
same is the case with the other coloring 
matters. This lacquer has a very good 
effect when applied to many cast or mold- 
ed articles used in ornamenting furniture. 

Bronze Lacquers. — 1. — To make a 
bronze lacquer, dissolve % lb. of shellac 
and % lb. of sandarac in 3 qt. of alco- 
hol, and add enough extract of dragon's 
blood and turmeric to produce the desired 
color. 

2. — For ornaments bronzed with gold- 
colored bronze, paint the articles, of cast 
iron, with white paint, which is white 
lead and oil ; when hard dry, varnish with 
copal varnish ; when sticky dry, dust the 
bronze powder over it ; and when hard 
dry, brush off all the superfluous bronze 
with a camel's-hair brush. To protect 
it from the dust and from soiling, coat 
the bronze surface, when thoroughly dry, 
with spirit copal varnish. 

Color for Lacquer. — Alcohol, 1 pt. ; an- 
natto, 2 oz. 

Colorless Lacquer. — 1. — For a colorless 
lacquer, dissolve bleached shellac in pure 
alcohol, settle, and decant. Make the 
lacquer very thin. The usual lacquer for 
brass is made with ordinary shellac and 
alcohol, made very thin, settled, and de- 
canted. 

2. — Mastic, 5 parts ; amber, 5 parts ; 
sandarac, 10 parts ; shellac, 10 parts ; al- 
cohol, 100 parts. 

Comhmakers' Lacquer. — Elemi and 
mastic, each 1 part ; shellac, 5 parts ; 
strong alcohol, 20 parts. 

Copper. — Mastic, 8 parts ; camphor, 6 
parts ; sandarac, 15 parts ; bleached shel- 
lac, 15 parts ; alcohol, 40 parts. 

Green Lacquer. — 1. — Turmeric, 18 oz. ; 
shellac, 15 oz. ; gum sandarac, 1 oz. ; 
gum elemi, 3 oz. ; gamboge, 3 oz. ; methyl- 
ated spirits, 3 gal. ; expose to a gentle 
heat ; after straining, add 1% gal. of 
spirit to the sediment, and treat as before. 

2. — Mix 5 oz. of shellac, 6 oz. of tur- 
meric, 4 oz. of gum sandarac and 1 oz. 
each of gum elemi and gum gamboge in 
1 gal. methylated spirits ; expose to gentle 
heat, strain, add % gal. of spirit to the 
sediment, and treat as before. 

3. — Transparent Varnish. — Grind a 



(Lacquers) 



small quatity of Chinese blue with double 
the quantity of finely powdered chromate 
of potash (it requires most elaborate 
grinding) ; add a sufficient quantity of 
copal varnish thinned with turpentine. 
The tone may be altered by more or less 
of one or the other ingredients. 

High-colored Lacquer. — Spirits of wine, 
2 qt. ; shellac, 2% oz. ; gum sandarac, 2 
oz. ; gum elemi, % oz. ; mix and keep 
gently warmed for 2 or 3 days ; strain, 
color with dragon's blood to taste, and 
thin with 1 qt. of 90% alcohol. 

Iron, Lacquer for. — 1. — Asphaltum, 10 
parts ; rosin, 3 parts ; lampblack, 1 part ; 
petroleum, 25 parts. 

2. — Amlber, 12 parts ; turpentine, 12 
parts ; rosin, 2 parts ; asphaltum, 2 
parts ; drying oil, 6 parts. 

3. — Asphaltum, 3 lb.; shellac, i/^ lb.; 
turpentine, 1 gal. 

Jeivel Lacquer. — Seed lac, 90 parts ; 
gamboge gum, 30 parts ; amber, 30 parts ; 
dragon's blood, 2 parts ; saffron, 1 part ; 
sandal wood oil, 2 parts; alcohol (95%), 
600 parts. The rosins are rendered solu- 
ble in the usual manner, and the ordinary 
method for the preparation of varnishes 
is followed. 

Linseed Oil and Caoutchouc Lficquer. — • 
6 lb. of caoutchouc is swelled in 3 lb. 
ether and rendered fluid by heating ; 3 lb. 
linseed oil and 3 lb. oil of turpentine are 
then added ; these oils must be warm 
when added. 

Matt Lacquer. — This is sometimes called 
mattolein. Dissolve 30 parts of sandarac 
and 7 parts of mastic in 320 parts of 
ether, and add 100 to 200 parts benzine. 
The more added the coarser will be the 
grain. 

Sheet Metal, Lacquer for. — Asphaltum, 
5 parts ; colophony, 3 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine varnish (see Varnishes), 10 
parts ; oil of turpentine, 14 parts. 

Silvered Articles, To Lacquer. — Tlie 
parts previously protected by a coating of 
whites of eggs, and the lacquer applied as 
usual when the sizing of eggs is dry. 

Steel, Lacquer for. — Pure mastic, 8 
parts ; camphor, 4 parts ; sandarac, 12 
parts ; elemi, 4 parts. Dissolve in pure 
alcohol ; filter. Use the lacquer cold. It 
will be clear and transparent when dry. 

Tin Plate, Lacquer for. — 1. — Alcohol, 
12 oz. ; turmeric, 6 dr. ; saffron, 3 scru- 
ples ; sandarac, 3 dr. ; Canada balsam, 3 
dr. ; mastic, 3 dr. When dissolved, add 
oil of turpentine, 120 minims. 

2. — Alcohol, 1 qt. ; shellac, 4 oz. ; red 
Sanders, 1 oz. ; turmeric, 2 oz. Shake fre- 
quently for 24 hours, and bottle. Various 



[634] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Paints) 



colors can be given to the lacquer by 
adding Prussian blue, lakes, etc. 

3. — Use as a body shellac or gum san- 
darac varnish. To make it adhere, add 
to it V2 part boracic acid to 1,000 parts 
lacquer. Color with suitable pigments, 
such as gamboge, Prussian blue or car- 
mine. Aniline colors may be used, but 
tend to fade. Excellent results may be 
attained by adding a little castor oil, 
which makes the lacquer much tougher. 

4. — Gold Lacquer. — Clean the tin plate 
carefully and apply the following mix- 
ture : Dark copal lacquer, 3 parts ; lin- 
seed oil, 1% parts. Dry the plates. The 
lacquer will not crack or lose its luster 
if the tin plates are bent or hammered. 

Tinfoil, Lacquer for. — Alcohol, 1% qt. ; 
shellac, 10% oz. Disolve the shellac in 
the alcohol and filter. Prevent the evap- 
oration of the alcohol as much as possi- 
ble. Add to this shellac varnish, 5^ oz. 
best white gum elemi and 21 dr. Venetian 
turpentine. Let this mixture stand in a 
warm place ; stir it frequently. Filter ; 
press out the remainder, and add to the 
filtrate. This varnish may be colored if 
desired. 

Tools, Lacquer for. — The tools must be 
cleaned and polished so as to be absolute- 
ly free from grease. They are next slight- 
ly warmed and varnished with a solution 
of seed lac or shellac in alcohol. The 
success of the operation depends on the 
clearness of the surface. A finger touch 
before varnishing will affect the finish. 

Transparent Lacquer. — Powdered gum 
sandarac, 4 parts ; turpentine, 7 parts ; 
spirit of turpentine, 28 parts. Dissolve 
the turpentine and the powdered gum san- 
darac over a water bath, in the spirit of 
turpentine. Before this varnish is used 
the bottle should be exposed to the sun 
for about an hour. 

Zinc, Lacquer for. — A good lacquer con- 
sists of : Alcohol, 8 oz. ; gamboge, 1 oz. ; 
shellac, 3 oz. ; annatto, 1 oz. ; solution of 
3 oz. of seed lac in 1 pt. of alcohol. 
When dissolved, add % oz. of Venice tur- 
pentine and ^ oz. of dragon's blood to 
make it dark. Keep in a warm place 
for 4 or 5 days. 

PAINTS 

1. — 300 parts washed and sieved white 
sand, 40 parts precipitated chalk, 50 parts 
rosin and 4 parts linseed oil are mixed 
and boiled in an iron kettle, and then 1 
part oxide copper and 1 part sulphuric 
acid are added. This mass is supplied 
with an ordinary paint brush while warm. 
If it is too thick it is diluted with lin- 
seed oil. This paint dries very rapidly, 



(Paints, Anti-Corrosion) 



and gets very hard, but protects wood 
work excellently. 

2. — Skim milk, 2 qt. ; fresh slaked 
lime, 8 oz. ; linseed oil, 6 oz. ; white Bur- 
gundy pitch, 2 oz. ; Spanish white, 3 lb. 
The lime to be slaked in water, exposed 
to the air, and mixed in one-fourth the 
milk. Dissolve the pitch in the oil and 
add a little at a time. Then add the rest 
of the milk and the Spanish white. 

Aluminum Paint. 

Aluminum, when reduced to fine pow- 
der and mixed with a solution of gum lac 
in water, gives a metallic paint which 
covers well, and which may be tinted with 
aniline dyes soluble in water. The solu- 
tion of lac is made as follows : Soda 
crystals, 8 oz. ; borax, 8 oz. ; gum lac, 2 
lb. ; water, 1 gal. Boil the water and 
soda crystals and borax together, then 
add the lac, keep boiling till lac is dis- 
solved. If this solution comes too thick, 
add more water and borax (1 oz. borax 
to 1 pt. of water). To this solution, alu- 
minum, finely powdered, is added in sufii- 
cient quantity to produce a paint suffi- 
ciently fluid to apply with a brush. This 
paint is brilliant, durable, and impermea- 
ble, and is suitable for wood, metals, 
paper and cloth. If required more elastic, 
add 1 oz. glycerine to every gallon of lac 
solution. 

Asbestos Paints. ( See Fireproof Paints. ) 
Anti- corrosion Paint. 

1. — An Anti-corrosion Paint for Iron. 
— If 10% of burnt magnesia, or even 
baryta or strontia, is mixed cold with 
ordinary linseed oil paint, and then 
enough mineral oil to develop the al- 
kaline earth, the free acid of the paint 
will be neutralized, while the iron will 
be protected by the permanent alkaline 
action of the paint. Iron to be buried 
in damp earth may be painted with a 
mixture of 100 parts of rosin (colo- 
phony), 25 of gutta percha, and 50 of 
paraffine, to which 20 of magnesia and 
some mineral oil have been added. 

2. — Take equal parts by weight of whit- 
ing and white lead, with half the quan- 
tity of fine sand, gravel, or road dust, and 
a sufficient quantity of coloring matter. 
This mixture is made in water and can be 
used as a water color ; but it is more 
durable to dry it, as cakes or powder, 
after mixing, and then use it as an oil 
paint by grinding it again in linseed oil. 
The preparation of oil recommended for 
this purpose is : 12 parts by weight of lin- 
seed oil ; 1 part boiled linseed oil and 3 
parts sulphate of lime, well mixed. 1 gal. 



[635] 



Paint Sy Varnishes, Etc, 



(Paints, Blackboard) 



of this prepared oil is used to 7 lb. of 
the powder. 

Bicycle Paint (Glossy Black). 

1, — Amber, 8 oz. ; linseed oil, 4 oz. ; 
asphaltum, 1% oz. ; rosin, 1^^ oz. ; oil 
turpentine, 8 oz. Heat the linseed oil to 
boiling point, add the amber, asphaltum 
and rosin, and when all melted remove 
the heat and gradually add the turpen- 
tine. 

2. — Oil tar, 4 oz. ; asphaltum, 1 oz. ; 
rosin, powdered, 1 oz. Mix and dissolve 
with the aid of heat, care being taken to 
prevent contact with the flame. 

Bird Cages, To Paint. 

Paint with zinc. Do not use lead. The 
zinc can be given any desired tint. It is 
then coated with light polishing copal 
varnish, after which it is baked or heated 
at from 100 to 150° F. The varnish 
known in the trade as extra light polish- 
ing varnish is used by several of the 
prominent bird-cage makers. v 

Black. 

Cheap Glossy Black Paint. — Gum am- 
ber, 16 oz. ; melt in boiling linseed oil, ^^ 
pint ; add genuine asphaltum and rosin, 
each 3 oz. Mix thoroughly over a fire, 
remove to open air and gradually add 1 
pt. of oil of tui-pentine slightly warmed. 

Blackboards, Paint or Slating for. 

1. — Paint the board with ordinary 
black paint such as will dry with a gloss ; 
then apply a coat of black paint, mixed 
with turps instead of oil, which will dry 
a dead black, 

2, — Take i/^ lb. logwood and sufiicient 
boiling water to cover it ; allow it to 
stand for 24 hours. Strain, and apply 
the solution, boiling, if possible, twice, 
allowing the board to dry in the interval. 
Then dissolve i/4 lb. of copperas in about 
1 pt. of boiling water, and apply it, boil- 
ing, once or twice, according to the degree 
of blackness obtained. Before using it, 
rub it over well with rushes, straw, 
ferns, or shoemakers' heel ball. It may 
be a little difiicult to rub the chalk off 
at first, but after a fortnight's use that 
will disappear. Use unprepared chalk, 
which writes well. 

3. — Place 1/4 lb. of lampblack on a flat 
piece of tin or iron on a fire till it be- 
comes red, take it off and leave it until 
suflSciently cool, when it must be crushed 
with the blade of a knife on a flat board 
quite fine ; then get i/^ pt. of spirits of 
turpentine, mix both together, and apply 
the mixture with a size brush. If the 
board is new, it would be well to give 



(Paints, Branding) 



it one or two coats of lampblack — not 
burnt, but mixed with boiled oil — adding 
y2 lb. of patent driers. After the board 
is thoroughly dried, apply the burnt lamp- 
black and turpentine. The preparation 
must be laid on quickly. 

4. — Dissolve 4 oz. shellac in 1 qt. of 
alcohol ; add lampblack, 6 dr. ; ultra- 
marine blue, 1 dr. ; pumice stone, pow- 
dered, 3 oz. ; rotten stone, powdered, 2 oz. 
Have the board dry and free from grease. 

Sodium silicate, diluted with water, and 
colored with lampblack, suspended in a 
little of the silicate, makes an excellent 
slating. 

5. — Lampblack and flour of emery 
mixed with spirit varnish. No more lamp- 
black and flour of emery should be used 
than are sufficient to give the required 
abrading surface. The thinner the mix- 
ture the better. Lampblack should be 
first ground with a small quantity of 
spirit of varnish or alcohol to free it 
from lumps. The composition should be 
applied to the smoothly planed surface of 
a board with a common paint brush. Let 
it become thoroughly hard and dry be- 
fore it is used. Rub it down with pumice 
if too rough. 

Boilers, Paint for. 

1. — Use asphaltum varnish. There is 
little or no odor from it when dry. 

2. — Coal tar and ground graphite 
thinned with turpentine make an excellent 
paint for boiler fronts and pipes in boiler 
room. The steam pipes for heating 
should not be painted, or if required, 
should only have a very thin coat of lamp- 
black and linseed oil. Tin is unfit for 
roofs of boiler houses. Slate is best. You 
can make a temporary covering on the 
tin roof with asphalt and gravel. This 
will not save the tin, which will soon 
give out entirely. The cheapest way out 
of your trouble is to take off the tin 
and slate the roof. 

3. — Rub it over with a mixture of 
boiled oil and lampblack. From the latter 
the grease should be taken before mix- 
ing by placing it in a flower pot, the top 
and bottom sealed with clay and sub- 
jected to a good heat. 

Branding Paint (Red). 

Take of shellac, 2 oz. ; borax, 2 oz. ; 
water, 25 oz. ; gum arable, 2 oz. Boil the 
borax and shellac in water until they are 
dissolved, add the gum arable, and with- 
draw from the fire. When the solution 
has become cold, complete 25 oz, with 
water and add Venetian red enough to 



[636] 



Paints^ Varnishes, Etc. 



(Paint, Destroying) 



bring it to a suitable consistency and 
color. 

Canvas Paints. 

Buff.— To light stone add: Ocher, 20 
lb. ; lemon chrome, 3 lb. ; extra oil, i/^ gal. 

Indian Red. — Indian red, 112 lb. ; whit- 
ing, 56 lb.; barytes, 63 lb.; half boiled 
oil and half raw oil, 6 gal. ; soft soap, 7 
lb. 

Light Stone. — To Indian red add : Yel- 
low ocher, 7 lb. ; raw umber, % lb. 

White.— White lead, 224 lb.; refined 
linseed oil, 15 lb. ; soft soap, 7 lb. 

Cleaning of Paint Brushes. 

New paint brushes should be thorough- 
ly brushed back and forth on the hand 
until the dust and loose hairs are re- 
moved. New brushes require special at- 
tention the first few days. All brushes 
should be washed in benzine or turpentine 
and shaken dry before changing from one 
tint to another. All paint brushes which 
have become clogged by paint should be 
freed up with turpentine before using. 
Varnish brushes should be kept in the 
same varnish in which they are used, or 
in turpentine ; but the latter treatment 
will make the brushes rough in time, and 
the varnish is a much better preservative 
medium. 

Colors. (See also Mixing Paints.) 

Proportions of Colors for Ordinary 
Paints 



In 


gredients by weight 








Colors. 


White lead. 
Lampblack. 
Red lead. 




> 


a 


2 
1 

CI 


White .... 
Black .... 

Green 

Stone 


....100 .... 

100 .. 

. ... 25 .... 
99 .... 


•• 


75 


i 




Lead 

Red 

Chocolate . 


. ... 98 2 .. .. 

50 50 

4 .. .. 


•• 


96 



Destroying Paint. 

Mix 1 part by weight of American pearl- 
ash with 3 parts quick stone lime by 
slaking the lime in water, and then adding 
the pearlash, making the* mixture about 
the consistency of paint. Lay the above 
over the whole of the work required to 
be cleaned with an old brush ; let it re- 

r 



(Paints, Fireproof) 



main 14 or 16 hours, when the paint can 
be easily scraped off. 

Disinfecting Paint. 

Disinfecting paints contain carbolic 
acid, boric or salicylic acid, from 1 to 2%. 
One such composition contains felspar, 
shellac, linseed oil, red lead, carbolic acid, 
and turpentine. The following is a dense 
white lead paint, which may be rendered 
antiseptic by the addition of any of the 
above-mentioned disinfectants : Dry white 
lead, 400 lb.; best zinc white, 600 lb.; 
linseed oil, 9 gal. ; white japan, 10 gal. ; 
turps, 6 gal. 

Engines, Paints for. 

Engine Green (Light, Middle or Deep) 
— 1. — Brunswick green, 830 lb. ; barytes, 
84 lb. ; Paris white, 28 lb. ; boiled oil, 7 
gal. 

2. — Brunswick green, 168 lb. ; barytes, 
126 lb. ; Paris white, 84 lb. ; boiled oil, 7 
gal. 

3.— Green, 168 lb. ; barytes, 210 lb. ; 
Paris white, 70 lb. ; boiled oil, 7 gal. To 
make ready for use thin with each 112 
lb. of paint : boiled oil, 3 gal. ; turps, 1 
gal. ; gold size, 1 gal. ; patent driers, 14 lb. 

4. — For olive green add to dark green : 
Vegetable black, 3 lb. 

5. — For emerald green shade use zinc 
green instead of Brunswick green. 

Fireproof Paints. (See also Non-inflam- 
mable Paint.) 

These paints dry with a hard enamel- 
like surface, which is fire and water proof, 
and gets harder by exposure to water and 
weather. A cheap and effective paint for 
large surfaces of plastic stucco cement, 
house fronts, etc. They are also adapted 
for factories, theaters, stores, etc.. as a 
protection from fire. They may be tinted 
with the ordinary staining colors, but 
Prussian and Brunswick blues and greens, 
or any color affected by alkalies, must not 
be used. 

Asbestos Paints. — 1. — Asbestos is 
usually introduced into paints with the 
object of making them fireproof. Asbestos 
paints have not so much body as the ordi- 
nary oil paints, but as they are made with 
a special object this fact is not of primary 
importance. 

2. — Prepared Asbestos. — Asbestos, care- 
fully selected for white or light colors, is 
placed in a gas retort. Heat well to burn 
out all organic matter. Draw out into 
cold water, wash and grind in water 
under heavy stones. Float, dry. and sift. 
It is then ready to mix with the paint. 
If, owing to the presence of oxide of iron, 
637] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Paints, Fireproof) 



it is then discolored, it must be boiled by 
steam with hydrochloric acid or sulphuric 
acid, or a mixture of the two acids 
diluted. 

3. — Asbestos Black. — Prepared asbes- 
tos, 98 lb. ; black oxide of manganese, 
98 lb. ; carbon black, 1 lb. ; boiled lin- 
seed oil, 2,^2 gal. Any other colors may 
be made as desired. For use, thin with 
linseed oil and turps in equal propor- 
tions. A large quantity of turps in 
the thinnings enhances the fireproof quali- 
ties of the paint, as it evaporates in the 
drying,, leaving the coat of paint freer 
from oil. 

4. — Asbestos Blue. — Prepared asbestos, 
98 lb. ; ultramarine blue, 98 lb. ; raw lin- 
seed oil, 4 gal. 

5. — Asbestos Green. — Prepared asbes- 
tos, 98 lb. ; middle Brunswick green, 98 
lb. ; boiled linseed oil, S^/^ gal. 

6. — Asbestos Purple. — Prepared asbes- 
tos, 98 lb. ; purple oxide, 98 lb. ; boiled 
linseed oil, 4 gal. 

7. — Asbestos Red. — Prepared asbestos, 
98 lb. : Venetian red, 98 lb. ; boiled lin- 
seed oil, 31^ gal. 

8. — Asbestos Stone Color. — Prepared 
asbestos, 98 lb. ; zinc white, 98 lb. ; zinc 
sulphide 24 lb. ; raw umber, 6 lb. ; boiled 
linseed oil, 4 gal. ; turpentine, V^ gal. 

9. — Asbestos White. — Prepared asbes- 
tos, 98 lb. ; zinc white. 98 lb. ; zinc sul- 
phide, 24 lb. ; refined linseed oil, 2 gal. ; 
turpentine, % gal. 

10. — Asbestos White Lead. — Prepared 
asbestos, 98 lb. ; sulphate of lead, 70 lb. ; 
zinc white, 28 lb. ; refined linseed oil, 3 
gal. 

11. — Asbestos Yellow. — Prepared asbes- 
tos, 98 lb. ; Oxford ocher, 98 lb. ; raw lin- 
seed oil, 3% gal. 

Black Fireproof Paint. — Vegetable 
black, 42 lb. ; mineral black, 42 lb. ; whit- 
ing, 42 lb. ; barytes, 140 lb. ; silicate of 
soda, 72 lb. ; water, 9 gal. Process — As 
for White. 

Red Fireproof Paint. — Venetian red, 
112 lb.; whiting, 56 lb.; barytes, 112 lb.; 
silicate, 100 lb. ; water, 10 gal. Process — 
As for White. 

White. — Zinc white, 168 lb. ; white lead, 
84 lb. ; sulphate of zinc, 20 lb. ; magne- 
sia white, 90 lb. ; silicate of soda, 30 lb. ; 
refined linseed oil, 10 gal. Process. — Mix 
the dry materials well, and mix the oil 
with the silicate of soda. Mix all together 
in pug mill, not too full, as the mixture 
swells a little at first, and then grind well. 
The mixture may be thinned for use with 
silicate of soda and oil mixture or with 
linseed oil and turps in the usual man- 
ner, no driers being required. 



(Paints for Iron) 



Funnel Paints for Yachts. 

1.— Zinc white. 98 lb. ; China clay, 98 
lb. ; ultramarine blue, ^'2 lb. ; pale rosin 
oil, 2 gal. ; silicate of soda, 20 gal. Proc- 
ess. — Mix well together and strain. 
This may be used independently, or with 
good effects over a previous coat of No. 
3 white funnel paint, as the lime will 
prevent the zinc from discoloring. 

2. — Black Funnel Paint. — Oxide of 
manganese, 119 lb. ; bone black, 70 lb. ; 
black lead, 10 lb. ; rosin oil, 4 gal. ; sili- 
cate of soda, 20 gal. Process. — As before. 
All require grinding, and when using 
should be constantly stirred. 

3. — Blue Funnel Paint. — China clay, 
189 lb. ; ultramarine blue, 30 lb. ; pale 
rosin oil, 4 gal. ; silicate of soda, 18 gal. 
Process. — As before. 

4. — Cream Funnel Paint. — White chalk 
lime, 84 lb. ; whiting, 40 lb. ; powdered 
litharge, 196 lb. ; pale rosin oil, 4 gal. ; 
silicate of soda, 20 gal. Process. — As be- 
fore ; add the litharge last, mixed with a 
little water. 

5. — Red Funnel Paint, Bright. — White 
chalk lime, 84 lb. ; whiting, 40 lb.; red 
lead, 196 lb. ; pale rosin oil, 4 gal. ; sili- 
cate of soda, 20 gal. Process. — As before. 
Should the mixture turn hard on the addi- 
tion of the red lead, add more rosin oil 
and stir well in. 

Grease Spots to Kill. 

Before painting, wash the part with 
saltpeter, or very thin lime whitewash. 
If soapsuds are used, they must be 
washed off thoroughly, as they prevent 
the paint from drying hard. 

Iron, Paints for. 

A good cheap black paint or var- 
nish for iron work is prepared as fol- 
lows : Clear (solid) wood tar, 10 lb.; 
lampblack, or mineral black, IH lb. ; oil 
of turpentine, 5^4 qt. The tar is first 
heated in a large iron pot to boiling, or 
nearly so, and the heat is continued for 
about 4 hours. The pot is then removed 
from fire out of doors, and while still 
warm, not hot, the turpentine mixed with 
the black is stirred in. If the varnish is 
too thick to dry quickly, add more tur- 
pentine. Benzine can be used instead of 
turpentine, but the results are not so 
good. Asphaltum is preferable to the 
cheap tar. 

Protecting Iron. — Cast-iron water pipes 
and other articles may be preserved by- 
covering the inside and out with pitch, 
heated to 300° F. and kept at this point 
during the dipping. As the material de- 
teriorates after a number of pipes 



[638] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Paints, Lime) 



have been dipped, fresh pitch is frequently 
added, and at least 8% of heavy linseed 
oil put to it daily ; the vessel is also 
entirely emptied of the pitch and refilled 
with fresh material, as often as is neces- 
sary to insure the perfection of the proc- 
ess. Each casting is kept immersed from 
thirty to forty-five minutes, or until it at- 
tains a temperature of 300° F. After the 
bath is completed, the castings are re- 
moved and placed to drip in such a posi- 
tion that the thickness of the varnish w^ill 
be uniform. It is essential that the coat- 
ing be tenacious -when cold, and not brittle 
or disposed to scale off. The pitch or 
varnish is made from coal tar, distilled 
until all the naphtha is removed, the 
material deodorized, and the pitch like 
wax or very thick molasses. 

Tar Paint for Ironwork. — Tar, 191 lb. ; 
sulphur, 7 lb. ; red lead, 7 lb. ; white lead, 
7 lb. Process : Boi! together until re- 
duced in bulk one-half. 

Iron Paint. 

A paint composed of pulverized iron 
and linseed oil varnish is intended for 
painting damp walls, kettles, outer walls, 
or any place or vessel exposed to the 
action of the open air and weather. 
Should the article be exposed to frequent 
changes of temperature, linseed oil var- 
nish and amber varnish should be mixed 
with the paint intended for the first 2 
coats, without the addition of any artifi- 
cial drying medium. The first coat should 
be applied rather thin, the second a little 
thicker, and the last in .a rather fluid 
state. It is not necessary to free iron 
from rust, grease, etc., by means of acid 
before applying the paint, as a super- 
ficial cleaning is sufficient. The paint is 
equally adapted as a weather-proof coat- 
ing for iron, wood and stone. 

Lime Paints. 

1. — For deal floors, wood, stone and 
brick work. Dissolve 15 dr. good glue 
by boiling with thickish milk of lime 
which contains 1 lb. caustic lime. Then 
add linseed oil, just sufficient to form a 
soap with the lime. This mixture can 
be used for making up any color which 
is not altered by lime. A solution of 
shellac in borax can be added for brown 
red or brown yellow colors, and is very 
suitable in painting deal floors. With a 
coating of varnish or lake, the substances 
thus painted assume a fine luster. They 
can be polished with linseed oil or tur- 
pentine. 

2. — A lime paint which will bear wash- 
ing: Three parts flint, 3 parts marble 



(Paints, Luminous) 



fragments and sandstone, 2 parts calcined 
white China clay, and 2 parts slaked lime, 
all in powder, furnish a paint to which 
chosen colors that may be employed with 
lime are added. This paint, by repeated 
applications, becomes as hard as stone, 
without losing porosity. 

Luminous Paints and Colors. 

The luminous calcic sulphide (also 
called sulphide of calcium) now obtaiji- 
able in the market has a yellowish white 
tint, which considerably limits its direct 
application as a paint. On the other 
hand, the calcic sulphide, or the luminous 
paint obtained therefrom, loses its lumi- 
nous property, if it is directly mixed with 
the ordinary commercial paints. An in- 
vention patented by Gustav Schatte, of 
Dresden, has for its object to produce dur- 
able white or colored paints, containing 
a luminous substance, which causes them 
to shine in the dark, without changing or 
neutralizing in daylight the tint of the 
coloring substance or substances contained 
in such paints. 

Zanzibar or Kauri copal is melted over 
a charcoal fire. Fifteen parts of the melt 
are dissolved in 60 parts of French oil of 
turpentine and the filtered solution is 
mixed with 25 parts, previously heated 
and cooled, pure linseed oil. The varnish 
which is thus obtained is used in the fol- 
lowing methods, in the manufacture of 
luminous paints, by grinding between 
granite rolls in a paint mill. Iron rolls 
should be avoided, because particles of 
iron, which are liable to be detached, 
would injure the luminous properties. 

Varnishes, as they occur in commerce, 
generally contain lead or manganese, 
which would destroy the phosphorescence 
of calcium sulphide. 

1. — For luminous oil color paints, equal 
quantities of pure linseed oil are used in 
the place of the varnish. The linseed oil 
must be cold pressed and thickened by 
heat. All the above luminous paints can 
be used in the manufacture of colored 
papers, etc., if the varnish is altogether 
omitted, and the dry mixtures are ground 
to a paste with water. 

2. — The luminous paints can also be 
used as wax colors for painting on glass 
and similar objects by adding, instead of 
the varnish, 10% more of Japanese wax 
and Va. the quantity of the latter of olive 
oil. The wax colors prepared in this way 
may also be used for painting upon porce- 
lain, and are then carefully burned with- 
out access of air. Paintings of this kind 
can also be treated with water glass. The 
latest use made of luminous paints in 



[639 1 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Paints, Luminous) 



England is the painting of harness, which 
is said to produce quite surprising effects 
in nocturnal driving. 

3. — Boil together for an hour 2^ oz. 
caustic lime, recently prepared by calcin- 
ing clean white shells at a strong red 
heat, with 1 oz. flowers of sulphur and 1 
qt. of soft water. Set aside in a covered 
vessel for a few days, then pour off the 
liquid, collect the clear orange-colored 
crystals which have been deposited, and 
let them drain and dry on bibulous paper. 
Place the dried sulphide in a clear block 
lead crucible provided with cover. Heat 
for half an hour at a temperature just 
short of redness, then quickly for about 
fifteen minutes at a white heat. Remove 
cover and pack in clay until cold. The 
addition of a small quantity of pure cal- 
cium fluoride to the sulphide before heat- 
ing it is made. It may be mixed with 
alcoholic copal varnish. 

Blues. — A blue luminous paint is pre- 
pared from 42 parts varnish, 10.2 parts 
prepared barium sulphate, 6.4 parts ultra- 
marine blue, 5.4 parts cobalt blue and 46 
parts luminpus calcium sulphide. 

Gray. — 45 parts of varnish are mixed 
with 6 parts prepared barium sulphate, 6 
parts prepared calcium carbonate, 0.5 part 
ultramarine blue, 6.5 parts gray zinc sul- 
phide. 

Green. — 1. — 48 parts varnish are mixed 
with 10 parts prepared barium sulphate, 8 
parts chromium oxide green and 34 parts 
luminous calcium sulphide. 

2. — Varnish, 24 parts ; barium sulphate, 
5 parts ; chromium oxide, green, 4 parts ; 
luminous calcium sulphide, 17 parts. 

Orange. — 46 parts varnish are mixed 
with 17.5 parts prepared barium sulphate, 
1 part prepared Indian yellow, 1.5 parts 
prepared madder lake and 38 parts lumi- 
nous calcium sulphide. 

Red. — 60 parts varnish are mixed with 
8 parts prepared barium sulphate, 2 parts 
prepared madder lake, 6 parts prepared 
realgar (red arsenic sulphide) and 30 
parts luminous calcium sulphide and 
treated the same as for white paint. 

Violet. — 1. — Leonard's. — Strontium car- 
bonate, by weight, 100 parts ; sulphur, by 
weight, 100 parts ; potassium chloride, by 
weight, 0.5 part ; sodium chloride, by 
weight, 0.5 part; manganese chloride, by 
weight, 0.4 part. The materials are heat- 
ed for three-quarters of an hour to one 
hour to about 2,372° F. The product 
gives a violet light. 

2. — 42 parts varnish, 10.2 parts pre- 
pared barium sulphate, 2.3 parts ultra- 
marine violet, 9 parts cobalt arsenate and 
36 parts luminous calcium sulphide. 



(Paints for Metals) 



White. — Mix 40 parts of the varnish, 
obtained in the above described process, 
with 6 parts prepared barium sulphate, 6 
parts prepared calcium carbonate, 12 
parts prepared white zinc sulphide and 36 
parts good luminous calcium sulphide in 
a proper vessel to an emulsion and then 
grind it very fine in a color mill. 

Yellow. — 1. — 48 parts varnish are 
mixed with 10 parts prepared barium sul- 
phate, 8 parts barium chromate and 34 
parts luminous calcium sulphide. 

2. — A yellowish brown luminous paint 
is obtained from 48 parts varnish, 10 
parts precipitated barium sulphate, 8 
parts auri pigment and 34 parts luminous 
calcium sulphide. 

3. — Luminous colors for artists' use are 
prepared by using pure East India poppy 
oil, in the same quantity, instead of the 
varnish, and taking particular pains to 
grind the materials as fine as possible. 

Magnets, Red Paint Used on. 

The "paint" used on magnets is usually 
non-conducting shellac varnish, carrying 
cinnabar. Try the following formula : 
Cinnabar, pulverized, 3 parts ; Venice tur- 
pentine, 2 parts ; shellac, pale, 1 part ; 
alcohol, 95%, sufficient. Melt turpentine 
and shellac, remove from fire, let cool 
down to about 140° F. and add 10 parts 
of the alcohol. Rub up the cinnabar with 
sufficient alcohol to make a paste, and add 
it to the melted mixture. Put on a water 
bath for a few minutes, and stir continu- 
ously until a smooth, homogeneous fluid 
is obtained. Remove from fire and stir 
until cold. Preserve in well-stoppered 
vials, and when desired for use return to 
the water bath and heat until the liquid 
can be applied with a brush. The magnet 
should be warmed before applying. 

Marine Paint. 

For metals in salt water, red lead, 44 
parts ; quicksilver, 24 parts ; thick tur- 
pentine, 5 3-5 parts. Mix to proper con- 
sistency with boiled linseed oil. Grind or 
rub the thick turpentine and quicksilver 
together until thoroughly amalgamated. 
Then grind this mixture with the red lead 
and more boiled oil. Use as little oil as 
is necessary to make the paint lay on well. 
A coat of oxide of iron paint may be used 
first to make the marine paint adhere 
firmly. 

Metals, To Paint. 

Paint frequently peels off when exposed 
to the weather. If the metal is slightly 
corroded by a solution of copper sulphate 
slightly acidulated with nitric acid the 



[ '640 ] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Paints, Mixing) 



paint will better adhere to the metal sur- 
face. After standing an hour or so. wash, 
dry and paint. 

Proof Against Hot Water. — Clean the 
metal with turpentine or benzine. Put on 
two coats of a mixture of white lead, spir- 
its of turpentine and carriage varnish. 
Follow immediately with a thick coat of 
carriage varnish and white lead. 

White Paint for Metallic Surfaces. — 
Oil paints used on metallic surfaces ex- 
posed to heat frequently turn yellow. If 
instead of oil sodium silicate be used no 
change of color will be noticed. Zinc 
white mixed with soluble glass of from 40° 
to 50° B., to the consistency of ordinary 
paint, makes an excellent paint for 
metals. 

Mica l/uster Paint. 

Clean mica powder, 84 lb. ; pale boiled 
oil, 14«gal. The above paint is nearly 
transparent and is intended to be applied 
over other paint to produce a peculiar sil- 
very or scaly glittering appearance, vary- 
ing in different lights, and is very effective 
on certain classes of work, such as wood- 
work in refreshment rooms, bars, etc. 
Small quantities of color may be intro- 
duced, but the best effects are obtained by 
its use over other colors. 

Preparing Mica for Use in Above. — 
Place in crucibles or retorts and make 
red hot and draw into water or boil in 
dilute muriatic acid. After either of the 
above processes it has to be ground in 
water and dried and powdered. It is fire- 
proof and will rival asbestos as a fire- 
proof paint, but possesses no opacity, so 
that its use is purely decorative. 

Mixing Paints. (See also Colors.) 

In mixing paints, observe that for out- 
door work you must use principally or 
wholly boiled oil, unless it be for the 
decorative part of houses, etc. ; then mix 
as for indoor work. For indoor work use 
linseed oil, turpentine and a little drier, 
observing that the less oil the less will be 
the gloss, and that for flatted white, etc.. 
the color being ground in oil, will scarcely 
require any further addition of that ar- 
ticle, as the object is to have it dull. The 
best driers are ground litharge and sugar 
of lead ; the former for dark and middle 
tints and the latter for light ones. 

Oil Colors. — In mixing different colored 
paints to produce any desired tint, it is 
best to have the principal ingredient thick, 
and add to it the other paints thinner. 
In the following list of the combinations 
of colors required to produce a required 
tint the first named color is the principal 

[641 



(Paints for Oilcloths) 



ingredient, and the others follow in the 
order of their importance. Thus, in mix- 
ing a limestone tint, white is the principal 
ingredient and red the color of which 
least is needed, etc., the exact proportions 
of each depending on the shade of color 
required. 

List of compound colors, showing the 
simple colors which produce them : 

Buff — White, yellow ocher, red. 

Chestnut — Red, black, yellow. 

Chocolate — Raw umber, red, black. 

Claret — Red, umber, black. 

Copper — Red, yellow, black. 

Dove — White, vermilion, blue, yellow. 

Drab — White, yellow ocher, red, black. 

Fawn — White, yellow, red. 

Flesh — White, yellow ocher, vermilion. 

Freestone — Red, black, yellow ocher, 
white. 

French Gray — White, Prussian blue, 
lake. 

Gray — White lead, black. 

Gold — White, stone ocher, red. 

Green Bronze — Chrome, green, black, 
yellow. 

Green Pea — White, chrome green. 

Lemon — White, chrome yellow. 

Limestone — White, yellow ocher, black, 
red. 

Olive — Yellow, blue, black, white. 

Orange — Yellow, red. 

Peach — White, vermilion. 

Pearl — White, black, blue. 

Pink — White, vermilion, lake. 

Purple — Violet, with more red and 
white. 

Rose — White, madder lake. 

Sandstone — White, yellow ocher, black, 
red. 

Snuff — Yellow, Vandyke brown. 

Violet — Red, blue, white. 

Non-inflammable Paint. (See also Fire- 
proof Paints.) 
To a gallon of a mixture of equal parts 
of lime water and vinegar add % lb. salt, 
14 lb. alum, % lb. white vitriol, each in 
the form of powder. The mixture is then 
boiled, 1 gal. of linseed or other drying 
oil is added, and the boiling repeated. 
After the addition of 1 gal. of crude pe- 
troleum, the mixture is once more heated 
to the boiling point and is then ready for 
use. A solution of silicate of soda used 
with ordinary distemper will render it 
fireproof. 

Oilcloths, Flexible Paints for. 

1. — Size with hot soap and alum solu- 
tions, used alternately, dry and enamel 
with colors ground fine in oil with plenty 
of driers and a little turpentine. Finish 
] 



Faints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Paints, Rubber) 



with a thin copal varnish if high gloss is 
desired. Harden by drying at about 
200° F. 

2. — The following retains sufficient flex- 
ibility to enable the sheet to be rolled : 
Soft soap, 2 oz. ; boiling water, 12 oz. 
Dissolve and work well into usual oil 
paint, 6 lb. 

Oil Colors. (See Mixing Paints, above, 
and our Scientific American Supple- 
ment, No. 1706.) 

Oil Paint, White Substitute for. 

A substitute for white oil paint may be 
made as follows : Skim milk, 4 qt. ; fresh 
slaked lime, 1 lb. ; linseed oil, 12 oz. ; 
white Burgundy pitch, 4 oz. ; Spanish 
white, 6 lb., to be mixed as follows : The 
lime to be slaked in water, exposed to the 
air, mixed in about % of the milk ; the 
oil, in which the pitch must be previously 
dissolved, to be added a little at a time, 
then the rest of the milk, and afterward 
the Spanish white. This quantity is sufii- 
cient for more than 50 square yards cov- 
ered with two coats. 

Outdoor Work, Durable Paint for. 

Grind powdered charcoal in linseed oil, 
with sufficient litharge as a drier. Thin 
for use with boiled linseed oil. 

Red Oxide of Iron Paints. 

1. — Bright Red Paint. — Pure bright red 
oxide, 336 lb. ; common barytes, 112 lb. ; 
China clay, 112 lb. ; whiting, 112 lb. ; raw 
linseed oil, 9 gal. 

2. — Specialty Red Oxide Paint for Gas- 
ometers, etc. — Red oxide, 392 lb. ; barytes, 
784 lb. ; whiting, 84 lb. ; boiled linseed oil, 
112 lb. ; raw oil, 224 lb. ; varnish bottoms, 
58 lb. ; turpentine, 42 lb. ; driers, 224 lb. 

3. — Turkey Red Paint. — Pure bright 
red oxide, 448 lb. ; raw linseed oil, 10 gal. 
A little varnish foots should also be used. 
Note. — A turkey red (dry) must be a 
very fine, bright, strong pigment, better 
than a super- Venetian red. 

Roof Paint, Elastic. 

The following formula yields a paint 
which is water and weather proof, suit- 
able for wood or metal, and very lasting : 
Gum shellac, % lb. ; soft water, 1 gal. ; 
common soda, 1 oz. Place on fire, keep 
hot, but do not boil. When all is dis- 
solved (say in 1 to 2 hours), remove and 
put in cans. 

Rubber Paint. 

An extremely endurable paint may be 
made by first macerating rubber in any of 
the solvents until of a pasty consistency, 
next dissolving it in linseed oil heated 

[ 



(Paints, Silicate) 



until the solvent is evaporated, and then 
mixing in by grinding a proportionate 
quantity of graphite. — Matthews. 

Sail Cloth Paints. 

Drah. — Dark boiled oil, 4 gal. ; burnt 
umber, 35 lb. ; patent driers, 63 lb. ; white 
lead, 56 lb. ; raw linseed oil, 2^/^ gal. ; 
turps, 2 gal. ; soft soap, 3 lb. ; glycerine, 
1 pt. 

Stone Buff.— White lead, 56 lb. ; yellow 
ocher, 42 lb. ; orange chrome, 7 lb. ; boiled 
oil, 414 gal. ; raw oil, 1% gal. ; patent 
driers, 63 lb.; soft soap, 3i^ lb.; glyc- 
erine, 1 pt. 

Ship, Submarine Works, etc. 

Concentrated solution of 160 lb. pot- 
ash ; grape sugar, 80 lb. ; add a solution 
of 320 lb. sulphate of copper. When this 
solution is heated a precipitate of hy- 
drated oxide of copper is formed ; this is 
filtered, carefully dried and mixed with 
6% lb. 75% carbolic acid. Heat the mass 
and add about 9% gal. crude linseed oil. 
When this paint is to be used, reduce with 
linseed oil. It is said to be poisonous to 
animal and vegetable bodies depositing 
themselves on vessels. 

Anti-fouling Compositions. — (See the 
Scientific American Supplement, No. 
1536.) 

Silicate Paints. 

1. — When the surface to be painted is 
of a mineral nature, such as the exterior 
of a house, the pigments may be mixed 
with a vehicle consisting chiefly of water 
glass, or soda or potash silicate. This 
method of painting requires some care, 
and a knowledge of the chemical nature 
of the pigments used. Some colors are 
completely destroyed by the alkali con- 
tained in the water glass. Among those 
pigments which are not altered by the 
alkali may be mentioned lime carbonate, 
baryta white, zinc white, cadmium yel- 
low. Naples yellow, baryta chromate, 
chrome red, red ultramai-ine, blue ultra- 
marine, cobalt blue, cobalt green, chrome 
green, ivory black. When a wall is to be 
painted it should first be prepared with a 
mortar composed of pure fat lime and 
clean sharp sand. The water used should 
also be free from saline impurities, as 
these might subsequently effloresce and de- 
stroy the surface of the paint. When the 
surface of this plaster is dry, a weak solu- 
tion of water glass should he applied, and 
the operation repeated several times. 

2. — Dilute silicate of soda solution until 
it works well with the brush, and add dry 
coloring matter, such as will not be de- 
642 ] 



Paints. Varnishes. Etc. 



(Paints, Tungsten) 



composed by the chemical. Ochers, Vene- 
tian red, smalts, umbers and siennas may 
be employed. 

Stacks, Paint for. 

1. — Dissolve asphaltum in turpentine 
with the application of a gentle heat. Use 
when cold. Apply with a brush. 

2. — Paint the stack with thin coal tar 
mixed with finely ground plumbago. 
Make of the consistency of ordinary paint. 

Stencil Paints. 

Take shellac, 2 oz. ; borax, 2 oz. ; water, 
25 oz. ; gum arable, 2 oz. ; lampblack, a 
sufficiency. Boil the borax and shellac in 
water till they are dissolved, and with- 
draw from the fire. When the solution 
has become cold, complete 25 oz. with 
water and add lampblack enough to bring 
the preparation to a suitable consistency. 
When it is to be used with a stencil, it 
must be made thicker than when it is to 
be applied with a marking brush. The 
above gives a black ink ; for red, substi- 
tute Venetian red for lampblack ; for blue, 
ultramarine, and for green, a mixture of 
ultramarine and chrome yellow. 

Stoves, Paint for Sample. 

Paint the stove with paint made of 
powdered black lead and linseed oil, and 
polish in the ordinary way when dry. It 
may be left out in all kinds of weather 
without injury to the polish. 

Temperature Indicated by Paint. 

According to Tonner. 100 parts each 
of iodide of mercury and iodide of copper 
are carefully rubbed down with sufficient 
distilled water to produce a spreadable 
paste. The color of this combination, at 
ordinary temperature, is red ; at about 
140° F. it turns black, but goes back to its 
red color on cooling. It is admirably 
adapted to show the heating of machine 
parts in inaccessible places. 

Toys, Innoxious Color for Painting. 

White fine chalk, 6 parts ; calcined mag- 
nesia (thoroughly calcined), 3 parts. 
Add a few drops of indigo solution. 

Trunk Paint (Quick-drying). 

Black. — Brown hard varnish, 1 gal. ; 
mineral black, % lb. ; zinc sulphide, 1 lb. ; 
methylated spirit, 1 pt. 

Buff. — Brown hard varnish, 1 gal. ; 
lemon chrome, 2 lb. : sulphide of zinc, 1 
lb. ; ocher, % lb. ; methylated spirit, 1 pt. 

Tungsten Paints. 

The mineral colors from tungsten are 
obtained by "decomposing soluble tung- 

[ 



(Paints, Water) 



states by means of salts of the metals 
yielding insoluble phosphates. The tung- 
state of nickel produces a light green, 
tungstate of chromium a dark gray, tung- 
state of cobalt a violet or indigo blue and 
tungstate of barium a bright white color. 
Tungstic acid alone gives a fine light 
greenish yellow. All these colors may be 
employed for water or oil color paints ; 
the last is a really desirable and probably 
quite unchangeable color. 

Washable Paints. 

Herewith we give a complete series of 
the chief washable paints. This term is 
often reserved for water paints, as oil 
paints are naturally understood to be 
washable, but the following are oil and 
varnish mixings, which are inserted at 
this point for convenience and ready com- 
parison with water and silicate paints. 

Brickwork or Plaster. — Fine whiting, 
112 lb. ; boiled linseed oil, 35 lb. Process 
as before. No driers required. May be 
thinned with paraffine oil. 

Paper — Fine whiting, 112 lb. ; common 
oak varnish, 35 lbs. Process : Cover the 
whiting with water and allow to stand 5 
or 6 hours, then remove the water not ab- 
sorbed by the whiting and beat the pulpy 
mass to the consistency of batter, add the 
varnish and mix well till of a creamy con- 
sistency. Stain to shade required by 
using colors ground in boiled linseed oil. 

Woodwork. — Fine whiting, 112 lb. ; 
boiled linseed oil, 35 lbs. Process : Treat 
the whiting as before, add the boiled lin- 
seed oil, stir well together, and stain as 
before. A small quantity of patent driers 
may be added if desired. Thin with turps 
and raw linseed oil in equal quantities. 

Water Paint. 

Slake any quantity of stone lime by 
putting it in a tub and covering up to 
keep in the steam. When slaked pass 
through a fine sieve, and to each 6 qt. of 
lime add 1 qt. of rock salt in powder and 
1 gal. of water. Boil all together and 
skim clean. To each 5 gal. of this liquid 
add powdered alum, 1 lb. ; powdered green 
copperas, % lb. ; add very slowly pow- 
dered caustic potash, % lb. ; fine sand, 4 
lbs. Thoroughly mix together and apply 
with a brush. When dry is as durable as 
slate, and if used on brick or stone walls 
will render the latter impervious to wet. 
For buff use 1 lb. of Oxford ocher to 1 
gal. of liquid. For stone use ^2 lb. of 
ocher to 1 gal. of liquid. 

Silicate of Soda Water Paint. — The fol- 
lowing process will yield good results and 
will give a paint which may be used as a 
643] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Paints, Waterproof) 



water or oil paint by thinning with water, 
or in the ordinary manner by the use of 
linseed or boiled oil, or it may be mixed 
ready for use by the addition of the sili- 
cate oil substitute. With the exception 
of blues of the Prussian class, Brunswick 
greens, and, to some extent, chromes, all 
colors may be ground with this oil substi- 
tute. 

Liquid. — 1. — Silicate of soda, 45"* 
Beaurae, 112 lb. ; pale rosin, 28 lb. ; water, 
20 gal. 

2.— Silicate of soda, 45° Beaume, 112 
lb.; black rosin, 28 lb.; water, 20 gal. 
Process : Boil the water and silicate of 
soda together, and, while boiling, sift in 
the rosin, which should be coarsely pow- 
dered, stirring all the while. Boil till the 
rosin is all dissolved, then strain through 
coarse canvas. Mix with oil in the fol- 
lowing proportions : 

Oil Substitute.— l.—^o. 1 liquid, 112 
lb. ; raw linseed oil, 112 lb. 

2.— No. 2 liquid, 112 lb. ; boiled linseed 
oil, 112 lb. These oils dry well, and with 
a moderate gloss, and harden with ex- 
posure. 

Waterproof Water Paint. 

A waterproof paint may be made by 
dissolving in 2 qt. of water 1 lb. brown 
soap and then adding 6 qt. boiled oil and 
1 oz. vitriol. After removing from the 
fire, add 2 qt.' turpentine with any color 
it is desired to mix with it. Strain well 
and thin with turpentine. 

Black Waterproof Paint. — Carbon 
black, 10 lbs.; Paris white, 90 lbs.; 
barytes. 60 lb. ; litharge, 21 lb. : white 
lead, 21 lb. ; soft soap, 17 lb. ; boiled oil. 
10 lb. ; raw linseed oil, 10 lb. ; water, 100 
lb. May also contain varnish. 

Elastic Waterproof Paint. — 1. — There 
are a large number of mixtures used as 
bases for these paints, but it depends 
really upon the ultimate or special use of 
the paint when deciding upon a medium. 
The following makes suitable application 
for horse, rick and sail cloths, tents, shop 
blinds, etc. It will dry fairly quickly and 
the coating will prove efficient for quite a 
considerable period, but two or even three 
coats should be laid on, and then the re- 
sistance to wet will endure as long as the 
fabric of the sheet itself. Any other color 
would be produced by substituting the 
pigment desired for that in the recipe. 

2. — Black. — Boiled oil, 5 gal. ; turps, 
4 gal. ; bone black, 17 lb. ; yellow soap, 
21/2 lb. ; Chinese blue. 1 lb. 

Emulsion Waterproof Paint. — Ocher, 
96 lb. ; lampblack, 16 lb. ; boiled linseed 
oil, 42 lb. This quantity of boiled oil 



(Size) 



must be decreased or increased if the re- 
sulting consistency is not satisfactory 
when mixed. It depends upon the absorp- 
tive properties of the ocher and lamp- 
black. Then add yellow soap, 2 lb., dis- 
solved in water (hot), 1 gal., and reduce, 
if necessary, to the consistency of thick 
varnish with more boiled oil. Any color 
can be obtained by using the usual pig- 
ments. 

Liquid Gold Paint. — Dextrine, 400 gr. ; 
bichromate of potash, 1 gr. ; bronze pow- 
der, 65 gr. ; water, as may be required. 

White Waterproof Paint. — Zinc oxide, 
112 lb.; genuine white lead (ground in 
oil), 112 lb.; barytes, 122 lb.; Paris 
white, 336 lb.; linseed oil, 88 lb.; soft 
soap (potash), 56 lb.; water (26 gal.), 
260 lb. ; also ly^ gal. extra pale copal 
varnish. 

Window Paint. 

Mix with white lead, boiled oil or var- 
nish, and a small quantity of driers (no 
turps, which hardens for the time, being 
a volatile oil, and therefore objectionable 
in this case) ; paint this over the glass 
thinly, and stipple it. If you have not a 
proper brush, make a large pledget of cot- 
ton wool or tow, cover it with a clean bit 
of linen rag, and quickly dab it over the 
paint. 

Zinc. 

To Prepare for Painting. — Dissolve 1 
part of chloride of copper, 1 part of ni- 
trate of copper and 1 part of sal am- 
moniac in 64 parts of water and add 1 
part of commercial hydrochloric acid. 
Brush the zinc over with this, which gives 
it a deep black. Leave to dry 24 hours, 
when any oil color will firmly adhere to 
it, and withstand both heat and damp. 

To Protect Roofing from Rust. — Zinc 
sheets for roofing can easily be protected 
against rust by the following simple 
process : Clean the plates by immersing 
them in water to which 5% of sulphuric 
acid has been added, then wash with pure 
water, allow to dry and coat with asphalt 
varnish. Asphalt varnish is prepared by 
dissolving 1 to 2 parts asphalt in 10 parts 
benzine ; the solution should be poured 
evenly over the plates and the latter 
placed in an upright position to dry. 

SIZE 

Gold Size. — 1. — (Oil Size). — Drying or 
boiled oil thickened with yellow ocher or 
calcined red ocher. and carefully reduced 
to the utmost smoothness by grinding.' It 
is thinned with oil of turpentine. Im- 
proves by age. Used for oil gilding. 



[644] 



Paints^ VarnisheSf Etc. 



(Size) 



2. — (Water Size). — Parchment or isin- 
glass size mixed with finely ground yel- 
low ocher. Used in burnished or distem- 
per gilding. 

3. — Place boiled oil in a stone pot and 
place on a gentle fire, and allow the heat 
to rise almost to the point of ignition, 
then set fire to it, and let it burn until it 
is thick, then put on the cover to extin- 
guish the flames. Now strain through silk 
and thin with turpentine. 

4.-— The following is highly recommend- 
ed : Heat slowly 8 oz. best drying oil and 
just before it comes to a boil add 2 oz. 
gum animi, boil until of the consistency 
of tar, then strain through silk. A little 
finely ground vermilion may be added if 
desired ; thin with turpentine. Dilute 
Vt'ith oil of turpentine. 

5. — Gold size is prepared from i/^ lb. 
linseed oil with 2 oz. gum animi ; the lat- 
ter is reduced to powder and gradually 
added to the oil while being heated in a 
flask, stirring it after every addition until 
the whole is dissolved ; the mixture is 
boiled until a small quantity, when taken 
out, is somewhat thicker than tar, and the 
whole is strained through a coarse cloth. 
When used, it must be ground with as 
much vermilion as will render it opaque, 
and at the same time be diluted with oil 
of turpentine, so as to make it work freely 
with the pencil. 

6.— Black Gold Size.— Triturate 1 oz. 
gold size with enough lampblack to form 
a dense color. Thin with turpentine. 

7. — Japanners' Gold Size. — Lead ace- 
tate, % lb. ; gum animi, 4 lb. : turpentine, 
1% gal. : drying oil, 1 gal. Boil the gum 
in the oil for 4 hours, add the other ma- 
terials and strain. 

Ivorp Size or Jelly. — Boil ivory dust or 
ivory shavings in water. This forms a 
beautiful size or jelly. 

Painters' Size. — Boil raw oil in a pan 
till a black smoke emits therefrom; then 
set it on a fire, and, after burning for a 
few minutes, cover the pan to put out 
the blaze ; pour the oil while warm into a 
bottle in which some pulverized red lead 
and litharge have been introduced. Stand 
the bottle in a warm place for 2 weeks, 
shaking often. It will then be ready to 
decant and bottle. 

Parchment Size. — This consists of 
gutta percha softened and extended in 
ether. It furnishes a preservative coating 
for pictures, cards, etc. Any extraneous 
matter is easily removed by means of a 
damp cloth. Easily eflPaceable charcoal or 
chalk drawings are fixed if this solution 
be distributed over their surface in fine 
spray. The ether evaporates and leaves 



(Stains) 



the gutta percha, which forms an ex- 
tremely thin but protective coating over 
the design. 

Sizing for Sign Work. — One of the best 
mordants or sizing for sign work is made 
by exposing boiled linseed oil to a strong 
heat in a pan ; when it begins to smoke, 
set fire to the oil, allow it to burn a mo- 
ment, and then suddenly extinguish it by 
covering the pan. When cold it will be 
ready for use, but will require thinning 
with a little turpentine. 

STAINS 

These exceedingly useful and salable 
articles are usually prepared by tinting a 
suitable spirit varnish with various solu- 
ble aniline dyes (walnut, oak, mahogany, 
etc.). The varnish is usually of the na- 
ture of a brown hard for the darker 
shades and white hard for the lighter 
shades. The dyes can be procured under 
the names spirit walnut, spirit oak, etc., 
from any dye manufacturer. 

The best woods for staining are those 
of close, even texture, as cherry, beech, 
birch and maple. The wood should be 
perfectly dry and planed and sandpapered 
very smooth. Nearly all of the stains 
should be applied hot, as this causes them 
to penetrate the pores more deeply. If 
the wood is to be varnished many of the 
dyes used in cloth dyeing may be used in 
alcoholic solutions, but the effect is not 
equal to the regular stain. In case the 
natural color of the wood prevents the 
wood being stained satisfactorily, bleach 
the wood by saturating with the follow- 
ing solution : Chloride of lime, 9 oz. ; soda 
crystals, 1 oz. ; water, 2% qt. The wood 
may be bleached in this for ^ hour. 
Wash with a solution of sulphurous acid, 
then with water. 

Age, To Give an Appearance of. — Boil 
% lb. madder and 2 oz. logwood chips in 
1 gal. of water and brush well over while 
hot ; when dry go over the whole with 
pearlash solution, 2 dr. to the qt. 

1. — Boil % lb. logwood in 3 pt. of 
water and add % oz. salt of tartar. Stain 
the wood with the liquor boiling hot. 

2. — Boil in % lb. madder and % lb. 
fustic in 1 gal. of water ; use hot, as 
before. 

Varnish Base. — 1. — Powdered manilla 
copal, 56 lb. ; powdered common rosin, 112 
lb. ; methylated spirit, 18 gal. 

2. — Spirit copal. 84 lb. ; turpentine var- 
nish, 6 gal. ; methylated spirit, 18 gal. 

Black. — 1. — Obtained by boiling to- 
gether blue Brazil wood, powdered gall 
apples and alum in rain or river water 
until it becomes black. This liquid is 



[645 1 



Paint Sy Varnishes, Etc. 



(Stains) 



then filtered through a fine organzine, and 
the objects painted with a new brush be- 
fore the decoction has cooled, and this 
repeated until the wood appears of a fine 
black color. It is then coated with the 
following liquid : A mixture of iron 
filings, vitriol and vinegar is heated (with- 
out boiling), and left a few days to settle. 
Even if the wood is black enough, yet for 
the sake of durability it must be coated 
with a solution of alum and nitric acid, 
mixed with a little verdigris ; then a de- 
coction of gall apples and logwood dyes 
is used to give it a deep black. A decoc- 
tion may be made of brown Brazil wood 
with alum in rain water, without gall 
apples ; the wood is left standing in it 
for some days in a moderately warm 
place, and to it merely iron filings in 
strong vinegar are added, and both are 
boiled with the wood over a gentle fire. 
For this purpose soft pear wood is chosen, 
which is preferable to all others for black 
staining. 

2. — 1 oz. nutgall, broken into small 
pieces, put into barely % pt. vinegar, 
which must be contained in an open ves- 
sel ; let stand for about i^ hour ; add 1 
oz. steel filings ; the vinegar will then 
commence effervescing; cover up, but not 
sufficient to exclude all air. The solution 
must then stand for about 2^?^ hours, 
when it will be ready for use. Apply 
the solution with a brush or piece of rag 
to the article, then let it remain until 
dry ; if not black enough, coat it until 
it is — each time, of course, letting it re- 
main sufficiently long to dry thoroughly. 
After the solution is made, keep it in a 
closely corked bottle. 

3. — Water, 1 gal. ; logwood chips, 1 lb. ; 
black copperas, % lb. ; extract of log- 
wood, % lb. ; indigo blue, % lb. ; lamp- 
black, 2 oz. Put these into an iron pot 
and boil them over a slow fire. When the 
mixture is cool, strain it through a cloth, 
add % oz. nutgall. It is then ready for 
use. This is a good black for all kinds 
of cheap work. 

4. — Campeachy wood, 250 parts ; water, 
2,000 parts, and copper sulphate, 30 
parts ; the wood is allowed to stand 24 
hours in this liquor, dried in the air, and 
finally immersed in iron nitrate liquor at 
4° B. 

5. — Boil 8% oz. logwood in 70 oz. 
^ater and 1 oz. bluestone, and steep the 
Wood for 24 hours. Take out, expose to 
the air for a long time, and then steep 
for 12 hours in a beck of iron nitrate at 
4° B. If the black is not fine, steep 
again in logwood liquor. 

6. — It is customary to employ the clear 



(Stains) 



liquid obtained by treating 2 parts pow- 
dered galls with 15 parts wine, and mix- 
ing the filtered liquid with a solution of 
iron protosulphate. Reimann recom- 
mends the use of water in the place of 
wine. 

7. — Almost any wood can be dyed black 
by the following means : Take logwood 
extract such as is found in commerce, 
powder 1 oz., and boil it in 3^ pt. of 
water ; when the extract is dissolved, add 
1 dr. of potash yellow chromate (not the 
bichromate), and agitate the whole. The 
operation is now finished, and the liquid 
will serve equally well to write with or 
to stain wood. Its color is a very fine 
dark purple, which becomes a pure black 
when applied to the wood. 

8. — For black and gold furniture, pro- 
cure 1 lb. logwood chips, add 2 qt. of 
water, boil 1 hour, brush the liquor in 
hot, when dry give another coat. Now 
procure 1 oz. of green copperas, dissolve 
it in warm water, well mix, and brush the 
solution over the wood ; it will bring out 
a fine black ; but the wood should be dried 
outdoors, as the black sets better. A 
common stove brush Is best. If polish 
cannot be used, proceed as foHows : Fill 
up the grain with Mack glue — i.e., thin 
glue and lampblack — brushed over the 
parts accessible (not in the carvings) ; 
when dry, smooth down wi4:h fine paper. 
Now procure, say, a gill of French polish, 
in which mix 1 oz. best ivory black, or gas 
black is best ; shake it well until quite 
a thick pasty mass ; procure % pt. of 
brown hard varnish, pour a portion into 
a cup, add enough black polish to make 
it quite dark, then varnish the work ; two 
thin coats are better than one thick coat. 
The first coat may be glasspapered down 
where accessible, as it will look better. 
A coat of glaze over the whole gives a 
London finish. N. B. — Enough varnish 
should be mixed at once for the job to 
make it all one color-<t. e., a good black. 

9. — For Table. — Wash the surface of 
table with liquid ammonia, applied with a 
piece of rag ; the varnish will then peel 
off like a skin ; afterward smooth down 
with fine sandpaper. Mix % lb. lamp- 
black with 1 qt. of hot water, adding a 
little glue size ; rub this stain well in : 
let it dry before sandpapering it ; smooth 
again. Mind you do not work through 
the stain. Afterward apply the following 
black varnish with a broad, fine camel's- 
hair brush : Mix a small quantity of gas 
black with the varnish. If one coat of 
varnish is not sufficient, apply a second 
one after the first is dry. Gas black can 
be obtained by boiling a pot over the gas, 



[646] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Stains) 



letting the pot nearly touch the burner, 
when a fine jet black will form on the 
bottom, which remove, and mix with the 
varnish. Copper vessels give the best 
black : it may be collected from barbers' 
warming pots. 

10. — Boil 17.5 oz. of Brazil wood and 
0.525 oz. of alum for 1 hour in 2.75 lb. 
of water. The colored liquor is then fil- 
tered from the boiled Brazil wood, and 
applied several times, boiling hot, to the 
wood to be stained. This will assume a 
violet color. This violet color can be 
easily changed into black by preparing a 
solution of 2.1 oz. of iron filings and 1.05 
oz. of common salt in 17.5 oz. of vinegar. 
The solution is filtered, and applied to 
the wood, which -will then acquire a beau- 
tiful black color. 

11.— Boil 8.75 oz. of gallnuts and 2.2 
lb. of logwood in 2.2 lb. of rain water 
for 1 hour in a copper boiler. The decoc- 
tion is then filtered through a cloth and 
applied several times, while it is still 
warm, to the article of wood to be stained. 
In this manner a beautiful black will be 
obtained. 

12. — This is prepared by dissolving 
0.525 oz. of logwood extract in 2.2 lb. of 
hot rain water, and by adding to the log- 
wood solution 0.035 oz. of potash chro- 
mate. When this is applied several times 
to the article to be stained, a dark brown 
color will first be obtained. To change 
this into a deep chrome black, the solu- 
tion of iron filings, common salt and vine- 
gar, given under 10, is applied to the 
wood, and the desired color will be pro- 
duced. 

13. — Several coats of alizarine ink are 
applied to the wood, but every coat must 
be thoroughly dry before the other is 
put on. When the articles are dry the 
solution of iron filings, common salt and 
Vinegar, as given in 10, is applied to the 
wood, and a very durable black will be 
obtained. 

14. — According to Herzog, a black stain 
for wood, giving to it a color resembling 
ebony, is obtained by treating the wood 
with two fluids, one after the other. The 
first fluid to be used consists of a very 
concentrated solution of logwood, and to 
0.35 oz. of this fluid are added 0.017 oz. 
of alum. The other fluid is obtained by 
digesting iron filings in vinegar. After 
the wood has been dipped in the first hot 
fluid, it is allowed to dry, and is then 
treated with the second fluid, several 
times, if necessary. 

15. — Sponge the wood with a solution 
of aniline chlorhydrate in water, to which 
a small quantity of copper chloride is 



(Stains) 



added. Allow it to dry, and go over it 
with a solution of potassium bichromate. 
Repeat the process 2 or 3 times, and the 
wood will take a fine black color. 

16. — Put iron filings, or the scales from 
a smith's forge in a bottle, so as to fill 
it, say, a quarter full. Fill up with 
strong vinegar. Shake this up a couple 
of times a day for 3 or 4 days. Now 
boil some ground logwood in water, so 
as to make a strong decoction. Put this, 
while hot, on the wood, and before it is 
quite dry put on the vinegar and iron. 
When the wood is allowed to dry before 
the iron is put on the inner grain of the 
wood remains red in places. Oil to get a 
good black. 

Blue. — 1. — Place the following ingredi- 
ents in a clean glass jar : Sulphuric 
acid, 4 oz. ; powdered indigo, 1 oz. Stand 
the jar in an earthenware pan lest they 
boil over. When the effervescence has 
ceased add sufficient of the mixture to 
clean rain water as will give the requisite 
shade on a trial slip of wood. Then ap- 
ply to the work, using a clean bristle 
brush. The color is much improved by 
keeping before use. 

2. — Oxford Blue. — Methylated spirit, 5 
gal. ; orange shellac, 8 lb. ; lemon rosin, 
4 lb. ; elemi, 3 lb. ; fast acid blue, B., 4 
oz. ; azo-fuchsine, S., 1% dr. 

Brown. — 1. — Various tones may be 
produced by mordanting with potash chro- 
mate, and applying a decoction of fustic, 
of logwood, or of peachwood. 

2. — Sulphuric acid, more or less dilut- 
ed, according to the intensity of the color 
to be produced, is applied with a brush 
to the wood, previously cleaned and dried. 
A lighter or darker brown stain is ob- 
tained, according to the strength of the 
acid. When the acid has acted sufficiently 
its further action is arrested by the ap- 
plication of ammonia. 

3. — ^Tincture of iodine yields a fine 
brown coloration, which, however, is not 
permanent unless the air is excluded by 
a thick coating of polish. 

4. — A simple brown wash is % oz. of 
alkanet root, 1 oz. of aloes, and 1 oz. of 
dragon's blood, digested in 1 lb. of alco- 
hol. This is applied after the wood has 
been washed with aqua regia, but is, like 
all the alcoholic washes, not very dur- 
able. 

Buif. — Methylated spirit, 5 gal. ; or- 
ange shellac, 10 lb. ; amber rosin, ^V^ 
lb. ; elemi, 2^^ lb. ; Indian yellow, G., 
1% dr. ; lac orange, C, 1 dr. ; azo-fuch- 
sine, G., 1 dr. ; fast green bluish, % dr. 

Canary. — Methylated spirit, 5 gal. ; 
bleached shellac, 8 lb. ; lemon rosin, 4 



[647] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Stains) 



lb. ; elemi, 3 lb. ; Indian yellow, G., 3 
oz. ; lac orange, C., % oz. 

Cedar Wood Imitation. — Small articles 
of whitewood can be given the appearance 
of cedar by means of a stain composed 
of 200 parts of catechu (Japanese earth), 
100 parts of caustic soda and 1,000 parts 
of water. In this stain the articles must 
be boiled for several hours, then rinsed 
off and dried, and if they are not dark 
enough, boil over again. This stain pene- 
trates so deeply into the wood that the 
colored articles can be worked over again. 

Cherry or Crimson Stain. — 1. — Alkanet 
root, 15 gr. ; aloes, 30 gr. ; powdered 
dragon's blood, 30 gr. ; 95% alcohol, 500 
gr. Mix, and let stand in a tightly corked 
bottle some days. Go over the wood with 
dilute (1 in 10) nitric acid first. This 
is pretty dark. You may lighten by using 
more alcohol. 

2. — Methylated spirit, 5 gal. ; lemon 
rosin, 7 lb. ; garnet shellac, 4 lb. ; orange 
shellac, 4 lb. ; spirit of cherry, 8 lb. 

Ehonizing. — 1. — Boil 1 lb. of logwood 
chips 1 hour in 2 qt. of water ; brush 
the hot liquor over the work to be stained, 
and lay aside to dry ; when dry, give 
another coat, still using it hot. When 
the second coat is dry, brush the follow- 
ing liquor over the work : Green cop- 
peras, 1 oz., to 1 qt. of hot water, to be 
used when the copperas is all dissolved. 
It will bring out an intense black when 
dry. For staining, the work must not 
be dried by fire, but in the sunshine, if 
possible ; if not, in a warm room, away 
from the fire. To polish this work, first 
give a coating of very thin glue size, and 
when quite dry smooth off very lightly 
with No. paper, only just enough to 
render smooth, but not to remove the 
black stain. Then make a rubber of 
wadding about the size of a walnut, mois- 
ten the rubber with French polish, cover 
the whole tightly with a double linen 
rag, put one drop of oil on the surface, 
and rub the work with a circular mo- 
tion. Should the rubber stick, it requires 
more polish. Previous to putting the 
French polish on the wadding pledget it 
ought to be mixed with the best drop 
black, in the proportion of ^4 oz. of drop 
black to 1 gill of French polish. When 
the work has received one coat, set it 
aside to dry for about an hour. After 
the first coat is laid on, and thoroughly 
dry, it should be partly papered off with 
No. paper. This brings the surface 
even, and at the same time fills up the 
grain. Now give a second coat, as be- 
fore. Allow 24 hours to elapse, again 
smooth off, and give a final coat as be- 



( Stains) 



fore. Now comes spiriting off. Great 
care must be used here, or the work will 
be dull instead of bright. A clean rub- 
ber must be made, as previously described, 
but instead of being moistened with pol- 
ish it must be wetted with 90% alcohol, 
placed in a linen rag screwed into a 
tight, even surface ball, just touched on 
the face with a drop of oil, and then 
rubbed lightly and quickly in circular 
sweeps all over the work, from top to 
bottom. One application of spirits is 
usually enough if sufficient has been 
placed on the rubber at the outset ; but 
it is better to use rather too little than 
too much at a time, as an excess will en- 
tirely remove the polish, when the work 
will have to be polished again. Should 
this be the case, paper off at once, and 
commence as at first. It is the best way 
in the end. 

2. — Lauber dissolves extract of logwood 
in boiling water until the solution indi- 
cates 0° Baume ; 5 pt. of the solution is 
then mixed with 2i/^ pt. of pyroligneous 
iron mordant of 10° and % pt. of acetic 
acid of 2°. The mixture is heated for 
44 hour, and is then ready for use. 

3. — To imitate black ebony, first wet 
the wood with a solution of logwood and 
copperas, boiled together, and laid on hot. 
For this purpose, 2 oz. of logwood chips, 
with 1% oz. of copperas to 1 qt. of water 
will be required. When the work has 
become dry, wet the surface again with 
a mixture of vinegar and steel filings. 
This mixture may be made by dissolving 
2 oz. of steel filings in ^2 pt. of vinegar. 
When the work has become dry again, 
sandpaper down until quite smooth. Then 
oil, and fill in with powdered drop black 
mixed in the filler. Work to be ebonized 
should be smooth and free from holes, etc. 
The work may receive a light coat of 
quick-drying varnish, and then be rubbed 
with finely pulverized pumice and linseed 
oil until very smooth. 

4. — Strong vinegar, 1 gal. ; extract of 
logwood, 2 lb. ; green copperas, ^^ lb. : 
China blue, % lb.; nutsrall, 2 oz. Put 
these in an iron pot, and boil them over 
a slow fire till they are well dissolved. 
When cool, the mixture is ready for use. 
Add to the above % pt. of iron rust, 
which may be obtained by scraping rusty 
hoops, or preferably by steeping iron fil- 
ings in a solution of acetic acid or strong 
vinegar. 

5. — For the fine black ebony stain, ap- 
ple, pear and hazel woods are the best 
woods to use; when stained black they 
are most complete imitations of the natu- 
ral ebony. For the stain, take gall apple, 



[648] 



Pamts, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Stains) 



14 oz. ; rasped logwood, 3% oz.; vitriol, 
1% oz. ; verdigris, 1% oz. For the sec- 
ond coating a mixture of iron filings 
(pure), 3% oz., dissolved in strong wine 
vinegar; 1^2 pt- are warmed, and, when 
cool, the wood, already blackened, is coat- 
ed 2 or 3 times with it, allowing it to 
dry after each coat. For articles which 
are to be thoroughly saturated, a mix- 
ture of 1% oz. of sal ammoniac, with a 
sufficient quantity of steel filings, is to 
be placed in a suitable vessel, strong vine- 
gar poured upon it, and left for 14 days 
in a gently heated oven. A strong lye is 
now put into a suitable pot, to which is 
^dded coarsely bruised gall apples and 
blue Brazil shavings, and exposed for the 
same time as the former to the gentle 
heat of an oven, which will then yield 
a good liquid. The woods are now laid 
in the first named stain, boiled for a few 
hours, and left in it for 3 days longer ; 
they are then placed in the second stain, 
and treated as in the first. If the arti- 
cles are not then thoroughly saturated 
they may be once more placed in the first 
bath, and then in the second. The polish 
used for wood that is stained black should 
be white (colorless) polish, to which a 
very little finely ground Prussian blue 
should be added. 

6.— Manilla, 160 lb. ; rosin, 20 lb. ; cas- 
tor oil, % lb. ; methylated spirit, 25 gal. ; 
wood spirit, 2 gal. ; benzoin, 1 lb. ; ani- 
line black, 3 lb. ; fusel oil, % gal. 

7. — Methylated spirit, 5 gal. ; garnet 
shellac, 8 lb. ; dark rosin, 7 lb. ; spirit of 
ebony, 10 oz. 

8. — Spirit black, 3 oz., to 1 gal. of var- 
nish base. 

9. — Leave out dyes in oak stain, and 
add 4 lb. of black aniline. 

Gray. — 1. — Grays may be produced by 
boiling 17 oz. of orchil paste for % hour 
in 7 pt. of water. The wood is first 
treated with this solution, and then, be- 
fore it is dry, steeped in a beck of iron 
nitrate at 1° B. An excess of iron gives 
a yellowish tone ; otherwise, a blue gray 
is produced, which may be completely 
converted into blue by means of a little 
potash. 

_ 2. — Silver nitrate, 1 part, dissolved in 
distilled water, 50 parts ; wash over twice, 
then with hydrochloric acid, and after- 
ward with water of ammonia. The wood 
is allowed to dry in the dark, and then 
finished in oil, and polished. 

Green. — 1. — In order to secure diversity 
of shades, make two solutions, as follows, 
and mix in any proportion preferred, re- 
membering that the indigo darkens the 
tint. The most generally used combina- 

[ 



(Stains) 



tion will be 6 parts of (a) to 1 part of 
(b) : (a) Verdigris, 4 oz. ; vinegar, 40 
oz. (b) Indigo, 4 dr.; vinegar, 20 oz. 
Both (a) and (b) will be better if boiled 
for 10 minutes during solution. 

2. — Water, 27.5 kgm. ; ground garnet 
shellac, 2.75 kgm. ; ground borax, 1.38 
kgm. ; water-soluble green tar dyestufif, 
0.37 kgm. 

3. — Spirit sage green, 3 oz., to 1 gal. 
of varnish base. 

4. — Bronze Green. — Methylated spirit, 
5 gal. ; garnet shellac, 8 lb. ; black rosin, 
7 lb. ; fast yellow extra, 21/^ oz. ; fast 
green bluish, 1 oz. ; orange, H. B., 80 gr. ; 
azo-fuchsine, 40 gr. 

5. — Dark Green. — Methylated spirit, 5 
gal. ; garnet shellac, 8 lb. ; dark rosin, 7 
lb. ; acid green, G. G., 3% oz. ; naphthol 
yellow, S., 1% oz. ; fast acid violet, 10 
B., % oz. ; orange, H. B., i/^ dr. 

6. — Olive Green. — Methylated spirit, 5 
gal. ; garnet shellac, 8 lb. ; black rosin, 4 
lb. ; elemi, 3 lb. ; fast yellow, extra, 3 oz. ; 
fast green, bluish, 5i/^ dr. ; orange, H. B., 
70 gr. 

■ 7. — Verdant Green. — Methylated spirit, 
5 gal. ; orange shellac, 8 lb. ; lemon rosin, 
5 lb. ; elemi, 2 lb. ; naphthol yellow, S., 
2% oz. ; fast light green, 1 oz. 

Jacaranda or Violet Wood. — 1. — Im- 
merse walnut, alder, cherry or beech in 
a hot decoction of Brazil wood and pot- 
ash. Put in the black veins afterward 
by means of a brush charged with a so- 
lution of sulphate of iron. 

2. — Soak pear, beech, ash, elm, alder, 
poplar or birch for 24 hours in a hot so- 
lution consisting of walnut shells, 5 parts ; 
acetic acid, 1 part ; water, 80 to 100 
parts. Finally dry in the air. 

Mahogany Stain. — 1. — Water, 27.5 
kgm. ; ground orange shellac, 2.75 kgm. ; 
ground borax, 1.38 kgm. ; water-soluble 
tar dyestuff (mahogany red), 0.560 kgm. 

2. — Methylated spirit, 5 gal. ; orange 
shellac, 10 lb. ; amber rosin, 5 lb. ; spirit 
mahogany, 8 oz. 

3. — Rub the wood with a solution of 
nitrous acid, and then apply with a brush 
the following : Dragon's blood, 1 oz. : 
sodium carbonate, 6 dr. ; alcohol, 20 oz. 
Filter just before use. 

4. — Rub the . wood with a solution of 
potassium carbonate, 1 dr. to 1 pt. of 
water, and then apply a dye made by boil- 
ing together, madder, 2 oz. ; logwood chips, 
% oz. : water, 1 qt. 

5. — Mordant the wood with dilute nitric 
acid, and apply the following : Alkanet, 
% oz. ; aloes, 1 oz. ; dragon's blood, 1 oz. : 
alcohol, 1 pt. 

6.— Manilla, 160 lb. ; rosin, 24 lb. ; cas- 
649] 



Paint Sf Varnishes^ Etc. 



(Stains) 



tor oil, % lb. ; methylated spirit, 25 gal. ; 
AYOod spirit, 2 gal. ; benzoin, 1 lb. ; Bis- 
marck brown, 2 lb. ; black aniline, ^ lb. ; 
fusel oil, ^ gal. 

7. — Spirit mahogany, 3 oz., to 1 gal. of 
varnish base. 

8. — Leave out dyes in oak stain and add 
Bismarck brown, 2 lb. ; black aniline, 1 
oz. 

Oak. — 1. — Methylated spirit, 5 gal. ; 
garnet shellac, 8 lb. ; dark rosin, 7 lb. ; 
spirit of oak, 8 oz. 

2. — Benzoin, 1 lb. ; manilla, 144 lb. ; 
rosin, 20 lb. ; methylated spirit, 16 gal. ; 
solvent naphtha (wood), 2 gal.; fusel 
oil, % gal. ; yellow aniline, 10 oz. ; black 
aniline, 3 oz. ; castor oil, % lb. 

3. — Mix powdered ocher, Venetian red 
and umber in size, in proportions to suit ; 
or a richer stain may be made with raw 
sienna, burnt sienna and Vandyke. A light 
yellow stain of raw sienna alone is very 
eifective. 

4. — Darkening Oak. — Lay on liquid am- 
monia with a rag or brush. The color 
deepens immediately, and does not fade ; 
this being an. artificial production of the 
process which is induced naturally by 
age. Potash bichromate, dissolved in cold 
water, and applied in a like manner, will 
produce a very similar result. 

5. — In Germany, the cabinetmakers use 
very strong coffee for darkening oak. To 
make it very dark : Iron filings with a 
little sulphuric acid and water, put on 
with a sponge, and allowed to dry be- 
tween each application, until the right 
hue is reached. 

6. — Whitewash with fresh lime, and, 
when dry, brush off the lime with a hard 
brush and dress well with linseed oil. 
It should be done after the wood has been 
worked, and it will make not only the 
wood, but the carving or molding, look 
old also. 

7. — Use a strong solution of common 
washing soda, say 1 or 2 coats, until the 
proper color is obtained. Or you may 
try potash carbonate. Paper, and finish 
off with linseed oil. 

8.— A decoction of green walnut shells 
will bring new oak to any shade, or near- 
ly black. : 

9. — A good method of producing the 
peculiar olive brown of old oak is by 
fumigation with liquid ammonia ; the 
method has many advantages beyond the 
expense of making a case or room air- 
tight, and the price of the ammonia. It 
does not raise the grain, the work keep- 
ing as smooth as at first. Any tint, or, 
rather, depth of the color, can be give^ 
with certainty, and the darker shade of 



(Stains) 



color will be found to have penetrated 
to the depth of a veneer, and much farther 
where the end grain is exposed, thus do- 
ing away with the chance of an acciden- 
tal knock showing the white wood. The 
coloring is very even and pure, not de- 
stroying the transparency of the wood. 
It is advisable to make the furniture from 
one kind of stuff, not to mix English oak 
with Riga, and so on. They both take the 
color well, but there is a kind of Ameri- 
can red oak that does not answer well. 
In all cases care must be taken to have 
no glue or grease on the work, which 
would cause white spots to be left. The 
deal portions of the work are not affect- 
ed in the least, neither does it affect the 
sap of oak. The best kind of polish for 
furniture treated in this maner is wax 
polish, or the kind known as eggshell pol- 
ish. The process of fumigation is very 
simple. Get a large packing case, or, 
better still, make a room in a corner of 
the polishing shop, about 9 ft. long, 6 ft. 
high and 3 ft. 6 in. wide ; paste paper 
over the joints ; let the door close on to 
a strip of india-rubber tubing ; put a 
pane of glass in the side of the box or 
house to enable you to examine the prog- 
ress of coloring. In putting in your work, 
see that it does not touch anything to 
hinder the free course of the fumes. Put 
2 or 3 dishes on the floor to hold the 
ammonia; about % pt. is sufficient for a 
case this size. The ammonia differs in 
purity, some leaving more residue than 
others. Small articles can be done by 
simply covering them with a cloth, hav- 
ing a little spirits in a pot underneath. 
A good useful color can be given by leav- 
ing the things exposed to the fumes over- 
night. The color lightens on being pol- 
ished, owing to the transparency thus 
given to the wood. 

10. — ^Manilla gum, 84 lb. ; dark rosin, 84 
lb. ; yellow aniline, 9 oz. ; Bismarck 
brown, 7 oz. ; aniline black, 3 oz. ; methyl- 
ated spirit, 17 gal. ; petroleum, 4 gal. 

11. — Spirit of oak, 3 oz. to 1 gal. of 
varnish base. 

12. — Orange Yellow Tone to Oak Wood. 
— According to Niedling, a beautiful or- 
ange yellow tone, much admired in a chest 
at the Vienna Exhibition, may be impart- 
ed to oak wood by rubbing it in a warm 
room with a certain mixture until it ac- 
quires a dull polish, and then coating it, 
after an hour, with thin polish, and re- 
peating the coating of polish to improve 
the depth and brilliancy of the tone. The 
ingredients for the rubbing mixture are 
about 3 oz. of tallow, % oz. of wax and 



[650] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Stains) 



1 pt. of oil of turpentine, mixed by heat- 
ing together and stirring. 

13. — Nitric acid (aquafortis), 0.5 oz., 
is compounded with 1.57 oz. of rain water, 
and tiie article to be stained is brushed 
over with this. Undiluted nitric acid 
gives a brownish yellow color. 

14. — Digest 2.1 oz. of finely powdered 
turmeric for several days in 17.5 oz. of 
alcohol, 80% strong, and then strain 
through a cloth. This solution is applied 
to the articles to be stained. When they 
have become* entirely dry they are bur- 
nished and varnished. 

Orange Stain. — Yellow or orange stains 
generally result from the use of nitric 
acid or tuimeric. Thus, 2.1 oz. of finely 
powdered turmeric are digested for sev- 
eral days in 17.5 oz. of 80% alcohol, and 
then strained through a cloth. This solu- 
tion is applied to the articles to be stained. 
Nitric acid, diluted with 3 parts of water, 
is likewise used. A hot concentrated so- 
lution of picric acid can likewise be used. 

Purple. — 1. — Logwood chips, 1 lb. ; wa- 
ter, % gal. ; pearlash, 4 oz. ; powdered 
indigo, 2 oz. Boil the logwood in the wa- 
ter till the full strength is obtained, then 
add the pearlash and indigo, and when the 
ingredients are dissolved the mixture is 
ready for use, either warm or cold. This 
gives a beautiful purple. 

2. — To stain wood a rich purple or 
chocolate color, boil % lb. of madder and 
% lb. of fustic in 1 gal. of water, and 
when boiling brush over the work until 
stained. If the surface of the work should 
be perfectly smooth, brush over with a 
weak solution of nitric acid ; then finish 
with the following : Put 4% oz. of 
dragon's blood and 1 oz. of soda, both 
well bruised, into 3 pt. of 90% alcohol. 
Let it stand in a warm place, shake fre- 
quently, strain, and lay on with a soft 
brush, repeating until a proper color is 
gained. Polish with linseed oil or var- 
nish. 

Red. — 1. — The wood is plunged first in 
a solution of 1 oz. of curd soap in 35 
fl.oz. of water, or else is rubbed with the 
solution, then magenta is applied in a 
state of sufficient dilution to bring out 
the tone required. All the aniline colors 
behave very well on wood. 

2. — Red Stain for Bedsteads and Com- 
mon Chairs. — Archil will produce a very 
good stain of itself when used cold ; but 
if, after one or two coats being applied, 
and suffered to become almost dry, it is 
brushed over with a hot solution of pearl- 
ash in water, it will improve the color. 

Rosewood. — 1. — Spirit of rosewood. P., 

2 oz. to 1 gal. of varnish ; or spirit of 



(Stains) 



rosewood, R. S., 2 oz. to 1 gal. of varnish 
base. 

2, — Leave out dyes in oak stain, and 
add mahogany, 3 gal. ; walnut, 1 gal. 

3. — Blend mahogany, 3 gal. ; v>^alnut, 1 
gal. ; or to above gums and spirit use 3 
lb. of rosewood stain. 

4. — Methylated spirit, 5 gal. ; garnet 
shellac, 10 lb. ; lemon rosin, 5 lb. ; Bis- 
marck brown, 4 oz. ; spirit of walnut, 4 
oz. 

5. — Boil ll^ lb. of logwood chips in 1 
gal. of water until the volume of the in- 
fusion is reduced to 2 qt. Apply this 
boiling hot. If more than one applica- 
tion is necessary, the wood should be al- 
lowed to dry before a fresh brushing over 
is done. The finished surface must be 
grained with a camel's-hair pencil dipped 
in logwood infusion containing the sul- 
phates of iron and copper, 

Satin Wood Stain. — 1. — Water, 27.5 
kgm. ; ground bleached shellac, 2.75 kgm. ; 
ground borax, 1.38 kgm. ; water-soluble 
tar dyestuff (satin yellow), 0.465 kgm. 

2, — Methylated spirit, 5 gal. ; bleached 
shellac, 7 lb. ; amber rosin, 5 lb. 

3. — Leave out dyes in oak stain, and 
add yellow aniline, 9 oz. 

4. — Satinwood, Pine and Maple. — 
Spirit of satinwood, extra, 2 to 4 oz. to 
1 gal. of varnish base. 

Violet. — 1. — Methylated spirit, 5 gal. ; 
garnet shellac, 8 lb. ; black rosin, 5 lb. ; 
elemi, 2 lb.; fast acid violet, 10 B., 214, 
oz. ; azo-fuchsine, G., 1% oz. ; acid violet, 
4 B. extra, 1% oz. 

2. — Dye the wood with aniline red and 
tin salt, after a previous treatment with 
1 part of calcined soda, 3 parts of olive 
oil and 15 parts of hot water. 

3. — The wood is treated in a bath made 
up with 41^ oz. of olive oil, the same 
weight of soda ash and 2% pt. of boiling 
water, and it is then dyed with magenta, 
to which a corresponding quantity of tin 
crystals have been added. 

Walnut. — 1. — Methylated spirit, 5 gal. ; 
garnet shellac, 8 lb. ; dark rosin, 7 lb. ; 
spirit of walnut, 8 oz. 

2. — Benzoin, 1 lb. ; manilla, 144 lb. ; 
rosin, 20 lb. ; methylated spirit, 25 lb. ; 
solvent naphtha (wood), 2 gal. ; fusel oil, 
y2 gal. ; Bismarck brown, 15 oz. ; aniline 
black, 7 oz. ; castor oil, % lb. The castor 
oil gives elasticity. 

3. — Water, 22.5 kgm. ; ground garnet 
shellac, 2.25 kgm. ; ground borax, 1.13 
kgm. ; water-soluble tar dyestuff (walnut 
color), 0.466 kgm. 

4. — Strong vinegar, 1 gal. ; dry burnt 
umber, 1 lb. ; fine rose pink, % lb. ; dry 
burnt Vandyke brown, V^ lb. After mix- 



[651] 



Paints, Varnishes y Etc. 



(Varnishes) 



ing, and standing for a day, it is ready 
for use. Apply with a sponge. 

5. — This varnish is for rapidly color- 
ing and varnishing soft or hard white 
woods simultaneously, so as to imitate 
the real wood : Methylated spirit, 160 
fl.oz, ; walnut spirit stain, 3 oz. ; amber 
rosin, powdered, 24 oz. ; shellac, 24 oz. 
Digest in the sand bath. 

6. — Spirit of walnut, 3 oz., to 1 gal. 
of varnish base. 

7. — Leave out dyes in oak stain and 
add : Bismarck brown, 14 oz. ; Japan 
black aniline, 6 oz. 

8. — Black Walnut. — A decoction of 
green walnut husks, dried, and boiled in 
lye, is recommended. 

9. — Dragon's blood and lampblack, 
mixed in wood alcohol, may be used, well 
rubbed into the wood. 

10. — ^Take 1 lb. of logwood chips, i/> 
lb. of red sanders, y^ gal. of water. Boil 
over a fire until the full strength is ob- 
tained. Apply the mixture, while hot, to 
the wood with a brush. Use 1 or 2 coats 
to obtain a strong red color. Then take 
1 gal. of spirits of turpentine and 2 lb. 
of asphaltum. Dissolve in an iron ket- 
tle on a stove, stirring constantly. Ap- 
ply over the red stain with a brush, to 
imitate rosewood. To make a perfect 
black, add a little lampblack. The addi- 
tion of a small quantity of varnish with 
the turpentine will improve it.^ This 
stain, applied to birch wood, gives as 
good an imitation of rosewood as on 
black walnut, the shade on the birch be- 
ing a little brighter. 

Yelloiv. — 1. — ^Mordant with red liquor, 
and dye with bark liquor and turmeric. 

2. — Turmeric dissolved in wood naph- 
tha. 

3. — Aqua regia (nitro muriatic acid), 
diluted in 3 parts of water, is a much 
used, though rather destructive, yellow 
stain. 

4. — Nitric acid gives a fine permanent 
yellow, which is converted into dark 
brown by subsequent application of tinc- 
ture of iodine. 

5. — Wash over with a hot concentrated 
solution of picric acid, and, when dry, 
polish the wood. 

VARNISHES 
What Varnishes Are Made of. 

Varnish is a solution of resinous mat- 
ter forming a clear, limpid fluid, capable 
of hardening without losing its transpar- 
ency. It is used to give a shining, trans- 
parent, hard and preservative covering to 
the finished surface of woodwork, capable 



(Varnishes) 



of resisting in a greater or less degree 
the influence of the air and moisture. 
This coating, when applied to metal or 
mineral surfaces, takes the name of lac- 
quer, and must be prepared from rosins 
at once more adhesive and tenacious than 
those entering into varnish. 

The rosins, commonly called gums, ap- 
propriate to varnish are of two kinds — 
the hard and the soft. The hard varie- 
ties are copal, amber and the lac rosins. 
The dry, soft rosins are juniper gum 
(commonly called sandarac), mastic an 
dammar. The elastic soft rosins are ben- 
zoin, elemi, anime and turpentine. Tlie 
science of preparing varnish consists in 
combining these classes of rosins in a 
suitable solvent, so that each conveys its 
good qualities and counteracts the bad 
ones of the others, and in giving the de- 
sired color to this solution without af- 
fecting the suspension of the rosins, or 
detracting from the drying and hardening 
properties of the varnish. 

Spirit vs. Oil Varnishes. — In spirit var- 
nish (that made with alcohol) the hard 
and the elastic gums must be mixed to 
insure tenderness and solidity, as the al- 
cohol evaporates at once after applying, 
leaving the varnish wholly dependent on 
the gums for the tenacious and adhesive 
properties ; and if the soft rosins predom- 
inate, the varnish will remain "tacky" for 
a long time. Spirit varnish, however good 
and convenient to work with, must always 
be inferior to oil varnish, as the latter is 
at the same time more tender and more 
solid, for the oil, in oxidizing and evapo- 
rating, thickens, and forms rosin, which 
continues its softening and binding pres- 
ence, whereas in a spirit varnish the al- 
cohol is promptly dissipated, and leaves 
the gums on the surface of the work in 
a more or less granular and brittle pre- 
cipitate, which chips readily and peels 
off. 

Varnish must be tender, and, in a man- 
ner, soft. It must yield to the movements 
of the wood in expanding or contracting 
with the heat or cold, and must not in- 
close the wood like a sheet of glass. This 
is why oil varnish is superior to spirit 
varnish. To obtain this suppleness the 
gums must be dissolved in some liquid not 
highly volatile like spirit, but one which 
mixes with them in substance permanent- 
ly to counteract their extreme friability. 
Such solvents are the oils of lavender, 
spike, rosemary and turpentine, combined 
with linseed oil. The vehicle in which 
the rosins are dissolved must be and re- 
main soft, so as to keep soft the rosins 
which are, of themselves, naturally hard. 



[652] 



Paint Sy Varnishes y Etc. 



(Varnishes) 



Any varnish from which the solvent has 
been completely dried out must, of ne- 
cessity, become hard and glassy, and chip 
ofiE. But, on the other hand, if the var- 
nish remains too soft and "tacky," it 
will "cake" in time, and destroy the effect 
desired. 

In estimating the quality of a varnish 
the following points must be considered : 
1, quickness in drying ; 2, hardness of 
film or coating ; 3, toughness of film ; 4, 
amount of gloss ; 5, permanence of gloss 
of film ; 6, durability on exposure to 
weather. 

Ingredients. — Driers are generally add- 
ed to varnish in the form of litharge, 
sugar of lead, or white copperas. Sugar 
of lead not only hardens, but combines 
with the varnish. A large proportion of 
driers injures the durability of the var- 
nish, though it causes it to dry more 
quickly. 

1. — ^For Body and Luster. — Amber, 
anime, copal, elemi, lac, mastic, sandarac. 

2. — For Odor. — Benzoin. 

3.^-For Tinctorial Effect. — a. — Color- 
ing matters soluble in water and alcohol : 
Magenta, cardinal, erythrosine, safranine, 
methylene blue, picric acid, curcumine, 
metanil yellow, Hofmann violet, malachite 
green, Bismarck brown, acid magenta, 
cerise, rose bengal, coccine, peacock blue, 
naphthol yellow, brilliant yellow, methyl 
orange, regina purple, brilliant green, ve- 
suvine, rubin, methyl eosine, phloxine, 
navy blue, phosphine, auramine, chrysoi- 
dine, methyl violet, acid mauve, iodine 
green, crimson, eosine, coralline, benzyl 
blue, aurantia, chrysophenine, mandarin, 
acid violet, methyl green. 

b. — Coloring matters soluble in water 
only : Congo, congo corinth, brilliant 
Congo, benzopurpurine, delta purpurine, 
roseazurine, Hessian purple, fast red, 
archil red, ponceau, scarlet, azo-rubine, 
heliotrope, brilliant blue, wool blue, black 
blue, benzoazurine, azo-blue, Guernsey 
blue, Hessian blue, water blue. Bavarian 
blue, Capri blue, alkali blue, China blue, 
regina violet, azo-violet, fast brown, acid 
brown, resorcin brown, guinea green, ani- 
line gray, nigrosine, silver gray, wool 
black, nacarat, brilliant scarlet, acid yel- 
low, resorcin yellow, quinoline yellow, 
azo-acid yellow, naphthol yellow, chrysa- 
mine, Hessian yellow, curcumine, orange, 
methyl orange, rusin S. 

c. — Coloring matters soluble in alcohol 
only : Rosaniline base, nigrosine spirit 
(soluble), Humboldt blue, aurine, mala- 
chite green base, new violet, Soudan, 
brilliant black, auramine base, spirit blue, 
induline spirit (soluble). 



(Varnishes) 



d. — Colors soluble in oil : Rosaniline 
base, magenta base, oil yellow, butter yel- 
low, violet base, auramine base, oil violet, 
oil brown, Soudan I, picric acid, oil or- 
ange, oil scarlet, Soudan II, oil green, 
oil crimson. 

Practically none of the coal-tar colors 
are soluble in petroleum spirit, turpen- 
tine or benzol. While, therefore, the coal- 
tar colors are available for coloring wa- 
ter — and spirit — varnishes, but few of 
them are useful for coloring oil varnishes, 
and none for coloring varnishes made 
from turpentine, petroleum spirit, or ben- 
zol. 

4. — For Color and Body. — Asphaltum. 

5. — For Toughness and Elasticity. — 
Caoutchouc. 

Manufacturing Hints. — Glass, coarsely 
powdered, is often added to varnish when 
mixed in large quantities, for the pur- 
pose of cutting the rosins and preventing 
them from adhering to the bottom and 
sides of the container. When possible, 
varnish should always be compounded 
without the use of heat, as this carbon- 
izes and otherwise changes the constitu- 
ents, and, besides, danger always ensues 
from the highly inflammable nature of 
the material employed. However, when 
heat is necessary, a water bath should 
always be used ; the varnish should never 
fill the vessel over a half to three-quar- 
ters of its capacity. 

The Gums Used in Making Varnish. — 
Juniper gum, or true sandarac, comes in 
long, yellowish, dusty tears, and requires 
a high temperature for its manipulation 
in oil. The oil must be so hot as to 
scorch a feather dipped into it, before this 
gum is added ; otherwise, the gum is 
burnt. Because of this, juniper gum is 
usually displaced in oil varnish by gum 
dammar. Both of these gums, by their 
dryness, counteract the elasticity of oil 
as well as other gums. The usual san- 
darac of commerce is a brittle, yellow, 
transparent rosin from Africa, more sol- 
uble in turpentine than in alcohol. Its 
excess renders varnish hard and brittle. 
Commercial sandarac is also often a mix- 
ture of the African rosin with dammar 
or hard Indian copal, the place of the 
African r'osin being sometimes taken by 
the true juniper gum. This mixture is 
the pounce of the shops, and is almost in- 
soluble in alcohol or tui-pentine. Dammar 
also largely takes the place of tender co- 
pal, gum anime, white amber, white in- 
cense and white rosin. The latter three 
names are also often applied to a mixture 
of oil and Grecian wax, sometimes used 
in varnish. When gum dammar is used 



['653] 



Paint Sy Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnishes, Aniline) 



as the main rosin in a varnish it should 
be first fused and brought to a boiling 
point, but not thawed. This eliminates 
the property that renders dammar var- 
nish soft and "tacky," if not treated as 
above. Venetian turpentine has a ten- 
dency to render varnish "tacky," and 
must be skilfully counteracted if this ef- 
fect is to be avoided. Benzoin in varnish 
exposed to any degree of dampness has 
a tendency to swell, and must, in such 
cases, be avoided. Elemi, a fragrant rosin 
from Egypt, in time grows hard and brit- 
tle, and is not so soluble in aJcohol as 
anime, which is highly esteemed for its 
rnore tender qualities. Copal is a name 
given rather indiscriminately to various 
gums and rosins. The East Indian or 
African is the tender copal, and is softer 
and more transparent than the other va- 
rieties ; when pure, it is freely soluble 
in oil of turpentine or rosemary. Hard 
copal comes in its best form from Mex- 
ico, and is not readily soluble in oil un- 
less first fused. The brilliant, deep-red 
color of old varnish is said to be based 
on dragon's blood, but not the kind that 
comes in sticks, cones, etc. (which is 
always adulterated), but the clear, pure 
tear, deeper in color than a carbuncle, and 
as crystal fiery as a ruby. This is sel- 
dom seen in the market, as is also the 
tear of gamboge, which, mixed with the 
tear of dragon's blood, is said to be the 
basis of the brilliant orange and gold 
varnish of the ancients. 

Amber Varnish. 

Amber varnish is suited for all pur- 
poses, where a very hard and durable oil 
varnish is required. The paler kind is 
superior to copal varnish, and is often 
mixed with the latter to increase its hard- 
ness and durability. 

1. — Hard. — Melted amber, 4 oz. ; hot, 
boiled oil, 1 qt. 

2. — Pale. — Very pale and transparent 
amber, 4 oz. ; clarified linseed oil and oil 
of turpentine, of each 1 pt. 

3. — Amber and Elemi Lacquer. — Am- 
ber, 4 parts ; elemi, 1 part ; Venice tur- 
pentine, 1 part ; oil of turpentine, 12 
parts. This makes a very beautiful and 
lasting lacquer. 

Aniline Varnishes. 

1, — These are very useful, as the color 
is intense, even when in a very thin film. 
Use alcohol to dissolve the shellac or 
sandarac. Prepare also an alcoholic so- 
lution of the aniline colors ; add_ this to 
the varnish. Warm the object slightly. 

2. — Collodion can also be used to carry 



(Varnish, Balloon) 



the aniline colors, and gives a very thin 
coating. 

Asphalt Varnish. 

1. — Boil coal tar until it shows a dis- 
position to harden on cooling ; this can 
be ascertained by rubbing a little on a 
piece of metal. Then add about 20% of 
lump asphalt, stirring it with the boiling 
coal tar until all the lumps are melted, 
when it can be allowed to cool and kept 
for use. This makes a very bright var- 
nish for sheet metals, and is cheap and 
durable. 

2. — Asphalt Varnish for Metals. — Boil 
ordinary tar until on cooling it shows a 
tendency to harden, add about 1-5 asphal- 
tum, shaved fine, until all is melted ; then 
cool. 

Balloon Varnish. 

Carl E. Myers, the aeronaut, gives the 
following exclusive information, which is 
copyright, 1908, by Munn & Co. : 

1. — The matter of balloon varnish seems 
to be giving a lot of trouble. It always 
has, more or less, as commercial varnish 
manufacturers do not make balloon var- 
nishes, and none of the ordinary varnishes 
serve well for balloons. What is wanted 
is an elastic, non-adhesive and enduring 
varnish, that will not heat or spontane- 
ously decompose. Pure boiled linseed oil 
comes the nearest to these requirements. 
The diflaculty is in getting it pure, to 
begin with, and keeping it unmixed with 
oxides or dryers when boiled. Any such 
admixtures lay the seeds of destruction, 
for oxidizing, if once started, is kept up 
continuously till the mass is rusted or 
rotted finally, and the fabric made brit- 
tle or sticky, and soon useless. Balloon 
varnish is not a matter of formula or 
recipe, but a process or system of prepa- 
ration, and thus requires experience, judg- 
ment, and, to some extent, courage, as it 
is more or less dangerous to produce good 
linseed-oil varnish cooked at a high tem- 
perature. I have known one large varr 
nish factory to be entirely destroyed in 
attempting to make balloon varnish, and 
I have seen over a hundred conflagrations 
of more or less magnitude result from 
boiling oil to make balloon varnish. I 
only make balloon varnish once a year, 
in considerable quantities, requiring weeks 
with special apparatus, on a manufactur- 
ing scale, and I aim to keep a year's sup- 
ply on hand, and use the oldest and besL 
My varnishing is done by patent machin- 
ery, permitting the use of pure linseed-oil 
varnish too thick to spread by hand 
brushes. One thousand yards of surface 



[654] 



Paints, Varnishes, Eti 



(Varnish, Balloon) 



require about an hour's work, all super- 
ficial varnish being removed by the ma- 
chines, after which the fabric is dried 
spontaneously in the hot sun, without ox- 
idizing driers. This process is repeated 
several times till 7 to 9 films are super- 
imposed, with increased thickness, ap- 
preciable by a micrometer caliper after 
the first coat is applied. The microscopic 
pores in each film do not coincide, or are 
plugged up, resulting in a practically hy- 
drogen-proof fabric, of light weight and 
thickness, which can be folded or rolled 
repeatedly without fracture of the films 
at ordinary temperatures, and which never 
decomposes or sticks or becomes rotten 
when packed. I have tried very many 
preparations, and found them mostly un- 
suitable for continued usefulness. The 
best of these include good boiled linseed 
oil as a basis, thinned with best spirits 
of turpentine or stove gasolene, for use 
with hand brushes. Driers to be used are 
chiefly litharge or "japan" and chrome 
yellow. "Birdlime" and rubber are some- 
times mixed in small quantities with lin- 
seed-oil varnish, and are of doubtful 
value. Raw or half-boiled linseed oil will 
never make other than a sticky coat, ne- 
cessitating frequent dusting with talc, 
chalk, or other similar preparations, and 
will inevitably ruin any balloon coated 
with it. While almost any varnish, in 
repeated layers, will serve to hold gas 
temporarily, or for immediate use, on a 
balloon, such vessels are short-lived, heav- 
ier than desirable, and not satisfactory 
for airships or vessels required to hold hy- 
drogen for a long time. 

2. — Good boiled linseed oil, if allowed 
a sufficient time to dry and harden, forms 
an excellent varnish for balloon cases. 

3. — India-rubber, 1 lb., cut small ; oil 
of turpentine, 6 lb. ; boiled drying oil, 1 
gal. Digest the india-rubber in the tur- 
pentine, in a warm place, for a week, 
frequently shaking the vessel during the 
whole time, then place it in a water bath 
and gradually heat it until the solution 
is completed ; next add the oil, previously 
made warm, gently simmer for 5 minutes, 
stirring all the while, after which closely 
cover it over, and when cold strain it 
through flannel. 

4. — Birdlime, 1 lb. ; boiled linseed oil, 
3 pt. ; turpentine, q. s. Boil the birdlime 
with 1 pt. of the oil, in an iron pot, over 
a slow fire, for about half an hour, or 
until the former ceases to crackle; then 
add the rest of the oil, previously heated, 
and again boil for one hour, stirring well 
all the time, being careful that it does 
not boil over, as it is very liable to do 



(Varnish, Black) 



so. When it has boiled sufficiently may 
be known by its admitting of being drawn 
into threads between two knives. As 
soon as this occurs remove the pot from 
the fire, and when cooled a little add 
a sufficient quantity of spirits of tur- 
pentine, warm, to reduce it to a proper 
consistency, and work it well up. These 
varnishes are better applied lukewarm 
to the silk, previously stretched out tight. 
In about 24 hours they will dry. 

Bamboos, Varnish for. 

A varnish prepared by dissolving 3 oz. 
of white shellac in 10 fl.oz. of methylated 
spirits, applied to the bamboo with a 
camel's-hair brush, will give a beautiful 
transparent coating, while showing the 
natural color of the wood. 

Basket Varnish. 

Orange shellac, 8 oz. ; yellow rosin, 1 
oz. ; benzoin, % oz. ; Bismarck brown, i/4 
oz. ; methylated spirit, 1% pt. ; vegetable 
naphtha, % pt. 

Wicker Baskets, Varnish for. — 1. — • 
Brown. — Orange shellac, 28 lb. ; pow- 
dered manila copal, 28 lb. ; powdered com- 
mon rosin, 56 lb. ; methylated spirit, 12 gal. 

2. — White. — Powdered pale manilla co- 
pal, 56 lb. ; powdered pale rosin, 112 lb. ; 
methylated spirit, 16 gal. (See also 
Wicker Wagon Bodies.) 

Black Varnish. 

1. — Shellac, 8 parts ; rosin, 5 parts ; 
lampblack, 1 part ; alcohol, 94%, 32 parts. 
If a dead black be required, use the same 
proportion of ingredients, with oil of tur- 
pentine as the solvent. 

2. — In an iron pot, over a slow fire, 
boil 45 lb. of foreign asphaltum for at 
least 6 hours, and during the same time 
boil in another iron pot 6 gal. of oil which" 
has been previously boiled ; during the 
boiling of the 6 gal. introduce 6 lb. of 
litharge gradually, and boil until it feels 
stringy between the fingers ; then ladle 
it into the pot containing the boiling as- 
phaltum. Let both boil until, upon trial, 
it will roll into hard pills ; then cool, 
■and mix with 25 gal. of turpentine, or 
until it is of a proper consistency. 

3. — Black varnish suitable for covering 
places where a japanned surface has been 
injured or scratched : Fine lampblack or 
ivory black, thoroughly mixed with copal 
varnish. The black must be in fine pow- 
der, and it would mix the more readily 
if made into a pasty mass with tumeri- 
tine. 

4. — Black varnish can be made by put- 
ting 48 lb. of foreign asphaltum into an 



[655] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnish, Bookbinders') 



iron pot and boiling for 4 hours ; dur- 
ing the first 2 hours introduce 7 lb. of 
red lead, 7 lb. of litharge, 3 lb. of dried 
copperas and 10 gal. of boiled oil ; add 
one 8-lb. run of dark gum with 2 gal. of 
hot oil. After pouring the oil and gum 
continue the boiling 2 hours, or until it 
will roll into hard pills like japan. When 
cool, thin it off with 30 gal. of turpen- 
tine, or until it is of proper consistency. 
This varnish is specially adapted for iron- 
work. 

5. — Black Amher Varnish. — Amber, 1 
lb. ; fuse, add hot drying oil, % pt. ; pow- 
dered black rosin and asphaltum (Na- 
ples), of each 3 oz, ; when properly in- 
corporated, and considerably cooled, add 
oil of turpentine, 1 pt. This is the beau- 
tiful black varnish of the coachmakers. 
It is also fit for metals. 

6. — Brunswick Black. — Black pitch and 
gas tar asphaltum, 25 lb. of each ; boil 
gently for 5 hours, then add 8 gal. of lin- 
seed oil ; litharge and red lead, 10 lb. 
of each ; boil, and when cooled a little, 
thin with 20 gal. of oil of turpentine. 

Body Varnish. 

1.— Finest African copal, 8 lb. ; fuse 
carefully, add clarified oil, 2 gal. ; boil 
gently for 4% hours, or till quite stringy, 
cool a little, and thin with oil of turpen- 
tine, 3% gal. Dries slowly. 

2. — Pale gum copal, 8 lb. ; clarified oil, 

2 gal. ; dried sugar of lead, i^ lb. ; boil as 
before, then add oil of turpentine, 3% 
gal., and mix it, while still hot, with the 
following varnish : Pale gum anime, 8 
lb. ; linseed oil, 2 gal. ; dried white cop- 
peras, % lb. ; boil as before, and thin 
with oil of turpentine, 3% gal. ; the mixed 
varnishes are to be immediately strained 
into the cans or cistern. 

Bookbinders' Varnish. 

1. — Venice turpentine, 12 kgm. ; blond 
shellac, 30 kgm. ; dissolved in spirit, 90 
kgm. 

2. — Pale gum sandarac, 8 oz. ; alcohol, 
20 fl.oz. ; dissolve by cold digestion and 
frequent agitation. 

3. — Dissolve pale shellac in wood naph- 
tha. 

4. — Mastic, 6 oz., in drops; coarsely 
pounded glass, 3 oz., separated from the 
dust by a sieve ; 90% alcohol, 32 oz. 
Place the ingredients in a sand bath, over 
a fire, and let them boil, stirring them 
well. When thoroughly mixed, introduce 

3 oz. of spirits of turpentine, boil for 
half an hour, remove from the fire, cool, 
strain through cotton cloth. 

5.— Alcohol, 90%, 3 pt. ; sandarac, 8 



(Varnish, Cabinet) 



oz. ; mastic, in drops, 2 oz. ; shellac, 8 
oz. ; Venice turpentine, 2 oz. Prepare as 
for No. 1. Apply lightly on the book 
with a piece of cotton wool, a small 
sponge or a brush. 

Bottle Caps, Varnish for. 

Gamboge, 2 parts ; ruby red shellac, 2 
parts ; Venice turpentine, 1 part ; strong 
alcohol, 20 parts. 

Bottles, Stoppers for. 

Varnish bottles are best closed with 
stoppers formed of good and pure wax, 
or corks may be used which have previ- 
ously been dipped in molten wax. If 
corks are employed with no wax coating, 
they very often stick fast in the bottles, 
and particles are often removed which 
render the varnish impure. . 

Brass. 

1. — Boil in alcohol, turmeric, 24 parts ; 
saffron, 5 parts. This is filtered and 
heated in a water bath, in this tincture : 
Gamboge, 24 parts ; elemi, 90 parts ; 
dragon's blood, 30 parts ; alcohol, 500 



2. — Black Letters for Brass Signs. — . 
A formula for a black japan adapted to 
the purpose is as follows : Asphaltum, 
8 oz. ; dark gum anime, i/^ oz. ; linseed 
oil, 18 oz. ; dark gum amber, 1% oz. ; tur- 
pentine spirit, 2% pt. Fuse together the 
asphaltum and gum anime, and add 15 
oz, of the linseed oil. Boil the amber, 
previously fused with 3 oz. of the linseed 
oil, and add to the mixture. Continue 
the boiling until a little of the mass, when 
cooled, is plastic ; then withdraw the heat 
and add the turpentine. The enamel proc- 
ess is altogether different, and consists 
in fusing on the brass a kind of glass, 
which, when cool, adheres to the metal. 
The 'preparation of the enamel involves 
special skill, and its application is also a 
matter not likely to be within the reach 
of the amateur. 

Brush Polish. 

Garnet polish, Vz gal. ; best brown, 
hard, % gal. ; glaze, % pt. To make up 
if wanted in a hurry, or otherwise. 

Cabinet Varnish. 

1. — Fuse 7 lb. of very fine African gum 
copal, and pour in ^2 gal. of pale clari- 
fied oil. 

2. — Sandarac rosin, 8 lb. ; boiled oil, 4 
lb. Boil until the mass is stringy, and 
then thin with 12 lb. of turpentine. 



[656] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnish, Celluloid) 



Cards. (See Playing Cards.) 
Carriage Varnish. (See also Coaches.) 

1. — Best Pale. — Second sorted African 
copal, 8 lb. ; clarified oil, 2i/^ gal. ; boil 
till very stringy. Dried copperas, 14 lb. ; 
litharge, % lb. ; turpentine, 5V2 gal., 
strained. Second sorted gum anime, 8 
lb. ; clarified oil, 2^2 gal. ; dried sugar of 
lead, ^4 lb. ; litharge, ^4 lb. ; turpentine, 
51/^ gal. ; mix with the first while hot. 
If well boiled, this varnish will dry hard 
in 4 hours in summer and 6 hours in win- 
ter. As its name denotes, this is intended 
for the varnishing of the wheels, springs 
and carriage parts of coaches, chaises, 
etc. ; also it is that description of varnish 
which is generally sold to and used by 
house painters and decorators, as from 
its drying quality and strong gloss it 
suits their general purposes well. 

2. — Quick-Drying Carriage Varnish. — 
Fine pale gum anime, 8 lb. ; clarified oil, 
2 gal. ; turpentine, 3% gal. ; to be boiled 
4 hours. This, after being strained, is 
put into the two former pots, and well 
mixed together ; its effect is to cause the 
whole to dry quicker and firmer, and en- 
able it to take the polish much sooner. 
(See also Wicker Wagon Bodies.) 

Caseine Varnish. 

According to Ammundsen, this is pre- 
pared as follows : Caseine, 100 parts ; 
10% solution of soap, 10 to 25 parts ; 
slaked lime, 20 to 25 parts ; oil of turpen- 
tine, 25 to 40 parts ; water, sufiicient. 
Mix the caseine with the soap solution ; 
add the lime, and rub up to a homogene- 
ous mixture. Now add the turpentine 
gradually, and with constant stirring. 
Add water to attain the desired consist- 
ency. The addition of a little ammonia 
water tends to aid this preparation in 
keeping. This is a very cheap and excel- 
lent varnish. 

Celluloid Varnishes. 

1. — Celluloid, 5 parts ; sulphuric ether, 
16 parts ; acetone, 16 parts ; amyl acetate, 
16 parts. Mix and dissolve. 

2. — Celluloid, 10 parts ; camphor, 4 
parts ; sulphuric ether, 30 parts ; acetone, 
30 parts; amyl acetate, 30 gr. Mix and 
dissolve. 

3. — Celluloid, 5 parts ; camphor, ^ 5 
parts ; alcohol, 50 parts. Mix and dis- 
solve. 

4. — Celluloid, 5 parts ; amyl acetate, 5 
parts. Mix. 

5. — Celluloid, 5 parts; acetone, 25 
parts ; amyl acetate, 25 parts. Mix and 



(Varnish, Collodion) 



dissolve. The ingredients of the above 
five formulas are inflammable. 

Chimneys and Stove Pipes, Varnish for. 
Asphaltum, 2 lb. ; boiled linseed oil, 1 
pt. ; oil of turpentine, 2 qt. Fuse the 
asphaltum in an iron pot, boil the lin- 
seed oil, and add while hot. S'tir well, 
and remove from the fire. When partially 
cooled add the oil of turpentine. 

Coaches, Black Varnish for. 

Asphaltum, 7i/^ oz. ; amber, 40 oz. ; 
rosin, 7% oz. ; drying linseed oil, 1% pt. 
Melt together in an iron pot. When part- 
ly cool add warm oil of turpentine, 1^/4 
pt. 

Coal Buckets, Black Varnish for. 

Asphaltum, 1% lb. ; lampblack, % lb. ; 
rosin, % lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1% 
qt. Dissolve the rosin and asphaltum in 
the turpentine ; form a paste with the 
lampblack and linseed oil, q. s. ; mix with 
the other. Apply with a brush. 

Coffin Varnish. 

1. — Take 60 kgm. of American rosin 
and dissolve it, together with 20 kgm. of 
manilla copal and 10 kgm. of gallipot, in 
80 kgm. of spirit. 

2. — Cofjfin Polish. — a. — Powdered ma- 
nilla copal, 42 lb. ; orange shellac, 14 lb, ; 
powdered pale rosin, 70 lb. ; methylated 
spirit, 15 gal. 

b. — Garnet lac, 3 lb. ; methylated spirit, 
1 ffal. 

Collodion. 

1. — Add 1 oz. of castor oil to 1 qt. of 
collodion. This is a very useful varnish 
for varnishing maps, etc. 

2. — Hale's formula is as follows : Amyl 
acetate, 4 gal.; benzine (coal naphtha), 
4 gal. ; acetone, 2 gal. ; pyroxyline, 2% lb. 
The different ingredients are mixed and 
the pyroxyline dissolved therein. The 
metal article, having its surface polished 
and made free from water and grease by 
any ordinary or suitable means, is, or may 
be, dipped into a solution made accord- 
ing to either of the formulae, and on re- 
moval therefrom suspended in a chamber 
out of the draught till the adhering coat 
or film dries or hardens, which takes place 
in about 15 or 20 minutes. The drying 
may be hastened by artificial heat, and 
while the use of the heat at any stage of 
the process is not inconsistent with the 
invention, yet it is preferred to operate 
in the cold — that is, at ordinary tempera- 
tures. In damp weather the coating 
should be dried at a temperature of, say, 



[657] 



Pamts, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnish, Copal) 



100 to 105° F. The varnish or solution 
may also be applied by brushing. The 
coated articles, when the coatings are 
dry, have their metal surfaces provided 
with a substantial, even, hard, thin, 
smooth, impervious and transparent film 
of pyroxyline of sufficient tenacity, ad- 
hesion and durability practically to resist 
the handling and exposure to which lac- 
quered articles in general are subjected. 

Copal Varnish. 

1. — Turpentine. — Oil of turpentine, 1 
pt. ; set the bottle in a water bath, and 
add, in small portions at a time, 3 oz. 
of powdered copal that has been previous- 
ly melted by a gentle heat, and dropped 
into water; in a few days decant the 
clear. Dries slowly, but is very pale and 
durable. Used for pictures, etc. 

2. — Oil. — Pale and hard copal, 2 lb. ; 
fuse, add hot drying oil, 1 pt. ; boil as 
before directed, and thin with oil of tur- 
pentine, 3 pt., 12 oz. ; or q. s. 

3. — Clearest and palest African copal, 
8 lb. ; fuse, add hot and pale drying oil, 
2 gal. ; boil till it strings strongly, cool 
a little, and thin with hot rectified oil of 
turpentine, 3 gal., and immediately strain 
into the store can. Very fine. Both the 
above are used for pictures. 

4. — Spirit. — Coarsely powdered copal 
and glass, of each 4 oz^. ; 90% alcohol, 1 
pt. ; camphor, i^ oz. ; heat it in a water 
bath, so that the bubbles may be counted 
as they rise, observing frequently to stir 
the mixture ; when cold decant the clear. 
Used for pictures. 

5. — Copal Varnish with Ammonia. — 
Grind copal to a coarse powder, and pour 
ammonia over it until the whole mass is 
swelled up. Heat this to about 100° F., 
then add alcohol until the mixture is of 
the desired consistency.' 
, 6. — Best Body Copal Varnish for Coach 
MaJcers.—Fuse 8 lb. of fine African gum 
copal ; add 2 gal. of clarified oil ;' boil very 
slowly for 4 or 5 hours, until quite 
stringy; mix it with 3% gal. of turpen- 
tine ; strain off, and pour it into a cistern. 
7. — Camphorated Copal Varnish. — ^Take 
powdered copal, 4 oz. ; essential oil of 
lavender, 12 oz. ; camphor, 14 oz. ; and as 
much spirit of turpentine as will produce 
the required consistency. Heat the oil 
and the camphor in a small matrass, stir- 
ring them, and putting in the copal and 
turpentine in the same manner as for 
gold-colored copal varnish. 

8. — Elastic. — Gum camphor, 60 parts ; 
copal, 250 parts ; ether, 700 parts. Keep 
in a bottle with a ground-glass stopper; 
use the upper portion, which will become 



(Varnish, Defects in) 



[658] 



dear after a few days, or possibly weeks. 
This sediment has a new portion of the 
mixed substances added, the ether being 
in excess, only i/^ as much camphor and 
copal being added. 

Dammar Turpentine Varnishes. 

1. — Gum dammar is a soft copal, and 
possesses the property of solubility in 
nearly every solvent, including turpentine 
and methylated spirit. It varies in color 
from yellow to nearly water-white, and 
should be carefully selected according to 
the grade of varnish it is desired to make. 
Dammar varnishes are chiefly used as 
paper varnishes (the best quality being 
termed crystal paper varnishes), and as 
varnishes for enamels. 

2. — Turpentine, 160 fl.oz. ; gum dam- 
mar, 80 oz. ; sandarac rosin, 40 oz. ; mas- 
tic rosin, 8 oz. 

Dead Surface Varnish. 

Varnishes that leave a dead surface on 
drying, capable of substitution for ground 
glass, as for glass stereographs, and of 
use in retouching negatives, may be made 
by mixing solutions of rosin with liquids 
in which they are insoluble. A solution 
of sandarac rosin in ether, v^^hen mixed 
with 14 as much benzole, affords an ex- 
cellent imitation of ground glass; one 
of dammar rosin in benzole, when mixed 
with ether, also gives a good dead surface : 
water instead of the ether renders it, at 
the same time, semi-opaque. A mixture 
of benzole with common negative varnish 
frequently, but not always, gives a beauti- 
ful dead surface. In all cases a great 
deal depends on the purity of the ingredi- 
ents. It is recommended to dissolve from 
3 to 5 parts of sandarac in 48 parts of 
ether, and to add 24 parts of benzole ; or 
as much as may be necessary to produce 
the desired result. The following, by 
Hughes, is said to give a perfectly color- 
less varnish of this kind: Ether, 560 
gr. ; benzole, 240 gr. ; sandarac, 40 gr. ; 
Canada balsam, 10 gr. The rosins are 
first to be dissolved in the ether, and the 
benzole added to the solution. 

Defects in Varnishes. 

Varnishes, when used and exposed to 
the air, are subject to certain defects 
which may develop ; it is often rather 
difficult to account for the production of 
these faults, inasmuch as they do not 
show themselves every time the particular 
sample of varnish is used. 

Cracks. — When cracks form in the coat 
of varnish, .on exposure, it is mostly due 
to too great an excess of gum, or, more 



Paintft, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnish, Engraving) 



often, to too large a quantity of driers 
being used in the preparation of the var- 
nish. 

Blooming. — -A peculiar white, lusterless 
appearance, which may show itself either 
in patches or over the surface coated with 
the varnish. If this fault be due to the 
varnish itself it is caused by careless or 
insufBcient running of the gum, or by 
using the varnish in too new a condition. 
Sometimes it is due to the surface that 
is varnished being damp, and there are 
other causes. Streakiness is due to the 
varnish being too thick or too thickly 
applied. 
Drawings. (See Lithographs.) 

Dull Varnish. 

A varnish which does not reflect light 
is prepared by mixing a solution of rosin 
with some liquid in which rosin is insol- 
uble. A mixture of 3 to 5 parts of san- 
darac, dissolved in 48 parts of ether and 
2% parts of benzole, resembles ground 
glass when dry. A solution of dammar 
rosin in benzol, mixed with ether, gives 
a good dull varnish. Water renders the 
varnish semi-opaque. Ether, 560 grams; 
benzol, 240 grams; sandarac, 40 grams; 
Canada balsam, 10 grams. 

Earthenware. 

Equal parts of pulverized glass and 
soda are mixed. The mixture is then 
dried over a good fire and spread upon 
burnt vessels while they are still hot. 

Ebony. 

1. — Methylated spirit, 160 fl.oz. ; nigro- 
sine (for spirit), 2 oz. ; shellac, 24 oz. 

2. — Polish. — Powdered garnet lac, 112 
lb. ; powdered gum elemi, 12 lb. ; spirit 
black (aniline), 4 lb.; methylated spirit, 
50 gal. 

Electrical Varnish. 

A varnish formed by dissolving orange 
shellac in 95% alcohol is indispensable for 
all kinds of electrical work, and for fin- 
ishing wood and metal work. It may be 
readily colored by the addition of pig- 
ments. For brown, the red and black 
may be mixed ; for purple, the red and 
blue ; for yellow, finely powdered yellow 
ocher or chrome yellow may be added ; for 
a dead black varnish, alcohol, with a 
small percentage of shellac varnish added, 
mixed with calcined lampblack, answers 
an excellent purpose. 

Engraving. 

1. — Copper. — a. — Yellow wax, 1 oz. ; 
mastic, 1 oz. ; asphaltum, i^ oz. Melt, 

[ 



(Varnish for Frames) 



pour into water, and form into balls for 
use. 

b. — A softer varnish for engravers is 
made with tallow, 1 part ; yellow wax, 2 
parts. 

2. — Glass. — a. — Wax, 1 oz. ; mastic, V_> 
oz. ; asphaltum, % oz. ; turpentine, % dr. 

b. — Mastic, 15 parts ; turpentine, 7 
parts ; oil of spike, 4 parts. 

Ether Varnish. 

Take 1 oz. of amber-colored copal, finely 
powdered, and place it in a flask contain- 
ing 4 oz. of ether ; cork the flask with 
a glass stopper, and shake it for half 
an hour. Let it rest until the liquor be- 
comes perfectly clear. 

Fans, Varnish for. 

Mastic, 15 parts, dissolved with 40 
parts of sandarac in 250 parts of alcohol, 
and 20 parts of Venice turpentine are 
added. 

Fatty Varnish, for Painters. 

Sandarac, 120 grams ; mastic, 30 
grams ; Venetian turpentine, 6 grams ; 
boiled linseed oil, or poppy oil, 750 
grams ; spirits of turpentine, 90 grams. 

Ferrotypes. 

Alcohol, 95% strong, 50 parts; white 
shellac, 12 parts; to which add a few 
drops of oil of lavender. 

Films. (See Picture Varnish.) 
Flexible Varnish. (See also Balloon 
Varnish and India-rubber Varnish.) 

1. — India-rubber, cut small, 1^/^ oz. ; 
chloroform, ether, or carbon bisulphide, 
20 fl.oz. ; digest without heat until the 
solution is complete. 

2. — Same, only substituting gutfa per- 
cha for india-rubber. 

3. — Dissolve 1 oz. of india-rubber in 1 
pt. of benzole by digesting with gentle 
heat. This varnish dries badly. 

Frames, Varnishing of. 

1.— Alcohol, 90%, 1 pt. ; sandarac, 2 
oz. ; mastic, in drops, 1 oz. ; shellac, 2 oz. ; 
Venice turpentine, % oz. Place the in- 
gredients on a sand bath, let boil, stirring 
well. When well mixed add 1 oz. of 
spirits of turpentine, boil I/2 hour, let 
cool, and strain through cotton cloth, ap- 
plying the same to the frame with a 
brush. 

2.— Dead Black.— Seed lac, 120 to 140 
parts ; ammonia water, 90 to 110 parts : 
extract of hsematoxyline fluid, 20 parts; 
copper sulphate, 1 part ; lead acetate, 10 
parts ; ivory black, q. s. Let the lac soak 
659] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnish, Gold) 



in tlie ammonia till it becomes gelatinous, 
then add the water, after having dissolved 
in it the extract and metallic salts. Fi- 
nally, stir in sufficient burnt ivory to give 
it the proper consistency. Bone black or 
ordinary lampblack may be used if for 
common or ordinary frames. 

3. — Dead Ground Varnish for Imita- 
tion, etc. — Dissolve 1 lb. of shellac in a 
little alcohol, and 1 lb. of whiting and 
enough alcohol to make 1 gal. of varnish. 

Furniture Varnish. 

1. — White wax, 6 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 
1 pt. Dissolve by a gentle heat. Used to 
polish wood by friction. (See Cabinet- 
makers' and Copal Varnishes.) 

2.— Shellac, 11/2 lb.; naphtha, 1 gal.; 
dissolve, and it is ready, without filter- 
ing. 

3. — Shellac, 12 oz. ; copal, 3 oz. (or an 
equivalent of varnish) ; dissolve in 1 gal. 
of naphtha. 

4. — Shellac, 1% lb. ; seed lac, 4 oz. ; 
sandarac, 4 oz. ; mastic, 2 oz. ; 90% alco- 
hol, 1 gal. Dissolve. 

5. — Shellac, 2 lb. ; benzoin, 4 oz. ; spirit, 
1 gal. 

Glass, Varnish for. 

1. — Dissolve tragacanth in white of an 
egg, beaten up to a froth. Allow it to 
stand for 24 hours. 

2. — Pulverize a quantity of gum adra- 
gant and let it dissolve for 24 hours in 
the white of eggs, well beaten up ; then 
rub it gently on the glass with a soft 
brush. Not recommended. 

Glass Varnish. 

1. — A name applied to a solution of 
sodium silicate, or water glass. 

2. — Fuse together 15 parts of powdered 
quartz (or fine sand), 10 parts of pot- 
ash and 1 part of charcoal. Pulverize 
the mass, and expose it for some days 
to the air ; treat the whole with cold 
water, which removes the foreign salts, 
etc. Boil the residue in 5 parts of water 
until it dissolves. It is permanent in the 
air, and not dissolved by cold water. Used 
to protect wood, etc., from fire. 

3. — Ground-Glass Varnish. — Sandarac, 
90 gr. ; mastic, 20 gr. ; ether, 2 oz. ; ben- 
zole, % to 1% oz. The proportion of the 
benzole added determines the nature of 
the matt obtained. 

Gold Varnish. 

1. — Shellac, 16 parts ; gum sandarac, 3 
parts ; mastic, 3 parts ; crocus, 1 part ; 
gum gamboge, 2 parts ; all bruised, with 
alcohol, 144. 



(Varnish, Gold) 



2. — Seed lac, 8 parts ; sandarac, 8 
parts ; mastic, 8 parts ; gamboge, 2 parts ; 
dragon's blood, 1 part ; white turpentine, 
6 parts ; turmeric, 4 parts ; bruised, with 
alcohol, 120. 

3. — Gum gutta, 40 parts ; dragon's 
blood, 5 parts ; alcoholic extract of san- 
dalwood, 5 parts ; blond shellac, 75 parts ; 
sandarac, 75 parts ; larch turpentine, 25 
parts ; 90% alcohol, 900 parts. Mix, and 
dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat. This 
varnish is not of great brilliancy of sur- 
face, but its transparency preserves the 
natural appearance of the gold. 

4. — For gilt surfaces that have become 
tarnished, or which are covered with 
pinchbeck, or imitation gold, the follow- 
ing is said to be better : Gum gutta, 30 
parts ; alcoholic extract of sandalwood, 3 
parts ; blond shellac, 200 parts ; sandarac, 
50 parts ; larch turpentine, 25 parts ; 95% 
alcohol, 800 parts. Mix, and dissolve as 
before. 

5. — Moldings. — a. — Seed lac, 2 parts ; 
mastic, 2 parts ; gamboge, 1 part ; alco- 
hol, 14 parts. 

b. — Seed lac, 2 parts ; shellac, 2 parts ; 
gamboge, 6 parts ; saffron, 1 part ; an- 
natto, 2 parts ; alcohol, 15 parts. 

c. — Seed lac, 2 parts ; sandarac, 4 parts ; 
elemi, 4 parts : gamboge, 2 pai'ts ; dragon's 
blood, 2 parts ; turmeric, 1 part ; alcohol, 
45 parts. 

d. — Shellac, 4 parts ; sandarac, 4 parts ; 
mastic, 2 parts ; Venice turpentine, 5 
parts ; rosin, 1 part ; dragon's blood, 4 
parts ; gamboge, 4 parts ; alcohol, 70 
parts. 

e. — Shellac, 1.5 parts, by weight, in al- 
cohol, 30 parts ; mastic, 2.5 parts, in al- 
cohol, 5 parts ; sandarac, 1.5 parts, in 
alcohol, 5 parts ; gamboge, 2.5 parts, in 
alcohol, 5 parts ; turpentine, 1.5 parts, 
in alcohol, 5 parts ; sanders, 1.5 parts, 
extracted with alcohol, 5 parts. The in- 
gredients to be dissolved separately, fil- 
tered, and mixed. 

f. — Amber, 25 parts ; dragon's blood, 
20 parts ; gamboge, 25 parts ; seed lac, 100 
parts ; saffron, 1 part ; sanders, 3 parts ; 
alcohol, 500 parts. 

g. — Shellac, 1.2 parts ; sandarac, 0.5 
part ; gamboge, 0.25 part ; red sanders, 
0.2 part ; Venice turpentine, 0.15 part ; 
95% alcohol, 5 parts. The sanders is 
first extracted with a part of the alcohol. 

h.— -Imitation Gold Moldings. — 1. — 
Sandarac, 10 parts ; elemi, 1 part ; mastic, 
1 part ; alcohol, 20 parts. 

2.— Matt Varnish.— Pale shellac, 0.25 
part ; absolute alcohol, 2 parts ; chalk, 
0.25 part. 



[660] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnish, Insulating) 



Guaiacum Varnish. 

Gum guaiacum, 2 oz. ; shellac, 2 oz. ; 
methylated spirit, 10 oz. Powder the 
gum, dissolve in the spirit, filter, add the 
shellac. Keep in jar surrounded by warm 
water until dissolved. 

Guns. 

Barrels. — 1. — Shellac, 1^^ oz. ; dragon's 
blood, 3 dr. ; rectified spirit, 1 qt. Apply 
after the barrels are browned. 

2. — Stocks. — Shellac, 5 oz. ; sandarac, 
14 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 dr. ; alcohol, 

2 qt. 

Gutta Percha Varnish. 

Clean % lb. of gutta percha in warm 
water from adhering impurities, dry well, 
dissolve in 1 lb. of rectified rosin oil, and 
add 2 lb. of linseed-oil varnish, boiling 
hot. 

Hats. (See Straw Hats.) 
Harness Varnish. 

1. -Isinglass, 1 oz. ; indigo, 1 oz. ; log- 
wood, 1 lb. ; best glue, 1 lb. ; soft soap, 
8 oz. ; vinegar, 2 qt. ; mix by heat, and 
strain. 

2. — Alcohol, 2 gal. ; white turpentine, 

3 lb. ; shellac, 3 lb. ; Venice turpentine, 
1/4 pt. When the rosins are all dissolved 
add a little olive oil, and color, if de- 
sired, with lampblack. 

India Rubber Varnish. 

1. — India-rubber, finely divided, 2 oz., 
placed in a phial, and digested in a sand 
bath, with % lb. of camphene and 14 oz. 
of naphtha. When dissolved, add 1 oz. of 
copal varnish, which renders it more dur- 
able. 

2. — Digest in a wide-mouthed glass bot- 
tle 2 oz. of india-rubber in shavings, with 
1 lb. of oil of turpentine, during 2 days, 
without shaking ; then stir up with a 
wooden spatula. Add another pound of 
oil of turpentine, and digest, with fre- 
quent agitation, until all is dissolved. Mix 
1% lb. of this solution with 2 lb. of white 
copal-oil varnish, and l^/^ lb. of boiled 
linseed oil ; shake, and digest in a sand 
bath until they have united into a good 
varnish. 

Inflexible. 

Shellac, 4 oz, ; wood naphtha, 1 pt. ; 
lampblack, q. s. to color ; dissolve. 

Insulating Varnishes. 

For Earth Cables and Exposed Strong 
Current Wires. — 1. — Melt 2 parts of as- 
phalt together with 0.4 part of sulphur ; 
add 5 parts of linseed-oil varnish, linseed 
oil or cotton-seed oil, keep at 160° C. for 

[ 



(Varnish, Iron and Steel) 

6 hours ; next pour in oil of turpentine 
as required. 

2. — Mix 3 parts of elaterite with 2 
parts of linseed-oil varnish at 200° C. 
for 5 to 6 hours ; next, melt 3 parts of 
asphalt, pour both substances together, 
and again maintain the temperature of 
200° C. for 3 to 4 hours, and then add 

1 part of linseed'Oil varnish and oil of 
turpentine, as required. 

Dynamos and Conduits with Low Ten- 
sion. — a. — Shellac, 4 parts ; sandarac, 2 
parts ; linoleic acid, 2 parts ; alcohol, 15 
parts. 

b. — Shellac, 4 parts ; sandarac, 4 parts ; 
elemi, 1 part ; alcohol, 20 parts. 

Shellac Varnish (f jsrtrf hy Large Elec- 
trical Works). — a. — Shellac, 100 lb.; 
methylated spirit, 40 gal. Contains no 
auramine or oxalic, but may contain acid 
brown or Bismarck brown. 

b. — Extra Stout. — Shellac, 84 lb. ; 
methylated spirit, 12 gal. Auramine and 
oxalic acid. Makes 19 gal. 

Iron and Steel. 

1. — Dissolve in alcohoi : Mastic, 10 
parts ; camphor, 5 parts ; sandarac, 15 
parts ; elemi, 5 parts. Apply cold. 

2. — Iron Work. — a. — Dissolve in about 

2 lb. tar oil, l^ lb. asphaltum, and a like 
quantity of pounded rosin, mix hot in an 
iron kettle, care being taken to prevent 
any contact with the flame. When cold 
the varnish is ready for use. This var- 
nish is for outdoor wood and iron work. 

b. — Black Varnish. — Boil sulphur in 
turpentine, apply with a brush and after 
heating, the iron becomes of an intense 
and brilliant black. 

c. — Sheet Iron. — Melted colophony, 60 
gr. ; amber, 90 gr. After fusion and cool- 
ing, add f Spirits of turpentine, 45 gr. ; 
painters' varnish, 45 gr. If the varnish 
is too thick, dilute it with essence. 

3. — Steel (Dress Swords, etc.). — Gum 
sandarac, 15 parts ; small mastic, 10 
parts ; elemi, 5 parts ; camphor, 3 parts. 
Dissolve the whole over the water bath 
in sufficient alcohol for the purpose. This 
varnish is used cold. (Parts by weight.) 

4. — Preservative Varnish for Iron 
Work. — a. — Common rosin, 56 lb. ; gutta 
percha, 2 lb. ; dried sulphate of zinc, 2 
lb. ; mineral naphtha, 8 gal. Sweat the 
rosin and gutta percha together, then 
sprinkle in the sulphate of zinc, cool to 
130° F., and add the naphtha. 

b. — (Also used as a first coating for 

ships' bottoms, previous to the application 

of anti-fouling compositions.) — Common 

rosin, 112 lb. ; gutta percha. 8 lb. ; stear- 

661 ] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



1 



(Varnish, Label) 



ate of zinc, 8 lb. ; mineral naphtha*, 24 
gal. (*)Tliis may be coal tar naphtha or 
benzine. 

c. — Stearate of Zinc (used in above). 
— White curd soap, 28 lb. ; sulphate of 
zinc, 8 lb. Process. — Dissolve the sul- 
phate of zinc and soap separately in boil- 
ing water. Mix together while boiling, 
dry and fuse stearate for use. 

5. — Smiths, Locksmiths and Iron 
Founders. — a. — Heat 200 parts by weight 
of pine oil and dissolve in it 25 parts of 
Syrian asphalt and 25 parts of rosin, 
previously crushed a little. When cool, 
pour the varnish into a bottle and keep. 
When heating the pine oil, be careful 
that the vapors do not come into con- 
tact with the fire or the oil will ignite. 

b. — Broivn Varnish for Locksmiths^ 
Goods. — Such a varnish for bright goods 
to be dried in the stove is prepared as 
follows : Heat 10 parts of Syrian or 
Gisonite asphalt, 30 parts of matured lin- 
seed oil, 2 parts of red lead, .and 2 parts 
of litharge until the mix'ture draws 
threads, let cool, and stir 30 parts of oil 
turpentine into it. (See also Machin- 
ery; Metals.) 

Japan Varnish, Black. 

Naples asphaltum, 50 lb. ; dark gum 
arable, 8 lb. Fuse, add 12 gal. linseed 
oil ; boil, then add of dark gum amber, 
10 lb., previously fused and boiled in 2 
gal. linseed oil ; next add q. s. of driers 
and thin with oil of turpentine. 

Label Varnish. 

1. — Sandarac, 60 parts ; mastic, 25 
parts ; camphor, 1 part ; oil of lavender, 
8 parts ; Venice turpentine, 4 parts ; 
ether, 6 parts ; alcohol, 95%, 44 parts. 
Mix and macerate together and- set aside 
to dissolve, giving the container an oc- 
casional shake. It takes several days to 
effect complete solution, but the resultant 
article is worth the trouble. Thin where 
necessary with alcohol to which 12% of 
ether is added, or absolute alcohol alone. 

2. — Mastic, 8 parts ; copaiba balsam, 4 
parts ; Venice turpentine, 6 parts ; oil of 
turpentine, 8 parts ; sandarac, 24 parts ; 
alcohol, 95%, 80 parts. Mix and let 
stand in a close vessel until the gums 
and rosins are completely dissolved, facili- 
tating solution by frequent agitation. 
Let stand a few days, in perfect quiet, 
then cautiously decant. To secure a 
brilliant and glossy surface, first varnish 
the label with thin collodion, give it 2 
coats, and let the first dry befoi*e apply- 
ing the second. Neither varnish turns 
yellow, and when applied to white paint ' 



(Varnish, Leather) 



it not only gives it a brilliant luster but 
protects it from yellowing. 

Laboratory Tables. 

To Protect Laboratory Benches from 
Acids and Alkalis. — Solution (a): 
Copper sulphate, 125 ; potassium chloride, 
125; water, 1,000. Heat until dissolved. 
Solution (b) : Aniline hydrochloride, 150; 
water, 1,000. Solution (a) is first 
brushed on, and then (b), the application 
being allowed to dry. Next day the bench 
is rubbed with raw linseed oil, this treat- 
ment being repeated once a month. 

Lac Varnish. 

l.-^Seed lac, 8 oz. ; alcohol, 1 qt, ; di- 
gest in a close vessel in a warm situation 
for 3 or 4 days, then decant and strain. 
Highly recommended. 

2. — Substitute lac bleached by chlorine 
for seed lac. Both are very tough, hard 
and durable, the last almost colorless. 
Used for pictures, metal, wood or leather. 

3. — Lac Water Varnish. — Pale shellac, 
5 oz. ; borax, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pt. Digest 
at nearly the boiling point till dissolved, 
then strain. An excellent vehicle for 
water colors, inks, etc., and a varnish for 
prints is made thus of bleached lac. 
When dry, it is transparent and watei 
proof. 

Leather Paints and Varnishes. 

1. — Shellac, 1 part ; turpentine, 5 
parts ; prepared spirit, 15 parts. To pre- 
pare the spirit add to every 15 1. of al- 
cohol (wood) 500 gr. extract of logwood 
and 25 gr. of potassium dichromate and 
dissolve; then add the shellac and tur- 
pentine. 

2. — Ruby shellac, 30 parts ; Venice 
turpentine, 1 part; sandarac, 1 part; 
castor oil, 1 part ; alcohol, 150 parts ; 
levelin black, 5 parts. 

3. — Rosin, 3 parts ; turpentine, 3 parts ; 
oil turpentine, 3 parts ; sandarac, 6 parts ; 
shellac, 12 parts; lampblack, 1 to 5 
parts; alcohol, 90%, 90 parts. 

4. — Venice turpentine, 3 oz. ; alcohol, 
8 oz. ; nigrosine, 30 gr. ; aniline blue, 8 
gr. Dissolve the aniline colors in a little 
alcohol before adding to the other ingred- 
ients. 

5. — a. — Durable leather varnish is com- 
posed of boiled linseed oil, in which a 
drier, such as litharge, has been boiled. 
It is colored with lampblack. This var- 
nish is used for making enameled leather. 

b. — Shellac, 12 parts ; white turpentine, 
5 parts ; gum sandarac, 2 parts ; lamp- 
black, 1 part ; spirits of turpentine, 4 
parts; alcohol, 96 parts. 



[662] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnish, Lithographs) 



c— Dull Black.— Alcohol, 95%, 500 
parts ; shellac, 125 parts ; wax, 15 parts ; 
turpentine, 10 parts ; spirit-soluble nigro- 
sine, 10 to 15 parts. 

d. — Glossy Black, Volatile. — 1. — Alco- 
hol, 95%, 500 parts; shellac, 70 parts; 
turpentine, 20 parts ; spirit-soluble ni- 
grosine, 10 parts. 

2.— Alcohol, 95%, 500 parts; shellac, 
90 parts ; sandarac, 15 parts ; turpentine, 
10 parts ; castor oil, 6 parts ; spirit-solu- 
ble nigrosine, 12 to 15 parts. 

3.— Alcohol, 95%, 500 parts; shellac, 
70 parts ; colophony, 30 parts ; rosin oil, 
10 parts ; turpentine, 10 parts ; spirit- 
soluble nigrosine, 10 to 15 parts. 

4.— Alcohol, 95%, 500 parts; shellac, 
60 parts ; sandarac, 25 parts ; colophony, 
15 parts ; turpentine, 25 parts ; turpen- 
tine oil, 15 parts ; spirit-soluble nigrosine, 
12 to 15 parts. 

6. — Metals to Leather, Varnish for 
Fastening. — Dissolve 1 oz. of gum arable 
in water and an equal amount of isin- 
glass in brandy. 

7. — Pocket Books, etc. — Use 6 oz. of 
mastic, in drops ; 3 oz. of coarsely pow- 
dered glass, separated from the dust by 
a sieve; 32 oz. of spirits of wine of 40°. 
Place the ingredients in a sand bath over 
a fire, and let them boil, stirring well. 
When thoroughly mixed, introduce 3 oz. 
of spirits of turpentine, boil for half an 
hour, remove from the fire, cool, and 
strain through cotton cloth. Great care 
in manipulation is requisite to avoid a 
conflagration. Use a closed fire and 
watch incessantly. 

Linseed Oil Varnish. 

Boil linseed oil, 60 parts, with litharge, 
2 parts ; white vitriol, 1 part ; each finely 
powdered until all water is evaporated. 
Then set by. Or, rub up borate of man- 
ganese, 4 parts, with some of the oil, then 
add linseed oil, 3,000 parts, and heat to 
boiling. 

Lithographs. 

1. — Put 2 qt. of the best linseed oil 
into a saucepan large enough to hold 1 
gal. The lid should have a long handle, 
so that it may be put on the vessel with 
safety while the contents are burning. 
Set it on a clear fire until the white 
fumes arise. Apply a lighted paper oc- 
casionally until these fumes catch fire 
and burn. It must now be watched care- 
fully, so that the flame shall not be- 
come unmanageable. If the flame goes 
down a little it may be increased by stir- 
ring with an iron rod. If it shows a ten- 
dency to rise too high, it may be removed 

[6 



(Varnish, Mahogany) 



from the fire, when it will still continuie 
to burn. If it rises too high and threat- 
ens to become dangerous, the lid must 
be put on, when the flame, being de- 
prived of the access of air, will be extin- 
guished. If the flame has been very high, 
the lid should be kept on long enough to 
allow the whole of the oil to cool down 
a little. The oil is burned until it becomes 
1-6 less. A thick slice of bread is now 
put in and moved about with a fork until 
it is browned. It is then allowed to 
burn a little more, it being set on the fire 
again to revive the flame if the latter has 
become dull. A second slice is now put 
in and browned as before. This proceeding 
is said to free the oil from its more 
greasy particles. One-fourth of the oil 
may now be taken away. If, on be- 
coming cold, it is of a syrupy nature, it 
may be set aside for thin varnish. The 
rest having been burned again for a short 
time, .1-3 part is taken away. This is 
medium varnish. The remainder is again 
burned and % set aside for strong var- 
nish. The fourth portion is again burned, 
and when cold should be thick and ropy. 
It is necessary to take every precaution 
to guard against accident. 

2. — Lithographs and Drawings. — Dex- 
trine, 20 parts ; alcohol, 5 parts ; water, 
20 parts. Give a couple of coats of 
starch paste, then varnish. 

Machinery. 

1. — Asphaltmn Varnish. — First paint 
the articles in a japan color such as the 
following : Asphaltum, 3 oz. ; boiled oil, 
4 qt. ; burned umber, 8 oz. Mix by heat, 
and when cooling, thin with turpentine. 
Then coat them with a suitable trans- 
parent or light varnish. 

2. — Agricultural Machines. — Obtainable 
in a variety of colors, such as green, red, 
blue, etc., they must possess brilliant 
luster and adhere to the iron almost as 
firmly as enamel. They may be produced, 
of excellent quality, according to the fol- 
lowing recipe : In 120 parts of 95% al- 
cohol dissolve 80 parts of soft manilla 
copal, 40 parts rosin, and when the solu- 
tion is complete add 30 parts of castor 
oil. The varnish is rubbed down, in the 
proportion of 4 to 7, with any desired 
bright color. (See also Iron; Metals.) 

Mahogany. 

1. — Methylated spirit, 160 fl.oz. ; drag- 
on's blood, 1 oz. ; shellac, 24 oz. Digest 
the dragon's blood for several days in the 
spirit before dissolving therein the shellac. 
But the color of mahogany is better imi- 
tated by using Bismarck brown red, with 



Pamts, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnish, Mordant) 



just a little nigrosine to tone down the 
redness. 

2. — Methylated spirit, 160 fl.oz. ; san- 
darac rosin, 16 oz. ; shellac, 8 oz. ; Venice 
turpentine, 9 oz. ; dragon's blood, 4 oz. 

Maps, Prints, etc. 

1. — Gum mastic, 5 oz. ; gum sandarac, 
2 oz. ; gum camphor, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 95%, 
16 oz. 

2. — Balsam of Canada, 2 oz. ; spirits 
of turpentine, 4 oz. The paper should 
first be sized with a solution of isinglass, 
and dried before applying the varnish. 

3. — Use Canada balsam or dammar var- 
nish. The principal trouble will be in 
removing the old wax. The paper must 
be perfectly dry. 

4. — Mounted maps are sized with thin 
white glue and varnished with mastic. 

Mastic Varnish. (See Picture Varnish.) 
Matt Varnish. 

1. — Gum mastic, 40 gr. ; gum sandarac, 
160 gr. ; methylated spirit, 4 oz. ; benzole, 
IVz oz. 

2. — Sandarac, 18 parts ; mastic, 4 
parts ; ether, 20 parts ; benzole, 80 to 100 
parts. See that the glass is perfectly 
clean. 

3. — Black. — a. — Gum mastic, 50 gr. ; 
gum sandarac, 200 gr. ; methylated ether, 
iy2 oz, ; benzol, % oz. 

b. — For Wood. — Shellac, 40 parts; 
borax, 20 parts ; glycerine, 20 parts ; 
aniline black, 50 parts ; water, 500 parts. 
Dissolve the borax in the water, add the 
shellac and heat until solution is effected ; 
then add the other ingredients. 

Mechanics, Varnish for. 

Rosin, 5 parts ; dragon's blood, 1 part ; 
gamboge, 1 part ; gutta percha, 2 parts ; 
shellac, 1 part; volatile tar oil, 40 parts. 

Metals. 

1. — ^To make alcoholic laquers or var- 
nishes adhere more completely to polished 
metal surfaces, 1 part boracic acid should 
be added to 200 parts of varnish. This 
composition will adhere so firmly and be- 
come so completely glazed as to be re- 
moved only with difficulty. Be careful 
not to add too much of the boracic acid, 
as it injures the gloss in that case. 

2. — Copal, 1 part ; alcohol, 2 parts. 

3. — Copal, 1 part ; oil rosemary, 2 or 3 
parts ; alcohol. Apply hot. 

(See also Iron; Machinery.) 

Mordant Varnish. 

Take 1 oz. of mastic, 1 oz. of sandarac, 
% oz. of gum gamboge, and ^ oz. of 



(Varnish, Organ) 



turpentine ; dissolve in 6 oz. of spirits 
of turpentine. Or, place a quantity of 
boiled oil in a pan, and subject it to a 
strong heat. When a black smoke arises, 
set it on fire, and in a few moments ex- 
tinguish it by covering over the pan ; then 
pour the whole, while heated, into a bottle 
previously warmed, adding to it a little 
oil of turpentine. 

Naphtha Polish. 

1^ — Wood naphtha, 5 gal. ; orange shel- 
lac. 12 lb. 

2. — Naphtha French Polish. — a. — Or- 
ange shellac, 84 lb. ; powdered pale rosin, 
28 lb. ; methylated spirit, 25 gal. ; wood 
naphtha, 25 gal. 

b. — Orange shellac, 56 lb. ; powdered 
pale rosin, 56 lb. ; methylated spirit, 25 
gal. ; wood naphtha, 25 gal. 

3. — Rosin Naphtha Varnish. — Dissolve 
112 lb. rosin in 12 gal. naphtha. (Fusel 
oil and methylated spirit may be used.) 

Nets. 

1, — The following is a good water- 
proof composition, and is very pliable : 
Dissolve soft soap in hot water and add 
a solution of sulphate of iron. An in- 
soluble iron soap is precipitated, which 
must be collected, washed and dried. It 
must be then mixed to the right consis- 
tency with linseed oil and it is then ready 
to apply. 

2. — ^Try paraffine wax, melted with a 
small portion of raw linseed oil, both for 
lines and nets ; see that they are perfectly 
dry before putting them into the above 
hot, and you will say you have found 
nothing to equal it. When you take them 
out, wring them dry before the fire in 
an old duster or cloth. 

Oak Varnish. 

Kauri gum, 8 lb. ; oil, 3 gal. ; turpentine, 
51/^ gal. Dissolve the gum in the gum 
pot, heat the oil, and mix the two until 
the mixture strings well, and finally thin 
with the turpentine. 

Optical Goods and Ornamental Iron 
Work, Dead Black for. 

Dissolve seed lac in 95% alcohol q. s. 
Mixed refined lampblack with alcohol and 
add enough seed lac varnish to make the 
lampblack adhere, but not enough to give 
it a gloss. Strain through cheese cloth. 
Apply with a soft varnish brush. 

Organ Varnish. 

This varnish consists of a solution of 
very fine bleached shellac 25 kilos, in 
spirit 75 kilos. 



[ 664 ] 



Paints. Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnish, Picture) 



Paper Varnish. 

1. — The following form affords very 
good varnishes for drawings that have 
been previously sized with gelatine : Can- 
ada balsam, 1 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 2 
oz. ; or, Canada balsam, 4 oz. ; camphene, 
8 oz. 

2. — Dissolve sandarac, 15 kilos, and 
common, though pure, thick turpentine 
in spirit, 45 kilos. 

Patterns, Varnish for. 

1. — Alcohol, 1 gal, ; shellac, 1 lb. Lamp 
or ivory black, sufficient to color it. (See 
also Machinery, above.) 

2.— Shellac, 30 lb.; manilla copal, 10 
lb. ; and Zanzibar copal, 10 lb., are placed 
in a vessel, which is heated externally 
by steam, and stored during 4 to 6 hours, 
after which 150 parts of the finest potato 
spirit are added, and the whole heated 
during 4 hours to 87° C. This liquid is 
dyed by the addition of orange color, and 
can then be used for painting the pat- 
terns. 

Photographic Trays. 

Use asphaltum varnish, or coat the bot- 
tom and sides of the wooden tray with : 
Rosin, 1 part ; beeswax, 2 parts ; paraffine, 
3 parts. Melt these together, warm the 
tray, and while hot apply with a brush. 

Picture Varnish. 

1. — Several varnishes are called by this 
name. Pale copal or mastic varnish is 
generally used for oil paintings, and crys- 
tal, white hard spirit, or mastic varnish, 
for water-color dravrings on paper. 

2. — Solution of Venice turpentine, 8 
kilos, and sandarac, 8 kilos, in spirit, 28 
kilos. 

3. — Mastic, 175 parts ; turpentine, 45 
parts ; camphor, 15 parts ; pulverized 
glass, 150 parts ; alcohol, 110 parts. Mix 
and dissolve. 

4. — Mastic Varnish. — a. — ^Fine. Very 
pale and picked gum mastic, 5 lb. ; glass 
pounded as small as barley, and well 
washed and dried, 2^^ lb. ; rectified tur- 
pentine, 2 gal. ; put them int'^ a clean 4 
gal. stone or tin bottle, bung down secure- 
ly, and keep rolling it backward and for- 
ward pretty smartly on a counter or any 
other solid place for at least 4 hours ; 
when, if the gum is all dissolved, the 
varnish may be decanted, strained through 
muslin into another bottle, and allowed 
to settle. It should be kept for 6 or 9 
months before use, as it thereby gets 
both tougher and clearer. 

b.^ — Second Quality. — Mastic, 8 lb. ; 
turpentine, 4 gal. ; dissolve by a gentle 

r 



(Varnish, Playing Cards) 



heat, and add pale turpentine varnish, ^4 
gal. 

c. — Gum mastic, 6 oz. ; oil of turpen- 
tine, 1 qt. ; dissolve. Mastic varnish is 
used for pictures, etc. ; when good, it is 
tough, hard, brilliant and colorless. 

d. — 1 pt. spirits of turpentine and 10 
oz. of the clearest gum mastic. Set it in 
a sand bath till it is dissolved, then strain 
it through a fine sieve, and it is ready for 
use ; if too thick, thin with spirit of tur- 
pentine. 

5. — Paintings. — Take of mastic, 6 oz. ; 
pure turpentine, V2 oz. ; camphor, 2 dr. ; 
spirits of turpentine, 19 oz. Add first 
the camphor to the turpentine ; the mix- 
ture is made in a water bath. When the 
solution is effected, add the mastic and 
the spirits of turpentine near the end of 
the operation ; filter through a cotton 
cloth. 

6. — Prints. — a. — A compound of ben- 
zole and almond oil. This print varnish 
does not give the slightest glaze to photo- 
graphs on plain paper. 

b. — Dissolve 1 oz. of the best isinglass, 
or London single size, in 1 pt. of hot 
water by boiling, strain it fine and keep 
it for use. Add or diminish the isinglass 
or size till it merely dulls the surface. 
Give the print 2 or 3 coats with a flat 
camel's-hair brush, letting it dry between 
each ; then with best mastic varnish, give 
it 2 coats. (See also Ferrotypes; Litho- 
graphs. ) 

Picture Frames. (See Frames.) 

Plaster Casts. 

Take % oz. of tin, together with the 
same quantity of bismuth, and fuse in a 
crucible. When perfectly dissolved, add 
1/^ oz. mercury. This substance, when 
mixed with the white of egg, forms a 
beautiful varnish for plaster casts. 

Playing Cards. 

Gum elemi, 56 lb. ; methylated spirit, 
4 gal. 

Retouching Varnish. — 1. — Sandarac, 1 
oz. ; castor oil, 80 gr. ; alcohol, 6 oz. First 
dissolve the sandarac in alcohol, and then 
add the oil. 

2. — Luckardt's. — Alcohol, 150 parts ; 
sandarac, 25 parts ; camphor, 2^/^ parts; 
castor oil, 5 parts ; Venetian turpentine, 
2^2 parts. 

3.— Alcohol (sp. gr. 0.830), 60 parts; 
sandarac, 10 parts ; camphor, 2 parts ; 
Venetian turpentine, 4 parts ; oil of laven- 
der, 3 parts. This varnish may also be 
used for paper pictures. The retoucher 
665] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnish, Sculpture) 



should not set to work as soon as the 
negative has been varnished, as the film 
will not then be hard enough to bear the 
touch of a lead pencil. The varnished 
film is in best condition for retouching 
when a day old. 

Printer's Varnish. 

For Ink, — ^To each cwt. linseed oil 
(clarified) add 50 lb. clear black rosin 
and 5 lb. oil of turpentine. The varnish 
is now ready to be incorporated with the 
coloring matter. 

Tar Oil Varnish. — Linseed oil, 50 parts ; 
litharge, 3 parts ; pine rosin, 20 parts ; 
tar varnish oil, 10 parts. The litharge 
is boiled with the linseed oil and pine 
rosin until the mass commences to draw 
threads in cooling ; the varnish oil is then 
added. 

Retouching. (See Picture Varnish.) 
Rosin Benzine Varnish. 

Rosin, 250 lb. ; oxide of manganese, 7 
lb. ; benzine, 35 gal. 

Rosin Turpentine Varnish. 

Dark rosin, 100 lb. ; turps, 8 gal. P«'t 
100 lb. dark rosin in pot, add turps with 
it. Put on slow fire until all the rosin 
has melted ; take off fire. If too stout, 
add more turps. 

Rubber, Shellac Varnish for. 

1.- — Powder shellac and soak in well- 
stoppered bottle with 10 times its weight 
of strong ammonia. Allow it to stand 
for a number of days, when the shellac 
disappears. Sometimes several weeks are 
required to effect complete solution. If 
for use on overshoes, add a little lamp- 
black. 

2. — Rubbers. — Dissolve 1 oz. finely 
powdered shellac in 10 oz. of strong am- 
monia. This must be kept in a bottle 
with a ground glass stopper. After 
several days the shellac will become dis- 
solved. Apply with a rag. 

Sculpture Varnish. 

1. — Dissolve Venice turpentine, 5 kilos, 
and sandarac gum, 6 kilos, in 95% spirit, 
20 kilos. 

2. — Bronze for Statuary. — Cut best 
hard soap, 50 parts, into fine shavings ; 
dissolve in 2 parts of water ; add solution 
blue vitriol, 15 parts, in water, 60 parts ; 
wash with water, dry slow. Dissolve in 
turpentine. 

3. — Wax Varnish to Preserve Statues 
and Alarhle Exposed to the Air. — Melt 
2 parts of wax in 8 parts of pure essence 
of turpentine. Apply hot, and spread 

[ 



(Varnish, Silver) 



thinly, so as not to destroy the lines of 
the figures. This varnish may be used 
upon statues which have been cleansed 
with water dashed with hydrochloric acid, 
but they must be perfectly dry when the 
application is made. 

Sealing Wax Varnish. 

Dissolve sealing wax of any color in 
strong alcohol. Apt to be rather brittle. 

Shellac Varnish. (See also Rubber.) 

1. — (a) Shellac, 60 grams; (b) alco- 
hol, 60 grams; (c) castor oil, 25 grams; 
(d) alcoholic solution of aniline dye, a 
few drops, (a) and (b) are dissolved, 
and heated until quite thick, then a lit- 
tle of (d) is added, and for every 60 
grams of the mixture add 25 grams of 
castor oil, and heat for a short time. 

2. — Harris'. — Put 1 oz. shellac into a 
wide-mouthed 8 oz. phial, containing 5 oz. 
of rectified naphtha or wood spirit. Cork 
and stand in a warm place until the gum 
is dissolved. Shake frequently and filter, 
adding more naphtha to assist the filter- 
ing, and changing the filter from time to 
time. 

3. — Imitation. — The following article 
under this name is used by furniture 
dealers: Gum sandarac, li/^ lb.; pale 
rosin, li/^ lb. ; benzine, 2 gal. Dissolve 
by gentle heat. The varnish is quick- 
drying. 

4. — White. — Dissolve 1 part of pearl- 
ash in about 8 parts of water ; add 1 part 
of shellac, and heat the whole to the boil- 
ing point. When the lac is dissolved, cool 
the solution, and saturate it with chlo- 
rine until the lac has all settled. When 
it is dissolved in alcohol it forms a var- 
nish which is transparent as any copal 
varnish. 

Shovel Varnish. 

W. W. rosin, 125 lb. ; dammar, 37 lb. ; 
sulph. zinc, 2 lb, ; turps, 25 gal. ; benzine, 
10 gal. ; coach oil, .2 gal. 

Sign Painter's Varnish. 

To 2 qt. of drying linseed oil add 2 lb. 
of best copal, 1-8 lb. of lead acetate ; 
7-8 gal. of turpentine. Boil the copal for 
several hours until very thick, before 
adding the turpentine. 

Silver. 

1. — Gum elemi, 30 parts ; white amber, 
45 parts ; charcoal, 30 parts ; spirits of 
turpentine, 375 parts. It must be used 
in a heated state, the metal to which it 
is to be applied being also heated. 

2. — Oxidized. — Alcohol, 16 parts ; red 
666 ] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnish for Straw) 



arsenic, 3 parts ; essence lavender, 1 part. 
(Parts by weight.) 

Spirit Varnish. 

Broicn. — The best do not contain rosin. 
Sandarac, 3 lb. ; pale shellac, 2 lb. ; spirit, 
2 gal. ; turpentine, 2 pt. Dissolve the san- 
darac and shellac in the spirit, and add 
the turpentine. 

Hard. — 1. — Gum lac, 20 parts ; juniper 
gum, 8 parts ; elemi, 4 parts ; alcohol, 100 
parts. 

2. — Brown. — a. — Sandarac, 4 oz. ; pale 
seed lac, 2 oz. ; elemi (true), 1 oz. ; al- 
cohol, 1 qt. Digest with agitation till dis- 
solved, then add Venice turpentine, 2 oz. 

b. — Gum sandarac, 3 lb. ; shellac, 2 lb. ; 
alcohol (65 over proof), 2 gal. Dissolve, 
add turpentine varnish, 1 qt. ; agitate 
well and strain. Very fine. 

c. — Seed lac, 1^2 lb. ; yellow rosin, 1% 
lb. ; rectified alcohol, 2 gal. 

d. — Methylated spirit, 160 fl.oz. ; shel- 
lac, 8 oz. ; sandarac rosin, 16 oz. ; elemi 
rosin, 4 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 4 oz. 

e. — Brown (for common purposes). — 
Methylated spirit, 160 fl.oz. ; shellac, 12 
oz. ; rosin, 12 oz. 

3.— White.— a.— Methylated spirit, 160 
fl.oz. ; sandarac rosin, 40 oz. ; gum thus, 
16 oz. 

b. — Methylated spirit (65 above proof), 
160 fl.oz. ; sandarac rosin 40 oz. ; cam- 
phor, l^ oz. ; coarsely powdered glass, 16 
oz. After straining, add 20 fl.oz. of pale 
turpentine varnish. 

c. — Methylated spirit, 160 fl.oz. ; san- 
darac rosin, 24 oz. ; mastic rosin, 8 oz. ; 
elemi rosin, 4 oz. All the above hard var- 
nishes can be polished when dry and hard. 
They should be laid on with a brush used 
always in one direction, so as not to gen- 
erate froth, for if they do, they dry dull 
and lusterless ; 24 hours is usually suflS- 
cient time to allow them before proceed- 
ing to polish. 

Statuary. (See Sculpture.) 
Stopping Out Varnishes (Petit Vernis). 

Lampblack made into into a paste with 
turpentine. Used by engravers. 

Straw Hats. 

1. — For dark varnishes prepare a basis 
consisting of : Orange shellac, 900 grams ; 
sandarac, 225 grams ; manilla copal, 225 
grams ; castor oil, 55 grams ; wood spirit, 
91. To color, add to the foregoing 
amount alcohol-soluble coal-tar dyes as 
follows : Black, 55 gr. of soluble ivory 
black (modified by blue and green); 
Olive brown, 15 grams of brilliant green, 
55 grams of Bismarck brown, R., 8 grams 



( Varnish, Tinners' ) 



of spirit blue. Olive green, 28 grams of 
brilliant green, 28 grams of Bismarck 
brown R. Walnut, 55 grams of Bismarck 
brown R, 15 grams of nigrosine. Ma- 
hogany, 28 grams of Bismarck brown R, 
which may be deepened by a little nigro- 
sine. 

2. — For light colors prepare a varnish 
as follows : Sandarac, 1,350 grams ; elemi, 
450 grams ; rosin, 450 grams ; castor oil, 
110 grams ; wood spirit, 9 1. For this 
amount use dyes as follows : Gold, 55 
grams of chrysoidin, 55 grams of aniline 
yellow. Light green, 55 grams of bril- 
liant green, 7 grams of aniline yellow. 
Blue, 55 grams of spirit blue. Deep 
blue, 55 grams of spirit blue, 55 grams 
of indulin. Violet, 28 grams of methyl 
violet, 3 B crimson, 55 grams of safranin. 
Chestnut, 55 grams of safranin, 15 grams 
of indulin. 

3. — Dissolve 1 oz. of sealing wax in 4 
oz. of strong alcohol. Digest with heat 
over a sand bath. 

4. — Black Varnish for Straw Hats. — 
Best black sealing wax, i/^ oz, ; rectified 
90% alcohol, 2 oz. Powder the sealing 
wax and put it with the 90% alcohol in 
a phial ; digest them in a sand bath, or 
near a fire till the wax is dissolved ; lay 
on warm with a fine, soft hair brush be- 
fore a fire or in the sun. 

Table Varnish. 

1. — Oil of turpentine, 1 lb. ; beeswax, 
2 oz. ; colophony, 1 dr. 

2. — Dammar rosin, 1 lb. ; spirits of tur- 
pentine, 2 lb. ; camphor, 200 gr. Digest 
the mixture for 24 hours. The decanted 
portion is fit for immediate use. 

Tannin Varnish. 

Alcohol, 95%, 20 parts; turpentine, 1 
part ; tannin, 4 to 5 parts. 

Tar Varnish for Wood or Iron. 

Coal tar, l^/^ gal. ; spirits of turpentine, 
% pt. ; oil of vitriol, 3 oz. Mix the tar 
and vitriol together with a stick, and 
apply with a brush as it becomes thick. 

Terra Cotta. 

Mastic, 1 part ; shellac, 10 parts ; Ven- 
ice turpentine, 3 parts ; strong alcohol, 20 
parts. 

Tinner's Varnish. 

1. — Mix lampblack with shellac. 

2. — Mix Frankfort black with shellac. 

3. — Mix Frankfort black with a mix- 
ture of asphaltum and oil of turpentine, 
then add a little linseed oil and minium. 



[667] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Varnish, Turpentine) 



The exact .proportions of tinners' var- 
nishes are. ^material. 

Tissue Paper, etc., Varnish for. 

Add 2 parts of drying linseed oil to 1 
part of the solution of india-rubber, and 
mix them by means of heat. Apply warm 
on both sides of the paper. 

Tools, Lacquer for. 

1. — Yellow wax, 4 parts; Berlin blue, 
2 parts ; lampblack, 1 part ; turpentine 
oil, 16 parts ; neatsfoot oil, q. s. Rub 
up the blue and lampblack with suflBcient 
of the oil to make a stiff, doughy mass, 
and add it to the solution of the wax in 
the oil. 

2. — Dissolve 250 grams of bleached 
shellac in 250 grams of alcohol, and dip 
the tools into it, when they may be hung 
up to dry. 

3. — Tallow, 4 oz. ; rosin, 2 oz. ; melt, 
and strain while hot. With a brush apply 
a coat to the tools and it will prevent 
their rusting. 

Transfer Varnish. 

1.— Mastic in tears, 6l^ oz. ; rosin, 12^^ 
oz. ; pale Venetian turpentine, 25 oz. ; 
sandarac, 25 oz, ; alcohol, 5 pt. Dissolve 
in a clean bottle or can in a warm place, 
frequently shaking it. When the gum is 
dissolved strain it through a lawn sieve 
and it is fit for use. 

2. — Diaphanie, Engravings, etc. — a. — 
Pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of 
turpentine, equal parts. Also termed 
crystal varnish. 

b. — Mastic in tears and sandarac, each 
4 oz. ; rectified spirit, II/2 oz. ; dissolve, 
and add pale Canada balsam, i/^ pt. Melt 
the balsam with a gentle heat, mix with 
the other ingredients and agitate violent- 
ly. 

c. — Take 6^ oz. of mastic, in tears, 
12y2 oz. of rosin, and genuine pale 
Venice turpentine and sandarac, of each 
25 oz. Dissolve, add 1 qt. of turpentine 
varnish, agitate well and strain. 

Transparencies, Varnish for. 

Dissolve wax in oil of turpentine. 

Turner's Lacquer. 

Gum elemi, 4 parts ; shellac (bleached), 
20 parts ; Venice turpentine, 4 parts ; 
strong alcohol, 60 parts. 

Turpentine Varnish. 

To 1 pt. of spirits of turpentine add 10 
oz. of clear rosin, pounded ; put it in a 
tin can on a stove and let it boil for half 



(Varnish, Violin) 



an hour. When the rosin is all dissolved, 
let it cool and it is ready for use. 

Umbrella Varnish. 

10 parts of pulverized litharge and 20 
parts turpentine are boiled in 20 parts 
linseed oil. Dry in the sun. 

Veneer Liquid. 

Gum anime, 8 lb. ; clarified linseed oil, 3 
gal. ; litharge, i^ lb. ; lead acetate, % lb. ; 
iron sulphate, ^ lb. ; oil of turpentine, 
5y2 gal. Boil all together until the mix- 
ture strings, then mix well and strain. 
The aniline colors used to give such var- 
nishes the desired shades are those known 
as "fat aniline colors" or "Soudan dyes." 
A small quantity of the desired color is 
mixed with a little oil of turpentine and 
then stirred into the varnish. These 
colors are not known as "oak stain" or 
"rosewood," but as reds, browns, etc. The 
proper proportions and blending would 
have to be learned from practice. 

Violin Varnish. 

1. — The famous Italian violin makers 
used, it is said, the following sort of var- 
nish on their instruments : Rectified alco- 
hol, 1/^ gal. ; 6 oz. gum sandarac, 3 oz. gum 
mastic and % pt. turpentine varnish. The 
above ingredients are put into a tin can 
by the stove and frequently shaken until 
the whole is well dissolved. It is finally 
strained and kept for use. If upon appli- 
cation it is seen to be too thick, thin with 
an addition of more turpentine varnish. 
The wood should be stained before apply- 
ing the varnish. For a red stain use cam- 
wood, logwood, or aniline. 

2. — Red Varnish for Violins. — Dissolve 
over a moderate fire : Sandarac, 12 parts ; 
shellac, 6 parts ; mastic, 6 parts ; elemi, 
3 parts. In 150 parts 95% alcohol which 
has been colored red with cochineal, or if 
a darker red is required, add dragon's 
blood gum. When the above is dissolved 
add 6 parts Venice turpentine. As this 
varnish is highly inflammable, use cau- 
tion as to fire. Find the tone of a piece 
of wood by direct comparison with similar 
notes on the piano or any standard instru- 
ment. A violin in tone at the proper pitch 
by a tuning fork is very convenient. 

3. — Tone of Wood for Same. — Dissolve 
by heat 2 oz. amber in oil of turpentine, 5 
oz., and drying linseed oil, 5, Color with 
dragon's blood or extract alkanet root. 
The tone given by a piece of wood depends 
upon its size, thickness, etc. Therefore, a 
test must be comparative. Cut square 
plates of equal size and thickness of a 
known wood and of the wood to be tried. 



[668] 



Paint Sy Varnishes y Etc. 



(Varnish, Wainscot) 



Place the center of the plate upon end of 
a cork or spool placed upon a table near 
the edge. Press the center of the plate of 
wood with the thumb and bow it near one 
of the corners. This will give the lowest 
note such a plate can produce, or the nor- 
mal tone. The higher the tone, the better 
the wood. 

4. — Coarsely powdered gum copal and 
glass, each 4 oz. ; alcohol, 64 o. p., 1 pt., 
camphor, % oz, ; heat in a water bath 
with frequent stirring, so that the bubbles 
may be counted as they rise until solution 
is complete, and when cold decant the 
clear portion. When oil varnish is used 
it is made from artists' vinegar copal, 

5, — The true Cremona varnish is of un- 
known formula ; its preparation is a lost 
art. Amber, fused, 2 oz. ; oil of turpen- 
tine, 5 oz, ; drying linseed oil, 5 oz. The 
following is for a spirit varnish : Mastic, 
1 dr. ; sandarac, 1 dr, ; lac, 6V2 dr. ; alco- 
hol, 5 fl.oz. To tinge with yellow, annatto, 
aloes, gamboge or turmeric may be used ; 
for red, dragon's blood or red sanders 
wood. By mixing the above, intermediate 
shades may be obtained. The formula is 
only half the art ; much depends on the 
application, treatment between coats, etc. 
It should be done by an expert. 

6. — The receipt for violin varnish as 
used by German violin makers is 4 
parts sandarac rosin, 2 parts shellac, 1 
part mastic, 2 parts benzoes rosin, 2 parts 
Venetian turpentine, and 32 parts of alco- 
hol. The solid ingredients are first dis- 
solved in the alcohol and the Venetian tur- 
pentine added afterward, and finally the 
whole carefully filtered to get rid of all 
dust. Brushes to be kept scrupulously 
clean. For staining, campeachy wood is 
used, mixed with about ^ yellow dye- 
wood, and boiled for two hours in 5 times 
its weight of water in copper or earthen- 
ware vessel ; no iron should come in con- 
tact with it, as this makes the solution 
black. The violins are colored with this 
solution when well cleaned, and afterward 
varnished. 

7. — Ooarsely powdered copal and glass, 
each 4 oz. ; alcohol, 64 o. p., 1 pint ; 
camphor, Vq oz. ; heat the mixture with 
frequent stirring in a water bath, so that 
the bubbles may be counted as they rise, 
until solution is complete, and, when cold, 
decant the clear portion. When oil var- 
nish is used it is made as for artists' 
virgin copal. 

Wagons. (See Carfiages; Coaches; 

Wicker Wagon Bodies.) 
Wainscot Varnish. 
Anime rosin, 8 lb. ; clarified oil, 3 gal. ; 



(Varnish, Water) 



litharge, 4 oz. ; dried white copperas. 4 
oz, ; dried sugar of lead, 4 oz. • ♦'urpentine. 
51/^ oz. Prepare as in oak .nishes. 

Walking Stick Varnish. 

Malacca. — Orange shellac, 56 lb. ; pow- 
dered manilla copal, 25 lb. ; powdered pale 
rosin, 25 lb. ; crysoidine crystals, 4 oz. ; 
methylated spirit, 25 gal. 

Wall Paper. 

Equal parts of borax and shellac are 
dissolved in ten times their weight of alco- 
hol : strain, and give two coats. For a 
very light-colored paper use sandarac in- 
stead of shellac. Paper treated with this 
•lacquer can be washed with water, and 
even with soap, if necessary. 

Water Varnishes. 

1. — Crystal Watei^ Varnish. — 1 lb. of 
good white gum arabic and 1 lb. of glu- 
cose are dissolved in 3 pints of water. 
This dries hard, with a gloss. 

2. — Glazing Varnish. — Mix 1 pint of 
white of egg with 1 pint of water. A 
little carbolic acid or salicylic acid or, bet- 
ter, thymol should be added to preserve 
this varnish. This varnish or glaze dries 
with a fair amount of luster. If, after be- 
ing applied, it be placed in a hot room to 
dry, the coat will be made more water- 
proof. Dried albumen may be used in- 
stead of the white of egg by dissolving 
1 oz. in 1 pt. of water ; only the color of 
the glaze is not so good. 

3. — Ghie Varnish. — Made by dissolving 
1 lb. of good pale glue in 2 gal. water. 
The color of this varnish depends very 
much on the quality of the glue used; if 
the best gelatine, then a white varnish 
will be made ; if a brown glue, then a 
brown varnish. This varnish is not very 
good because of the sticky coat it gives, 
which is not waterproof; by adding just 
before using, a small quantity of bichro- 
mate of potassium (1 oz. in 2 gal.), the 
coat becomes nearly waterproof. It is im- 
portant that the bichromate be added only 
just before use, as it would act on the 
varnish and cause it to set into a gelat- 
inous unworkable mass. This varnish 
forms the basis of some leather varnishes. 
A little thymol or borax may be added as 
a preservative. 

4. — Lac Water Varnish. — Shellac, 6 
oz. ; borax, 1% oz. ; and water, 1 pt. Boil 
together until the lac is dissolved. If 
bleached lac is used a white varnish will 
be made ; if the orange shellac, the varnish 
will have a pale brown color. This var- 
nish makes a fair vehicle for water col-, 
ors ; it is a good paper varnish, and dries 



[ 66'9 ] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Whitewash) 



with a fair luster and with a hard coat 
which is waterproof. By adding any of 
the soluble coal-tar colors colored var- 
nish can be made. 

Wax Lacquer. 

White wax, 2 parts ; benzol, 3 parts. 
Wax Varnish. 

Wax (pure), 5 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 1 
qt. ; dissolve. Used for furniture. 

White Varnish. 

1. — Tender copal, 7l^ oz. : camphor, 1 
oz. ; alcohol of 95%, 1 qt. Dissolve, then 
add mastic, 2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 
oz. Dissolve and strain. Very white, 
drying, and capable of being polished 
when hard. Used for toys. 

2. — Sandarac,''8 oz. ; mastic, 2 oz. ; Can- 
ada balsam, 4 oz. ; alcohol, 1 qt. Ninety 
per cent, alcohol, 1 qt. ; gum sandarac, 10 
oz. ; gum mastic, 2 oz. ; gum anime, i/^ oz. 
Dissolve in a clean can, with gentle heat. 
Agitate well when the gums are dissolved ; 
strain through a lawn sieve. 

3. — Susceptible to polish for jambs, lin- 
tels, etc. Mastic, in drops, 12 to 13 
dkgrm. ; sandarac, 48 to 49 dkgrm. ; 
elemi, 6 dkgrm. ; Venetian turpentine, 2 
1. ; alcohol, 2. 

4. — Soft White Varnish. — Methylated 
spirit, 160 fl.oz. ; sandarac rosin, 24 oz. ; 
gum elemi, 16 oz. ; anime rosin, 4 oz. ; 
camphor, 2 oz. 

Wicker Wagon Bodies. (See also Bas- 
kets.) 

1. — Bleached shellac, 12 kgm. ; light 
manilla copal, 18 kgm. ; thick turpentine, 
12 kgm, ; and 45 kgm. of spirit. 

2. — With 6 kgm. orange shellac take 24 
kgm. of manilla copal (medium), 12 kgm. 
thick turpentine, 1 kgm. of castor oil and 
45 kgm. of spirit. 

Wood. 

1. — Linseed oil, 75 dkgrm. ; amber, 50 
dkgrm. ; pulverized litharge, 16 dkgrm. ; 
pulverized red lead, 92 dkgrm. This var- 
nish, well applied, resists the action of 
boiling water. 

2. — White Woods. — Dissolve 3 lb. of 
bleached shellac in 1 gal. 90% alcohol ; 
strain, and add 1% more gal. of 90% alco- 
hol. If the shellac is pure and white, this 
will make a beautifully clear covering for 
white wooden articles. 

WHITEWASH. 

1. — Lime, clean and well burnt, 6 qt. ; 
Spanish whiting, or powdered burnt alum, 
4 oz. ; white sugar, 16 oz. ; rice flour, 3 
pt. ; glue, of good quality, 16 oz. ; water, 



(Whitewash) 



boiling, 5 gal. Slake lime in vessel about 
10 gal. capacity, with hot water, keeping 
vessel covered to retain the steam, and 
pass through a sieve to clear of coarse 
particles. ISIake up the rice flour to a 
thick paste and boil well, and dissolve the 
glue in water over a water bath ; then 
mix the liquids with the remainder of the 
water, and add the whiting or alum and 
the sugar. The mixture should be ap- 
plied warm on outdoor surfaces, and cold 
indoors. 

2. — A good durable whitewash is made 
as follows : Take % bushel of freshly 
burnt lime, slake it with boiling water ; 
cover it during the process, to keep in the 
steam. Strain the liquid through a fine 
sieve, and add to it 7 lb. of salt previously 
well dissolved in warm water ; 3 lb. of 
ground rice boiled to a thin paste and 
stirred in boiling hot ; % lb. of powdered 
Spanish whiting ; 1 lb. of clean glue, 
which has been previously dissolved by 
soaking it well, and then hanging it over 
a slow fire in a small kettle, within a 
large one filled with water. Add 5 gal. of 
hot water to the mixture, stir it well, and 
let it stand a few days covered from dirt. 
It must be put on quite hot. For this pur- 
pose it can be kept in a kettle on a port- 
able furnace. About 1 pt. of this mixture 
will cover a square yard. 

3. — Paris white, 560 parts ; zinc white, 
160 parts ; plaster of paris, 160 parts ; 
white dextrine, 39 parts ; gum acacia, 16 
parts ; borax, 9% parts ; alum, 9% parts. 
Put up in pound packets, and direct a 
pint of boiling water to be added to the 
contents of a packet, the mixture after- 
wards to be thinned with cold water to a 
suitable consistency. Tinting is managed 
by adding a proportion of various ochers 
until the right shade is obtained. 

4. — To Color and Prevent Whitewash 
from Ruhhing Off. — Give the desired color 
by adding small quantities of lampblack, 
brown sienna, ocher, or other coloring 
material. Add alum to lime whitewash to 
prevent rubbing off. 

5. — Damp Walls. — For brickwork ex- 
posed to damp, take half a peck of well 
burned quicklime, fresh from the kiln, 
slake with hot water sufiicient to reduce it 
to a paste, and pass it through a fine 
sieve ; add a gallon of clean white salt 
which has been dissolved, in a small quan- 
tity of boiling water, and a thin, smooth 
paste, also hot, made from 1 lb. of fine rice 
flour; also %, of a lb. of the best white 
glue, made in the water bath. Mix to- 
gether, stir well, add % of a lb. of best 
Spanish whiting in 5 qt. of boiling water ; 
stir, cover to retain heat and exclude dust, 



[670] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Whitewash) 



and let it stand a week. Heat to boiling, 
stir, and apply hot. The above propor- 
tions will cover forty square yards. 

6. — Fences, etc. — a. — White lime, i/^ 
bushel ; hydraulic cement, 3 pecks ; umber 
and ocher, each 10 lb.; Venetian red, 1 
lb. ; lampblack, ^4 lb. ; slake the lime, 
shake up the lampblack with a little vine- 
gar, mix well together, add the cement, 
and fill the barrel with water. Let it 
stand several hours ; stir frequently. A 
larger proportion of ocher gives a darker 
color. Use only 1 coat. This is said to 
look well after five years' use. 

b. — Slake the lime in boiling water. To 
% gal. ordinary whitewash add % pt. 
molasses and % pt. table salt. Stir fre- 
quently while applying. 

c. — Quicklime, i/4 bu. ; slake, add % lb. 
common salt ; % lb. sulphate of zinc 
(white vitriol) ; 2 qt. sweet milk. Dissolve 
the salt and white vitriol before adding. 
Mix with, suflttcient water to give the 
proper consistency. Apply as soon as pos- 
sible, 

7. — Government Whitewash. — The fol- 
lowing coating for rough brick walls is 
used by the TJ. S. government for paint- 
ing lighthouses, and it effectually prevents 
moisture from striking through : Take of 
fresh Rosendale cement, 3 parts, and of 
clean, fine sand, 1 part; mix with fresh 
water thoroughly. This gives a gray or 
granite color, dark or light, according to 
the color of the cement. If brick color is 
desired, add enough Venetian red to the 
mixture to produce the color. If a very 
light color is desired, lime may be used 
with the cement and sand. Care must be 
taken to have all the ingredients well 
mixed together. In applying the wash, the 
wall must be wet with clean fresh water ; 
then follow immediately with the cement 
wash. This prevents the bricks from ab- 
sorbing the water from the wash too rap- 
idly, and gives time for the cement to 
set. The wash must be well stirred during 
the application. The mixture is to be 
made as thick as can be applied conven- 
iently with a whitewash brush. It is ad- 
mirably suited for brickwork, fences, etc., 
but it cannot be used to advantage over 
paint whitewash. 

8. — Incomhustihle. — a. — Slake stone 
lime in a large tub or barrel with boiling 
water, covering the tub or barrel to keep 
in all the steam. When thus slaked pass 6 
qt. of it through a fine sieve. It will 
then be in a state of fine flour. Now, to 
6 qt. of this lime add 1 qt. of rock or 
Turk's Island salt and 1 gal. of water; 
then boil the mixture and skim it clean. 
To every 5 gal. of this skimmed mix- 

[ 



(Whitewash) 



ture add 1 lb. of alum, Vz lb. of cop- 
peras ; by slow degrees, add % lb. of pot- 
ash and 4 qt. of fine sand or hickory ashes, 
sifted. We suppose any kind of good hard 
wood ashes will answer as well as hick- 
ory. This mixture will now admit of any 
coloring matter you please, and may be 
applied with a brush. It looks better than 
paint, and is as durable as slate. It will 
stop small leaks in the roof, prevent the 
moss from growing over and rotting the 
wood, and render it incombustible from 
sparks fallir.g upon it. When laid upon 
brick work, it lenders the brick imper- 
vious to rain or wet. 

b. — Well wash the ceiling by wetting 
it twice with water, laying on as much as 
can well be floated on, then rub the old 
color up with a stumpy brush and wipe 
off with a large sponge. When thiw is 
done, stop all the cracks with whiting 
and plaster of paris. When dry, clair- 
cole with size and a little of the white- 
wash. If very much stained, when this 
is dry, paint those parts with turps, color, 
and, if necessary, claircole again. To 
make the whitewash, take 12 lb. of whit- 
ing (in large balls), break them up in 
a pail, and cover with water to soak. 
During this time melt over a slow fire 
4 lb. of common size, and at the same 
time, with a palette knife or small trowel, 
rub up fine about 1 dessert-spoonful of 
blue black with water to a fine paste ; 
then pour the water off the top of the 
whiting, and with a stick stir in the 
black ; when well mixed, stir in the melt- 
ed size, and strain. When cold it is fit 
for use. If the jelly is too stiff for use, 
beat it well up and add a little cold 
water. Commence whitewashing over the 
window, and so work from the light ; lay 
off the work into that done, and not all 
in one direction, as in painting. Distem- 
per color of any tint may be made by 
using any other color instead of the blue 
black — as ocher, chrome, Dutch pink, raw 
sienna for yellows and buff; Venetian red. 
burnt sienna, Indian red, or purple brown 
for reds ; celestial blue, ultramarine, indi- 
go for blues ; red and blue for purple, gray 
or lavender ; red lead and chrome for or- 
ange ; Brunswick green for greens. 

9. — Keeping Whitewash. — Keep the 
lime covered with water in a covered tub. 
If the water evaporates, the lime is use- 
less, but if kept covered it will be good for 
a long time. 

10.— RuUing Off, To Prevent.— Mix % 
pt. flour with water ; pour on boiling wa- 
ter enough to thicken it. Pour while hot, 
into a pailful of lime and water, which 
671] 



Paints, Varnishes, Etc. 



(Whitewash) 



has been mixed ready to put on the wall. 
Stijr all well together. 

11. — Waterproof. — Resenchek, of Mu- 
nich, mixes together the powder from 3 
parts of silicious rock (quartz), 3 parts 
broken marble and sandstone, also 2 parts 
of burned porcelain clay, with 2 parts of 
freshly slaked lime, still warm. In this 
way a wash is made which forms a silicate 
if often wetted, and becomes, after a time, 
almost like stone. The four constituents, 
mixed together, give the ground color, to 
which any pigment that can be used with 
lime is added. It is applied quite thickly 
to the wall or other surface, let dry one 
day. and the next day frequently covered 



(Whitewash) 



with water, which makes it waterproof. 
This wash can be cleansed with water 
without losing any of its color; on the 
contrary, each time it gets harder, so that 
it can even be brushed, while its porosity 
makes it look soft. The wash, or calci- 
mine, can be used for ordinary purposes, 
as well as for the finest painting. A so- 
called fresco surface can be prepared with 
it in the dry way. 

12. — Zinc Whitewash. — Common size 
mixed with oxide of zinc; apply to the 
ceiling with a brush. Then apply a wash 
of chloride of zinc. This will combine with 
the oxide, and form a smooth cement, with 
a glossy surface. 



[672] 



CHAPTER XX 



PHOTOGEAPHY 
BRIEF SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 



WET COLLODION, COLLODION 
EMULSION AND DRY COLLO- 
DION FERROTYPES 

DEVELOPERS FOR PLATES 

FIXING, HARDENING AND CLEAR- 
ING 

INTENSIFIERS AND REDUCERS 

VARNISHES 

STRIPPING 

RETOUCHING AND SPOTTING 
NEGATIVES 

PRINTING PROCESSES : 

PAPERS FOR SENSITIZING 
HOME-MADE PAPERS — SILVER 

PAPERS, PLAIN SALTED, ETC. 
SENSITIZING FABRICS, ETC. 
GELATINE PRINTING OUT 

PAPER 
COLLODION PRINTING OUT 

PAPER 
BROMIDE PAPERS, ETC. 
GASLIGHT PAPERS 



PRINTING PROCESSES (Continued) 
FERRO-PRUSSIATE, ETC. 
PLATINUM AND KINDRED PROC- 

ESSES 
CARBON PRINTING 
OZOTYPE. OZOBROME. CARBO- 
GRAPH AND KINDRED PROC- 
ESSES 
MISCELLANEOUS PRINTING 

PROCESSES 
CERAMIC ENAMELS 
LANTERN SLIDES 
SPOTTING, COLORING PRINTS, 

ETC. 
MOUNTANTS AND MOUNTING 
ORTHOCHROMATIC P H O T O GR A- 

PHY 
PHOTO-MECHANICAL PROCESSES : 
LIGHT, FILTERS, ZINC, HALF- 
TONE, COLLOTYPE, PHOTO- 
GRAVURES, ETC. 
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 



This subject is divided into sections containing related formulas. No attempt 
has been made to give a general treatise on photography or special modes of 
treatment of plates and papers when specific directions accompany each package. 
Occasional exceptions have been made for the newer or rarer processes. Thanks 
are especially due in this chapter to the English annuals, which still keep up 
the time-honored process of having scores of pages of tested formulas as did our 
American annuals of photography at one time. The Index will bring the reader 
into instant touch with all the formulas. 



WET COLLODION, COLLODION 

EMULSION AND DRY 

COLLODION 

Wet Collodion. 

Suhstratum. — Swell gelatine (22 gr.) 
in part of 20 oz. of water for 15 minutes, 
place vessel in boiling water, add the rest 
of the water, and finally ammonia (.880), 
40 min. Pour over plates three times, 
draining after each, and set to dry. Mix 
as required. Or, White of 1 egg; water, 
20 oz. Or, Dried albumen, 50 gr. ; water, 
50 oz. ; ammonia, 5 drops. Or, Gelatine, 
75 gr. ; water, 60 oz. ; ammonia, 2 dr. Or, 
Gelatine, 50 gr. ; glacial acetic acid, 4 dr. : 
alcohol, 6 dr. ; chrome alum, 10 gr. ; 



water, 60 oz. Or, Hard gelatine, 1 gram ; 
water, 300 c.c. ; chrome alum solution 
(20%), 6 c.c. Or, Pure Para rubber, 50 
gr. ; benzole, 20 oz. Or, Plates may be 
dusted with talc, which is then carefully 
cleaned off, to leave no marks. 

Edging. — Pure rubber cut small, 20 gr. ; 
benzole, 5 oz. Place in a clean dry bottle 
and shake with benzole ; or, rubber paste, 
25 gr. ; benzole, 5 oz. ; or, if rubber edg- 
ing gives fog, use white of egg. 

Varnishing. — Coat drained negative 
with gum arable, 2 oz. ; water, 20 oz. Or, 
White of 1 egg, plus water, 20 oz., and 
dry. Or, Shellac spirit varnish on the 
dry negative. 

Pyroxyline ( Hardwich ) . — Sulphuric 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

• [673] 



rhotography 



(Wet Collodion) 



acid, 1.845, 18 fl.oz. (600 c.c.s.) : nitric 
acid, 1.457, 6 fl.oz. (200 c.c.s.) ; water, 
5 to 5% fl.oz. (167 to 182 c.c.s.) ; cotton- 
wool, 300 gr. (23 grams). Temperature, 
150° F. (65° C). Time of immersion, 10 
minutes. 

Iodized Collodion — For Acid Pyro De- 
veloper. — Ether, sp. gr., 0.725, 10 fl.oz. 
(1,000 c.c.s.) ; alcohol, sp. gr. 0.805, 4 
fl.oz. (400 c.c.s.) ; pyroxyline, 120 gr. (27 
grams) ; ammonium iodide, 30 gr. (7 
grams) ; cadmium iodide, 45 gr. (10 
grams); alcohol (0.830), 4 fl.oz. (400 
c.c.s.). 

Bromo-Iodized Collodion — For Iron De- 
veloper. — Ether, sp. gr. 0.725, 10 fl.oz. 
(1,000 c.c.s.) ; alcohol, sp. gr. 0.805, 5 
fl.oz. (500 CCS.) ; pyroxyline, 120 gr. (27 
grams) ; ammonium iodide, 40 gr. (9 
grams) ; cadmium iodide, 40 gr. (9 
grams) ; cadmium bromide, 20 gr. (4.5 
grams); alcohol (0.830), 5 fl.oz. (500 
CCS. ) . Thinning collodion after use : A 
mixture of sulphuric ether (0.720), 3 
parts, and alcohol (0.805), 2 parts, is 
generally used. 

The Nitrate Bath. — Silver nitrate, 6 
oz. (75 grams) ; distilled water, 80 fl.oz. 
(1,000 c.c.s.) ; nitric acid (pure), 8 min. 
(0.2 CCS.). Saturate with iodide of sil- 
ver, which may be done by coating a plate 
with collodion and leaving it in the bath 
for some hours. Filter. 

Developer. — No. 1 : Ferrous sulphate, 
y2 oz. (50 grams) ; glacial acetic acid, i/^ 
oz. (50 c.c.s.) ; alcohol, % oz. (50 c.c.s.) ; 
water, 10 oz. (1,000 c.c.s.). No. 2: Fer- 
rous ammonio-sulphate, 75 gr. (43 
grams) ; glacial acetic acid, 75 gr. (43 
grams) ; copper sulphate, 7 gr, (4 
grams) ; water, 4 oz. (1,000 c.c.s.) ; alco- 
hol, % oz. (60 CCS.). 

Intensifier. — Pyrogallic acid, 90 gr. (10 
grams) ; citric acid, 60 gr. (7 grams) ; 
acetic acid (glacial), 1 oz. (50 c.c.s.) ; 
water, 20 oz. (1,000 c.c.s.). The copper 
intensifier (see Intensifiers) is used for 
greater density, each solution being flowed 
over the plate with a rinse between. 

Positives and Ferrotypes by Wet Collo- 
dion. 
Bromo-Iodized Collodion. — Ether, sp. 
gr. 0.725, 10 fl.oz. (1,000 c.c.s.) ; alcohol, 
sp. gr. 0.805, 5 fl.oz. (500 c.c.s.) ; pyroxy- 
line, 100 gr. (23 grams) ; cadmium iodide, 
50 gr. illV2 grams) ; ammonium bro- 
mide, 25 gr. (5.7 grams) ; alcohol, 0.830, 
5 fl.oz. (500 c.c.s.). Note.— The iodides 
should be dissolved in the weaker spirit, 
and the pyroxyline in the ether and 
stronger spirit, and the two solutions 
mixed. 

[ 



(Collodion Emulsion) 



Silver Bath. — Silver nitrate (recryst.), 
5^ oz. (70 grams) ; distilled water, 80 
fl.oz. (1,000 c.c.s.); nitric acid (pure), 
V2 dr. (0.8 cc). Saturate with iodide of 
silver and filter as above. 

Developers. — Ferrous sulphate, 150 gr. 
(34 grams) ; glacial acetic acid, % oz. 
(50 c.c.s.) ; nitric acid, 5 min. (1 cc.) ; 
alcohol, ^2 oz. (50 c.c.s.) ; water, 10 oz. 
(1,000 c.c.s.). Note. — By increasing the 
proportion of nitric acid and decreasing 
that of the acetic, the image will be more 
metallic in appearance. 

Nitrate of Iron Developer. — Ferrous 
sulphate, l^^ oz. (75 grams) ; barium ni- 
trate, 1 oz. (50 grams) ; water, 20 oz. 
(1,000 c.c.s.) ; alcohol, 1 oz. (50 ccs.) ; 
nitric acid, 40 drops (4 c.c.s.). The in- 
soluble barium sulphate which is formed 
must be filtered out. 

Fixing Solution. — Potassium cyanide, 
1^ oz. (25 to 30 grams) ; water, 15 to 20 
oz. (1,000 c.c.s.). 

Developer for Collodion Transfers. — 
Pyrogallic acid, 4 gr. (9 grams) ; citric 
acid, 3 gr. (7 grams) ; acetic acid, 20 
min. (41 c.c.s.) ; water, 1 oz. (1,000 
c.c.s.) ; alcohol, 20 min. (41 c.c.s.). 

Wet Collodion for Half- Tone. 

For Winder.— a.— Celloidin, 190 gr. (21 
grams) ; ether (.720), 12 oz. (600 ccs.) ; 
alcohol (.805), 8 oz. (400 ccs.). 

For Summer. — b. — Celloidin, 190 gr. 
(21 grams); ether (.720), 10 oz. (500 
c.c.s.) ; alcohol (.805), 10 oz. (500 ccs.). 

lodizer. — Cadmium iodide, 600 gr. (68 
grams) ; ammonium iodide, 210 gr. (24 
grams) ; sodium iodide, 210 gr. (24 
grams) ; cadmium bromide, 210 gr. (24 
grams) ; alcohol, 20 oz. (1,000 ccs.). 
Use iodizer, 1 part; collodion, 15 parts, 
and set the mixture aside for at least 4 
days to ripen. It should then be a bright 
yellow; if not, add to each ounce 1 min. 
of a solution of iodine, 16 gr. ; alcohol, 
1 oz. 

Collodion Emulsion. 

Pyroxyline for Collodio-Bromide or Un- 
washed Emulsion. — Nitric acid, sp. gr. 
1.45, 2 fl.oz. (285 ccs.) ; sulphuric acid, 
sp. gr. 1.845, 4 oz. (570 c.c.s.) ; water, 1 
fl.oz. (145 c.c.s.) ; cotton (cleaned and 
carded), 100 gr. (33 grams). Tempera- 
ture, 150° F. (65° C). Time of immer- 
sion, 10 minutes. 

Collodio-Bromide Emulsion. — Ether, sp. 
gr. 0.720, 5 fl.oz. (620 ccs.) ; alcohol, sp. 
gr. 0.820, 3 oz. (380 ccs.) ; pyroxyline, 
50 gr. (14.3 grams) ; cadmium ammo- 
nium bromide, 80 gr. (23 grams), or zinc 
bromide, 76 gr. (21.5 grams). Sensitize 
674] 



Photography 



(Collodion Emulsion) 



by adding to each ounce 15 gr. of nitrate 
of silver dissolved in a few drops of water 
and 1 dr. of boiling alcohol. This is suit- 
able for slow landscape work or for trans- 
parencies. 

Washed Emulsion (for Transparen- 
cies).— Ether, sp. gr. 0.720, 5 fl.oz. (620 
CCS.) ; alcohol, sp. gr. 0.820, 3 oz. (380 
CCS.) ; pyroxyline or papyroxyline, 60 gr. 
(17 grams) ; cadmium ammonium bro- 
mide, 100 gr. (29 grams), or zinc bro- 
mide, 96 gr. (27.5 grams) ; hydrochloric 
acid, sp. gr, 1.2, 8 min. (2 ccs.). Sensi- 
tize with 20 gr. of silver nitrate to each 
ounce (4.3 gr. to each 100 ccs.), dis- 
solved in a minimum of water with 2 dr. 
(13 ccs.) of boiling alcohol. Allow to 
stand for 2 or 3 days. In the last for- 
mula the emulsion, after being allowed to 
ripen for the time stated, should be poured 
into a dish and allowed to become thor- 
oughly dry. The mass of dry emulsion is 
then washed to remove all the soluble 
salts, and is then again dried and redis- 
solved in equal parts of ether and alcohol 
at the rate of from 20 to 24 gr. to the 
ounce of solvents. 

Developer. — An excellent developer for 
collodion emulsion is the following, 
worked out by the Bolt Court School of 
Photo-Engraving, London : Glycin, 190 
gr. (17 grams) ; sodium sulphite, 1 oz. 
(40 grams) ; potass, carbonate, 2 oz. (80 
grams) ; water to 25 oz. (1,000 ccs.). 

Intensifying Solution for Collodion 
Emulsion. — Silver nitrate, 60 gr, (70 
grams) ; citric acid, 30 gr. (35 grams) ; 
nitric acid, 30 min. (35 ccs.) ; water, 2 
oz. (100 ccs.). To each dram of a 
three-grain solution of pyrogallic acid add 
2 or 3 minims of the above and apply 
until sufficient density is attained. 

Huhl's Ghlor-Bromide Collodion Emul- 
sion. — Special for Color Work. — a. — Sil- 
ver nitrate, 480 gr. (50 grams) ; hot dis- 
tilled water, 1 oz. (50 ccs.). Dissolve 
and add alcohol, 2 oz. (100 ccs.) ; nitric 
acid, 6 drops ( 10 drops ) . Shake well and 
add to 4% collodion, 10 oz. (500 ccs.). 
Shake till any precipitated pyroxyline is 
redissolved and then add in small quanti- 
ties zinc bromide (pure anhydrous), 307 
gr. (32 grams) ; absolute alcohol, 2% oz. 
(128 ccs.). Shaking between each addi- 
tion, then add nitric acid, 24 min. (1.5 
ccs.; hydrochloric acid, 24 min. (1.5 
ccs. This should be gently warmed be- 
fore adding to the collodion. Allow to 
stand for 24 to 36 hours, or till the emul- 
sion appears a grayish-violet by transmit- 
ted light, then add zinc chloride (pure an- 
hydrous), 77 gr. (3.2 grams), or sufficient 
to convert the whole of the uncombined 



(Time Development) 



silver nitrate into chloride, which can be 
tested for with potassium chromate. It 
is advisable to dissolve the zinc chloride 
in about 4 times its volume of acid. The 
emulsion should then be precipitated by 
pouring into plenty of water, the threads 
collected and shaken up with alcohol and 
drained and then dissolved in absolute 
alcohol, 10 oz. (500 ccs.) ; ether, washed, 
10 oz. (500 ccs.). 

DEVELOPERS FOR DRY PLATES 

Developers for photographic papers will 
be found further on. 

Standard Development Formulae. 

In grains per ounce of water as applied 
to plate. By reading every grain as 2 
grams, every minim as 2 ccs. and the 
ounce as 1,000 ccs. (11.) these become 
metric formulae. 

The following formulae are those adopt- 
ed as standards for "Tabloid" prepara- 
tions : 

Paramidophenol, 2 gr. ; soda sulphite. 6 
gr. ; sodium hydrate, 4 gr. ; potass, bro- 
mide, % gr. 

Amidol, 2 gr. ; soda sulphite, 22 gr. ; 
potass, bromide, 1 gr. 

Eikonogen, 4 gr. ; soda sulphite, 28 gr. ; 
potass, carbonate cryst., 7% gr. ; potass, 
bromide, i/^ gr. 

Metol-Hydroquinone. — Metol, % gr. ; 
hydroquinone, 1% gr. ; soda sulphite, 5^/^ 
gr. ; soda carbonate cryst., 13% gr. ; po- 
tass, bromide, % gr. For gaslight papers 
use twice this strength. 

Glycin, 2 gr. ; soda sulphite, 5 gr. ; 
potass, carbonate cryst., 12.6 gr. 

Pyro-Soda. — Pyro, 2 gr. ; sodium sul- 
phite, 12 gr. ; soda carbonate cryst., IBV2 
gr. ; potass, bromide, V2 gr. 

Pyro-Soda. — Pyro, 2 gr. ; sodium sul- 
phite, 22 gr. ; soda carbonate cryst., 22 
gr. ; potass, bromide, % gr. 

Hydroquinone, 2 gr. ; soda sulphite, 6 
gr. ; sodium hydrate, 4 gr. ; potass, bro- 
mide, % gr. 

Metol, 2 gr. ; soda sulphite, 22 gr. ; soda 
carbonate cryst., 13 gr. ; potass, bromide, 
% gr. 

Ortol, 2 gr. ; soda sulphite, 16 gr. ; soda 
carbonate cryst., 16^ gr. ; potass, bro- 
mide, y^ gr. 

Satropol may be substituted for 
"metol." 

Factor or Time Development. 

Principle. — With correct exposure, the 
total time of development for a certain 
density has a fixed relation to the time of 
appearance of image, provided that the 
developing power of the solution remains 



[675] 



Photography 



(Time Development) 



constant during development, and this 
rule holds good for all variations of 
strength, amount of alkali or bromide, and 
temperature — within those limits which 
have been found safe in practice. 

The total time of development, divided 
by the time in which the image first ap- 
pears, is the "factor" of the developer. 
Metol is a "long factor" developer, i.e., a 
plate must be developed for, say, 30 times 
the time of first appearance. If less, a 
soft negative is obtained. Hydroquinone 
is a "short factor" developer, easily pro- 
ducing too much contrast by over-develop- 
ment. Factors for average vigor : Adu- 
rol, 5; azol, 30; certinal, 30; cristoid 
pyrocatechin, 30 ; diogen, 12 ; edinol, 20 ; 
eikonogen, 9 ; glycin-potash, 12 ; glycin- 
soda, 8; hydroquinone (usual dose of bro- 
mide), 5; Imogen sulphite, 6; kachin, 10; 
kodak powder, 18 ; mequin, 12 ; metol, 30 ; 
metol-hydroquinone, 14; ortol, 10; para- 
midophenol, 16 ; pyrocatechin, 10 ; pyro- 
metol (imperial standard), 9; pyro-soda, 
4 to 15 ; quinomet, 30 ; rodinal, 30 ; syn- 
thol, 30 ; victol, 30. 

Factors for Soft, Normal and Strong 
Contrast, with ^^Tahloid" Formulae, from 
the Burroughs-Wellcome Cards. — Amidol, 

7, 10, 12; edinol, 14, 20, 24; eikonogen, 

8, 12, 15 ; glycin, 9, 13, 16 ; hydroquinone. 
3, 41/2. 5; metol. 20, 30, 35; metol-hydro- 
quinone, 10, 14, 16; paramidophenol, 12, 
16, 18 ; pyro, 4, 6, 7 ; pyro-metal, 6, 9, 11. 
Factors for Pyro-Soda and Pyro-Potash 

(with or without 'bromide). 



Pyro, 


Bromide, 




gr. per oz. 


gr. per oz. 


Factor. 


1 
2 


V2 


9 
5 


3 


% 


m 


4 


1 


4 


8 


2 


3V4 


1 





18 


2 





12 


3 





10 


4 





8 


5 





6I/2 



Controlled Factorial Development. — To 
make suitable negatives for any particu- 
lar printing process observe the time of 
appearance of the image (Watkins), then 



(Time Development) 



with the standard developer given below 
develop for a negative to print on P.O.P., 
12 times the time of first appearance ; for 
enlarging, 8 times ; for carbon printing, 
10 times ; for platinotype printing, 18 
times. Developer : Sodium sulphite solu- 
tion (25%), 11^ oz. ; water (distilled), 6 
oz. ; potassium bromide solution (10%), 
60 min. ; amidol, 18 gr. Amidol to be 
added only just before use. 

Pyro-Metol. — Mean of Makers^ Formu- 
lae. — Pyro, 1.44 gr. ; metol, 1.14 gr. ; so- 
dium sulphite, 15 gr. ; potassium metabi- 
sulphite, 2 gr. ; sodium carbonate, 34.5 
gr. ; potassium carbonate, 0.5 gr. ; water, 
1 oz. 

Pyro-Potash. — a. — Pyro, 440 gr. ; soda 
sulphite, 1,110 gr. ; sulphuric acid, 10 to 
12 drops ; water, 10 oz. b. — Potass, car- 
bonate, 2,000 gr. ; soda sulphite, 550 gr. ; 
water, 10 oz. a, 45 min. ; b, 45 min. ; 
water, 3% oz. — Eder. 

Pyro-Soda. — Hurter & Briffield Stand- 
ard. — Pyro, 77 gr. ; sodium carbonate, 
384 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 384 gr. ; distilled 
water to 20 oz. Mean of Makers' For- 
mulae. — Pyro, 3 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 22 
gr. ; sodium carbonate, 22 gr. ; potassium 
bromide, 0.4 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 

Estimated Factors for American Pyro- 
Soda Developers. — Seed A. B. C. (no 
Br.), 11; seed pyro (no Br.), 11; Stan- 
ley (no Br.), 10; Cramer (max. str.). 
61/4; Cramer (min. str.), 11; Hammer 
(no Br.), 11; Eastman (no Br.), 12. 

Pyrocatechin. — a. — Pyrocatechin. 90 
gr. ; soda sulphite cryst., 1 oz. ; water, 10 
oz. b. — Caustic soda, 55 gr. ; water, 10 
oz. a, 1 oz. ; b, 1 oz. ; water, 2 to 6 oz. 

Rodinal (liquid para-amido-phenol). — 
For average work, dilute 1 oz. with 25 oz. 
water. For density in moderate time, 1 in 
10. For over-exposure, 1 in 10 to 15. and 
add potass, bromide. For under-exposure, 
1 in 30 to 40 or 50. 

Rytol, one tabloid ; accelerator, one 
tabloid ; water, 4 oz. 

The quantities in the first column rep- 
resent those required in a flat-bottomed 
dish. As most dishes have ridges or de- 
pressions on the bottom to facilitate lift- 





Size of 


To 


cover 


plate 


in 


Usually required to 


Plate. 


dish. 




flat dish. 






develop. 






c.c. 






oz. 


c.c. 


oz. 


41/4 X 3% 


41/2 X 3?4 


20 






% 


45 


11/2 


51/2 X 31/2 


6X4 


30 






1 


60 


2 


(5X4) 
















6I/2 X 4% 
8I/2 X 6I/2 


7X5 


40 






1% 


90 


3 


9X7 


80 






2% 


150 


5 






['676] 











Photography 



(Developers) 



ing the plate, the second column gives 
quantity to cover a plate in such dishes. 
Thickness of plate used, l^/^ mm. 

Temperature as Accelerator or Re- 
strainer. — When known over or under-ex- 
posure exists, heat (up to 85 to 90° F.) 
and cold (down to 40° F.) may be used 
most efficiently to accelerate and to re- 
strain respectively. A water-bath, a little 
ice and a thermometer used with care will 
give as much control as a whole shelf full 
of chemicals. 

Formalin and Forced Development 
for Under-Exposure. — When very great 
under-exposure is known, soak the plates 
in a weak solution of formalin for 15 min- 
utes, then wash well. Develop in a dilute 
metol developer, heated to 120° F. This 
method seems to work with only ce:'tain 
brands of plates, and it requires the great- 
est possible care to avoid fog, either in the 
camera or dark room, as the forced de- 
velopment intensifies the fog considerably. 

Negative Paper, Developer for. — Use 
amidol, edinol, glycin, metol hydroquinone 
or ortol. Fix in acid hypo. 

Powder Developer (for cartons, tablets, 
etc.). — a. — Metol, 15 gr. ; hydroquinone, 
40 gr. : eikonogen, 25 gr. ; boric acid, 10 
gr. ; sodium sulphite (anhydrous), 20 gr. 
b. — borax, 25 gr. ; sugar of milk, 25 gr. 
To use, take a, 2% oz. ; b, i^ oz. ; water, 
10 oz. 

Thickened Developer. — Said to give 
negatives with fine grain, softness and 
freedom from halation. Add 1 oz. of 
golden syrup (molasses) to every 2 oz. of 
developer. This will increase the time of 
development about 50%. Dish requires 
constant rocking. A developer specially 
recommended for this method is : Metol, 

3 gr. ; hydroquinone, 12 gr. ; sodium car- 
bonate cryst., 100 gr. ; sodium sulphite 
cryst., 50 gr. ; molasses, 2 oz. ; water, 

4 oz. 

Developers by Name. 

Adurol. — a. — Adurol, 85 gr. ' soda sul- 
phite, 1% oz. ; water, 10 oz. b. — Potas- 
sium carbonate, 1% oz. ; water, 10 oz. 
For studio work and snapshot, a, 1 
oz. ; b, 1 oz. For time exposures outdoor, 
a, 1 oz. ; b, 1 oz. : water, 1 oz. One solu- 
tion. — Soda sulphite, 4 oz. ; potass, car- 
bonate. 3 oz. : water, 10 oz. When all are 
dissolved, add adurol, % oz. For studio 
and snapshots, take 1 oz. and 3 oz. water. 
For time exposures outdoor, take 1 oz. 
with 5 oz. water. Develops quicker and 
is less affected by cold than hydroquinone. 

Amidol. To Keep. — Papazoglou recom- 
mends 80% sugar syrup, made by taking 
8 oz. white sugar, about 2 oz. water, boil- 



( Developers) 



ing, and making up to 10 oz. with water. 
His formula for developer is : Sodium sul- 
phite, 270 gr. ; amidol, 70 gr. ; sodium bi- 
sulphite lye, 6 oz. ; sugar, 80% syrup, 6 
oz. ; rectified spirit, 4 oz. ; water to 20 oz. 
This will have some of the advantages of 
the "thickened" developer. 

Azol, 20 min. ; water, 1 oz. 

Catechol. — Catechol (pyrocatechin) 
gives clear, good printing negatives with 
less density and no greater detail for a 
given exposure than pyro or quinol, but 
has the advantage that it works well in 
dilute solutions. The following formula 
is given: (a) Caustic potash, 10 parts; 
water, 1,000 parts. (b) Catechol, 2 
parts ; sodium sulphite, 10 parts ; water, 
100 parts. Mix 5 parts of both with 100 
parts of water, and, if necessary, add po- 
tassium bromide. The two solutions may 
be kept ready mixed. 

Certinal. — Normal exposures. — Certi- 
nal, 1 part ; water, 20 parts. Under-ex- 
posure — Certinal. 1 part ; water, 30 parts. 
Over-exposure — Certinal, 1 part ; water, 
10 to 15 parts; potassium bromide (10% 
sol.), 1 part. 

Diamidophenol. — (See Amidol.) 

Diamine {Lumiere's Diamido-resorcin) . 
— Dianine, y^ oz. ; soda sulphite (anhy- 
drous), 1^2 OZ.; water, 50 oz. For over- 
exposure add 10% potass, bromide ; for 
under-exposure use more sulphite. 

Dianol (Lumiere^s Diamido-phenol) . — 
Dianol, 110 gr. ; soda sulphite (anhy- 
drous), 1% oz. ; water, 50 oz. Does not 
keep. 

Edinol. — For Soft Portrait Negatives. 
— Edinol, 45 gr. ; soda carbonate cryst., 1 
oz. ; soda sulphite, 1 oz. ; water, 10 oz. 
For Snapshots. — Edinol, 45 gr. ; acetone- 
sulphite (Bayer), 140 gr. ; potassium car- 
bonate, 1 oz. ; potassium bromide, 20 gr. ; 
water, 10 oz. 

Eikonogen (One Solution). — Eikono- 
gen, 100 gr. ; soda sulphite, 200 gr. ; po- 
tassium bromide, 2 gr. ; soda carbonate, 
200 gr. ; water, 9 oz. Without bromide 
gives softer negatives. Two Solutions. — 
(a) Soda sulphite, 350 gr. ; eikonogen, 
110 gr. ; water, 10 oz. (b) Potassium 
carbonate, 530 to 660 gr. ; water, 20 oz. 
Use equal parts. 

Eikonogen-Hydroquinone. — ( a ) Hydro- 
quinone, 40 gr. ; eikonogen, 150 gr. ; so- 
dium sulphite, 2^2, oz. ; water, 20 oz. (b) 
Sodium carbonate, 5 oz. ; water, 20 oz. 
Equal parts. 

Ferrous Gitro-Oxalate Developer. — 1. — 
Potassium citrate, 700 gr. ; potassium 
oxalate. 200 gr. ; water, 3^/^ oz. 

2. — Ferrous sulphate, 300 gr. ; water, 
SVz oz. Mix in equal parts. 



[677] 



Photography 



(Developers) 



3. — For black and white tones, develop 
with ferrous oxalate. The following is 
the formula : Oxalate Solution — Neutral 
oxalate of potash, 1 oz. ; bromide of po- 
tassium, 21/^ gr. ; hot distilled water, 5 oz. 
Iron Solution — Pure proto-sulphate of 
iron, 2 dr. : hot distilled water, 2 oz. To 
develop mix together 2 parts of oxalate 
solution with 1 part of iron solution and 
pour in 1 wave across the plate. Rock 
well during development, which it is ad- 
visable to continue as long as detail is 
visible in the high lights of the picture. 
Rinse well after development and previous 
to fixing. The fixing solution should be 
of the strength of 1 oz. in 4 oz. of water. 
The hyposulphite of soda solution should 
not be mixed till required, as a trace of 
this salt in the developing bath is ruinous. 

4. — The following oxalate developer is 
said to keep well : 

a. — Citric acid, 1 oz. ; citrate of ammo- 
nium, 1 oz. ; chloride of ammonium, 1 dr. ; 
bromide of ammonium, 1% dr. ; oxalate of 
potash, 10 oz. ; water, 50 oz. 

b. — Protosulphate of iron, 3 oz. and 60 
gr. ; citric acid, 1 oz. ; water, 50 oz. Mix 
in equal proportions. 

Glycin. — Glycin, 50 gr. ; potassium car- 
bonate (cryst.), 5 dr.; sodium sulphite 
(cryst.), 5 dr.; water, 10 oz. Or (a). 
Hot water, 35 oz. ; soda sulphite, 3i/^ oz. ; 
glycin, % 'oz. (b) Water, 35 oz. ; potas- 
sium carbonate, 3% oz. Equal parts. 

Glycin-Hydroquinone. — (a) Glycin, 180 
gr. ; hydroquinone, 60 gr. ; potassium car- 
bonate, 180 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 2 oz. ; 
water (distilled, warm), to 10 oz. (b) 
Potassium carbonate, 1 oz. ; distilled 
water, 9 oz. Take 1 part of (a) to 2 
parts of (b). In all glycin formulae dis- 
solve the glycin first. 

Hydraniine ( Lumiere ) . — Hy dramine, 
% oz. ; soda sulphite (anhydrous), % oz. ; 
caustic lithia, 65 gr. ; water, 50 oz. For 
over-exposure add 10% bromide ; for un- 
der-exposure, 1% lithia solution. 

Hydroquinone. — Concentrated Stock 
Solution. — (a) Hydroquinone, 480 gr. ; 
alcohol, 3% oz. ; sulphurous acid, 3% oz. ; 
water to 20 oz. (b) Sodium hydrate, 480 
gr. ; sodium sulphite, 480 gr. ; water to 20 
oz. For use: 1 part each (a) and (b), 
8 parts of water. 

Hydroquinone - Formalin. — Hydroqui- 
none, % oz. ; soda sulphite, 5 oz. ; for- 
malin — Schering, % fl.oz. ; water, 30 oz. 
Slow and stainless. Gives clear lines and 
great density. For black-and-white. 

Hydroquinone-Oaustic. — ( a ) Hydroqui- 
none, 160 gr. ; soda sulphite, 2 oz. ; citric 
acid, 60 gr. ; potassium bromide, 40 gr. ; 
water. 20 oz. (b) Caustic soda (stick), 



(Developers) 



160 gr.; water, 20 oz. (a) 1 oz. ; (b) 1 
oz. ; water, 2 oz. Tends to give hard re- 
sults. Suitable for black-and-white sub- 
jects. 

Imogen Sulphite. — (a) Imogen sul- 
phite, 1 oz. ; water, 12 oz. (b) Soda car- 
bonate crj'st, 1 oz. ; water, 2 oz. (a) 2 
oz. ; (b) 2 oz. ; water, 4 oz. Under-ex- 
posures: (a) 1 oz. ; (b) 3 oz. ; water, 4 
oz. Over-exposures : ( a ) 2 oz. ; ( b ) 2 
oz. : water, 3 oz. ; potass, bromide ( 10% 
solution), 1 oz. 

Kachin-Carhonate. — (a) Kachin, 160 
gr. ; soda sulphite, 2l^ oz. ; water to 20 oz, 
(b) Soda carbonate cryst., 2 oz. ; water to 
20 oz. Equal parts. Dilute for softer re- 
sults. To restrain add 10 to 30 drops 5% 
solution of ordinary borax per ounce. 

Kachin-Caustic. — With caustic soda : 
(a) Kachin, 140 gr. ; soda sulphite, 700 
gr. ; water to 16 oz. (b) Caustic soda 
(stick), 98 gr. ; water to 16 oz. (a) 1 
oz. ; ( b ) 1 oz. ; water, 2 to 6 oz. 

Metol.— (a.) Water, 10 oz. ; metol, '^5 
gr. ; soda sulphite, 1% oz. (b) ..ater, 10 
oz. ; soda carbonate, 1% oz. ; potassium 
bromide, 8 gr. For portraits : (a), 1 oz. ; 
(b), 1 oz. For landscapes: (a), 1 oz. ; 
(b), 1 oz. ; water, 1 oz. Or, One Solu- 
tion. — Water, 10 oz. ; metol, 75 gr. ; soda 
sulphite, 1^ oz. ; soda carbonate cryst., 
1% oz. ; potassium bromide, 8 gr. For 
portraits : Stock solution, 1 oz. ; water, 1 
oz. For landscapes : Stock solution. 1 
oz. ; water, 2 oz. 

Metol-Adurol (Stock Solution). — ^Dis- 
solve in 8% oz, of water metol, 50 gr., 
and adurol, 175 gr. Then add slowly soda 
sulphite cryst., 3 oz. ; potassium carbo- 
nate, 2 oz., and potassium bromide, 9 gr. 
Filter. Take stock solution, 1 dr. ; water, 
to 1% to 2 oz. 

Metol Hydroquinone. — 1. — Metol, 40 
gr. ; hydroquinone, 50 gr. ; soda sulphite, 
120 gr. ; potassium bromide, 15 gr. ; water, 
20 oz. 

2. — Caustic potash, 180 gr. ; water, 20 
oz. Equal parts. 

Single Solution. — Metol, % oz. : so- 
dium sulphite (cryst), 4 oz. ; sodium car- 
bonate (cryst.), 4 oz. ; hydroquinone, % 
oz. ; water, to 80 oz. Dilute with equal 
quantity of water for use. Dissolve in 
order named, not adding an ingredient 
until the previous one is dissolved com- 
pletely. 

Developing Powders. — A developer in 
powder form, suitable for taking on tours. 
IS prepared as follows : 

1. — Metol, 7 parts : hydroquinone, 18% 
parts ; powdered eikonogen, 10% parts ; 
powdered boric acid, 4i/^ parts. Mix this 



[6781 



Photography 



(Developers) 



well and keep in a well stoppered yellow 
bottle. 

2. — Sulphite of soda, 45 parts; borax, 
10% parts; sugar of milk, IQi/^ parts. 
This may be kept in a white bottle. For 
use take water, 100 parts ; powder 1, 2 
parts ; powder 2, 4 parts. For bromide 
paper use double the amount of water. 

Metol-Hydroquinone: The Average. — • 
This developer is probably recommended 
by more manufacturers than is any other 
at present. A dozen of the most used 
formulae give the following average com- 
position, which works very well : Metol, 
% gr. ; hydroquinone, 3 gr. ; sodium sul- 
phite, 24 gr. ; sodium carbonate, 36 gr. ; 
potassium bromide, ^ gr. ; water, 1 oz. 

Three Solution (Metol, Hydroquinone 
or Metol-Hydroquinone if desired). — (a) 
Metol, 40 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 120 gr. ; 
water, 8 oz. (b) Hydroquinone, 40 gr. ; 
citric acid, 10 gr. ; water. 8 oz. (c) Po- 
tassium carbonate, 1 oz. ; water, 20 oz. 
For metol developer take 1 part of (a) 
and 1 of (c) ; for hydroquinone, one of 
(b) and one of (c) : for metol-hydroqui- 
none, mix of (a) and (b) in proportions, 
according to effect desired, and add 1 part 
of the mixture to 1 part of (c). 

Highhj Concentrated StocJc. — Warm 
water, 4 oz. ; metol, 24 gr. ; hydroquinone, 
96 gr. When dissolved, add soda sulphite 
(crushed small), 1% oz. By the time the 
sulphite has dissolved the whole will be a 
white pasty mass. Now add 64 gr. of 
sodium hydrate (caustic soda), shake 
well, and in a minute or so you will have 
a clear concentrated metol-hvdroquinone 
solution. Ope dr. of this, added to 7 dr. 
of water will make a developer contain- 
ing in each ounce : Metol, % gr. ; hydro- 
quinone, 3 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 2 gr. : 
sodium hydrate, 2 gr. Can be used half 
strength for most purposes. The image 
appears in .5 to 8 seconds : development 
usually complete in 1% or 2 minutes ; 
factor about 16. Diluted 1 dr. to 2 oz. 
of water and 2 drops of bromide added to 
each ounce, it makes a first-rate bromide 
paper developer. The strong solution 
keens very well indeed. 

"M.Q." Developer is metol-hydroqui- 
none. (Metol Quinol.) 

Monol. — Slow bath = 1 part monol, 7 
parts water ; time to develop normally 
exposed neeative, 3 hours. Semi-rapid 
bath = monol, 1 part: water. 3 parts; 
time, 1 hour. Rapid bath = monol, 1 
part: water, 1 part: time, 10 minutes. 

Ortol-Sloda. — (a) Ortol, 70 gr. : potas- 
sium metn bisulphite. 3.5 gr. : cold water. 
10 oz. (b) Soda carbonate, 1% oz. : soda 

C 



(Developers) 



sulphite. 114 oz. ; water, 10 oz. (a), 1 
oz. ; (b), 1 oz. ; water, 1 oz. Or (a), 
Ortol, 1 oz. ; potassium metabisulphite, i/^ 
oz. ; water, 60 oz. (b) Sodium carbonate 
(cryst), 12 oz. ; sodium sulphite (cryst), 
8 oz. ; water, 60 oz. Take 1 part each of 
(a) and (b) to 10 parts water. Soda 
sulphite should not be used to preserve 
ortol ; it is apt to cause pink stain. Caus- 
tic alkalies are to be avoided for the same 
reason. Increase of (a) solution and de- 
crease of (b) gives harder negatives; vice 
versa, softer negatives. 

Para-amido-phenol, 1.50 gr. ; potassium 
metabisulphite, 1 oz. ; hot water, 3^/^ oz. 
Add caustic potash strong solution until 
the separated para-amidol-phenol just dis- 
appears. A preparation similar to rodi- 
nal. Dilute with 10 to 30 parts water. 

Paranol (Lumiere^s Paramidophenol) . 
— Paranol, 350 gr. ; soda sulphite (anhy- 
drous), 3 oz. ; caustic lithia, 70 gr. ; 
water, 17 oz. 

PhenoUn. — Water, 10 oz. ; sodium sul- 
phite, 1/4 oz. ; phenolin, 12 gr. ; potassium 
bromide, 7 gr. Dissolve in this order. 

PyramidoL — (a) Sodium sulphite, l^/^ 
oz. ; pyramidol, 90 gr. ; water, 20 oz. (b) 
Potassium carbonate, 1 oz. ; water, 29 oz. 
For use mix in equal parts. This is a 
new developing agent prepared in Switzer- 
land. 

Pyro, Preservatives for. — The best pre- 
servative for pyro developers is liquid 
soda bisulphite : 2 or 4 c.c. to the liter of 
developer, or 1 to 2 drops to the ounce. 

Pyro. Keeping Qualities. — By actual 
test the following solutions have been 
found in excellent working order (but 
somewhat slower in action) after keeping 
for 17 years without any special precau- 
tions : (a) Pvro, 1 oz. : sulphurous acid, 
1 oz. : water, 9 oz. 1 dr. (b) Pyro, 1 oz. ; 
sodium sulphite, 4 oz. ; water, 30 oz. 
Fresh accelerator was used in the test 
development. 

Pyro-Acetone Metol. — (a) Pyro, 6 dr.; 
metol. 1 oz. ; citric acid, 40 gr. ; sodium 
sulphite, 4 oz. ; hot water. 60 oz. (b) 
Acetone, 3 oz. ; water. 60 oz. Take equal 
parts of (a) and (b), with 15 parts 
water. 

BardwelVs Acetone Developer. — It is 
essential that a good stock sulphite of so- 
dium solution be prepared. The sulphite 
of sodium used is a saturated solution. 
Take for instance, 1 lb. bottle of sulphite 
and fill with water, and on shaking a few 
times it soon becomes saturated, then 
keep the bottle always at least half full 
of crystals and full of water. Four fl.oz. 
of saturated solution is equal to 1 of 
679] 



Photography 



(Developers) 



crystals. Never use water hotter than 
90° F. in dissolving the sulphite. 

1. — Pyro. — Water, 2 fl.oz. ; saturated 
solution of sulphite, 2 fl.dr. ; acetone, 1 
fl.dr. ; dry pyro, 5 gr. 

2. — Metol-Hydroquinone. — ( a ) Water, 
8 fl.oz. ; metol, 15 gr. Dissolve and add 
saturated solution sulphite, 4 fl.oz. ; hy- 
droquinone, 60 gr. ; 10% bromide potas- 
sium, 1 fl.oz. (b) Take of (a) 2 fl.oz.; 
acetone, 1 fl.oz. 

3.— Eiko-Hydro.— (a) Water, 8 fl.oz.; 
saturated solution sulphite, 4 fl.oz. ; 
eikonogen, 50 gr. ; hydroquinone, 25 gr. 
(b) Of above, 2 fl.oz.; acetone, 1 fl.dr. 
No. 1 is especially good for transparen- 
cies and stereoscopic v^ork, No. 2 for velox 
or strong negatives, No. 3 for stereoscopic, 
landscape and portrait work. This de- 
veloper does not frill or soften the film, 
does not stain or fog the film under any 
ordinary conditions. 

Pyro-Ammonia. — (a) Soda sulphite 
(cryst.), 2 oz. ; citric acid, 20 gr. ; water, 
to 10 oz, ; pyro, 1 oz. (b) Ammonia, 880, 
1 oz. ; water, to 10 oz. (c) Ammonium 
bromide, 1 oz. ; water, to 10 oz. Take 
(a), 10 minims; (b), 10 minims; (c), 5 
minims with water to 1 oz. 

Pyro-Caustic. — (a) Pyro, 110 gr. ; soda 
sulphite, 700 gr. ; water, to 10 oz. (b) 
Caustic potash, 50 gr. (or caustic soda, 
35 gr.) ; water, 10 oz. (a), 1 oz. ; (b), 
1 oz. ; water, 1 oz. Develops quickly, 
similarly to metol. An excellent and 
cheap developer. 

Pyro-Metol (Imperial ''Standard'' De- 
veloper). — (a) Metol, 45 gr. ; potassium 
metabisulphite, 120 gr. ; pyro, 55 gr. ; po- 
tassium bromide, 15 gr. ; water, to 20 oz. 
(b) Caustic potash, 180 gr. ; water, 20 
oz. Dissolve the metol in 12 oz. water at 
95° F. and the metabisulphite in 4 oz. at 
same temperature. When solution is 
complete, mix, add pyro, then bromide, 
and make up to 20 oz. with water. In 
making solution (b) begin with 14 oz. 
water at 105° F. Use equal parts of (a) 
and (b). 

Pyro-Metol Developer (Cramer's). — 
(a) Pure water, 30 oz. (720 c.c.) ; metol, 
1 oz. (24 grams) ; citric acid, 40 gr. (2 
grams) ; pyrogallic acid, i/^ oz. (12 
grams) ; bromide of potassium, 20 gr. 
(1 gram) ; dry sulphite of soda, ^ oz. 
(6 grams), (b) Pure water, 30 oz. (720 
c.c); dry sulphite of soda, 4 oz. (96 
grams). (Which will test 64° by hy- 
drometer.) (c) Pure water, 30 oz. (720 
c.c.) ; dry carbonate of soda, 4 oz. (96 
grams). (Which will test 64° by hy- 
drometer.) For use take: (a), i^ oz. ; 



(Developers) 



(b), 1/2 oz.; (c), 1/2 oz. Water at 65° 
to 70° F., 10 to 20 oz. (According to 
density desired.) (a), (b) and (c) may 
be mixed together and keep well in one 
solution which should be diluted for use 
with from 6 to 12 parts of water. 

Pyro-Potash. — (a) Pyro, 440 gr. ; soda 
sulphite, 1,110 gr. ; sulphuric acid, 10 to 
12 drops ; water, 10 oz. ( b ) Potash car- 
bonate, 2,000 gr. ; soda sulphite, 550 gr. ; 
water, 10 oz. (a), 45 minims; (b), 45 
minims ; water, 3% oz. 

Pyro-Soda. — Normal developer should 
contain in 1 oz. : Pyro, 2 to 4 gr. ; soda 
sulphite (or equivalent), 20 to 30 gr. ; 
potassium bromide, nil to 1 gr. ; soda car- 
bonate cryst., 20 gr. A typical formula : 
(a) Pyro, 1 oz. ; sodium sulphite 
(cryst.), 2 oz. ; citric acid, 40 gr. ; water, 
to 10 oz. (b) Sodium carbonate (cryst.), 
8 oz. ; sodium sulphite (cryst), 8 oz. ; 
water, to 80 oz. Take 1 oz. (b), 1 dr. 

(a) and 1 oz. water. 

Pyro-Soda. — (a) Pyro, 90 gr. ; potas- 
sium metabisulphite, 20 gr. ; water, 20 oz. 

(b) Sodium carbonate, 3i/^ oz. ; sodium 
sulphite, 1 oz. ; water, 20 oz. Use equal 
parts. Specially recommended for ex- 
tremely short exposures. 

Other Pyro Developers. — 1. — The fol- 
lowing formula, given by Captain Abney 
in his splendid treatise on photography 
(of the greatest service to the expert) is 
an excellent one, giving the very highest 
results, and is deservedly popular. The 
solutions here given will have to be made 
up and kept in tight-fitting stoppered bot- 
tles : (a) Pyro Solution. — Pyrogallic 
acid, 50 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 150 gr. ; 
citric acid, 10 gr. ; water, 1 oz. (b) Bro- 
mide Solution. — Potassium bromide, 50 
gr. ; water, 1 oz. (c) Ammonia Solu- 
tion. — Ammonia (0.880), 2 dr.; water, 
21^ oz. These are not exactly 10% solu- 
tions, but for all practical purposes may 
be regarded as such. Ten drops of (a), 
pyro solution, will contain 1 gr. of pyro- 
gallic acid; 10 drops of (b), bromide so- 
lution, 1 minim of potassium bromide ; 10 
drops of (c), ammonia solution, 1 minim 
of pure ammonia. 

2. — Beach's Concentrated Potash De- 
veloper. — Pyro Solution. — Warm distilled 
water, 4 fl.oz.; sulphite of soda (pure), 
4 oz. When cooled to 70° F., add sul- 
phurous acid (strong), 3^ fl.oz.; pyro- 
gallic acid, 1 oz. 

3. — Potash Solution. — (a)' Carbonate 
potash (chem. pure), 3 oz. ; water, 4 oz. 
(b) Sulphite soda (chem. pure crystals), 
2 oz. ; water, 4 oz. Mix (a) and (b) sep- 
arately and then combine in one solution. 



[680] 



Photography 



(Developers) 



To prepare developers add 1 dr. of each 
(pyro and potash solutions) to each 
ounce of water. 

4. — Cramer's One Solution Developer. 
— Stock Solution. — Sulphite of soda, 
crystals, 3 troy oz. ; bromide of ammo- 
nium, Y2 troy oz, ; bromide of potassium, 
1% troy oz, ; pyrogallic acid, 2 troy oz. 
Dissolve thoroughly in distilled water, 32 
fl.oz. Add sulphuric acid, c. p,, 20 min- 
ims ; finally strongest aqua ammonia, 3 
fl,oz,, and water to make up bulk to 40 
fl,oz. Measure the sulphuric acid and the 
aqua ammonia very exactly and keep the 
latter in a cool place. For use dilute as 
follows : For normal exposures, 1 oz. to 
11 oz. water. For instantaneous expos- 
ures, use 1 oz. with 3 or 6 oz, water. For 
over-exposed plates, 1 to 20 oz. Fix in 
alum and hypo. bath. 

5. — The pyro and carbonate of soda de- 
veloper will give softness. Dissolve in 
water, 6 oz. ; sodium sulphite, 2 dr, ; so- 
dium carbonate, 2 dr,, and just before 
using add dry pyrogallic acid, 3 gr. 
Should the density be too weak, put in 
twice the quantity of pyro. The softness 
is regulated by the quantity of pyro. No 
bromide is necessary. 

6. — Hoover's Potash Developer.— (a) 
Water, 24 fl.oz, ; sulphite of soda crystals, 
4 oz. ; citric acid, 120 gr, ; bromide am- 
monium, 40 gr, ; pyrogallic acid, 2 oz. 
(b) Water, 24 fl.oz,; sulphite of soda 
crystals, 4 oz, ; carbonate of potash, 6 oz. 
To develop a 5 x 7 plate, take water 4 
oz, ; (a), 2 dr. ; (b), 2 dr. If more in- 
tensity is required, use more of both (a) 
and (b). More of (a) will restrain, 
more of (b) accelerate. 

8. — Cramer's Pyro Developer. — Prepare 
the following solutions : 

(a) Alkaline Solution. — Water, 64 oz. 
(1,250 cc) ; carbonate of sodium crys- 
tals (sal soda), 2^^ oz. (50 grams) ; sul- 
phite of sodium crystals, 3 oz. (60 
grams). This will produce negatives of 
a warm tone. If the sulphite is increased 
to 6 oz, the negatives will be of a gray 
or black tone. The alkaline solution must 
be kept in well stoppered bottles. If the 
negatives show yellow stain, make a fresh 
solution and try another lot of sulphite 
crystals. 

(b) Pyro Solution, — Distilled or pure 
ice water, 6 oz. (300 cc) ; oxalic acid, 
10 gr. (1 gram) ; sulphite of sodium crys- 
tals, 1 dr. (6 grams) ; pyrogallic acid, 1 
oz. (50 grams). All pyro solutions work 
best while fresh. 8 gr. dry pyro may be 
substituted for 1 dr. of this solution. 

(c) Bromide Solution. — Water, 10 oz. 



(Tank Development) 



(300 cc) ; bromide- of potassium, 1 oz. 
(30 grams). For use — Alkaline solution, 
8 oz. (250 cc, ; pyro solution, 2^^ dr. 
( 10 cc ) . When the developer is quite 
new the additior of bromide solution, 
10 to 40 min. (1 to 3 cc.) is necessary 
to make it work perfectly clear. Keep 
the developer moderately warm in winter, 
cool in summer. Bromide solution pro- 
duces intensity, contrast and clearness. 

PyrocatecMn. — (a) Pyrocatechin, 90 
gr. ; soda sulphite crystals, 1 oz. ; water, 
10 oz. (b) Caustic soda, 55 gr. ; water, 
10 oz. (a), 1 oz. ; (b), 1 oz. ; water, 2 
to 6 oz. 

Bodinal ( liquid para-amido-phenole ) . — < 
For average work, dilute 1 oz. with 25 
oz. of water. For density in moderate 
time, 1 in 10. For over exposures, 1 in 
10 to 15, and add potassium bromide. For 
under exposure, 1 in 30 to 40 or 50. 

Rodinal Hydroquinone. — (a) Potassium 
carbonate, 2 oz, ; rodinal, 1 oz. ; water, 
20 oz. (b) Sodium sulphite (crystals), 
1 oz. ; citric acid, 5 gr. ; potassium bro- 
mide, 60 gr. ; hydroquinone, 120 gr, ; 
water, 20 oz. For normal work, equal 
quantities (a) and (b) ; for detail, more 

(a) than (b) ; for density, more than 

(b) and (a). 

Rytol, 1 tabloid ; accelerator, 1 tabloid ; 
water, 4 oz. 

Satropol. — Substitute for metol above. 

Paper Negatives, Developers for. — The 
Rotary Co. recommends ferrous oxalate, 
ortol, metol, hydroquinone, or amidol ; for 
all of which formulae will be found above. 
Fix in acid hypo. 

Self-Developing Plates, To Make. — 
Hydroquinone, 45 gr, ; acetone sulphite, 

1 oz. ; water, 10 oz. Soak the plates for 

2 minutes and dry in the dark. Develop 
in water, 10 oz, ; potassium carbonate, i/4 
oz. Ordinary plates lose about half their 
speed through this treatment. 

Stand or Tank Development. 

Stand Developers may be made from 
almost any ordinary developer by dilut- 
ing with water. Glycin is the most suit- 
able. 

Time and Dilution. — The time required 
for development is roughly proportionate 
to the dilution. Thus, if normal developer 
requires 5 min,, the addition of its own 
bulk of water will make it need 10 min., 
or 11 bulks of water will make it need 1 
hour. Developers can be so far diluted 
that the plates may be left in them all 
night ; but generally with bad effect upon 
the gelatine. 20 min. to an hour is most 
satisfactory. 



[681] 



Photography 



(Fixing, Clearing, Etc.) 



Combined Developing and Fixing. 

Kachine. — (a) Kachine, 120 gr. ; soda 
sulphite, 1,200 gr. ; water to 16 oz. (b) 
Caustic soda, 80 gr. ; water to 10 oz. 
(c) Hypo, 1 oz. ; water to 2 oz. Take: 
(a), 160 minims; (b), 240 minims; (c), 
20 minims ; water to 1 oz. 

Development After Fixing. 

Fix and wash the exposed plate ; using 
the potassium permanganate solution to 
discharge the last of the hypo, and giving 
a wash after the permanganate. Place 
for 10 min. in potassium bromide, 10 
grams ; copper sulphate, 10 grams ; water, 
200 c.c. ; wash. Place in silver nitrate, 
2 grams ; water, 1,000 c.c. The copper 
and silver baths may have to be repeated, 
washing well after each ; and by such 
means any desired strength of image may 
be built up. 

FIXING, HARDENING AND CLEAR- 
ING 

Stock Fixing Bath. — Hypo (2 lb.) dis- 
solved in nearly boiling water, and make 
up, when cool, to 6 oz. Each oz. = I/2 
oz. of hypo. For negative fixing bath, 
take stock, 8 oz. ; water, 12 oz. (i.e., 4 
oz. hypo per pint. For thickly coated 
plates, take : Stock, 12 oz. ; water, 8 oz. 
{i.e., 6 oz. per pint). To dissolve hypo 
rapidly, wrap crystals in coarse muslin, 
and hang just inside the neck of a jug 
filled with nearly boiling water. Time 
of solution for 2 lb., less than 5 minutes. 

Acid Fixer. — Stock, 8 oz. ; potassium 
metabisulphite, 1 oz. ; water, 12 oz. Or, 
Hypo, 4 oz. ; acetone sulphite, 1^4 oz- \ 
water, 20 oz. Or, With sodium bisul- 
phite lye, add 1% oz of lye per lb. of 
hypo. This is probably the best and 
cheapest acid fixer obtainable. 

Fixing Hardening Bath. — As the result 
of exact tests with 13 standard formulae. 
Professor Namias finds the following is the 
hest hath: Chrome alum solution (1^/4%), 
50 c.c; hypo solution (50%), 50 c.c; 
sodium acetate, 2.5 gram. 

Chrome- Alum- Acid-Hypo Fix-hardening 
Bath. — (a) Hypo, 16 oz. ; water, 48 oz. 

(b) Sulphuric acid, 1 dr.; water, 2 oz. 

(c) Chrome alum, 1 oz. ; water, 8 oz. 
Add (b) to (a), and (c) to the whole. 

Paper 'Negatives, Fixing Bath for. — • 
Always use acid hypo, e.g.: (a) So- 
dium sulphite, 2 oz. ; citric acid, % oz. ; 
water, 5 oz. (b) Hypo, 8 oz. ; water, 35 
oz. After complete solution, add (a) to 
(b). 

Hypo Eliminators. — 1. — The best is 
plain water. Fix for 5 minutes, after 



(Fixing, Clearing, Etc.) 



the last white silver bromide is gone, and 
wash for 1 hour in running water, or give 
12 5-minute soaks in changes of water. 

2. — Potassium percarbonate is a good 
chemical destroj'er of hypo. Rinse the 
plate from the fixing bath, cover with 
clean water, and add 3 to 5 gr. of potas- 
sium percarbonate for every quarter 
plate. Rock, remove plate when liquid 
ceases to effervesce, and wash for 5 min- 
utes. 

3. — Potassium Permanganate. — Pass 
the fixed plate through several changes 
of water tinged a faint rose pink with 
a drop or two of permanganate solution, 
until the color ceases to be discharged, 
showing that no hypo remains. 

4. — Ammonium chloride, 1 part ; water, 
10 parts. Rinse the plate after fixing ; 
lay in ammonium chloride solution for a 
minute or so, then wash. This bath con- 
verts the hypo remaining in the film into 
ammonium thiosulphate, which diffuses 
through gelatine much more quickly than 
hypo ; therefore, is more easily wasned 
out. 

Hardening Baths. — Formaline, 1 oz. ; 
water, 10 to 25 oz. A 1 in 10 solution 
requires about 5 minutes for complete ac- 
tion ; a 1 in 20, about 15 minutes. Best 
to use the former. Or, Alum, 1 oz. ; wa- 
ter 30 oz. ; for 10 to 20 minutes. Or, 
Chrome alum, 1 oz. ; cold water, 30 oz. ; 
for 10 to 20 minutes. 

Clearing Solution. — 1. — Alum, 1 oz. ; 
citric acid, 1 oz. ; sulphate of iron, 3 oz. ; 
water, 20 oz. Soak for a minute or two, 
when clearing should be complete. 

2. — Clearing Solution for Pyro Nega- 
tives (J. Hay Taylor). — Alum, 2 oz. ; hy- 
drochloric acid, 2 fl.oz. ; boracic acid, 1 
oz. : water, 32 fl.oz. The solution can be 
used over and over again. It will do its 
work in % minute. The negative should 
be well washed. 

3. — CleaTing Solution for Gelatine Bro- 
mide Plates. — Alum, 2 oz. ; citric acid, 2 
oz. ; sulphate of iron, 6 oz. ; water, 40 oz. 

4. — Sometimes, by prolonged develop- 
ment, negatives become stained, and usu- 
ally clearing solutions are employed after 
the negative is fixed. 

5. — Saturated solution of alum, 10 
fl.oz.; hydrochloric acid (commercial), % 
oz. After fixing and washing the nega- 
tive, immerse in the above solution. Wash 
well. 

6. — Negatives which, after development 
by ferrous oxalate, are opalescent from 
oxalate of lime, are immersed in the fol- 
lowing solution : Water, 100 parts ; oxa- 
late of iron, 2 parts ; alum, 8 parts. By 
which the opalescence will be completely 



[682] 



Photography 



C Stain Removers) 



cleared, and the whites of the negative 
will remain transparent. 

7. — Alum, 2 oz. ; citric acid, 1 oz. ; wa- 
ter, 10 oz. Wash moderately after fix- 
ing, and immerse the negative in the 
above. 

8. — Saturated solution of alum, 20 oz. : 
hydrochloric acid (commercial), 1 oz. Im- 
merse the negative, after fixing, having 
previously washed it for 2 or 3 minutes 
under the tap ; wash well after removal 
from the alum and acid. 

9. — Chautauqua Clearing Solution.— 
Alum, 2 oz. ; water, 30 fl.oz. ; citric acid, 
1/2 oz. 

Stain Removers. (Arranged roughly in 
order of increasing action on obsti- 
nate stains.) 

Slightly Discolored Negatives. — Use 
acid-chrome alum. For appreciable yel- 
low pyro stain, acid-iron-alum or potas- 
sium persulphate. 

Negatives to Be Intensified. — Place for 
15 minutes in acid-alum or acid-chrome- 
alum, which destroy the last traces of 
hypo. 

Acid Sulphite. — Soda sulphite solution, 
25%, 6 oz. ; tartaric acid, 2 oz. 

Potassium Iodide ' and Hypo. — Hypo 
bath (1 in 4), 10 oz. ; potassium iodide 
(5 gr. per oz.) solution, 50 minims. 
Acts very slowly. 

Salt and Nitric Acid. — Add 1 or 2 drops 
of nitric acid to salt, 10 gr. ; water, 
1 oz. 

Acid-Alum. — Alum, 1 oz. ; water, 20 
oz. ; to which add hydrochloric acid, % 
oz. ; or citric acid, % to 1 oz. 

Acid-Chrome- Alum. — Chrome alum, 45 
gr. ; water, 10 oz. ; to which add citric 
or hydrochloric acid. 

Acid-Iron- Alum. — Citric acid, 1 oz. ; 
ferrous sulphate, 3 oz, ; alum, 1 oz. ; wa- 
ter, 20 oz. Or, Sulphuric acid, 30 to 60 
minims ; ferrous sulphate, 3 oz. ; alum, 1 
oz. ; water, 20 oz. 

Potassium Persulphate. — Use %% so- 
lution for 5 minutes ; rinse, and repeat. 

Thiocarhamide, 10 gr. ; citric acid, 5 
gr. ; water, 1 oz. Or, Thiocarhamide, 10 
gr. ; alum, 10 gr. ; acetic acid, 5 gr. ; wa- 
ter, 1 oz. 

Thiosinamin, 8 gr. ; citric acid, 4 gr. ; 
water, 1 oz. 

Hypo-Glycerine. — Hypo, 1 oz. ; water, 
1 oz. Dissolve, and add glycerine, 1 oz. 
Paint over dry negative and leave 12 
hours. 

Gold Toning, for Yellow Pyro-stained 
Negatives. — Gold chloride, 2^^ gr. ; am- 
monium sulphocyanide, 35 gr. ; water, 10 
oz. 



(Stain Removers) 



By Redevelopment. — Bleach in potas- 
sium bichromate, 15 gr. ; hydrochloric 
acid, 5 minims ; potassium bromide, 5 
gr. ; water, 1 oz. Wash, and redevelop 
in clean developer. 

Ean de Javelle, or Laharraque's solu- 
tion (sodium hypochlorite). — Shake up 
bleaching powder (1 oz.) with cryst. soda 
carbonate (1^/^ oz.), previously dissolved 
in a little water. Filter. Shake up un- 
dissolved residue with plain water, and 
again filter. Use filtrate. Can be acidi- 
fied with oxalic acid, whgn it removes 
stain even better, but attacks silver image. 
Safest when alkaline. 

Dyeing Method. — Staining of yellow 
film in weak aniline blue solution pro- 
duces a green which retards printing less. 

Hydroquinone Stains. — Apply weak 
Farmer's reducer to dry negative with 
cotton wool. Rinse frequently. Or, 
Bleach in potassium bichromate, 15 
gr. ; hydrochloric acid, 5 minims ; po- 
tassium bromide, 5 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 
Wash, and redevelop in clean meto! or 
other developer. N. B. — Plates developed 
with hydroquinone should be well washed 
before fixing. 

White Scum from Oxalate Developer. — 
Rub negative with cotton wool wetted 
in hydrochloric acid, 4 drops ; water, 1 
oz. Or, Immerse plates in alum solution. 

Damp Stains. — From envelopes in 
which gum or paste has come in contact 
with film ; or from storage in damp room : 
Potassium bichromate (saturated solu- 
tion), 10 c.c. ; water, 100 c.c. ; pure hy- 
drochloric acid, 3 c.c. Treat until whole 
surface, including stains, is bleached. Re- 
develop in any vigorous developer until 
blackened through to the glass. 

Iridescent Edges on Plate. — Rub with 
alcohol, using chamois leather. The lat- 
ter removes by friction, not chemically. 

Silver Stains. — Place for 10 minutes in 
potassium iodide solution (20 gr. per 
oz.). Wash, and transfer to potassium 
cyanide solution (30 gr. per oz.), rub- 
bing with cotton wool. Old stains require 
longer treatment and stronger solution 
than above. Iodine solution (in potas- 
sium iodide) of deep brown color can be 
used in place of potassium iodide, but 
is more risky. Or, (a) Ammonium sul- 
phocyanide, 30 gr. ; water, 1 oz. (b) 
Nitric acid, 30 minims ; water, 1 oz. Mix 
(a) and (b), wash plate afterward, place 
in chrome alum, and wash again. 

Green Fog. — Redevelop as above. Or, 
Intensify with Monckhoven solution. Or, 
Thiosinamin (above). Or, Thiocarha- 
mide (above). 



[682 1 



Photography 



(Intensification) 



Rapid Drying of Negatives. 

1. — Rinse from the hypo bath, place 
in 1 : 50 formalin for 10 minutes, wash 
by pouring nearly boiling water 6 times 
over the negative, and dry by heat. To 
get rid of the relief which is produced by 
this process, the negative is rubbed with 
a piece of wash leather moistened with 
alcohol. 

2. — After washing in the usual way, or 
using a hypo eliminator, lay a piece of 
old, fine cambric on the negative, and 
firmly pass a roller squeegee over it. The 
negative, with much of the water thus 
removed, will dry in a few minutes in a 
moderately warm place. 

3. — Soak in 2 successive baths of 
methylated spirit, and place in a current 
of air. The present commercial spirit, 
owing to the mineral naphtha in it, causes 
a whitish scum on the surface of the film, 
and is not favorable to clean work. 

INTENSIFIERS AND REDUCERS 

Bleaching. — Mercury Bichloride. — Mer- 
cury bichloride, 120 gr. ; ammonium chlo- 
ride, 60 gr. ; water, 10 oz. Or, Mercury 
bichloride, 120 gr. ; potassium bromide, 60 
gr. ; water, 12 oz. 

Blackening Reagents, to follow Mer- 
cury Solution After Well Washing. — (a) 
gives slight additional brilliance, (b) or 
(c) gives practically double, (b) or (c) 
twice over gives a second step, about 
equal to (d). (e) gives still more than 
(d). (a) Soda sulphite, 10% solution, 
made just acid with citric acid, intensi- 
fies only slightly. (b) Ferrous oxalate 
developer, (c) Alkaline developers ; pyro- 
soda, pyroammonia (brown deposit), hy- 
droquinone, black, (d) Ammonia (.880), 
20 drops per oz. (e) Schlippe's salt (so- 
dium sulphantimoniate). Dissolve 10 to 
20 gr. per ounce, as wanted. Great in- 
tensification, (f) Potassium gallate. Gal- 
lic acid, 1 gr. ; caustic potassium, 16 
gr. ; water, 32 oz. Make fresh. (g) 
Mercuric chloride, 10 gr. ; potassium 
iodide, 10 gr. ; potassium cyanide, 20 
gr. ; water, 1 oz. Dissolve in this or- 
der. Iodide produces a red precipitate, 
which disappears in cyanide. Negative 
becomes yellowish, then dark brown, and 
much darker. Prom this point density 
becomes less, and in time image will en- 
tirely disappear. Usually best to arrest 
process during this last stage ; too great 
contrast earlier. 

Monchhoven's Formula. — Bleach as 
above, and blacken in: (a) Silver nitrate, 
100 gr. ; water, 10 oz. (b) Potassium 
cyanide, 10 gr. ; water, 1 oz. Add (b) 



(Intensification) 



to (a) slowly, nntil white precipitate 
is nearly all gone, but not quite. Gives 
great density, which decreases back to the 
original density on allowing the plate to 
remain. If negative is too dense when 
dry, reduce in hypo, 20 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 

Mercuric Iodide (Lumiere) . — Mercuric 
iodide, 45 gr. ; soda sulphite (anhy- 
drous), 440 gr. (or 880 gr. of crys- 
tallized salt) ; cold water, 10 oz. Keeps 
in the dark. For permanent results, wash 
v/hen intensified enough, and treat with 
any non-staining developer ; or, better, 
5% sodium sulphite. 

Agfa Intensifier. — 1 part to 9 water. 
Too long action bleaches the plate, which 
must then be rinsed and a developer ap- 
plied. 

Chromium (Great Intensification). — 
Bleach in potassium bichromate, 100 
gr. ; hydrochloric acid, 50 minims ; wa- 
ter, 10 oz. Wash thoroughly. Redevelop 
in amidol, rytol or metol-hydroquinone, 
not hydroquinone. 

Copper Bromide and Fiilver. — (a) Cop- 
per sulphate, 200 gr. ; hot water, 1 oz. 
(b) Potassium bromide, 200 gr. ; hot 
water, 1 oz. Mix (a) and (b), cool, and 
apply to well washed plate until bleached 
to the back. Wash for five minutes only, 
and blacken in silver nitrate, 44 gr. ; 
water, 1 oz. For extra density, rinse, 
and apply an ordinary developer. To re- 
duce density after silver, rinse, and im- 
merse in weak hypo, or potassium cya- 
nide solution (2 gr. per oz.). If too 
dense after developer, use an ordinary 
reducer. 

Uranium. — (a) Uranium nitrate, 8 
gr. ; water, 1 oz. (b) Potassium ferri- 
cyanide, 8 gr. ; water, 1 oz. Mix (a) 
and (b), and add acetic acid (glacial), 2 
dr. Wash plate free from hypo, and 
wash afterward in large dish of still water 
until yellow stain is gone. To remove 
intensification : Weak solution of am- 
monia or soda carbonate. If plate is to 
be reintensified, treat in weak acetic acid 
for 5 minutes after this bath, and rinse. 
Not very permanent. 

Lead, for BlacJc-and-white Suljects 
Only.— Lead nitrate, 20 gr. ; potassium 
ferricyanide, 30 gr. ; acetic acid, 10 
minims; water, 1 oz. Keep in the dark. 
Bleach in this, wash in 10% nitric acid 
(film very tender at this stage), then in 
water, and blacken with ammonium sul- 
phide (commercial yellow solution) , mixed 
with 10 to 20 parts of water. Or, With 
old hydroquinone develoner. Or, With 
potassium bichromate, 40 gr. ; ammo- 
nia (.880), 30 minims; water, 1 oz. Or, 



\ 



[684 1 



Photography 



(Reducing) 



With Schlippe's salt, 45 gr. ; ammonia 
(.880), 3 dr.; water, 10 oz. 



Reducers. 

General Rules. — For overexposed and 
overdeveloped negatives (buried in fog), 
use Farmer's reducer on a piece of cot- 
ton wool. For underexposed, chalky neg- 
atives, use persulphate cautiously. 

Farmer's {Potassium Ferricyanide and 
Hypo). — Add a few drops of 10% potas- 
sium ferricyanide solution to % oz, of 
hypo and 5 oz. of water. Judge strength 
by color ; pale orange acts slowly, orange 
is too strong. Use always as weak as 
possible. Keeps only a few minutes after 
mixing. Increases pluck or contrast in 
negative by acting more strongly upon 
the shadows than upon the high lights. 
(Stains -with this reducer are due to (1) 
old fixing bath instead of clean hypo ; (2) 
too strong reducer; (3) too long action; 
replace solution, after 5 minutes' use, by 
fresh; (4) acid reducer, as from acid fix- 
ing bath. To remove stains, try 5% soda 
sulphite solution or a saturated solution 
of alum plus 60 minims of hydrochloric 
acid per pt. ; or, ammonium sulphocya- 
nide, 5 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 

Persulphate. — Ammonium persulphate, 
480 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 96 gr. ; sul- 
phuric acid, 48 minims ; water to 10 
oz. Place negative in 5% soda sulphite 
solution to stop action. If much reduced, 
fix again. Reduces high lights first, thus 
lessening contrast. 

Ceric Sulphate (Lumiere). — Add strong 
sulphuric acid, 20 minims, to 2 oz. of 
water; dissolve ceric sulphate (440 
gr.) in this, and add water to make 
10 oz. Makes 10% solution. Dilute with 
9 times its volume of -water, or less for 
dense negatives. Stainless. Keeps well. 
Ceric sulphate is best bought in acid so- 
lution ready for use. Reduces propor- 
tionately throughout. 

BelitskVs {Ferric Potassium Oxalate 
and Hypo). — Acts in 1 solution. Keeps 
in the dark. Does not stain. Potassium 
ferric oxalate, 20 gr. : soda sulphite, 200 
gr. ; water, 5 oz. Powder, shake un- 
til dissolved, and add oxalic acid, 75 
gr. Shake until solution turns green, 
pour into second bottle, leaving excess of 
oxalic acid in first, and add hypo, 2^^ oz., 
and water to make 10 oz. Or, in place 
of ferric potassium oxalate use ferric 
chloride (cryst.), 125 gr. ; potassium ox- 
alate, 220 gr. 

General and Local Reducer. — Eau de 
Javelle, or Labarraque's solution, or the 
commercial preparation known as Holmes' 
QZone bleach, 20 pz, ; chrome alum, 1 oz. : 



(Stripping) 



water, 20 oz. Dissolve the alum in the 
water, by the aid of heat, if necessary, 
and mix with the bleach. Allow it to 
stand 24 hours, and filter. Immerse the 
dried negative in this till the surface be- 
gins to feel slimy, then rub with a wet 
tuft of cotton wool. Friction applied 
specially to one part will reduce the nega- 
tive locally. 

Mechanical Ruhhing Down with Alco- 
hol. — Take methylated alcohol, as free 
from water as possible, on a piece of 
smooth, hard linen or chamois leather, 
over the tip of the finger, and with this 
rub vigorously the film side of the nega- 
tive. There is no chemical action ; the 
alcohol merely hardens the film so that 
it will not rub up with the friction. The 
negative should be placed on a sheet or 
two of blotting paper, laid upon a per- 
fectly level, hard surface. It is not neces- 
sary to follow carefully the lines of the 
part that requires to be reduced, as that 
part of the film which is most dense is 
also thick, and can be rubbed away to 
a very large extent without rubbing out 
any silver from the clearer film around it. 

VARNISHING, STRIPPING, RE- 
TOUCHING AND SPOTTING 
NEGATIVES 

Negative Varnishes (Applied with Heat). 

Shellac, 3^4 oz. ; sandarac, % oz. ; mas- 
tic, 40 gr. ; castor oil, 1 dr. ; rectified 
spirit (.920 to .950), 30 fl.oz. Dissolve, 
and filter. Or, Sandarac, 1% oz. ; ben- 
zoin, 6 dr. ; alcohol, 20 oz. ; oil of laven- 
der, 4 dr. Dissolve by shaking, and fil- 
ter. Or, Orange shellac, 1% oz. ; methyl- 
ated spirit, 20 oz. ; castor oil, 20 drops. 
Or, Bleached lac, 1% oz. ; methylated 
spirit, 20 oz. 

Unvarnishing Negatives. 

Immerse in methylated spirit for 5 min- 
utes, and rub with cotton wool. If any 
rosin remains, place in spirit, plus a lit- 
tle ammonia, and again rub with wool. 
Rinse twice with spirit, and flow water 
over ; the latter should run off evenly. 
Or, Caustic potash, 1 oz. ; methylated al- 
cohol, 10 oz. ; water, 10 oz. Put the nega- 
tive in a dish, pour the solution on, and 
gently rock until the varnish is dissolved. 
Then wash well under the tap. 

Stripping. 

Stripping Gelatine Negatives (Stock 
Solution) . — Methylated spirit, 25 oz. ; 
water, 1 oz. ; glycerine, 1 oz. Cut through 
film all around, about Vs in. from edge, 
and set plate level. Pour on stock splu- 



[685] 



Photography 



( Retouching ) 



tion, with from 6 to 30 drops of com- 
mercial hydrofluoric acid per oz. Spread 
with bit of paper, and remove strips when 
loose ; i.e., in 4 to 6 minutes. Coat glass 
plate with thin gum solution so as to get 
a film so thin as to show only on applying 
a moist finger to one corner. Apply a 
"paraffine sheet" to the negative, and 
squeegee lightly. Remove film and sheet 
together, by inserting a knife under the 
former, and apply to gummed plate after 
flowing with stock solution ; lightly squee- 
gee, and remove the sheet. 

Stripping Collodion Negatives. — When 
thoroughly dry, coat with a 2% rubber 
solution in benzole, and, after this is dry, 
flow with alcohol, 5 oz. ; ether, 5 oz. ; 
pyroxyline, 50 gr. ; castor oil, 30 minims ; 
or, instead of pyroxyline, celluloid var- 
nish may be used. Then cut around neg- 
ative, and soak in acetic acid, 1 oz. ; wa- 
ter, 10 oz. ; until the film can be easily 
lifted. Or the negative may be stripped 
immediately after finishing, and before 
drying, if film is flowed with nitric acid, 
then rinsed, cut around, paper squeegeed 
on, then lifted, and, if reversing is re- 
quired, transferred to another paper. 
While on this paper it may be trimmed 
with a pair of scissors to exact size, and 
transferred to glass previously flowed 
over with gum water or rubbed with 
smooth starch paste. 

Retouching and Spotting Negatives. 

Retouching Media. — 1. — Rosin, pow- 
dered, 60 gr. ; turpentine, 2 oz. 

2. — Gum dammar, 150 gr. ; turpen- 
tine, 2^2 oz. ; benzine, 2i/^ oz. ; oil of 
lavender, 50 drops. 

3. — Sandarac, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 6 oz. ; cas- 
*tor oil, 10 oz. ; Venice turpentine, ^ oz. 

4. — Sandarac, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 2 oz. ; 
benzine, 4 oz. ; acetone, 4 oz. 

Retouching Medium, To Remove. — 
Rub with cotton wool and benzole, using 
fresh cotton wool until it comes away 
quite clean. 

Matt Varnish. — Mastic, 20 gr. ; san- 
darac, 90 gr. ; ether, 2 oz. ; benzole, % 
oz. For coarser matt, add more benzole, 
up to 1 oz. 

Spotting Media. — 1. — Grind Chinese 
ink and Payne's gray (each in cakes) 
with a little gum water. 

2. — Thin down ordinary sepia (moist 
water-color) with black writing ink to 
the consistency of cream. 

3. — Scrape off the films from old nega- 
tives, boil up with water, filter off the 
silver, etc., and mix it with gum water 
for use. 

Medium for Spotting and Bloching Out. 

[ 



(Printing Papers) 



— 1. — Gamboge and vermilion red, ground 
together in water, in equal parts. 

2. — Payne's gray and vermilion, ground 
together in water, in equal parts. Add 
a trace of gum water if a glossy surface 
is wanted. 

Blocking-out Mixture. — Asphaltum, 1 
oz. ; beeswax, 170 gr. ; carbon black, 80 
gr. ; turpentine, 10 oz. "Brunswick 
black" is well adapted for ordinary pur- 
poses, and is cheap. 

Titles on Negatives. — Make an ink with 
the following: (a) Water, 4 oz. ; sugar, 
7 dr.; glycerine, 3 dr. (b) Alcohol, 5 
oz. ; nitrate of mercury, 5 dr. ; perchlo- 
ride of mercury, 2^2 dr. Mix, and write 
title on a piece of paper ; when dry, trans- 
fer to negative by rubbing back of paper 
with a paper knife. This bleaches the 
image. 

PRINTING PROCESSES 
Papers for Sensitizing. 

Papers for This Purpose. — Whatman's, 
Rives', Saxe's, etc. The paper must be 
free from hypochlorite bleach and from 
metallic specks. 

Sizing. — Bleached lac, 1 oz. ; borax, i/^ 
oz. ; water, 10 fl.oz. Or, Bleached lac, 
1/4 oz. ; sodium phosphate, % oz. ; water, 
10 fl.oz. Break the lac small, and wash 
in several changes of water ; then place 
in an enameled saucepan. The borax (or 
sodium phosphate), already dissolved in 
the water, is poured over, and the whole 
boiled gently for a couple of hours, add- 
ing water as it evaporates. Stand for 
24 Jiours, pour off the clear liquid, and 
filter. Phosphate size makes a paper that 
gives a good tone on fixing only. The 
borax-sized paper needs toning. 

Sizing and Salting. — Rub arrowroot, 
180 gr., into a cream with water; bring 
15 oz. of water to the boil, and add 
the cream slowly, with stirring. Dis- 
solve ammonium chloride (120 gr.), 
soda carbonate crystals (200 gr.) and 
citric acid (60 gr.) in 5 oz. of water, 
contained in a 20-oz. vessel. Stir well, 
and filter through muslin while hot. Im- 
merse paper for 2 minutes. It is well to 
dip twice, allowing paper to nearly dry 
in the interval, and hanging up to dry by 
opposite ends after the separate dippings. 
With 270 gr. of arrowroot more bril- 
liant prints are given. Or, Gelatine, 20 
gr. ; ammonium chloride, 80 gr. ; sodium 
citrate, dry, 100 gr. ; common salt, 30 
gr. ; water, 10 oz. Swell the gelatine 
in part of the water, and dissolve by 
heat ; add the salts, and filter. Or, am- 
monium chloride, 96 gr. ; Sioda nitrate, 
686 ] 



Photography 



(Printing- Papers) 



96 gr. ; gelatine, 10 gr. ; water, 10 oz. 
Or, Gelatine, 30 gr. ; ammonium chloride, 
60 gr. ; water, 10 oz. Float the paper for 
5 minutes. 

Salting After Sizing. — Chloride of am- 
monium, sodium, or strontium, 10 gr. 
to 1 oz. of water ; or chloride of borium 
or mercury, 20 gr. to the ounce. Float 2 
minutes. 

Sizing-Salting with Agar-Agar. — (Very 
fine matt prints). — Swell agar-agar, 45 
gr., in cold water, 10 oz. for 1 hour; 
bbil for 10 minutes, add sodium chloride, 
90 gr., and keep warm for half an 
hour. Decant from sediment, and pour 
in clean, flat dish to set. Cut jelly up 
into small pieces, squeeze through dam^) 
nainsook muslin, and use about % oz. 
of this jelly per 22^^ x 17 sheet, spread- 
ing with Blanchard brush, and evening 
with soft mop brush. 

Baryta Facing. — Used for most emul- 
sion papers, as printing out paper, bro- 
mide, gaslight. (a) Gelatine, 180 gr. ; 
barium chloride, 30 gr. ; distilled wa- 
ter, 10 oz. (b) Ammonium sulphate, 30 
gr. ; distilled water, 5 oz. Swell the 
gelatine in cold water, add the chloride, 
and dissolve by gentle heat in a jacketed 
pan; add (b), a little at a time, stirring 
thoroughly. Allow the emulsion to set, 
squeeze through coarse muslin to break 
it into shreds, wash in several changes 
of water, press dry, then melt again, and 
add slowly, with stirring, chrome alum, 
15 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 

Alhumenizing Paper. — White of fresh 
eggs, 2 oz. ; ammonium chloride, 160 
gr., dissolved in 1 oz. of water. Place 
in vessel many times the size of the mix- 
ture, and beat into a froth. Stand .24 
hours, filter through muslin, and float pa- 
per thereon 3 minutes. 

Double Alhumenizing. — After first coat- 
ing, coagulate on methylated spirit, 4 
parts ; water, 1 part ; then float as be- 
fore. 

Monchhoren's Sensitizing Solution. — 
Nitrate of silver, 6 parts ; nitrate of mag- 
nesia, 6 parts ; distilled water, 50 parts. 
Each time, after sensitizing a sheet in this 
solution, 1 dr. of a 1 to 8 solution of ni- 
trate of silver should be added to the 
bath for every 100 sq. in. of paper sensi- 
tized. 

Sensitizing Solution for Paper. — Ni- 
trate of silver, 5 dr. ; distilled water, 5 
oz. ; nitric acid, 2 drops ; kaolin, 1 oz. 

Matt and Semi-Matt Lac Paper. — (a) 
White lac, freshly bleached, 360 gr. ; 
borax, 180 gr. ; water, 10 oz. ; gelatine, 
swollen in water, 100 gr. (b) So- 
dium phosphate, 180 gr. ; white lac, 



(Printing Papers) 



220 gr. ; water, 10 oz. ; gelatine, swol- 
len in water, 100 gr. Boil (a) and 
(b) without the gelatine till the lac has 
dissolved, or for 2 hours ; replace the 
water lost by evaporation, and add the 
gelatine; when dissolved, filter the solu- 
tions, and mix. Immerse paper for 20 
seconds, and hang up to dry. Float for 
2 minutes on ammonium chloride, 100 
gr. ; magnesium lactate, 100 gr, ; wa- 
ter, 10 oz. Dry, and sensitize on 60- 
gr, silver bath. 

Plain Paper. — (a) Gelatine, 100 gr, ; 
ammonium chloride, 100 gr. ; chrome 
alum, 5 gr. ; water, 20 oz. (b) Gela- 
tine, 100 gr. ; salt, 100 gr. ; sodium 
carbonate, 200 gr. ; water, 20 oz. (c) 
Gelatine, 100 gr. ; salt, 100 gr. ; so- 
dium carbonate, 100 gr. ; sodium cit- 
rate, 50 gr. ; water, 20 oz. (d) Ba- 
rium chloride, 230 gr. ; gelatine, 100 
gr. ; chrome alum, 5 gr. ; water, 20 
oz. Sensitize on silver nitrate, 800 gr. ; 
distilled water, 20 oz. Divide this solu- 
tion into 2 parts ; to one add liq. am- 
monia to dissolve the precipitate first 
formed, then add the other portions, and 
then nitric acid, drop by drop, till any 
precipitate is nearly dissolved. The bath 
must be alkaline, (a) gives purple-black 
tones, (b) sepia brown, (c) brownish 
black, (d) black-brown. 

Self-toning Paper. — Chloride of gold, 
60 gr. ; ammonium chloride, 120 gr. ; 
water, 30 oz. Float the paper for 
2 minutes, and dry. Sensitize on silver 
nitrate, 3 oz. ; distilled water, 16 oz. Add 
enough liq. ammonia (.880) to dissolve 
the precipitate first formed, and add 
enough water to make 20 oz. in -all. Float 
for 3 minutes, and dry. Will keep about 
a week. Fix in hypo, 5 oz. ; silver iodide, 
14 gr. ; water, 20 oz. 

Home-made Papers, Silver Papers, Plain 
Salted and Albumenized, Prints on 
Fabrics, Wood, Ivory, etc. 

To Goat hy Flowing. — 'The following 
method is recommended to those who wish 
to coat paper evenly with any emulsion, 
and who have diflBculty in floating. Pre- 
pare plates of glass, scrupulously clean, 
and rub well with talc, removing the 
talc with a brush. The pure paper to be 
coated should be thoroughly wet with dis- 
tilled water and squeegeed down to the 
talced surface. Stand to drain, then dry 
completely. For coating, warm the glass 
and its paper, level carefully, pour the 
warm emulsion on the dry paper, gelding 
it to the corners with a glass rod, bent 
into L-shape. 

Sensitizing Baths. — Silver nitrate 140 



[687] 



Photography 



(Printing Papers) 



gr. ; citric acid, 100 gr. ; distilled water, 
2 oz. Or, Silver nitrate, 50 gr. ; am- 
monium nitrate, 50 gr. ; water, 1 oz. Ap- 
ply with a 2-in. camel's-hair brush, set 
in wood or rubber (not metal), or with 
a Blanchard brush of swansdown or fine 
flannel ; or float. For rich tones, sensi- 
tize twice, drying between, and hanging 
by opposite ends for the two dryings. 

Preserving. — The citric acid used in 
some formulae is intended as a preserva- 
tive. Alternately : float, back downward, 
for a couple of minutes on citric acid, 
50 gr. ; water, 1 oz. ; after sensitizing and 
drying. 

Fuming. — Immediately before printing. 
In the top of a closed box, with strong 
ammonia sprinkled at the bottom, or laid 
in a saucer. 

Oold Toning Baths. — Any of those 
given for albumen paper, diluted with 
an equal volume of water. 

Platinum Toning hath. — Potassium 
chloroplatinite, 1 gr. ; salt, 10 gr. ; citric 
acid, 30 gr. ; water, 8 oz. 

Fixing Bath. — Hypo, 2 oz. ; salt, 1 oz. ; 
washing soda, % oz. ; water, 20 oz. 

A Paper for Rich Effects, Especially 
in Large Sizes. — Whatman's cold-pressed 
paper, without sizing, or with the fol- 
lowing : Gelatine, 2% dr. ; common salt, 
21/4 dr. ; water, 32 oz. ; chrome alum so- 
lution, 10%, 1 oz. Sensitize on citric 
acid, 120 gr. ; silver nitrate, 75 gr. ; wa- 
ter, 1 oz. Tone with a weak gold bath. 

For Stronger Contrasts. — Use an ox- 
alate bath, after sensitizing and drying. 
Thus : Salt with common salt, 35 gr. ; 
sodium citrate, 35 gr. ; water, 4 oz. Sen- 
sitize on silver nitrate, 100 gr. ; citric 
acid, 50 gr. ; water, 4 oz. ; for 5 minutes. 
When dry, float again on oxalic acid, 10 
gr. ; citric acid, 20 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 
Keeps in good condition for 12 months. 

Ammonio-Nitrate Method. — Arrowroot 
sized paper, as above. Sensitizer : Sil- 
ver nitrate, 250 gr. ; distilled water, 4 oz. : 
add strong ammonia, drop by drop, until 
the precipitate first formed redissolves ; 
then add silver nitrate, 50 gr., in distilled 
water, 1 oz., and filter. Apply with a 
brush, not by floating. Sensitive paper 
keeps a few hours only. 

Iron-Silver Method. — Salt with green 
ammonio citrate of iron, 32 gr. ; ferric 
oxylate, 40 gr. ; oxalic acid, 8 gr. ; mer- 
cury bichloride, 8 gr. ; gum arable, 20 
gr. ; water, 2 oz. Mix 12 hours before 
use, and keep in a dark place. Float the 
paper, dry, and sensitize with silver ni- 
trate, 100 gr, ; citric acid, 70 gr. ; tar- 
taric acid, 20 gr. ; water, 2 oz. Print un- 
til the halftones are fairly visible ; de- 



( Printing Papers) 



velop in water only ; fix in hypo, 12 gr. ; 
common salt, 36 gr ; water, 6 oz. 

Silver Sensitizing Bath for Alhumen- 
ized Paper. — Silver nitrate, 40 to 60 gr. ; 
distilled water, 1 oz. Keep up to strength 
by adding double strength bath at the 
rate of ^4 oz. for every sheet sensitized. 
For small baths, 20 oz. and less, add the 
% oz. after floating each sheet. For 
large baths, after the floating of each eight 
sheets. 

To Find Time of Floating. — Brush a 
little weak potassium chromate solution 
on back of first sheet to be sensitized, just 
before floating, and note time required for 
yellow stain to become orange. This is 
correct floating period, and will be 3 to 5 
minutes, usually. Paper does not keep ; 
must be printed within a day or so of 
floating. 

Adjusting the Bath. — For weak nega- 
tives, 80 gr. of silver nitrate per oz. ; for 
hard negatives, 35 gr. per oz. 

Paper, To Keep.— 1.— AM 20 to 40 gr. 
of citric acid to each oz. of silver bath. 

2, — Float paper, back downward, on 
citric-acid solution (1 oz. in 30 oz. of 
water) for 3 minutes, directly after sen- 
sitizing and blotting. 

3, — Store between blotters soaked in 
soda bicarbonate solution (1 oz. in 10 oz. 
of water), and dried. 

Borax Toning Bath. — Borax, 60 gr. ; 
gold chloride, 1 gr. ; water, 10 oz. Ready 
as soon as mixed. Keeps well. Can be 
used over again, by adding more gold so- 
lution. The borax gold toning bath is, 
without doubt, the best of all the for- 
mulae. The discoloring to violet is of no 
consequence. Out of a 4-pt. bath pour 
into the waste crock 1 pt. each time ton- 
ing takes place ; add borax and chloride 
of gold solution to that quantity, when 
the rich color of the toned prints will 
be far superior to those toned in a silver 
bath. 

Sodium Acetate Toning. — Stock solu- 
tion : Gold chloride, 15 gr. ; sodium ace- 
tate, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 4 fl.oz. ; add 
a little chalk, shake up, allow to stand 
24 hours. Take stock solution, % fl.oz. 
to 20 fl.oz, of water. 

Sodium Phosphate Toning. — Sodium 
phosphate, 20 gr. ; gold chloride, 1 gr. ; 
water, 10 oz. Ready at once. Does not 
keep. 

Soda Bicarbonate Toning. — Soda bicar- 
bonate, 5 gr. ; gold chloride, 1 gr. ; water, 
12 oz. Does not keep. 

Strontium Chloride Toning. — (a) Gold 
chloride, 15 gr. ; distilled water, 1% oz. 
Heat nearly to boiling, and add stron- 
tium chloride, 150 gr. (b) Potassium 



[688] 



Photography 



(Printing Papers) 



sulphocyanide, 40 gr. ; water, 1^ oz. 
Heat nearly to boiling, then add (a), in 
small quantities, with stirring. When 
cold, make up with water to 4 oz. Take 
15 minims to 1 oz. of water. 

Lime Toning. — Chloride of lime, 2 gr. ; 
gold chloride, 2 gr. ; chalk, 1 teaspoonful ; 
hot water, 16 oz. Use when cold. Keeps. 

Washing Paper. — 1. — For borax, ace- 
tate and "sel d'or" toning, the free sil- 
ver is all washed out of the paper. 

2. — For phosphate, bicarbonate and 
lime, slight milkiness of the last wash 
water is desirable. 

''Sel d'Or'' Toning.— Go\d chloride, 1 
gr. ; pure hypo, 4 gr. ; hydrochloric acid, 
4 minims ; water, 4 oz. Dissolve gold and 
hypo, each in 2 oz. of water ; add gold to 
hypo slowly ; add the acid. 

Fixing Bath. — Hypo, 2 oz. ; hot water, 
20 oz. Use when cold. Do not guess 
the quantity of hypo. The temperature 
of this bath should be the same as that 
for toning and washing. 

Washing. — Do not transfer prints im- 
mediately from the fixing bath to cold 
water. Pour off the hypo without drain- 
ing the dish, and then place the prints, 
one by one, in salt, 8 oz. ; water, 160 oz. 
Time of immersion, 6 to 8 minutes. Fi- 
nally, wash in clear water. 

Solar Enlargement Paper. — Float well 
sized paper for 3 minutes on ammonium 
bromide, 192 gr. ; magnesium iodide, 460 
gr. ; magnesium chloride, 77 gr. ; water 
to 20 oz. Will keep for some time in 
this state. Sensitize on silver nitrate, 960 
gr. ; glacial acetic acid, 384 minims; dis- 
tilled water to 20 oz. As soon as surface 
dry, expose until shadow details are vis- 
ible, then develop with gallic acid, 192 
gr. ; lead acetate, 96 gr. ; glacial acetic 
acid, iy2 oz. ; water to 20 oz. When de- 
velopment is complete, immerse in a very 
weak solution of carbonate of soda. Fix 
and wash. 

Gum-Silver Process. — (a) Gum arable, 
powdered, 50 grams; water, 100 c.c. (b) 
Solution (a), 5 c.c; glacial acetic acid, 
3 c.c. Stir (b) well into (a). Add (c) : 
Nitrate of silver, 1 gram ; distilled water, 
3 c.c. Spread on to any pure paper with 
a. stiff paint brush, not mounted in metal, 
and dry quickly in the dark. Print as 
for printing out paper, in direct sunlight. 
The print does not lose much in toning 
and fixing. Tone in gold or platinum, 
or both, and fix in 2% solution of hypo. 
Good red tones by fixing only. The tones 
vary according to the paper used. Very 
good results have been obtained on ordi- 
nary writing paper. The paper should 



(Printing Papers) 



be used freshly sensitized, and is best at 
about 24 hours old. 

Prints on Parchmentized Paper. — Im- 
merse any good, non-loaded pure paper 
in 1 part of sulphuric acid and 1 part of 
water for a very brief time, taking out 
and returning, to see that no air bells re- 
main. Wash briefly in 2 or 3 changes of 
water, then in water slightly alkalized 
with ammonia. Salt with potassium 
iodide, 2 gr. ; cadmium bromide, 1 gr. ; 
barium chloride, 20 gr. ; sugar, 20 gr. ; 
water, impregnated with camphor, 2 oz. 
The last named ingredient can be ob- 
tained from the druggist. Sensitize (by 
brushing or floating) with nitrate of sil- 
ver, 200 gr. ; citric acid, 8 gr. ; nitrate 
of uranium, 120 gr. ; distilled water, 4 
oz. ; alcohol, 1 oz. Dry quickly, but not 
too near the heat. Expose until the ini- 
age is faintly visible, about as in plati- 
num prints. Develop with pyro, 4 gr. ; 
citric acid, 8 gr. ; acetic acid (glacial), 
1 dr. ; water, 8 oz. The development is 
rather slow, being retarded by the quan- 
tity of the acid, but this is advantageous. 
Rock constantly during the development. 
Develop until the image shows consider- 
able intensity, as it weakens some in the 
fixing bath. Fix in hypo, 1 oz. ; water, 
16 oz. ; alum, 4 dr. ; for 15 or 20 minutes. 
Place in alum, 50 gr. ; water, 8 oz. ; for 
half an hour or more, until it assumes a 
rich brown color. Wash as usual with 
other prints. 

Copper Ghromate Process. — In artifi- 
cial light, sensitize well sized paper with 
copper sulphate, 125 gr. ; potassium bi- 
chromate, 230 gr. ; distilled water, 6 oz. 
[M. Dillaye recommends as more rapid, 
and giving better detail : Copper sul- 
phate, 125 gr. ; ammonium bichromate, 
130 gr. ; potassium bichromate, 110 gr. ; 
water, 6 oz,] Dry in the dark. Print 
until a brown image shows on the yellow 
paper, with the finer details just visible, 
as in platinotype. Wash to remove the 
bichromate, until the unexposed parts are 
quite white on looking through the print. 
Develop in pyro, 15 gr. ; acetic acid (gla- 
cial), 170 minims; water, 3^/^ oz. The 
paper^ should be sized with gelatine (not 
rosin or arrowroot). Foggy prints, clear 
with 1% solution of oxalic acid. 

Bichromate-Silver Process. — Mix 10 gr. 
of bichromate of potash and 20 gr. of 
sulphate of copper in 1 oz. of distilled 
water. Paint this mixture over common 
writing paper, and let it dry. Then place 
the engraving, face downward, on the pre- 
pared side of the paper. Print as usual 
in sunshine. In about half an hour a 
faint copy is produced in yellow. This 



[689] 



Photography 



(Printing on Fabrics, Etc.) 

must be washed over with a solution of 
nitrate of silver, 20 gr. to 1 oz. of dis- 
tilled water. When this is done a beau- 
tiful red picture makes its appearance. 
Fix by washing in pure water. If it 
be desired to change the color of the pic- 
ture, soak it in salt and water until it 
disappears, then hold it to the sun for 5 
minutes, and the same picture appears 
in a fine lilac color. 

Sensitizing Fabrics. — Soak for 2 or 3 
minutes in gelatine, 50 gr. ; common salt, 
50 gr. ; magnesium lactate, 50 gr. ; wa- 
ter, 10 oz. Dry thoroughly. Sensitize 
for 3 minutes in silver nitrate, 25 gr. ; 
water, 1 oz. Immerse for a minute in 
citric acid, 50 gr. ; sugar, 50 gr. ; water, 
20 oz. Dry in the dark. Tone, fix, and 
wash as for printing out paper. 

Sensitized Fabrics, Size. — Arrowroot, 
made into a paste with cold water and 
diluted with boiling water (containing 4 
gr. of salt per oz. ) until thin. Strain, 
and let cool. Wet the fabric in cold wa- 
ter, immerse in size solution, wring out, 
again immerse for 30 seconds, and dry 
before the fire. Sensitize for a few sec- 
onds in silver nitrate, 150 gr. ; water, 3 
oz. ; and a trace of nitric acid, from a 
glass rod dipped in the acid and then in 
solution. Again dry before the fire. Print 
out, tone in gold acetate, and fix. 

Sensitized Fabrics, A Development 
Process. — Rub the fabric with ammonia, 
i oz. ; alcohol, 1 oz. ; rinse till the water 
I'uns off freely, and dry. Dissolve gela- 
tine, 20 gr. ; water, 1 oz., by heat, and 
add potassium iodide, 26 gr. ; ammonium 
bromide, 11% gr. ; ammonium chloride, 
31/4 gr. ; albumen, 20 minims ; water, 1 
oz. When thoroughly dissolved, and the 
solution not hotter than 90° F., add dis- 
tilled water to 3 oz. Paint evenly over 
the canvas, fairly freely, and allow to 
dry. Then paint in the dark room with 
silver nitrate, 37 gr. ; glacial acetic acid, 
18 minims ; distilled watei', 1 oz. Ex- 
pose while wet. To develop, paint or 
swab over with gallic acid, 20 gr. ; lead 
acetate, 10 gr. ; glacial acetic acid, 75 
minims ; distilled water to 2 oz. Fix in 
a 1 in 5 hypo solution. 

Glass Positives (Eburneum Process, 
Modified). — Make a thin, clear, vigorous 
transparency on a dry plate (lantern 
plate preferred), taking care that the 
image is right-handed when seen through 
the glass. When dry, any coloring that 
is desired can be done on the film size ; 
then the whole of the film is painted with 
flake-white paint. The picture can be 
backed with card and bound like a Inn- 



( Printing on Ivory) 



tern slide ; mounted on a paperweight, or 
otherwise finished. 

Ivory, Wood, Metal, etc., A Transfer 
Process. — Collodion Emulsion. — (a) Py- 
roxyline (gun cotton), 50 gr. ; alcohol, 4 
oz. ; ether, 4 oz. ; shake until pyroxyline 
is completely dissolved. (b) Silver ni- 
trate, 240 gr. ; distilled water, 4 dr. (c) 
Strontium chloride, 64 gr. ; alcohol, 2 oz. 
(d) Citric acid, 64 gr. ; alcohol, 2 oz. 
Now take (a), 2 oz. ; add 30 drops of 
(b) in 1 dr. of alcohol, and shake well; 
add 1 dr. of (c), a few drops at a time, 
with shaking; then 30 drops of (d) : 
shake well, stand for half an hour, and 
filter through a tuft of cotton wool. After 
making the stock solutions, all should be 
done in dark room or in amber light. 
The mixing may be done in daylight if 
an opaque or amber-colored bottle is used. 

The Stripping Paper. — Float baryta- 
faced paper on gelatine, 90 gr. ; white 
granulated sugar, 30 gr. ; water, 6 oz. (fil- 
tered after solution, .through muslin). 
Float for a few seconds after the paper 
flattens on the solution. Dry ; coat with 
the emulsion in safe light. Print rather 
darker than is required for the finished 
print. Wash. Tone in gold chloride, 1 
gr. ; sodium acetate, 30 gr. ; sodium bi- 
carbonate, 10 gr. ; water, 10 oz., which 
should be made some hours before use. 
Fix in plain hypo. Wash. To transfer, 
place the finished print in water at 150° 
F., when it will float off the paper in 
about 1 minute. Slip the perfectly cleaned 
ivory, etc., into the water, under the 
print ; arrange it on the surface with a 
soft sable or camel's-hair brush ; lift care- 
fully from the water ; place between 2 
pieces of clean blotting paper and^ keep 
under light pressure, as in a printing 
frame, for a day. 

Transferring Silver (etc.) Prints to 
Wood. — To decorate wooden trinket 
boxes, etc., remove the varnish with 
methylated alcohol, and rag and smooth 
the surface with the finest glasspaper, 
and polish with French polish, made 
with bleached lac. Soak the print in 
alcohol until quite pliable, lay it, face 
down, on the polished wood, and rub it 
into complete contact, with a pad of cot- 
ton dipped in alcohol. When the spirit 
has evaporated the paper may be rubbed 
away with soft india-rubber dipped in 
lukewarm water, and with moistened fin- 
ger tips. Care is needed, as the papel- 
gets thin ; but there should be no real 
difficulty. When all the paper is gone, 
dry, and apply white French polish. 

Tvory, Prints on. — Gelatino-bromide 
emulsion process : Size with albumen. 



[ 16'90 ] 



Photography 



(Gelatine Printing Out Papejr) 

made by whipping the white of 1 egg 
very thoroughly with 2 oz. of water, al- 
lowing it to stand for a day, then filter- 
ing. Coat with an emulsion made as fol- 
lows : Nelson's No. 1 gelatine, 20 gr. ; 
swell in water for half an hour, changing 
the water 3 times ; place in a jacketed 
pan, and add distilled water, 2 oz. ; am- 
monium bromide, 55 gr. ; sodium chloride, 
15 gr. ; hydrochloric acid, 10% solution, 
5 minims. Heat to 125° F., and stir un- 
til dissolved ; then add silver nitrate, 100 
gr. ; distilled water, i^ oz. ; add very 
slowly, with continuous stirring, and heat 
for 10 minutes at 150° F., then add 
hard gelatine, 88 gr., which has previously 
been swelled in water for half an hour, 
changing the water every 10 minutes. 
S'tir until dissolved, and make up to 4 
fl.oz. with distilled water. Allow to set 
in a cold place for 8 or 10 hours. Break 
up, by squeezing through coarse-meshed 
canvas, place in a clean linen bag, sus- 
pend in water, and change the water 
every 10 minutes for 3 hours. Drain 
well, remelt at 100° F., and add tannin, 
1 gr. ; and coat the ivory with this. 

Photographing Upon Marble. — ^The fol- 
lowing process for making photographic 
impressions upon marble has recently ap- 
peared in a technical magazine, and is 
said to give very fine results. The sur- 
face of the marble is well smoothed, but 
not polished. Upon this is spread a layer 
of the following mixture : Benzine, 500 
grams ; turpentine, 500 grams ; bitumen, 
50 grams ; beeswax, 5 grams. This layer 
is allowed to dry, and the gelatine sur- 
face of the photographic plate is then ap- 
plied, and an exposure of 20 minutes 
made by sunlight. After removing the 
plate, wash with gasoline, which takes 
off that part of the varnish which has 
not been acted upon by the light, and the 
image gradually appears. The action of 
the gasoline is stopped at the desired 
point by washing in a stream of water. 
The surface thus prepared is plunged 
into an alcoholic solution of Prussian 
blue, easine-red, etc. When the color has 
penetrated by capillary action, the layer 
of varnish is taken off and the surface 
of the marble finely polished. In this 
way a permanent image, of a fine color, 
and great depth, is obtained. 

Gelatine Printing Out Paper. 

For Matt and Semi-Matt Papers. — 
Add starch ( preferably fine potato starch ) 
to the emulsion. Proportion according to 
texture desired. 

Printing Out Paper Emulsion. — (a) 
Silver nitrate, 32 grams ; citric acid, 8 



(Gelatine Printing Out Paper) 

grams; hot water, 160 c.c. (b) Swell 
gelatine, 96 grams, in water, 700 c.c, ; 
melt on the water bath, and add ammo- 
nium chloride, 2.8 grams, (c) Tartaric 
acid, 2.8 grams ; sodium bicarbonate, 1.4 
grams ; alum, 1.8 grams ; water, 140 c.c. 
Dissolve in this order. Mix (b) and (c) 
at 120° F., warm (a) at 120° F., and 
add, in small doses, with shaking. Ripen 
at 100 to 120° F. for several hours, filter 
through glass wool, in a hot-water funnel, 
and coat. For matt paper use 80 to 90 
grams only of gelatine. Or, Gelatine 
(Nelson's No. 1 and Coignet's, equal 
parts), 350 gr. ; ammonium chloride, 35 
gr. ; R^chelle salts, 100 gr. ; silver nitrate, 
150 gr. ; alcohol, 8 dr. ; water, 10 oz. 
Heat to 110° F., and allow to remain at 
this temperature for 10 min. after all is 
dissolved. Filter through chamois leath- 
er, and use while warm. 

Hardening Bath. — Alum, 1 oz. ; water, 
10 oz. ; use for 10 minutes. Or, Forma- 
lin, 1 oz. ; water, 15 to 20 oz. 

Salt Bath (for Preventing Spots from 
Rusty Tap Water). — Salt, 2 oz. ; soda 
carbonate, 1 oz. ; water, 20 oz. Place 
prints direct in this and then wash. Omit 
carbonate when intending to tone with 
platinum. 

Sulphocyanide Toning. — Ammonium 
sulphocyanide, 20 gr. ; gold chloride, 2 
gr. ; water (hot), 20 oz. Dissolve sul- 
phocyanide in half the water, and gold 
in remainder. Add gold to sulphocyanide 
in oz. lots. Use when cold. 

Sulphocyanide Sulphite. — Ammonium 
sulphocyanide, 20 gr. ; soda sulphite, 2 
gr. ; gold chloride, 2 gr. ; water, 20 oz. 
Slower than plain sulphocyanide, but less 
liable to double tones, 

Sulphocyanide Iodide {for Carmine 
Tones). — Ammonium sulphocyanide, 75 
gr. ; potassium iodide, 8 to 20 gr. ; gold 
chloride, 4 gr. ; water, 35 oz. Ovei'print 
slightly. Use fresh. 

Gold Formate Toning. — Sodium for- 
mate, 15 gr. ; sodium bicarbonate, 2 gr. ; 
gold chloride, 1 gr. ; water, 10 to 20 oz. 
Does not keep. 

Gold Tungstate. — Sodium tungstate, 30 
gr. ; sodium carbonate, 1 gr. ; gold chlo- 
ride, 1 gr. ; water, 10 to 20 oz. Tones 
rapidly and evenly. Free from double 
tones. 

Gold Aluminum (for Brown-red 
Tones) . — Aluminum chloride, 20 gr. ; 
sodium bicarbonate, 80 gr. ; water, 10 oz. 
Dissolve ; stand for half an hour ; filter. 
Add" 1 gr. of gold chloride per doz. half- 
plate prints. Can be used again and 
again, adding fresh gold. 

Gold Lime.— Gold chloride. 2 ;gr. ; pow- 



[691] 



Photography 



(Gelatine Printing Out Paper) 

dered chalk, 100 gr. ; chloride of lime, 2 
gr. ; water, 16 oz. Keeps some hours. 
For black tones. 

Gold Uranium. — Sodium acetate, 60 
gr. ; sodium bicarbonate, 10 gr. ; sodium 
chloride, 30 gr. ; water, 15 oz. Add 
uranium nitrate, 5 gr. ; gold chloride, 4 
gr. ; water, 20 oz. For black tones. Must 
not be acid. 

Thiocarhamide Bath (Black and Blue- 
Hack Tones).— Chloride of gold (1% 
solution), 1 oz. Add thiocarhamide (2% 
solution), till the precipitate first formed 
is redissolved. This will require from 
260 to 285 minims ; then add : Citric acid, 
96 gr. ; distilled water to 40 oz. ; common 
salt, 192 gr. Slightly overprint and im- 
merse 5 min. in salt, 2 oz. ; water, 20 oz,, 
then in the toning bath. Temperature, 
65° F. For blue violet, tone 10 to 15 
min., wash, and fix in 10% hypo. For 
blue-black tone 3 min., rinse, and im- 
merse in : Hypo, 4 oz. ; lead nitrate, 96 
gr. ; chloride of gold (1% solution), 1 
oz. ; water to 20 oz. Black tones : tone 
4 min., rinse well, and tone 10 min. in 
any platinum bath. 

Stock Toning Bath Which Keeps. — 
Heat 11/^ oz. of distilled water to 100° 
F. in clean beaker, add 15 gr. of gold 
chloride and 150 gr. of strontium chlo- 
ride, and heat to nearly boiling. Heat 
also 1^2 oz. of distilled water and 40 gr. 
of potassium sulphocyanide to nearly boil- 
ing, and add gold solution (above) in 2- 
dr. lots, stirring continuously. Cool, and 
make up to 30 dr. To make bath, add 
from 4 to 8 oz. of water to 1 dr. of 
this stock solution. 

To Stop Gold Toning. — Sodium sul- 
phite, 50 gr. ; water, 10 oz. 

Acid Toning. — Gold chloride, 2 gr. ; 
sodium hyposulphite, 10 gr. ; hydrochloric 
acid, 10 minims ; water, 10 oz. Dissolve 
the gold and the hypo each in 5 oz. of 
water. Pour the gold solution slowly, 
with stirring, into the hypo (not vice 
versa), then add the acid. Wash prints 
from free silver before toning or the solu- 
tion will be spoilt. 

Brush Toning. — (a) 10% solution am- 
monium sulphocyanide. (b) 10% solu- 
tion phosphate of soda, (c) Borax, sat- 
urated solution, (d) Gold chloride, 1 gr. 
per dr. Take (a), 70 minims, add water 
to make 5 dr. ; then add, little by little, 
(d), 1 dr.; and next, (b), 30 minims; 
(c), 80 minims. Apply with soft camel's- 
hair mop to dry print, using 35 to 40 
minims per quarter plate. Tones in 2 
minutes. 

Combined Bath (Without Lead). — 
Ammonium sulphocyanide, 15 gr. ; so- 



( Gelatine Printing Out Paper) 

dium chloride, 30 gr. ; hypo, 2 oz. ; water, 
10 oz. Add little by little : Gold chloride, 
1 gr. ; water, i/^ oz. Another — for red 
tones: Sodium acetate, 120 gr. ; ammo- 
nium sulphocyanide, 120 gr. ; sodium hy- 
posulphite, 2% oz. ; warm water, 10 oz. 
When cool, add 5 gr. of gold chloride in 
1 dr. of water. Gives tones from terra 
cotta to purple brown. Another — for 
black tones: Hypo, 6 oz. ; potass, sulpho- 
cyanide, 1 oz. ; sodium acetate, 1^/^ oz. ; 
alum, 100 gr. ; water, 20 oz. When dis- 
solved, add silver chloride, 100 gr. Leave 
for 24 hours, filter, and add: Gold chlo- 
ride, 15 gr. ; ammonium chloride, 30 gr. ; 
water, 8 oz. Print deeply, and before 
placing in both immerse prints in : Soda 
carbonate, 1 oz. ; water, 20 oz. 

Combined Bath With Lead. — Hypo, 5 
oz. ; citric acid, 60 gr. ; lead acetate, 60 
gr. ; ammonium sulphocyanide, 240 gr. ; 
water, 20 oz. Dissolve in this order in 
hot water, boil, cool, filter, and add gold 
chloride, 3 gr. Another — for black tones: 
(a) Hypo, 4 oz. ; water, 10 oz. (b) 
Lead nitrate, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 10 
oz. ; acetic acid (glacial), 48 minims. 
Add (b) to (a) gradually, and with 
shaking, until a distinct cloudiness re- 
mains after well shaking. Filter. To 
use, take gold chloride, 1 gr. ; mixture as 
above, 10 oz. 

Fixing Bath. — Hypo, 3 oz. ; water, 20 
oz. Fix for 10 min., moving prints con- 
stantly. 

The hyposulphite of soda fixing bath is 
best made to test with an argentometer, 
because this instrument indicates grains 
to the ounce of water. Thus, mix a 
quantity of hyposulphite of soda in a 
quart of water, pour some of this into 
the test glass, place, in the argentometer. 
If it floats at 20 on the line of the liquid, 
this means 20 grains to the ounce, which 
is the right strength for all gelatine or 
albumin printing out papers ; 18 is the 
strength for collodion paper, while for 
the fixing bath for negatives the strength 
may be anything from 80 to 100. 

Sulphide Toning (considered more per- 
manent than gold-toned prints when prop- 
erly done). — Slightly overprint; lay for 
10 min, in sodium carbonate, 1 oz. ; com- 
mon salt, 1 oz. ; water to make 20 oz. 
Then fix, and wash thoroughly. Tone in 
sodium sulphide (not sulphite), 5 gr. ; 
M^ater, 20 oz., for about 15 min. If the 
paper in use tones quicker than this, re- 
duce the strength of the bath, as slow 
toning insures permanency. Should not 
be conducted in any room where plates 
and sensitive papers are stored ; the 
fumes will affect them. 



[692] 



Photography 



(Gelatine Printing Out Paper) 

Platinum Toning. — Potass, chloroplat- 
inite, 3 gr. ; sodium chloride, 50 gr. ; 
citric acid, 50 gr. ; water, 20 oz. No 
more salt than that given. Or, Potass, 
chloroplatinite, 2 gr. ; phosphoric acid 
(sp. gr. 1.12), 3 dr. (fluid) ; water, 10 
oz. Immerse dry prints in 10% salt bath 
for 5 min., wash, and tone in above. 

To Arrest Platinum Toning. — Soda 
carbonate crystals, 10 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 

Gold Platinum Toning. — Sodium sul- 
phite, 45 gr. ; gold chloride, 1 gr. ; po- 
tassium chloroplatinite, 1 gr. ; water, 10 
oz. Immerse prints in a 10% solution 
of common salt before toning. 

Developing Printing Out Paper (direct 
process). — Print until all detail is just 
faintly visible. Develop, wash and tone. 

Hydroquinone, 8 gr. ; citric acid, 20 
gr. ; sodium acetate, Vq oz. ; water, 10 oz. 

Pyro, 3 gr. ; water, 3 oz. ; potass, bi- 
chromate solution (% gr. per oz.), 5 
minims. Gives reddish sepia ; or with 10 
minims bichromate, brown color, need- 
ing no toning. For matt prints. Dis- 
tilled water should be used throughout. 

Pyro Metol—Pyro, 10 gr. ; metol, 10 
gr. ; citric acid, 20 gr. ; potassium bi- 
chromate (1% solution), 2 to 5 minims; 
water, 10 oz. Gives sepia tones. For 
purple tones use 20 gr. of potass, meta- 
bisulphite in place of the citric acid. 

To Arrest Development sharply, trans- 
fer to : Acetic acid, 10 minims ; water, 
10 oz. 

Developing Bromide Paper. — Place 
print in 10% potass, bromide solution for 
5 to 10 min. (1 or 2 min. for fresh 
paper) ; wash and develop in: (a) Hy- 
droquinone, 1/4 oz. ; soda sulphite, 2 oz. ; 
water, 110 oz. (b) Potass, bromide, 15 
oz. ; soda corbonate (recrystallized), 12 
oz. ; water, 112 oz. For normal results : 
(a), % oz. ; (b), 1 oz. ; water, 1/4 oz. 
For greater contrast: (a), 3 dr.; (b), 
1 oz. ; water, 5 dr. For less contrast : 
(a), 7 dr.; (b), 1 oz. ; water, 1 dr. 

Reducing Dark Prints. — ^Make 10% 
solutions of (a), ammonium sulphocy- 
anide, and (b), potass, ferricyanide. Take 
(a), 100 minims; (b), 10 minims; water, 
1 oz. Use after toning and fixing. Or, 
Ammonium persulphate, 5 gr. ; water, 1 
oz. Best used before toning and fixing. 
If used afterwards, prints should be well 
washed before and after persulphate, re- 
fixed for a moment and again washed. 

Intensifying Weak Spots. — Bleach in 
mercuric chloride, saturated solution, 
wash well and darken in : Ammonia, 1 
dr. ; water, 10 oz. 

Medium for Hot Burnishing. — Castile 
soap (1 oz.^T warmed with water (2i/4 



(Collodion Printing Out Paper) 

oz.), and added to methylated spirit 
(171^ oz.). Allow to stand 3 or 4 days, 
with occasional shaking, and filter. Rub 
over prints with flannel. 

Opalines, Mounting Solution for Prints. 
— Soak good soft gelatine (2 oz. ) in water 
(20 oz.), and liquefy with gentle heat, 
standing the vessel in hot water. Thin 
down with warm water until scarcely 
thicker than water. Both print and glass 
must be immersed until quite warm, 
taken from solution with face of print 
in contact with glass, and at once squee- 
geed with firm use of flat rubber squeegee. 

Self-Toning Paper. — Papers of the 
"print out" silver type, which require 
fixing only to give toned print effects. In- 
structions vary a little ; except where 
otherwise stated, place prints in fixing 
bath without preliminary wash. In all 
cases wash very well at close of the fix 
toning. 

Aristo Collodion. — Warm tones, 2 
changes of water. 15 min. in : Hypo, 1 
oz. ; water, 8 oz. ; ammonia, a few drops ; 
then 10 min. 5% solution common salt. 
Cold tones : 5 min. in 2% solution com- 
mon salt ; wash slightly. 15 min. in : 
Hypo, 1 oz. ; water, 8 oz. Kodak (self- 
toning) Solio : 3 to 5 min. in ammonium 
sulphocyanide, 20 gr. ; water, 20 oz. ; 5 
min. in running water ; then 10 min. in 
15% hypo. Or, 5 min. in common salt 
5% solution, then 15% hypo. Kodak 
Collodion: Cold tones, 10 min. in 121/2% 
hypo. Warm Brown : Wash in 3 changes 
of water, then 10 min. in 12% hypo. 
Rich Purple : 3 min. in common salt, 60 
gr. ; water, 20 oz. ; then 10 min. in Viy<2.% 
hypo. 

Collodion Printing Out Paper. 

Emulsion for Glossy Paper. — (a) 4% 
celloidin collodion, 620 c.c. ; ether, 100 
c.c. ; alcohol (.796), 30 c.c. (b) Silver 
nitrate, 25 grams ; distilled water, 25 c.c. ; 
alcohol (.796), 120 c.c. (c) Calcium 
chloride crystals, 4 grams ; distilled water, 
4 c.c; alcohol, 5 c.c. (d) Citric acid, 5 
grams ; distilled water, 5 c.c. ; alcohol 
(.796), 30 c.c. (e) Castor oil solution 
(1 of oil in 2 of alcohol), 15 c.c; glyc- 
erine solution (glycerine, 1; alcohol, 2), 
15 c.c (b), (c), (d) and (e) are added 
to (a) in this order with copious shak- 
ing. Gives paper especially suitable for 
separate toning baths. 

Another. — (a) 4% celloidin collodion, 
670 c.c; absolute ether, 120 c.c (b) 
Silver nitrate, 24 grams ; distilled water, 
26 c.c; alcohol (.796), 100 cc (c) 
Lithium chloride crystals, 2 grams ; stron- 
tium chloride crystals, 2.5 grams; citric 



[693] 



Photography 



(Collodion Printing Out Paper) 

acid, 5 grams ; distilled water, 10 c.c. ; 
alcohol (.796), 50 c.c. (d) Castor oil 
solution (as above), 18 c.c; glycerine 
solution (1 to 2), 18 c.c. Add (b), (c) 
and (d) to (a) with copious shaking, in 
this order. Suitable for combined toning 
and fixing bath. 

Emulsion for Matt Paper. — (a) 4% 
celloidin collodion, 600 c.c. ; ether, 140 
c.c; methyl alcohol, 30 c.c. (b) Silver 
nitrate, 25 grams ; distilled water, 28 c.c ; 
ethyl alcohol (.796), 100 c.c (c) Cal- 
cium chloride crystals, 4 grams ; distilled 
water, 4 c.c ; ethyl alcohol (.796), 420 c.c 

(d) Citric acid, 5 grams; distilled wa- 
ter, 5 c.c; ethyl alcohol (.796), 50 c.c 

(e) Castor oil solution (as in 1), 12 c.c; 
glycerine solution (1 to 2), 12 c.c. Mix 
in order. For use with a raw matt 
paper, e.g. matt baryta paper. 

Acetate Sulphocyanide Gold. — ^ (a) 
Sodium acetate, 840 gr, ; distilled water, 
40 oz. (b) Ammonium sulphocyanide, 
360 gr. ; distilled water, 40 oz. ; gold 
chloride, 15 gr. ; distilled water, 3% oz. 
Make up 1 hour before required: (a), 
20 oz. ; (b), 5 oz. ; (c), li^ oz. Sodium 
tungstate in place of the acetate gives 
fine chestnut tones. 

Sulphocyanide Gold Toning. — ^Ammo- 
nium sulphocyanide, 7i/^ gr. ; gold chlo- 
ride, 1 gr. ; water, 10 oz. 

Borax Gold. — Gold chloride, 1% gr. ; 
borax, 40 gr. ; water, 20 oz. Use only 
when freshly made. 

Gold Platinum Toning (especially for 
matt paper). — (a) Gold chloride, 1 gr. ; 
sodium acetate, 30 gr. ; water, 40 oz. (b) 
Potass, chloroplatinite, 1 gr. ; phosphoric 
acid (acid phosph. dil. B. P.), 2% oz, ; 
water, 40 oz. lor olive black color, tone 
in (a) to red brown; for pure black, 
carry prints to purple in (a). In each 
case complete toning in (b). Wash prints 
between (a) and (b) in 3 changes of 
water. Use (a) once only, (b) can be 
used again and ftgain until action is too 
slow. 

Platinum. — Potassium chloroplatinite, 
4 gr. ; citric acid, 40 gr. ; water, 10 oz. 
Make at least half an hour before use. 
Keep and use until exhausted. 

Reducing Toning Bath (for over- 
printed prints). — Gold chloride, 1 gr. ; 
hydrochloric acid, 100 minims ; water, 20 
oz. Stains at first ; but in about 1 min. 
stains clear and toning begins. 

Glazing (Enamel Collodion Process). — - 
Soluble gun cotton, 50 gr. ; alcohol, 4 oz. ; 
sulphuric ether, 4 oz. Clean a glass plate 
with French chalk and coat with above 
collodion. As soon as set slide the plate 
face up into water in which the print to 



(Bromide Paper) 



be glazed is floating — face down. Lift 
the pair out in contact, squeegee, and set 
to dry. When half dry, paste a backing 
paper to the print. 

Glazing Without Collodion (Paget Proc- 
ess). — Do not dry the prints after wash- 
ing. Lay them face down on well-cleaned 
plate glass (not prepared in any way) ; 
roll the back firmly several times with a 
roller squeegee, and leave to dry ; or they 
may be dried by heat in a few minutes. 
When thoroughly dry, wet or well damp 
the back of the print in any way you 
please, and leave it for 5 min. Lift one 
corner of the print (if it is a large one, 
two adjacent corners are better) and pull 
steadily without stopping ; the print will 
come off easily, and when dried again 
will have a highly glazed surface ; not in- 
jured by wetting. 

Bromide Papers. 

Relative Exposures for Various Lights. 
— The following exposures are recom- 
mended for bromide paper, for average 
negatives, at a distance of 18 in. from 
the source of light : To ordinary 5 ft. 
flat-flame gas burner, 6 sec ; to duplex 
paraffine or oil lamp with clear glass 
chimney, 5 sec ; to incandescent gas 
burner in good order, 2 sec. ; to 16 can- 
dle incandescent electric, 3 sec. ; to small 
acetylene burner, 2 sec. If after a trial 
exposure the print appears overexposed 
for the paper used, decrease the time one 
half. If underexposed, double the time. 

Slow and Rapid. — Slow papers give 
plucky results from flat negatives ; rapid 
papers give soft results from hard nega- 
tives. Amidol, ortol, and metol hydro- 
quinone are the developers recommended 
for giving soft results from harsh orig- 
inals. 

Bromide Paper. — Gelatine, 42 gr. ; 
bromide of potassium, 26 gr. ; distilled 
water, 1 oz. Soak the gelatine in part 
of the water, and dissolve with heat on 
a water bath. When completely dis- 
solved, add : Silver nitrate, 32 gr. ; water, 
1 oz. ; to be added slowly, and with con- 
stant stirring. Digest at a temperature 
of 85° F. for an hour or more in the 
dark (this can be done conveniently by 
having the emulsion in a stoneware bot- 
tle). Pour out to set, then make into 
shreds by squeezing through the bottom 
of a coarse canvas or fine net bag. Put 
the shreds in a bag, and wash in 2 or 3 
changes of water. Squeeze out the water, 
and dry the shreds between sheets of can- 
vas, then remelt for . coating. Coat on 
baryta-faced paper. The whole of the 
operations after the silver is added to the 



[694] 



Photography 



(Bromide Paper) 



gelatine (including coating, drying, and 
storing of the finished paper) must be 
conducted in darkness or in a dark-room 
light. 

Emulsion for Sepia Bromide Paper. — > 
Gelatiae, 300 gr. ; potassium bromide, 150 
gr. ; potassium iodide, 30 gr. ; water, 6 
oz. ; nitric acid, 2 drops. Sensitize with 
silver nitrate, 200 gr. ; distilled water, 6 
oz. Digest, wash, coat, etc., as in para- 
graph alaove. 

Printing Out Silver Bromide Emulsion. 
— (a) Collodion (2% to 3%), 500 c.c. 
(b) Citric acid, 10 grams; alcohol, 40 
c.c; strontium bromide (40% solution), 
4 c.c; glycerine alcohol (1.1), 4 c.c. (c) 
Silver nitrate, 10 grams ; water, q. s. ; 
alcohol, 40 cc (d) Ether, 80 c.c Dis- 
solve the citric acid in the alcohol, add 
the bromide and glycerine, mix (a) and 
(b) together, then, in a deep yellow light, 
add (c). The silver nitrate should be 
dissolved by the aid of heat with as little 
water as possible, and then the alcohol 
added, and the mixture added in small 
quantities and with continuous shaking 
to the bromized collodion. Then add the 
ether. Allow to stand for a few minutes, 
filter and coat. A harder working emul- 
sion can be obtained by adding 0.8 gram 
of calcium bichromate to the above quan- 
tity. Excellent results are obtainable by 
adding 0.4 to 0.5 gram of calcium chlo- 
ride. The papers tone well in the usual 
baths, and print 3 times as fast as com- 
mercial printing out paper. There is not 
much loss in toning and fixing, except 
with the emulsion containing chromate. 

Bromide Paper (home-made, in emer- 
gency). — Float ordinary printing out 
paper for 3 min., face downward, on po- 
tassium bromide, 1 oz. ; water, 40 oz. 
Dry, then use as a very slow bromide. 
Both sensitizing and drying must be done 
in safe dark-room light. 

Acid Bath (to folloiv oxalate). — Acetic 
acid, 60 minims ; water, 32 oz. 

Adurol. — (a) Sodium sulphite, 200 gr. ; 
potassium carbonate, 150 gr. ; adurol, 25 
gr. ; water, 1 oz. (b) Potassium bro- 
mide, 10%. To use: (a), 1 oz. ; (b), 5 
drops ; water, 5 oz. 

Adurol Metol. — To give rather warmer 
blacks than adurol alone: (a) Metol, 10 
gr. ; sodium sulphite, 160 gr. ; adurol, 24 
gr. ; water to make 4 oz. (b) Potassium 
carbonate, 200 gr. ; water to make 4 oz. 
Commence with (a), 3 parts; (b), 1 
part; after a minute's use, add more (b) 
if development is not rapid enough. 

Amidol. — Amidol, 50 gr. ; sodium sul- 
phite, 650 gr. ; potassium bromide, 10 gr. ; 
water, 20 oz. Use within 3 days. 



(Bromide Paper) 



A^ol. — Azol, 30 minims ; water to 2 
oz. For soft effects : Azol, 50 to 60 
minims ; water to 2 oz. For more^ vig- 
orous prints, soak in water for a minute 
before placing in the developer. 

Edinol. — Edinol, 50 gr. ; acetone sul- 
phite, 250 gr. ; sodium carbonate, 175 gr. ; 
water, 10 oz. Or, Edinol, 50 gr. ; sodium 
sulphite, 500 gr. ; water, 10 oz. 

Hydroquinone Carbonate. — (a) Hydro- 
quinone, 60 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 135 gr. ; 
potassium bromide (10% solution), i/4 
oz. ; water to 20 oz. ; acidify with dilute 
sulphuric acid until it just reacts on lit- 
mus paper. (b) Sodium carbonate, 5 
oz. ; water, 30 oz. To use, take (a), 1 
oz. ; (b), 3 oz. 

Hydroquinone Eikonogen. — (a) Hydro- 
quinone, 40 gr. ; eikonogen, 120 gr. ; soda 
sulphite, 480 gr. ; citric acid, 20 gr. ; 
water, 20 oz. (b) Sodium carbonate 
crystals, 60 gr. ; caustic soda, 30 gr. ; 
potassium bromide, 5 gr. ; water, 20 oz. 
Use (a), 1 oz. ; (b), 1 oz, ; water, 2 oz. 

Iron Developer (Citrate). — Potassium 
oxalate, 2^2 oz ; potassium citrate, 2i/^ oz. ; 
water, 20 oz. ; ferrous sulphate, 1^ oz. ; 
water, 20 gr. For pure black tones. 

Iron Developer (Oxalate). — (a) Po- 
tassium oxalate, 1 lb. ; potassium bromide, 
5 gr. ; hot water, 48 oz. (b) Citric acid, 
240 gr. ; warm water, 32 oz, ; iron proto- 
sulphate, 1 lb. Take (a), 6 oz. ; and add 
(b), 1 oz. ; not vice versa. 

Iron Developer. — Various Tones by 
Development. — (a) Potassium oxalate, 1 
oz. ; water, 3 oz. (b) Ferrous sulphate, 25 
gr. ; water, 1 oz. ; citric acid, 2% gr. (c) 
Potassium chloride, 65 gr, ; water, 1 oz. 
(d) Potassium bromide, 48 gr. ; water, 1 
oz. For black tones: (a), 1 oz. ; (b), ^ 
oz. ; (c), 30 minims; (d), 1 minim. 
Find the exposure which gives a good 
warm black with this, then vary for 
other colors. Thus, Brown : Exposure 
twice normal, (a), 1 oz. ; (b), % oz. ; 
(c), ^ oz. ; (d), 2 or 3 minims. Pur- 
ple: Exposure 2 to 2i^ times. (a), 1 
oz.; (b), 1/4 oz. ; (c), 1/2 oz. ; (d), 10 
minims. Red : Exposure 3 to 4 times, 
(a), 1 oz. ; (b), i^ oz. ; (c), % oz. ; 
(d), 10 minims. Yellow: Exposure, 6 to 
8 times, (a), 1 oz. ; (b), V^ oz. ; (c), 
1 oz. ; (d), 15 minims. Print dry to a 
colder tone than shown when wet. 

Metol— (a) Metol, 120 gr. ; water, 24 
oz. Dissolve, and add soda sulphite, 2^2 
oz. ; potassium bromide, 15 gr. ; and shake 
till dissolved, (b) ■ Potassium carbonate, 
350 gr.r water, 8 oz. (a), 3 oz. ; (b), 
1 oz, 

Metol Hydroquinone. — Metol, 50 gr. : 
hydroquinone, 15 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 



[695] 



Photography 



(Bromide Paper) 



500 gr. ; potassium bromide, 10 gr. ; po- 
tassium carbonate, 100 gr. ; water, 20 oz. 
Dissolve metol first, and other salts in 
order named. Keeps well ; can be diluted 
for use. 

Ortol. — (a) Ortol, 1 oz. ; potassium 
metabisulphite, ^^ oz. ; water, 60 oz. (b) 
Sodium carbonate (crystals), 12 oz. ; 
sodium sulphite (crystals), 8 oz. ; water, 
60 oz. For use, 1 oz. (a) ; 1 oz. (b) ; 
8 oz. of water. 

Rodinal. — Rodinal, 25 minims ; 10% 
potass, bromide solution, 2 minims ; 
water, 3 oz. 

To Stop Metol Development. — Salt, 1 
oz. ; water, 10 oz. 

Fixing Bath. — Sodium hyposulphite, 4 
oz. ; water, 20 oz. 

Acid Hypo Fixing Bath. — Hypo, 4 oz. ; 
potassium metabisulphite, 200 gr. ; water, 
20 oz. 

Fix Bromide Prints for 10 min., using 
fresh fixing bath for each batch. 

A Jet Black Developer for Bromide 
Paper. — (a) Satrapol, 1 oz. ; hot water, 
64 oz. ; sodium sulphite (desiccated), 5 
oz. (b) Hydroquinone, 2 oz. ; warm 
water, 64 oz. ; sodium sulphite (desic- 
cated), 5 oz. (c) Potassium carbonate, 
16 oz. ; water, 64 oz. To develop, take 
21/2 oz. of (a) ; 21/2 oz. of (b) ; 3y2 oz. 
of (c) ; 15 drops of a 10% solution of 
bromide of potassium, and 20 oz. of water. 
Hardener. — Common water, 40 oz. ; sul- 
phite of soda (desiccated), 6 oz. ; pow- 
dered alum, 16 oz. ; acetic acid, 40 oz. 
Mix in the order given : Hyposulphite of 
soda to test 80 on the argentometer. To 
every gallon of hypo add 16 oz. by meas- 
ure, of hardener. This solution will an- 
swer for both bromide and chloride de- 
veloping papers. 

Local Development. — Commence with 
3 solutions: (a) Normal weak developer; 
(b) 10% bromide of potassium; (c) 
glycerine, in separate vessels. Flow the 
developer over the paper until the image 
begins to appear, then lay the print on 
a sheet of glass, rinse in water, and paint 
over the parts you wish to restrain with 
bromide solution, then paint or flow de- 
veloper over the whole. The glycerine 
may be used for restraining over wider 
areas : the bromide for small spaces. 

For Blue Black. — Normal exposure, 
and amidol. 

For Black, Purple, Brown or Red 
Tones. — Ammonium oxalate (10% solu- 
tion), 170 minims; copper sulphate 
(10%' solution), 24 minims; potas- 
sium ferricyanide (10% solution), 18 
minims) ; oxalic acid (saturated solu- 
tion), 6 minims; water, 1 oz. Leave 



(Bromide Paper) 



until desired tone is reached ; wash, fix 
in acid hypo. Remove pink stain (if 
any) with 1% ammonia. 

For Artist's Broicn. — 3 to 6 times nor- 
mal exposure; develop with first edinol 
formula. For pure brown, normal ex- 
posure and second edinol formula. In- 
crease of exposure and increase of sul- 
phite (to as much as 100 gr. per oz.) in- 
crease warmth of tone. 

For Various Colors. — (a) Sodium sul- 
phite, 120 parts ; water, 300 parts ; po- 
tassium carbonate, 90 parts ; adurol, 15 
parts, (b) Bromide of potassium, 10% 
solution. (c) Bromide of ammonium, 
10% solution. (d) Carbonate of am- 
monium, 10% solution. For Black : Nor- 
mal exposure, 2 oz. of (a), 10 drops of 
(b) and 9 oz. of water; time of devel- 
opment, 1 to 2 min. For Sepia : Ex- 
posure, 1^ to 3 times normal ; 2 oz. of 
(a), 15 to 50 minims of (b) and 15 to 
30 oz. of water. The warmth of the 
sepia depends on the amount of water 
and potassium bromide ; development, 2 
to 3 min. For Brown and Purplish 
Brown : Over-expose 3 to 6 times ; 2 oz. 
of ( a ) , 45 minims of ( b ) , 45 to 90 minims 
of (c), 45 to 90 minims of (d), 20 to 30 
oz. of water. Development, 5 to 10 min. 
For Brownish Red : Over-expose 6 times 
and develop in 2 oz. of (a), 45 minims of 
(b), 45 to 135 minims of (c), 21/2 dr. of 
(d), 60 oz. of water. Development, 12 
min. For Reddish : Over-expose 50 times 
and develop in 2 oz. of (a), 45 minims of 
(b), 3 dr. of (c), 3 dr. of (d), 100 oz. 
of water. Development, 15 to 30 min. 

Rusty Green Prints from injudicious 
exposure or development are improved by 
toning in gold chloride, 1 gr. ; acetate of 
soda, 20 gr. ; water, 5 oz. 

Strong Prints for Flat Negatives. — Ex- 
pose fully and over-develop. Fix and 
wash. Place in bath made by adding 1 
dr. of the following solution to 1 oz. of 
water : Potass, iodide, 40 gr. ; iodine, 4 
gr. ; water, 1 oz. Remove prints when 
the whites become blue, and fix for 5 
min. 

Developers and Toning. — For hypo- 
alum toning, prints are best developed 
with amidol ; synthol, rodinal and edinol 
are good; metol hydroquinone very un- 
satisfactory. For uranium, edinol, hy- 
droquinone and ferrous oxalate are good ; 
synthol, fair; metol hydroquinone, un- 
satisfactory ; amidol gives stained lights. 
For copper, amidol is best ; edinol, rod- 
inal and pyro soda fairly good ; hydro- 
quinone, alone o^r with metol, unsatis- 
factory. C. Winthrope Somerville finds 
the best prints for toning are those de- 



[696] 



Photography 



(Bromide Paper) 



veloped to a blue black with: Metol, 100 
gr. ; hydroquinone, 50 gr. ; sodium sul- 
phite, 3 oz. ; potass, carbonate, 1^^ oz. ; 
water, 80 oz. ; with 10% of potass, bro- 
mide solution added as required. 

Toning with Platinum. — Potass, chloro- 
platinite, 12 gr. ; mercuric chloride, 6 gr. ; 
citric acid, 54 gr. ; water, 6 oz. (made 
fresh for use from stock solutions). 
Tones 24 half-plate prints, 3 at a time. 
Warm sepia tone with slight staining of 
the ground. For colder sepia and absence 
of stain, add from 5 to 25 minims of 
10% potass, bromide solution. Apply 
with soft camel's-hair brush, placing print 
in a porcelain dish inclined at about 60°, 
so that the solution collects at the bot- 
tom. Go over print with brush, placing 
dish the other way up every 5 min. or 
so. After toning, wash for 10 min. Re- 
sults, permanent. 

Sepia Tones hy Redevelopment. — De- 
velop, fir, wash. Then bleach in : Ferri- 
cyanide of potassium, 100 gr. ; bromide 
of potassium, 100 gr. ; water, 10 oz., until 
the shadows are nearly bleached away. 
Rinse, and darken in sulphide (not sul- 
phite) of soda, 50 gr. ; water, 10 oz. 
The print immediately changes to a rich 
sepia and then only requires ' a short 
washing. If blisters occur the sulphide 
bath must be weakened, 

Intensifier. — Bleach in mercuric chlo- 
ride (saturated solution), wash thorough- 
ly, and develop in old ferrous oxalate or 
metol. Or, Bleach in : Copper sulphate, 
200 gr. ; potass, bromide, 200 gr. ; water, 
20 oz. Wash for 5 min. ; redevelop in : 
(a) For prints weak from under-devel- 
opment, 10% silver nitrate solution, 50 
minims; water, 3 oz, (b) For prints 
weak from over-exposure, Rodinal, 50 
minims ; water, 3 oz. 

Hypo Alum or "Boiling" Process. -— « 
Rich browns and sepias; believed to be 
permanent. Hypo, 10 oz. ; alum (ground) , 
2 oz. ; granulated sugar, 2 oz. ; water, 70 
oz. Dissolve hypo ; add alum slowly. Do 
not filter, but ripen (a) by standing for 
24 hours, (b) by heating to 130° F. a 
couple of times and allowing to cool, or 
(c) by putting in some waste bromide 
paper. Fix and wash prints ; place in 
above bath, cold, for a minute or two, 
then transfer to above bath, hot. 130 to 
140° F. is right for most papers ; but 
keep the solution on a water bath and as 
hot as experience has shown that the par- 
ticular paper will stand. After toning, 
place in alum, 2 oz. ; water, 70 oz., for 
a minute or so. Wash well. 

Brown to Red. — (a) Uranium nitrate, 
45 gr. ; water, 10 oz. (b) Potassium 



(Bromide Paper) 



ferricyanide, 40 gr. ; water, 10 oz. Take 
equal volumes of (a) and (b), and add 
20 minims of glacial acetic acid to each 
oz, of mixture. Prints must be free from 
hypo. After toning, wash in several 
changes of still water, till the high lights 
are white. Blot off and di*y. Yelloic stain 
in the whites is removed by ammonium 
sulphocyanide solution (2 gr. per oz.). 

To Stop Uranium Toning. — Immerse 
in large basin of still water. 

Blue and Bluish Green. — Make 10% 
solution of (a) uranium nitrate; (b) 
ferric ammonium citrate; (c) potassium 
ferricyanide; and (d) nitric acid. Take 
(a), 1 vol.; (b), 1 vol.; (d), 2 vols.; 
water to 40 vols. Wash afterwards until 
the lights are clear. 

Blue or Purple. — (a) Ferric ammonium 
sulphate, 10 gr. ; hydrochloric acid, 1 c.c. ; 
water, 100 c.c. (b) Potassium ferricy- 
anide, 2 grams ; water, 250 c.c. To use : 
(a), 10 c.c; (b), 20 c.c; hydrochloric 
acid, 2 c.c. water, 200 c.c. For purple 
tones, after toning in above, rinse, and 
wash in a water to which a few drops 
of ammonium hydroxide have been added. 

Blue. — 10% solution ferric ammonium 
citrate, % oz. ; 10% solution potassium 
ferricyanide, % oz. ; 10% solution acetic 
acid, 5 oz. Immerse print until dark 
greenish blue. Wash until the lights are 
clear of yellow stain. About doubles the 
density of print. Rather weak prints 
should be made, developed, fixed, washed 
and dried in the usual way. More bril- 
liant blue is secured by fixing in a hypo 
bath after the above treatment. 

Green. — Tone for few seconds only in 
the above "blue" formula. Rinse, and 
transfer to chromic acid solution (45 gr. 
per oz.). Remove yellow chromate stain 
in alum solution, and wash thoroughly. 
Or, tone (about 2 minutes) in ferric chlo- 
ride, 2 gr. ; oxalic acid < saturated solu- 
tion), 120 minims; vanadium chloride, 4 
gr. ; nitric acid, 10 minims ; water to 
make 1 oz. ; to which add slowly, with 
shaking, potassium ferricyanide, 1 to 8 gr. ; 
water, 1 oz. Wash until whites are free 
from blue color, fix in acid hypo until all 
blue color is discharged ; then wash until 
green returns completely. 

Green. — Potassium ferricyanide, 6 
grams ; lead nitrate, 4 grams ; water to 
100 c.c Soak in this until the image 
has been acted upon thoroughly, wash 
thoroughly, and immerse in : Cobalt chlo- 
ride, 10 grams ; hydrochloric acid, 30 c.c ; 
water to 100 c.c 

Acid-Hypo Bath for Fixing and Ton- 
ing. — Hypo, 1 oz. ; boracic acid, 50 gr. ; 
water, 10 oz. 



[697] 



Photography 



(Gaslight Papers) 



Red (tonahle to hlue). — Wash welL 
Bleach in potass, bichromate, 10 gr. ; hy- 
drochloric acid, 2 drops ; water, 1 oz. 
Again wash well, and flood with 
Schlippe's salt, 15 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 
After washing, print can be toned in sul- 
phocyanide and gold bath. 

Warm Purple and Brown. — Develop, 
fix, and wash well, then tone in (a) 
strong gold and sulphocyanide bath, with 
2 gr. of gold to the oz. ; or (b) bleach in 
bichromate of potash, 4 parts ; hydrochlo- 
ric acid, 2 parts ; water to 100 parts. 
Wash well, dry, expose to daylight for 
a few minutes, then redevelop with hy- 
droquinone, 10 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 100 
gr. ; acetone, 50 to 75 minims ; water, 2 
oz., for purple tones. With 6 to 8 oz. of 
water the tones will be brown to red. 

Schlippe's Salt and Sulphide. — Bleach 
in potassium bichromate, 90 gr. ; sulphu- 
ric acid, 200 minims ; common salt, 1 oz. ; 
water, 10 oz. Tone in sodium sulphide 
solution, 3 dr. ; Schlippe's salt solution, 1 
dr. ; water, 5 oz. Vary by increasing one 
solution and decreasing the other. To sul- 
phide, 1 dr. ; Schlippe, 3 dr., to vary the 
tone. 

Thiomolyhdate Toning. — Bleach in po- 
tassium bichromate, 90 gr, ; sulphuric 
acid, 200 minims ; common salt, 1 oz. ; 
water, 10 oz. Tone in ammonium thiomo- 
lyhdate (1% solution), 60 minims; water, 
1 oz. ; ammonia (.880), 5 minims. Rinse. 
Place in 5% bath of ammonia for 5 min- 
utes. 

For Red Chalk Tones. — After sulphid- 
ing (as above), tone in ammonium sul- 
phocyanide, 100 gr. ; gold chloride, 10 gr. ; 
water, 10 fl.oz. 

For Various Sepia Tones. — Potassium 
ferricyanide, 10 gr. ; water, 10 oz. ; and 
(a) common salt, 20 gr. ; or (b) potas- 
sium iodide, 10 gr. ; or (c) potassium bro- 
mide, 10 gr. ; or (d) strong liquor ammo- 
nia (.880), 20 minims. Bleach the print 
in (a) for coldest, (b) for medium, or 
(c) for warm sepia. Wash well for 3 to 
5 minutes, then place in ammonium sul- 
phide, 1 oz. ; water, 100 oz. ; for 2 min- 
utes. 

"Gaslight" Papers. 

Adiirol Developer. — Adurol, 20 gr. ; 
soda sulphite, 200 gr. ; soda carbonate, 
200 gr. ; potassium bromide, 5 gr. ; water 
to 10 oz. Cold tones with 1 in. magne- 
sium ribbon burnt at 1 ft. from average 
negative. Develops in about 1 minute. 
Or, with 25 gr. of bromide, gives warm 
tones with 6 in. of magnesium at 1 ft. 
Develops in about 4 minutes. 

Amidol. — Sodium sulphite, 1 oz. ; ami- 



( Gaslight Papers) 



dol, 50 gr. ; potassium bromide (10% so- 
lution), 10 minims; water to make 20 
fl.oz. Warm the water, dissolve in order 
given, and use when cold. 

Azol, 40 minims ; potassium bromide 
(10% solution), 2 minims; water to 1 
oz. For strong, rich blacks. For soft 
gray effects double the amount of water, 
and remove the print to fixing bath soon 
after appearance of image. 

Edinol. — Soda sulphite, l^-z oz. ; water, 
20 oz. ; edinol, 90 gr. ; acetone, 2 oz. ; 
10% solution of potassium bromide, 20 
to 30 drops. Gives vigorous pure black 
print from a flat negative. 

Hydroquinone, 20 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 
100 gr. ; sodium carbonate crystals, 200 
gr. ; potassium bromide solution, 20 to 80 
drops ; water, 10 oz. 

Kachin {Warm Tones). — Kachin, 40 
gr. ; soda sulphite, 250 gr. ; soda carbonate 
crystals, 350 gr. ; potassium bromide, 2 
gr. ; water to 10 oz. For warmer tones : 
Solution as above, 1 oz. ; water, i/^ oz. ; 
10% potassium bromide solution, 20 
drops. 

Metol, 25 gr, ; soda sulphite, 250 gr. ; 
sodium carbonate crystals, 250 gr.j 10% 
potassium bromide solution, 20 to 120 
drops ; water, 10 oz. 

*Metol-Hydroquinone. — -Metol, 25 gr. ; 
hydroquinone, 4.5 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 1 
oz. ; sodium carbonate, 500 gr. ; potassium 
bromide, 6 gr. ; water, 20 oz. Or, water 
(boiled or distilled), 20 oz, ; metol, 15 
gr. ; sodium sulphite (cryst. ), 9 dr.; hy- 
droquinone, 60 gr. ; sodium carbonate, 18 
dr. ; potassium bromide, 3 gr. For soft 
results, increase exposure and double the 
quantity of water. For more contrast, 
add a few drops of 10% potassium bro- 
mide to each ounce. 

M. Q. Developer. — Water, 10 oz. ; me- 
tol, 7 gr. ; soda sulphite, % oz. ; hydro- 
quinone, 30 gr. ; soda carbonate cryst., 
400 gr. ; 10% potassium bromide solu- 
tion, 10 drops. 

Rodinal. — Stock solution, 1 fl.oz. ; wa- 
ter, 20 oz. ; potassium bromide (10% so- 
lution), 25 minims. 

Synthol. — Water, 10 oz. ; soda sulphite, 
150 gr. ; synthol, 25 gr. ; potassium bro- 
mide (10% solution), 20 drops. 

For Red and Sepia Tones. — (a) Wa- 
ter, 20 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 5 minims ; iron 
protosulphate, 2^4 oz. Should be pale 
apple-green color, (b) Soda citrate, 5 
oz, ; citric acid, 4 oz, ; water, 20 oz. (a), 
1 oz. ; ( b ) , 2 oz. Exposure on Velox, 
about 3 or 4 in. magnesium. 

Brown Tones. — (a) Pyro, 30 gr. ; po- 



^Satropol can be substituted for metal. 



[698] 



Photography 



( Ferro-Prussiate Papers) 



tassium metabisulphite, 30 gr. ; ammo- 
nium bromide, 30 gr. ; water, 10 oz. (b) 
Ammonia (.880), 75 minims; water, 10 
oz. (a), i/2 oz. ; (b), % oz. ; water, 1 
oz. ; adding more of (a) and (b) as time 
goes on. Develops slowly, so shield print 
from light. 

Warm Tones (Hydroquinone). — Pure 
warm water, 1 oz. ; sodium sulphite, 55 
gr. ; hydroquinone, 7 gr. ; potassium bro- 
mide, 4y2 gr. ; sodium carbonate, 120 go. 
Dissolve in the order given. For differ- 
ent colors give the normal exposure (1), 
or multiples of the normal, as given in 
the first figure, and dilute with the num- 
ber of Volumes of water given as the sec- 
ond figure after each color : Greenish 
black, 1, 5; olive, 2, 5; sepia, 3, 10; 
brown, 4, 10; red-brown, 6, 20; yeliow- 
brown, 8, 20 ; red, 5, 30 ; orange, 10, 30 ; 
yellow, 20, 40. 

Warm Tones, Rodinal-Carhonate. — Am- 
monium carbonate, ^^ oz. ; ammonium 
bromide, i/^ oz. ; water, 10 fl.oz. For 
warm sepia, give 6 times normal expos- 
ure, and take rodinal, 1 dr. ; carbonate so- 
lution, 11^ dr. ; water, 5 oz. For red, 
10 times normal ; rodinal, 1 dr. ; carbo- 
nate solution, 1^4 dr. ; water, 12 to 15 
fl.oz. 

Pyro-Acetone. — Pyro, 90 gr. ; acetone 
sulphite, 1 oz. ; sodium carbonate, 2 oz. ; 
potassium bromide (10% solution), 10 to 
20 minims ; water, 10 fl.oz. 

Amount of Bromide is varied according 
to the class of negative from which the 
print is made. To increase contrast in 
prints, use more bromide. For soft prints 
from hard negatives, less bromide. 

Warm Tones. — General rule: For 
warm tones, increase the exposure and in- 
crease the amount of potassium bromide. 

Acid Fixing Bath. — Hypo, 16 oz. ; wa- 
ter, 64 oz. ; to which add solution of soda 
sulphite, 1 oz. ; glacial acetic acid, l^/^ 
oz. ; alum, 1 oz., in 14% oz. of water. Or, 
Hypo, 8 oz. ; water to 30 oz., and add 
solution of soda sulphite, 2 oz. ; alum, 14 
oz., and sulphuric acid, 14 oz-, in 10 oz". 
of water. 

Ferro-Prussiate or Blue Print and Helio- 
graphic Processes, Etc. 

Ferro-Prussiate with Brotvn Citrate. — • 
(a) Ferric ammonium citrate (brown), 
80 gr. ; water, 1 oz. (b) Potassium ferri- 
cyanide, 60 gr. ; water, 1 oz. Mix ; keep 
in dark ; filter before use. 

Ferro-Prussiate ivith Oreen Citrate. — • 
(a) Ferric ammonium citrate (green), 
110 gr. ; water, 1 oz. (b) Potassium 
ferricyanide, 40 gr. ; water, 1 oz. Mix, 
and use as above. 



(Ferro-Prussiate Papers) 



[699] 



Potassium Ferricyanide (not ferrocya- 
nide) should be in clear, ruby-red crys- 
tals ; if otherwise, rinse with water (dry- 
ing between blotting paper) before weigh- 
ing. 

Better Keeping Properties of papers as 
prepared above are produced by adding 
V2 gr. per oz. of potassium bichromate to 
the mixed solution. 

Ferro-Prussiate Rapid Sensitizer. — Fer- 
ric ammonium citrate (green), 110 gr. ; 
uranic nitrate, 35 gr. ; water, 1 oz. Print 
to faint image, develop on 5% ferricya- 
nide solution. 

To Make Blue Prints Green. — 1. — 
Make 4 solutions, as follows : (a) water, 
8 oz., and a crystal of nitrate of silver 
as big as a pea. (b) Hydrochloric acid, 
1 oz., and water, 8 oz. (c) Pour a solu- 
tion of iodide of potassium (iodide of po- 
tassium, 1 oz., and water, 8 oz.) into a 
saturated solution of bichloride of mer- 
cury until the red precipitate is just dis- 
solved, and then add 4 times as much 
water as the resulting colution. (d) Wa- 
ter, 16 oz., and iodide of potassium, 1 dr. 
Then take the blue print and bleach it 
with (a), when the image will become 
pale slate color, or sometimes a pale yel- 
low. Then wash thoroughly, and im- 
merse the print in (b), when the image 
will again become blue. Then, without 
washing, immerse the print in (c), when 
the image will become green, but the 
"whites" will be of a yellow tint. Then 
put the print in (b) again, without wash- 
ing. Then wash, and pour (d) over the 
print to purify the whites and to give 
the green image a bluer tint ; but do not 
leave print in this solution too long, as 
it has a tendency to make the print blue 
again. 

2. — Toning to Greenish Black. — Borax, 
30 gr. ; water, 1 oz. Add sulphuric acid, 
drop by drop, till the liquor just reddens 
litmus paper; then 10% ammonia solu- 
tion till the red color just commences to 
change. Now add 4 gr. of powdered 
catechu. Shake well, and filter. 

Brown to Black Tones. — 1. — Bleach 
dry print in ammonia solution, 6 minims 
per oz. ; rinse, and place in tannic-acid 
solution, 9 gr. per oz. 

2. — The following is said to be a prac- 
tical manner of turning blue prints to a 
rich brown color : A piece of caustic soda 
about the size of a bean is dissolved in 5 
oz. of water, and the blue print immersed 
in it, on which it will take on an orange- 
yellow color. When the blue has entirely 
left the print it should be washed thor- 
oughly and immersed in a bath composed 
of 8 oz. of water in which has been dis- 



PJwtography 



(Blue Process) 



solved a heaping teaspoonful of tannic 
acid. The prints, in this bath, will as- 
sume a brown color that may be carried 
to almost any tone, after which they must 
again be thoroughly washed, and allowed 
to dry. 

3. — Borax, 2^ oz. ; hot water, 38 oz. 
When cool, add sulphuric acid, in small 
quantities, until the blue litmus paper 
turns slightly red, then add a few drops 
of ammonia until the alkaline reaction 
appears and the red litmus paper turns 
blue. Then add to the solution 154 gr. 
of red crude gum catechu. Allow it to 
dissolve, with occasional stirring. The 
solution will keep indefinitely. After the 
print has been washed out in the usual 
way, immei'se it in the above bath a min- 
ute or so longer than it appears when the 
desired tone is reached. An olive brown 
or a blackish brown is the result. 

Black Tones. — Lagrange's process : 
Bleach in silver nitrate, 9 gr. ; water, 1 
oz. Wash well, fume with ammonia, ex- 
pose to light, and develop with ferrous 
oxalate. 

Lilao Tones, which, however, alter by 
light and damp, are produced by soaking 
the finished print in a 35% solution of 
ammonium sulphocyanide containing a lit- 
tle lead acetate. 

Brightening the Color. — Use alum solu- 
tion (2%%) or oxalic acid (3% solu- 
tion ) , 

Intensification is not satisfactory. A 
solution of ferric chloride (2 gr. per oz.) 
may be tried. 

Reduction can be done by longer wash- 
ing in water, or by treating in a weak 
solution of caustic potash until the lines 
become clear ; then placing in a weak 
hydrochloric acid, afterward well wash- 
ing. 

A Blue Process. — M. Makahara, at the 
convention of the Japanese photographers, 
held in Tokio, exhibited some blue prints 
of rare beauty. The process by which 
they were obtained was given as follows : 
A strongly sized paper is necessary. Dis- 
solve 15 grams of gum arable in 110 c.c. 
of hot water ; while hot, add tartaric acid, 
2 grams ; chloride of sodium, 9 grams ; 
sulphate of iron, 10 grams ; perchloride 
of iron, 15 grams. The mixture is ap- 
plied with a sponge to the paper, the 
sponge then squeezed out, and the excess 
of liquid removed ; in fact, as much as 
possible is removed. Printing is a little 
longer than for albumen paper ; the yel- 
low of the sensitive paper turns white in 
printing. The prints are developed rap- 
idly with gallic acid, then washed and 
sponged, 



(Sepia Process) 



Titles on blue prints can be written 
with potassium oxalate solution (75 gr. 
per oz.), thickened with gum. 

Fogged Blue Prints are due to old pa- 
per, insufficient sizing, or too much ferri- 
cyanide in the sensitizer. 

Good Brown Prints Without Toning. — 
Size with arrowroot, 90 gr. ; cold water, 
5 oz., rubbed into a cream ; and add glu- 
cose, 20 gr. ; hot water, 5 oz. Mix well, 
and boil for 2 minutes. When cool, soak 
the paper until saturated, and hang up 
to dry. Sensitizer: Nelson's gelatine, 6 
gr. ; water, 1 oz. Swell in cold water, 
melt on water bath, and add, in the fol- 
lowing order : Tartaric acid, 8 gr. ; silver 
nitrate, 9 gr. ; ammonio-citrate of iron, 
40 gr. A subdued light should be used, 
and the mixture filtered. Printed in bright 
light until slightly darker than ordinary 
printing out paper. Wash for 5 minutes, 
and immerse in a 2l^% solution of hypo 
until the desired color is obtained. Wash 
and dry. 

Kallitype. — Sensitizer: Ferric oxalate, 
75 gr. ; hot water, 1 oz. ; oxalic acid, 5 
to 10 gr. Dissolve, filter, cool, and add 
silver nitrate, 30 gr. Keeps in the dark. 
Or, Standard iron solution (see Plati- 
num Printing), 400 minims; silver ni- 
trate, 30 gr. ; water to 1 oz. Developers : 
For black tones, borax, 44 gr. ; Rochelle 
salt, 35 gr. ; water, 1 oz. ; potassium bi- 
chromate (5 gr. per oz.) solution, 45 to 
60 minims ; 10 oz. for 5 or 6 doz. plates. 
For purple, borax, 12 gr. ; Rochelle salt, 
45 gr. ; water, 1 oz. ; potassium bichro- 
mate (5 gr. per oz.) solution, 45 to 60 
minims. For sepia, Rochelle salt, 22 gr. ; 
water, 1 oz. ; potassium bichromate solu- 
tion, 25 to 30 minims. Fixer : Ammo- 
nia (.880), 60 minims ; water, 10 oz. Re- 
ducer : Hydrobromic acid, 35 minims ; 
water, 1 oz. Clears up high lights of 
overdone prints. When reduced enough, 
rinse, place in hypo 5 minutes, and wash. 

Sepia Paper (lohite lines on hrown 
ground from drawing). — (a) Green ferric 
ammonium citrate, 110 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 

(b) Tartaric acid, 20 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 

(c) Silver nitrate, 45 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 

(d) Swell gelatine, 30 gr., in 1 oz. of 
water, and make fluid by heat. Place 
(d) fluid in cup, add (a) and (b), and 
then (c), drop by drop. Apply warm 
mixture with camel's-hair brush. Wash 
prints, and fix in hypo (10 gr. per oz.) 
for minute or two only. Wash in plain 
water. 

One-Solution Sepia Sensiti::er. — Silver 
nitrate, 55 gr., in water, 4 to 5 dr. Add 
ammonia, drop by drop, to just redissolve 



[700] 



Photography 



(Black Prints) 



white precipitate ; then add dilute sul- 
phuric acid until odor of ammonia almost 
entirely disappears. Now add 40 gr. of 
green ferric ammonium citrate in 6 dr. 
of \vater. Keep in the dark, in stoppered 
bottle. Fix prints in hypo, 100 gr. ; soda 
sulphite, 50 gr. ; water, 7 oz. 

Pellet Process {blue lines on white 
ground from drawing). — (a) Gum ara- 
ble, 90 gr. ; water, 1 oz, ( b ) Ferric am- 
monium citrate (brown), 220 gr. ; water, 
1 oz. (c) Ferric chloride (cryst.), 220 
gr. ; water, 1 oz. (a) keeps a few days; 
(b) and (c) for weeks. Sensitizer: Add 
8 parts of (b) and 5 parts of (c), in 
this order, to 10 parts of (a), little by 
little, with shaking. Use after a few 
hours. Keeps for a day or two. De- 
veloper : Potassium ferrocyanide, 1 oz. ; 
warm water, 10 oz. Use not colder than 
60° F. Acid bath, sulphuric acid (sp. 
gr., 1.98), 1^2 oz. ; water, 40 oz. ; or hy- 
drochloric acid, 4 oz. ; water, 40 oz. 

Ferrogallic Process Cblack lines on 
white ground from drawing). — Gum ara- 
ble, 1 oz. ; ferric chloride, % oz. ; tar- 
taric acid, % oz. ; basic ferric sulphate 
(Monsell's salt), % oz. ; water, 15 oz. 
Mix in this order. Developer : Gallic 
acid, 2 oz. ; alum, 2 oz. ; water, 160 oz. 

Aniline Process. — Sensitize hard paper 
on potassium bichromate, 1 oz. ; phos- 
phoric acid solution (1.24), 10 oz. ; water, 
10 oz. Expose about 3 minutes under 
tracing, in summer light. Develop by 
vapor in a box, on floor of which is 
dropped (on blotting paper) aniline, 1 
part ; benzine, 10 parts. 

Process for Red Pictures. — Float the 
papers for 4 minutes in the preceding 
bath of nitrate of uranium, drain, and 
dry. Next expose beneath a negative for 
8 or 10 minutes, then wash, and immerse 
in a bath of ferricyanide of potash, 30 
gr. ; water, 3 oz. In a few minutes the 
picture will appear, of a red color, which 
is fixed by washing thoroughly in water. 

Process for Green Pictures. — 'Immerse 
the red picture, before it is dry, in a so- 
lution of sesquichloride of iron, 30 gr. ; 
distilled water, 3 oz. The tone will soon 
change to green ; fix in water, wash, and 
dry before the fire. 

Process for Violet Pictures. — Float the 
paper for 3 or 4 minutes on a bath of 
water, 2 oz. ; nitrate of uranium, 2 dr. ; 
chloride of gold, 2 gr. Afterward take 
them out, and dry. An exposure of 10 or 
15 minutes will cause the necessary re- 
duction ; the picture has a beautiful vio- 
let color, consisting of metallic gold. 
Wash and dry. 

Black Prints. — A black process is given 



(Black Prints) 



in the Photocopie of A. Fisch, The proc- 
ess is technically known as heliography, 
is simple and inexpensive, while the prints 
are ink black, and are made from draw- 
ings, or positives and negatives. We owe 
this process to Poitevin, but it has been 
slightly improved. 

Sensitizing Solution, — Dissolve sep- 
arately: (1) Gum arable, 13 dr, ; water, 
17 oz, (2) Tartaric acid, 13 dr, ; water, 
6 oz, 6 dr. (3) Persulphite of iron, 8 
dr. ; water, 6 oz. 6 dr. The third solution 
is poured into the second, well agitated, 
and then these two solutions, united, are 
added to the first, continually stirring. 
When the mixture is complete, add slowly, 
still stirring, 100 c.c. (3 fl.oz. 3 dr.) of 
liquid acid perchloride of iron at 45° B. 
Filter into a bottle, and keep away from 
the light. It keeps well for a very long 
time. Select a paper that is very strong, 
well sized, and as little porous as pos- 
sible. By means of a large brush or 
sponge apply the sensitizing liquid very 
equally in very thin and smooth coats ; 
then dry as rapidly as possible with heat, 
without exceeding, however, a tempera- 
ture of 55° C. (131° F.), The paper 
should dry in a dark place, and be kept 
away from light and dampness. Notwith- 
standing all these precautions, it does not 
keep very long. It should be of a yel- 
low color. 

Printing. — The tracing, made with very 
black ink, is placed in the printing frame, 
the drawing in direct contact with the 
glass ; then place over it the sensitized 
paper, the prepared side in contact with 
the back of the tracing. The progress 
of insulation is sufiiciently seen on the 
sensitized paper during the exposure. 
From yellow that it was it should be- 
come perfectly white in the clear por- 
tions ; that is to say, upon which there is 
no drawing of the transfer or positive 
cliche that is to be copied ; this is ascer- 
tained by raising from time to time the 
shutter of the frame. The exposure lasts 
10 to 12 minutes in the sun ; in summer 
less, in winter more. When the exposure 
is ended remove the print from the frame, 
and it should show a yellow drawing upon 
a white ground. If in the sensitizing 
bath a few cubic centimeters of a rather 
highly concentrated solution of sulpho- 
cyanide of potassium have been added, the 
bath becomes blood red, and colors paper 
the same. In this case the print also 
whitens during exposure, but then the 
image, instead of being yellow, is red 
on a white ground. This substance, how- 
ever, is, if we may so speak, inert, or 
without any other action ; it is very fugi- 



[701] 



Photography 



(Platinum Printing) 



tive, and even disappears in a short time ; 
it has no other use, therefore, than to 
render the drawing or the image more 
visible after exposure. 

Developing the Prints. — When the print 
has been sufficiently exposed it is taken 
from the pressure frame and floated for 
a minute in the following solution, so 
that the side upon which is the image 
should alone be in contact with the sur- 
face of the liquid, avoiding air bubbles 
between the two surfaces. The develop- 
ing bath is composed as follows : Gallic 
acid (or tannin), 31 to 46 gr. ; oxalic 
acid, 1% gr. ; water, 34 oz. In this bath 
the orange-yellow or red lines are changed 
into gallate or tannate of iron, and form, 
consequently, a veritable black writing 
ink, as permanent as it. The print is 
then plunged into ordinary water, well 
rinsed, dried, and the print is now fin- 
ished. The violet-black lines become dark- 
er in drying, but, unfortunately, the 
ground which appears of a pure white 
often acquires, in drying, a light violet 
tint. For prints with half tones this is 
of no importance ; but for the reproduc- 
tion of plans, for example, it is very ob- 
jectionable. 

Platinum and Kindred Processes. 

Platinum Paper, From the Iron Salt 
to the Finished Print, By A. J. Jarman. — ■ 
The many failures that have been ex- 
perienced in attempting to make platinum 
paper have been caused by the iron salt 
or salts being imperfect. The only way 
to insure success is to prepare the iron 
salt (ferric oxalate) oneself, taking con- 
siderable care in every stage of the proc- 
ess, both in the manipulation and in 
operating under a non-actinic light in 
the formation of this highly sensitive salt. 

Preparing the Hydrated Peroxide of 
Iron. — 1 lb. (16 oz.) of perchloride of 
iron is dissolved in 1% gal. of boiling 
water, stirring vigorously with a glass 
rod, or a stout strip of hard rubber (a 
2-gal. stoneware crock is best suited for 
the purpose). As soon as the perchloride 
has completely dissolved, add gradually, 
14 oz. of strong aqua ammonia, a little 
at a time, stirring well during this addi- 
tion. In a very short time the mixture 
will thicken up with a heavy mass of the 
hydrated peroxide ; stirring may now 
cease, and the precipitate be allowed to 
subside. In about 1 hour, the clear liquid 
must be very carefully decanted, so as not 
to disturb the precipitate. The crock 
must now be filled with clean cold water, 
the mixture stirred well, and allowed to 
subside again; several hours will be re- 



( Platinum Printing) 



quired for this subsidence, when the 
operation of pouring off the clear portion 
and refilling and stirring must be repeated 
for 2 or 3 days, until upon testing a por- 
tion of the clear waste water in a test 
tube, no milkiness is produced by adding 
a few drops of a solution of nitrate of 
silver, 30 gr. to 1 oz. of distilled water. 
The peroxide must now be poured into a 
strong filter paper, fitted into a large 
glass funnel, with a piece of absorbent 
cotton drawn out like a cobweb, and 
placed over the apex of the filter paper ; 
this is to strengthen the filter paper at 
that part, so as to prevent the paper 
breaking and causing a loss of the per- 
oxide. As soon as filtration has taken 
place, fill the funnel to the brim with dis- 
tilled water; at the end of 24 hours the ■ 
precipitate must be cut out with a strip I 
of glass, placed in the clean 1-gal. crock, * 
and y2 lb. of chemically pure oxalic acid 
added with 10 oz. of distilled water. 
This and all after operations must be 
carried out under non-actinic light. This 
mixture must be stirred occasionally dur- 
ing 4 or 5 days. The forming of ferric 
oxalate now takes place. A very im- 
portant point comes in here, — always keep 
the peroxide in excess, allowing a sedi- 
ment to remain at the bottom of the 
crock ; this will make the ferric oxalate 
as neutral as it is possible to get it. 
After 5 days, pour some of this rich, 
greenish-brown liquid into a test glass, 
test its strength with an argentometer 
(the same kind of instrument that used 
to be employed to test the strength of 
nitrate of silver solutions). It will be 
found to register at 70, if the operations 
have been carried out as described. Allow 
the liquid to subside, then decant, or draw 
the clear liquid off with a glass syphon 
into an amber-colored bottle, and label 
this "Ferric oxalate solution, C.P., 70 
hydrometer test." This is the iron salt 
that is necessary for making platinum 
paper. The following chemical solutions 
must be made up as directed, ready for 
use and marked A, B, C, D, E, F. : So- 
luton A, ferric oxalate ; solution B, ferric 
chlorate, made by mixing 2 oz. of A with 
% oz. of potassium chlorate solution con- 
taining 1 dr. of potassium chlorate to 
5 oz. of water. C, chloroplatinite of 
potassium, consisting of 1 oz. of the salt, 
in 10 oz. of hot distilled water. Allow to 
become cold. D, 1 oz. of nitrate of lead 
C. P. dissolved in 10 oz. of boiling water ; 
in fact, boiled in a glass flask until the 
salt is dissolved. Allow to become cold. 
E, a saturated solution of oxalic acid. F, 
a thick solution of gum arable with a few 



[702] 



Photography 



(Platinum Printing) 



drops of a 5% solution of carbolic acid 
added. 

Preparation of the Paper. — Papers both 
smooth and rough can be procured at art 
stores that will answer well for the pur- 
pose of hand-prepared platinum paper. A 
suitable wooden trough should be made, 
as shown in the illustration, so shaped 




The Coating Trough 

that the liquid resides in the center. Both 
for convenience and economy coat the 
inside of the trough with 2 coatings of 
shellac varnish. Cut the paper into 
strips, say 8 or 10 in. wide and 20 or 25 
in. long, prepare some wooden strips ^2 
inch wide, 10 in. long, and Ys in. thick, 
varnish these with shellac varnish ; also 
procure about 6 doz. wood clips (the kind 
that is usually employed for photographic 
use), making up a suitable drying closet, 
in which the coated sheets of paper can 
be dried by the aid of a gas stove, also 
fit up another closet lined with blotting 
paper, which must be well soaked with 
water, in which the sheets of paper must 
be suspended, previous to coating, to 
dampen the paper, to prevent air-bubbles, 
and cause even coating. Take the strips 
of paper, put a light pencil mark upon 
the back, then place one of the wooden 
strips at the top of the paper, clip it 
with 3 clips, fit the bottom end of the 
paper in like manner, prepare as many 
sheets as required in the same way, sus- 
pend them in the damping box for a short 
time, and while they are becoming damped 
prepare the following mixture for coating : 
The Sensitizing Solution. — Under orange- 
colored light mix in rotation. — A, 3 oz. ; 
B, 6 fl.dr.; C, 3 oz. ; D, 3 dr.; E, 
30 drops; F, 2 dr. Shake this well 
in an amber-colored wine bottle, then fil- 
ter through a tuft of absorbent cotton 
pressed moderately in the neck of a 4-in. 
glass funnel. Allow the liquid to fall 
into a wide-mouth, amber-colored bottle 
with a strip of glass so placed that the 
liquid falls upon the sloping strip ; this 
will prevent air-bubbles being formed. 
When filtered, pour the liquid into the 
coating trough, take one of the sheets of 
dampened paper, bend it like the letter J, 
lower the left hand so that the paper 
touches the liquid, then lower the right 



(Platinum Printing) 



hand, at the same time lift the left hand, 
allowing the bent surface of the paper 
to pass over the liquid, return the paper 
over the liquid by reversing the motion of 
the hands, lift the paper, drain the ex- 
cess of the liquid from the lower corner 
against the side of the trough, wipe the 
excess from the lower end with a quill 
camel's-hair brush, then suspend it to 
drv in the heated closet ; the temperature 
should be 140° F., not higher. Treat all 
the sheets of paper in like manner ; when 
dry, remove them and lay aside to cool, 
then repeat the coating, drain, brush off, 
and dry a second time. When dry, trim 
off the ends, cut to size, place them care- 
fully rolled and wrapped in a tin case in 
which a small piece of chloride of calcium 
has been placed well wrapped in porous 
paper, close the tin to keep out air until 
ready for use. The balance of sensitiz- 
ing solution should be kept in an amber- 
colored bottle for future use, mixed with 
new solution for another coating. 




Coating the Paper 

Printing the Image. — Take any suita- 
ble negative, place on the paper prepared 
side upon the film, cover the front of the 
frame with tissue paper, expose in bright 
light until the image is printed to the 
usual depth that platinum prints are 
made. A trial upon a small piece of 
paper may be made first of all, then de- 
velop in the following solution, which 
should not be higher in temperature than 
70° F., in fact at the usual daily tem- 
perature, as the paper is intended for 
cold development : Developer. — Potassium 
oxalate, neutral, 614 oz. ; sodium phos- 
phate, iy2 oz. ; hot water, 56 oz. Make 
this in a stoneware crock, stir well with a 
glass rod, allow to become cold, filter, 



[703] 



Photography 



(Platinum Printing) 



then use without dilution. Upon insert- 
ing the print it will rapidly develop to 
full density, when it must be placed at 
once into a clearing acid bath composed 
of C. P. hydrochloric acid, 1 oz. to 50 oz. 
of water, allowed to remain for 5 min., 
then placed in a second bath of like pro- 
portions, and a third in which the prints 
may remain for 10 min. 1 oz. of chloride 
of calcium may be placed in the second 
clearing bath in addition to the hydro- 
chloric acid ; this addition is advanta- 
geous in the use of all kinds of black 
platinum prints. After the third acid 
bath, the prints must be well washed for 
half an hour, when they may be dried, 
trimmed and mounted. The prints, when 
dry, will vie in quality with any platinum 
paper for cold development, and the paper 
being freshly made, is capable of yield- 
ing prints of exceptional beauty. It will 
be observed, as is the case with all makes 
of black print platinum paper, that after 
a number of prints have been developed, 
the resultant pictures are more brilliant, 
due to an excess of platinum being dis- 
solved in the developer. For each day's 
working do not throw away the first- 
made solution, but add a fresh supply of 
new developer to that used the day be- 
fore. This method is not only economi- 
cal, it is capable of yielding the best 
prints possible. 

Water Developed Platinum Paper can 
be made with the same chemicals, slightly 
modified. Having the ferric oxalate made 
perfectly, those who wish to make some 
platinum paper for development in hot 
water can do so by coating some paper 
with the following solution : Ferric oxal- 
ate solution, 4 oz. ; ferric chlorate, 3 dr. ; 
chloroplatinite of potassium solution, 3 
oz. ; nitrate of lead solution, 3 dr. ; potas- 
sium oxalate solution (a saturated solu- 
tion of potassium oxalate), 4 dr.; oxalic 
acid solution, 2 dr. ; gum arable solution, 
1 dr. Filter as described, coat the paper, 
and dry. When prints are made upon 
this paper they look more pale than the 
ordinary. When the prints are made, 
pour some hot water into a clean tray, 
dip the print boldly into this ; the image 
will develop instantaneously. Curious to 
say, prints made upon this kind of paper 
will develop themselves if left in a damp 
place away from actinic light ; the image 
is well brought out in from 12 to 24 hours, 
or development can be made to take place 
by placing the print in the vapor issuing 
from the spout of a tea kettle. By this 
means some parts of the print can be 
developed more than the rest, in fact, 
local development of a platinum print is 



(Platinum Printing) 



easily accomplished by this simple meaus. 
If a person has to travel and cannot carry 
a stock of hydrochloric acid with him, a 
solution of citric acid or oxalic acid can 
be used for clearing in the same propor- 
tions as for hydrochloric, only the second 
is apt to poison the fingers, unless they 
be washed in lime water after use, al- 
though the writer has used oxalic acid 
exclusively as a clearing agent in the 
early eighties iu the hot bath process. 
Whenever possible, hydrochloric acid is 
preferable. It is necessary when pre- 
paring the hydrated peroxide of iron to be 
sure that the perchloride of iron is of a 
very pure variety. That of German man- 
ufacture sold in 1 lb. bottles is excellent. 
The perchloride is sometimes called under 
the old nomenclature, "Sesquichloride of 
iron," In any case it must be of that 
variety that has been super-oxidized by 
nitric acid. The resulting hydrated per- 
oxide will then be of a light brown color ; 
where this is obtained the resulting oxal- 
ate will be perfect. In no instance must 
the peroxide be red or black, or of a color 
that approaches black. If such is the 
case, it will be useless for preparing the 
ferric oxalate for platinum paper. Ex- 
cellent platinum prints in black can be 
obtained from negatives that are some- 
what thin, especially from films that have 
been developed with a metol-hydroquinone 
developer and lack density, by using the 
following contrast developer : Developer 
for Strong Contrasts in Platinum. — Po- 
tassium oxalate, 4 oz. ; sodium phosphate, 
1 oz. ; hot water, 32 oz. ; potassium bi- 
chromate, 22 gr. ; glycerine, 2 oz. ; potas- 
sium chloride, 1 oz. Stir the mixture 
well, use when cold. This developer must 
be kept in an amber-colored bottle, be- 
cause it is affected by white light. Used 
in a subdued light, clearing (or fixing as 
it is sometimes termed) must be carried 
out as previously described. This de- 
veloper will give a strong print from a 
weak negative. 

Raw Papers for Platinum Process. — 
Rives and Steinbach (uncalendered) : 
^'Schopf papier No. 27." Neusiedler A. 
G. Papier-fabrikation, Vienna ; roll draw- 
ing papers of Schleicher and Schiill, 
Diiren. Drawing papers of Whatman, 
Zander, and O. W. Paper Co. 

Sizing. — Gelatine, 10 grams ; swollen 
for 1 hour and dissolved in water, 500 
to 1,000 c.c, by heat. Agar-agar, same 
formula as gelatine. Arrowroot. Rub iu 
cold water, and pour mixture into enough 
boiling water to make a 1 or 2% solution, 

Standard Iron Solution (for making 
platinum, paper). — Dissolve iron ammo- 



[704] 



Photography 



(Platinum Printing) 



nium alum, 260 grams, in 1,000 c.c. of 
water; pour into strong ammonia, 100 
c.c. ; water, 1,000 c.c. ; filter and drain 
precipitate, and gently warm with pow- 
dered oxalic acid (105 grams). Do not 
heat above 85 to 105° F. Dilute to 
500 c.c. 

Cold-Bath Paper. — (a) Dissolve lead 
acetate, 10 grams, in warm water, 100 
c.c, and add oxalic acid, 4 grams, dis- 
solved in a little water. White precipi- 
tate of lead oxalate falls. Filter, wash, 
and dry, and dissolve 1 gram in 100 c.c. 
of standard iron solution, (b) Potassium 
chloroplatinite, 1 gram ; water, 6 c.c. (c) 
Swell gelatine, 2 grams, in water, 20 c.c. ; 
add oxalic acid, ^2 gram, and warm be- 
fore use. Keeps a day or two. To make 
sensitizing liquids: (1) (a), 4.5 c.c; 
(b), 3 c.c. Keeps a month in the dark. 
With Rives paper, arrowroot-sized, gives 
brownish black prints ; on drawing pa- 
pers, pure black : black on gelatine-sized 
Rives. (2) (a), 4.5 c.c; (b), 3 c.c; 
(c), 1 c.c. Blue-black on Rives sized 
with arrowroot. (3) (a), 3 c.c; (b), 
3 c.c; sodium ferric oxalate (50%) solu- 
tion, 2 cc. The quantities are for a 
30x30 sheet. Add 2 to 3 cc. of water 
to either for medium paper, and 3 to 8 
cc for rough paper ; more water still 
for gray pictures. Soft prints from nor- 
mal negatives ; for brilliance, add 10% so- 
lution of sodium chloroplatinite, 5 to 10 
drops ; or 1% solution of potassium bi- 
chromate, in same proportion. Developer : 
Potassium oxalate, 100 grams ; potassium 
phosphate, 50 grams ; water, 1,000 cc 

Preparation of Cold-Bath Paper (Lan- 
ier's Formula). — Prepare the subjoined 
stock solutions: (a) Ammonium ferric 
oxalate, 1% oz. ; distiUed water, 2 oz. ; 
10% solution of oxalic acid, 3i/4 dr. (b) 
Chloroplatinite of potassium, 30 gr. ; dis- 
tilled water, 150 minims. For each sheet 
of paper 20 x 26 in., mix 136 minims of 
(b) with 68 minims of (a) and 136 min- 
ims of a 1 in 25 solution of bichromate 
of ammonium. This addition of the bi- 
chromate reduces the sensitiveness of the 
paper somewhat. 

Sensitizing Cold-Bath and Sepia Pa- 
pers. — Used in the preparation of "cold- 
bath" paper for black tones, and "hot- 
bath" paper for sepia tones. Prepare : 
(a) Chloroplatinite of potassium, 15 gr. ; 
distilled water, 90 minims. (b) Ferric 
oxalate, 21 gr. ; oxalic acid, 2 gr. ; dis- 
tilled water, 183 minims. For "cold-bath" 
paper, mix (a) and (b), and add 15 min- 
ims of water. For sepia paper, mix (a) 
and (b), and add 15 minims of a 5% 
solution of mercury chloride. The addi- 



( Platinum Printing) 



tion of a few grains of potassium chlorate 
to any of the above gives increased con- 
trast in the print. From 140 to 170 min- 
ims of solution are sufficient to coat a 
sheet of paper 20 x 36 in. 

Hot-Bath Paper. — For brownish-black 
tones on arrowroot-sized paper, and pure 
black on drawing paper : Standard iron 
solution, 5 cc ; platinum solution, B, 4 
c.c. For matt paper, add 2 to 3 cc. of 
water ; for rough paper, 3 to 4 cc For 
blue-black prints on gelatine-sized paper : 
Standard iron solution, 6 c.c ; platinum 
solution, B,- 4 cc ; gelatine-oxalic solu- 
tion, C, 1 c.c. For greater brilliance, add 
5 to 10 drops of 10% sodium platinate 
solution, or of 1% potassium bichromate 
solution. Develop as for "cold-bath" pa- 
per, above ; or potassium oxalate, 1 part ; 
water, 3 to 5 parts. Temperature, 120 
to 170° F. 

Print Out Platinum Paper. — Sodium 
ferric oxalate (50% solution), 6 c.c. Plat- 
inum solution B (see above), 4 c.c; add 
water, 2 to 3 c.c, according to paper. For 
brilliance, add 3 to 10 drops of sodium 
chloroplatinite solution (10%), or of 1% 
potassium bichromate. 

Sepia Paper for Hot Development. — 
Size with arrowroot or agar-agar. Sensi- 
tize with standard iron solution, 6 c.c. : 
platinum solution, B, 4 c.c. ; mercuric 
chloride (1 in 20) solution, 1-5 to 1 cc ; 
sodium chloroplatinite, 2 drops 10% solu- 
tion. For rough papers, add 2 to 4 c.c 
of water. For brilliance, increase the 
chloroplatinite to 5 or 10 drops. Let 
coated paper hang until matt in appear- 
ance ; then dry at 100° F. Develop at 
160° F, with potassium oxalate, 100 
grams ; potassium phosphate, 50 grams ; 
citric acid, 20 grams ; potassium chloride, 
10 grams ; water, 1,000 c.c. Fixing or 
clearing bath : Hydrochloric acid, 5 to 
10 c.c ; water, 1,000 c.c 

Sepia Paper for Gold Development. — 
(a) Dissolve yellow mercuric oxide, 1 
gram, in 20 c.c of water, by aid of 5 
grams of citric acid. Warm, and filter. 
Size with agar-agar ; sensitize with stand- 
ard iron solution, 8 c.c. ; platinum, B, so- 
lution, 4 c.c; (a), as above, 1 to 4 c.c. 
sodium chloroplatinite (10%) solution, 2 
drops ; add 2 to 4 c.c of water for rough 
papers. For brilliance, add 3 to 5 drops 
of chloroplatinite solution. Developers : 
Potassium oxalate, 100 to 300 grams ; ox- 
alic acid, 10 grams ; water, 1,000 cc Or, 
Potassium phosphate, 30 grams ; potas- 
sium oxalate, 70 to 300 grams ; oxalic 
acid, 10 grams ; water, 1,000 c.c. Fixing 
or clearing bath : Hydrochloric acid, 5 
to 10 cc ; water, 1,000 cc. 



[705] 



Photographic 



(Platinum Printing) 



Developer for ^^Black'' Cold-Bath Pa- 
per. — Potassium oxalate (neutral), 1 oz. ; 
water, 4 to 10 oz. Potassium oxalate, 1 
oz., dissolves in 3 oz. of water to form 
a saturated solution. A "1 in 4" (ap- 
proximate) solution may be conveniently- 
prepared thus : In 30 oz. of water dis- 
solve 13 oz. of potassium carbonate, then 
add 9 oz. of powdered oxalic acid, and 
boil the solution. Test with litmus. If 
acid, add more carbonate ; if alkaline, 
more acid, until the solution is neutral. 
For more brilliant prints, normal formula 
plus 2 to 5 parts per 100 of 1% potas- 
sium bichromate solution. Print slightly 
deeper. 

Developer for Kodak Paper. — Potas- 
sium oxalate, 2 oz. ; water, 10 oz. ; or, 
for bluer tone, potassium oxalate, 1 oz. ; 
potassium phosphate, i^ o^. ; warm wa- 
ter, 10 oz. Use either at 60 to 65° F. 

Clearing Baths. — Hydrochloric acid, 1 
part ; water, 60 parts. 

Temperature of Developing Solutions. — 
For cold-bath papers, from 60 to 100° 
F., preferably 60 to 70° F. For hot-bath, 
from 120 to 180° F., usually 130 to 150° 
F. Higher temperature, warmer color, 
quicker action. 

Warm Tones (hot-hath paper) . — Potas- 
sium oxalate, 2 oz. ; potassium phosphate, 
% oz. ; citric acid, 180 gr. ; potassium 
chloride, 90 gr. ; water, 20 oz ; add at 
time of use, 1 dr. of mercuric chloride 
solution (20 gr. per oz.). Temperature 
not below 175° F. Acid fixing bath: 
Hydrochloric acid, 1 in 200. 

Warm Sepia Tones. — (a) Potassium 
oxalate, 2 oz. ; water, 14 oz. (b) Po- 
tassium citrate, 150 gr. ; citric acid, 240 
gr. ; mercuric chloride, 90 gr. ; water, 14 
oz. For use, take equal proportions — 
say 1 oz. each for half-plate print — and 
slightly warm. Develop, and, without 
washing, put through 2 or 3 hydrochloric 
acid baths, not stronger than 1 in 200. 
More of (b) than of (a) gives Avarmer 
color. A thin yellowish negative is best. 

Warm Brown, on Cold-Bath Platino- 
type. — Potassium oxalate, 4 oz. ; water, 
40 oz. Leave in open bottle foB a few 
weeks, filtering before using. 

Warm Blacks, on Black-Tone Papers. — 
Potassium oxalate, 1 oz. ; zinc oxalate, 
200 to 250 gr. ; water, 4 oz. Heat to 
70 or 80° F., and immerse prints. More 
zinc oxalate gives warmer tones. 

Sepia Tones on Black-Tone Papers. — • 
Potassium oxalate, 1 oz. ; ammonium 
monophosphate, 125 gr. ; copper sulphate, 
5 gr. ; water, 5 oz. 

Developer for Sepia Tones. — (a) Po- 



( Platinum Printing) 



tassium oxalate, 4 oz. ; water, 16 oz. (b) 
Copper chloride, 125 gr. ; water, 8 oz. 
(c) Mercuric chloride, 1 oz. ; water, 16 
oz. (d) Lead acetate, 32 gr. ; water, 4 
oz. Distilled water for all. Mix (a), 12 
parts, with (b), 4 parts; add 4 parts of 
(c) and 1 part of (d), and heat till, the 
precipitate first formed is redissolved. Use 
at 175° F., developing as usual, pass 
through usual acid baths, then into am- 
monia (4 minims per oz.) for 5 minutes, 
and wash. 

Damp Paper. — 1. — Almost print out, 
and develop on usual oxalate solution, 8 
parts; potassium chlorate (1% solution), 
1 part. 

2. — If slightly damp, print slightly more 
deeply than usual, and add potassium bro- 
mide to the developer, in about the pro- 
portion of 30 minims of a 10% solution 
to each oz. of normal developer. 

3. — 'If very damp, print out to almost 
full length, and develop with weak de- 
veloper, 9 parts; potassium chlorate (10% 
solution), 1 part. 

4. — -If very damp, print out almost com- 
pletely, and develop with normal devel- 
oper, plus 10 to 15 drops of sodium hypo- 
chloride solution per oz. 

5. — If very damp, print about as usual, 
develop with strong potassium oxalate, 1 
oz. ; oxalic acid, 1 oz. ; potassium chloride, 
24 gr. ; water, 2 oz. ; at a temperature 
of 90° F. 

Catechu Toning (mellow hroivn tones). 
— Stock solution : Oatechu or cutch, 120 
gr. ; water, 5 oz. Boil 5 minutes in glass 
flask, cool, and add alcohol, 1 oz. Ton- 
ing bath : Stock solution, 25 minims ; 
water, 20 oz. Used cold, toning takes 
several hours; heated (130 to 150° F,), 
about 15 minutes. Sugar, etc., in de- 
veloper favors the toning process. For- 
mula : Potassium oxalate, 7 oz. ; genu- 
ine West Indian (cane) sugar, 159 gr. ; 
water, 14 oz. Boil for 5 minutes, and de- 
velop cold-bath paper at 100 to 120° F. 
If high lights stain, soak in Castile soap, 
4 gr. ; soda carbonate, 8 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 

Reddish-Brown Tones with Uranium. — ■ 
Uranium nitrate (10% solution), 60 min- 
ims; potassium ferricyanide (10% solu- 
tion), 60 minims; soda sulphite (10% 
solution), 60 minims; glacial acetic acid, 
3 dr. ; water to 6 oz. Intensifies also. 

Platinotypes, To Intensify with Plati- 
num. — (a) Sodium formate, 48 gr. ; wa- 
ter, 1 oz. (b) Platinum perchloride, 10 
gr. ; water, 1 oz. (c) For use, take 15 
minims each of (a) and (b) to 2 oz. of 
water. When sufiiciently intensified 
(about 15 minutes), wash and dry. 



[706] 



Photography 



(Platinum Printing) 



Intensification with Silver. — Hydroqui- 
none, 2 gr. ; citric acid, 20 gr. ; distilled 
water, 1 oz. Place the print in this un- 
til thoroughly soaked. Pour off, and add 
to the solution silver nitrate (10% solu- 
tion), 10 drops. Pour back on the print, 
which will intensify rapidly. Then wash. 
The solution becomes turbid during in- 
tensification. 

Gold Toning (Slight Intensification) . — 
For blue-black tones and for converting 
rusty black into pure black, soak print 
in warm water, lay on warm glass, brush 
over glycerine, and blot off. Pour on 
a few minims of solution of gold chloride 
(1 gr. per dr.), and rapidly brush in all 
directions. When toned, rinse, and sponge 
back and front with metol, 50 gr. ; soda 
sulphite, 1 oz. ; potassium carbonate, l^ 
oz. ; water, 20 oz. Tone in daylight. Not 
for sepias or very old prints ; a few 
months seems about the limit. 

Mercuro-Vranotype. — (a) Saturated so- 
lution of uranium chloride, (b) Satu- 
rated solution of mercuric chloride. Sen- 
sitize in (a), 1 oz. ; (b), 1 dr. Print 
to full strength; tone on a dilute solution 
of chloride of gold or chloroplatinite of 
potash. Wash in water acidified with 
hydrochloric acid. Wash. Or, the print 
may be merely washed in acidified water 
and then thoroughly washed and dried. 

Platino-TJranotype.-^isi) Saturated so- 
lution of uranium chloride, (b) Chloro- 
platinite of potash, 60 gr. ; distilled wa- 
ter, 11^ oz. Take equal parts of (a) and 
(b), and spread over a well-sized piece 
of paper. Potassium chlorate may be 
added to increase contrast. Expose un- 
der a negative until the faintest trace of 
an image is visible ; then develop on cold 
solution : Saturated solution of neutral 
oxalate of potash in cold distilled water, 
and dissolve dry ferrous oxalate in this to 
saturation. Wash in water acidified with 
hydrochloric acid, about 1^2%, till the 
drainings are colorless. Wash thoroughly, 
and dry. 
^ Palladiotype. — Coating the paper with 
either uranic chloride, ferric oxalate, or 
sodic ferric oxalate, or a mixture of any 
or all of these. Developer : % dr. of a 
15-gr. solution of sodio-chloride of palla- 
dium is diluted with about 1 oz. of water, 
and the print floated thereon face down- 
ward. It is better to add a trace of hy- 
drochloric acid to the developer. Fix as 
in platinotype. The result will be a print 
like a platinum print, only of a nice 
warm tone, which may be rendered colder 
by adding a trace of platinxim to the de- 
veloper. 



(Carbon Printing) 



Carbon Printing. 

Making Tissue. — Stock jelly : A warm 
mixture of gelatine, 2 parts ; water, 4 to 
7 parts ; sugar, % to 1% parts ; mixed 
in various proportions with ground jelly 
colors — i.e., pigments ground fine, and 
kept moist with thinned stock jelly. Coat- 
ing mixture consists of stock jelly plus 
(21/2 to 25%) jelly color. 

To Coat hy Hand. — Strain warm mix- 
ture into flat dish standing in warm wa- 
ter, and clear bubbles off the surface with 
a strip of paper. Hold paper to be coated 
upright at the further end of dish, its 
lower edge just touching the liquid, and 
gently lower it on to the surface. Raise 
with a steady motion, allow to drip, and 
hang up to dry. 

Sensitizing. — For thin, weak negatives, 
potassium bichromate, 10 gr. per oz. of 
water. For medium negatives, 20 gr. per 
oz. For harsh negatives, 30 gr. per oz. 
Rather stronger in cold weather. Tem- 
perature, 60° F. Immerse 3 minutes. Dry 
in not less than 8 or 10 hours, at a tem- 
perature not higher than 120° F. Or, 
with potassium ammonium chromate : For 
soft negatives, 12 gr. per oz. ; for very 
hard negatives, 32 gr. per oz. Tissue 
keeps better than with bichromate. Weak 
bath gives slow tissue, which keeps well, 
and prints with vigor. Strong bath gives 
rapid tissue, with lesser keeping powers, 
and giving soft pictures. 

Quick-Drying Sensitizer. — Evening-sen- 
sitized tissue will dry by next morning, 
without special drying arrangements, if 
the bichromate is dissolved in half the 
usual quantity of hot water, and the other 
half made up with alcohol when the solu- 
tion has cooled a little. 

Bennett Sensitizer. — Potassium bichro- 
mate, 4 dr. ; citric acid, 1 dr. ; ammonia 
(.880), 3 dr. ; water, 25 fl.oz. Said to be 
unaffected by gas in the drying room. 

Carbon Tissue. — Nelson's No. 1 gela- 
tine, 14 oz. ; Nelson's amber gelatine, 2 
oz. ; white sugar, i/4 to % oz. ; white 
soap, 14 oz. ; water to make 10 oz. Swell 
the gelatine in a few ounces of water, 
heat in jacketed pan until dissolved, then 
add the sugar and soap, stirring occasion- 
ally until dissolved. Add, according to 
color required — Engraving black: Lamp- 
black, 160 gr. ; carmine lake, 16 gr. ; in- 
digo, 10 gr. Warm black : Lampblack, 
24 gr. ; carmine lake, 24 gr. ; burnt am- 
ber, 15 gr. ; indigo, 10 gr. Sepia : Lamp- 
black, 15 gr. ; sepia, 150 gr. Red-brown : 
Indian red, 40 gr. ; Indian ink, 30 gr. ; 
carmine lake, 24 gr. Colors must be fine, 
and well mixed. 



[707] 



Photography 



(Carbon Printing) 



Flexible Temporary Support. — Coat 
fine paper with gelatine solution, of 
strength according to surface. For matt, 
5%: for medium, 7%% ; for high glaze, 
10%. Then float on lac (1 lb.) in borax 
(4 oz.), soda carbonate (1 oz.), and wa- 
ter (200 oz). Each sheet is rubbed with 
a solution of rosin in turpentine contain- 
ing a few grains of wax. 

Alum Bath (for discharging Bichro- 
mate Stain). — Alum, 1 oz. ; water, 15 oz. 

Single Transfer Paper. — Brush over 
plain paper, 1 oz. of gelatine soaked in 
20 oz. of water for several hours, and dis- 
solved on water bath ; add to the almost 
boiling solution, chrome alum, 20 gr., in 
1 oz. of warm water, drop by drop, stir- 
ring briskly. 

Collodion for Double Transfer from 
Opal. — Enamel collodion, 1 oz. ; ether, 1 
oz. ; alcohol, 1 oz. Flow over opal, allow 
to just set, wash in water, and squeegee 
the soaked tissue to it. Enamel collodion. 
Sec. 19. 

Waxing Solution for Temporary Sup- 
port.— (a.) Pure beeswax, 30 gr. ; benzol, 
10 oz. (b) Yellow rosin, 100 gr. ; tur- 
pentine, 10 oz. Mix, apply with fine flan- 
nel ; polish off with second flannel. 

Opal and Ivory as Final Support. — 
Swell 1% oz. of gelatine in 20 oz. of 
water, melt by heat, and add chrome 
alum (2 oz. of 30 gr. per oz. solution). 
Filter through muslin. Soak print and 
final support in warm liquid, and squee- 
gee. 

Artists^ Canvas as Final Support. — 
Remove paint by scrubbing with hot soda 
solution until little remains on canvas be- 
yond the priming. Dry, and give sev- 
eral coats of cooking- gelatine, 4 oz. ; 
sugar, 2 oz. ; glycerine, 2 oz. ; water, 30 
oz. ; chrome alum (30 gr. per oz. ), 1 
fl.oz. Dry after each coat, and rub with 
fine sandpaper if uneven. Place print in 
warm solution as for opal, brushing this 
into canvas. Then pour solution freely 
over canvas, lower print at once on it, 
and squeegee together. Dry, strip off tem- 
porary support, and clean the surface of 
print with benzol. 

Linen or Calico as Final Support. — 
Prepare as above, using same mixture, 
but with 8 oz. of barium sulphate added. 

Wood Panels as Final Support. — Re- 
move paint by treating with soda, dry, 
rub with fine sandpaper to give tooth, and 
coat with cooking gelatine, 3 oz. ; sugar, 
1 oz. ; glycerine, % oz. ; water, 80 oz. ; 
chrome alum solution (30 gr. per oz.), 
% oz. 

Substratum for Transparencies. — Gela- 
tine, fine, hard, % oz. ; water, 40 oz. ; 



(Ozotype, Ozobrome) 



potassium bichromate, 60 gr. Coat glass 
plates, dry, and expose to light. 

Lambertype {Carbon with Brilliant 
Surface). — Plate glass is thoroughly 
cleaned, dried, rubbed and polished with 
pure beeswax, 5 gr. ; benzol, 1 oz. Set 
aside for the benzol to evaporate. Coat 
with pyroxyline (or celloidin), 100 gr. ; 
ether, 10 oz. ; alcohol, 6 oz. ; castor oil, 
10 drops. Allow to set. Wash in a gen- 
tly flowing stream of cold water until all 
greasy appearance is lost. The printed 
tissue is now soaked, squeegeed, stripped, 
and developed in the usual way. After 
washing, the final support is brought in 
contact, under water, witb the print. The 
two are allowed to dry spontaneously, and 
when quite dry the collodion-supported 
image is detached from the glass, yield- 
ing a print with a very glossy surface 
and transparent shadows. 

To Intensify Carbon Prints. — Potas- 
sium permanganate, 20 gr. ; water, 1 oz. ; 
dip prints, wash well, and dry. Repeat, 
if necessary. Or, Pyrogallic acid, 4 gr. ; 
citric acid, ^ gr. ; water, 1 oz. ; add a 
drop or two of silver nitrate solution (40 
gr. per oz.) at time of use. 

Reliefs, Photographic. — Hard gelatine, 
200 grams ; gum arabic, 100 grams ; wa- 
ter, 1,000 c.c. ; glacial acetic acid, 10 
c.c. Soak the gelatine and the gum in 
the water for some hours, occasionally 
stirring ; add the acid, and heat in a 
water bath till melted. This will keep, 
but before use it must be heated, and 
poured on to a leveled sheet of glass to 
the depth of about % in. When set, it 
can be dried, or sensitized at once with 
potassium bichromate, 128 grams ; liquid 
ammonia (.880), 21 c.c; water, 1,000 
c.c. Dry, expose under the negative un- 
til strongly printed out, then soak for 
some hours in alum, 20 grams ; glacial 
acetic acid, 20 c.c. ; water, 1,000 c.c. ; 
or until all the yellow color has disap- 
peared. The high relief thus obtained 
should be oiled, and a cast taken in plas- 
ter of paris. When this has set hard it 
can be stripped. 

Ozotype, Ozobrome, Carbograph, and 
Kindred Processes. 
The Ozotype Process (English patent 
10,026, of 1898).— A piece of paper, light- 
ly sized with hardened gelatine, is coated 
with a patented sensitizing solution, con- 
sisting of bichromate with a manganese 
salt, by means of a brush or soft pad. 
When dry, the sensitive paper is exposed 
under a negative until an image is formed, 
somewhat darker than that in the platino- 
type process, and the print is wa«bed in 



[708] 



Photography 



(Ozotype) 



cold water for from 10 to 20 minutes to 
remove the free bichromate. A piece of 
pigment plaster (carbon tissue) is im- 
mersed until limp, in the acid or reducing 
bath: 

Concentrated Acid Bath. — Solution of 
sulphate of copper, 20%, 100 parts ; gla- 
cial acetic acid, 6 parts ; glycerine, 5 
parts ; hydroquinone, 5 parts. For use, 
concentrated acid solution, as above, 4 
dr. ; water, 20 oz. Stronger solutions pro- 
duce flatter pictures, weaker solutions give 
greater depth and contrast. 

Sqeegeeing. — When the plaster is quite 
limp, the washed initial print is brought 
into contact with it in the dish, and the 
two papers at once withdrawn from the 
bath, squeegeed together with a flat squee- 
gee, and placed under slight pressure for 
half an hour. 

Developing. — At the expiration of this 
time the adhering papers are placed in 
hot water (about 110° F.), the plaster 
backing is stripped off, and the print de- 
veloped like an ordinary carbon print. 

Alum Bath. — May be used for harden- 
ing finished prints : Powdered alum, 1 
oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 30 minims ; water, 
20 oz. Soak 5 minutes. Rinse in cold 
water. Dry. 

Ozohrome. — Ozobrome is a method of 
making several carbon pictures from one 
bromide print or enlargement without the 
action of light. The materials required 
are : Bromide prints hardened with for- 
maline or alum, pigment plaster (a spe- 
cial carbon tissue), ozobrome pigmenting 
solution, acid solution, and, for the trans- 
fer method, a piece of ozobrome transfer 
paper. One bromide print or enlargement 
may be used to produce many ozobromes 
by the transfer process. 

A. Non-transfer Ozobrome. — Harden- 
ing bath : Formaline, 5 parts ; water, 100 
parts. Or, Chrome alum, 4 parts ; water, 
100 parts. Soak 10 minutes. Wash 15 
minutes in cold water. Dry. 

Working Pigmenting Bath, — Ozobrome 
pigmenting solution, 1 part ; water, 4 
parts. 

Working Acid Solution. — Hydrochloric 
acid (10% solution), 1 oz. ; water, 25 
oz. Arrange four dishes side by side. A, 
B, C, D. Let dish A contain the pig- 
menting solution, B the acid solution, and 
half fill C and D with cold water. 

Operations. — Place bromide print, face 
upward, in D, sponge the surface to re- 
move air bells. Leave in this bath until 
the other operations are completed. Im- 
merse the pigment plaster, face upward, 
in A, keeping it under the solution (a 
camel's-hair mop brush is particularly 

[ 



(Ozobrome) 



suitable for the purpose). Leave in this 
bath until saturated (2 to 2y2 minutes in 
winter, and a somewhat shorter time in 
summer). When the plaster is saturated 
take out of the dish, drain for a few sec- 
onds, then place in B for a few seconds — 
for a normal bromide print, 10 to 15 sec- 
onds ; for a weak or gray print, 5 to 10 
seconds ; for a print which has strong 
shadows and harsh contrasts, 20 seconds. 
After removal from the bath hold it up 
by a corner for about 30 seconds. Re- 
move the bromide print from D, and place 
it, face upward, in C. Float the plaster, 
face downward, on the top of the water, 
bring the underlying print into contact 
with it under the water, and withdraw 
the papers clinging together, adjusting 
them so that a margin of plaster is shown 
around the print. Place the adhering pa- 
pers upon a sheet of plate glass, or any 
hard, smooth surface, plaster uppermost; 
squeegee them into contact, with a flat 
squeegee, at first very gently, and never 
pressing roughly. Take care that the pa- 
pers do not slip, or a double image will 
result. Make a note of the time on a 
corner of the plaster backing with a soft 
Oont6 pencil ; then, lifting the underlying 
paper with the blade of a knife, place 
the adhering papers upon a sheet of glass, 
where they should be left for 15 to 20 
minutes. At the end of this time the ad- 
hering papers are placed into warm wa- 
ter, 105 to 110° F,, the plaster backing 
stripped off, and the picture developed by 
laving with hot water, as in the ordinary 
carbon process. The bleached silver im- 
age which is now beneath the gelatine 
pictui'e may be removed, after drying by 
a hypo bath to which a little potassium 
ferricyanide may be added if any of the 
original silver remains unbleached. Wash 
for a few minutes in cold water. 

B, The Transfer Ozobrome Process, — 
With hardly any more trouble, the ozo- 
brome picture may be transferred to a 
piece of ozobrome transfer paper, and is 
then different in no way from a carbon 
produced by the ordinary carbon process, 
while the original bromide may be used 
for other prints. 

Procedure. — Immerse a piece of ozo- 
brome transfer paper in cold or lukewarm 
water, and sponge well, both back and 
front, to remove air bells. Place the bro- 
mide print, with the pigment plaster ad- 
hering, in cold water, and separate them 
by gently pulling them apart. Remove 
air bells from the edges of the plaster 
with the finger, and bring into contact 
with the piece of soaked transfer paper 
in the dish of water. Squeegee into con- 
709] 



Photography 



( Carbograph ) 



tact, with a flat squeegee, and place un- 
der slight pressure between blotting pa- 
per for 15 to 20 minutes. Place in hot 
water, 105 to 110° F. Strip off the car- 
bon backing and develop the picture as 
usual, with hot water. 

Recovering the Used Bromide Print. — • 
Wash, to remove the pigmenting solution ; 
redevelop in daylight, with any ordinary 
developer. Wash, and dry. It may be 
used to make more ozobrome. 

Control in Ozobrome. — The absorption 
of a normal quantity of acid by the plas- 
ter will give a correct rendering of the 
bromide print, and any variation in quan- 
tity of acid will effect a change in the 
gradation. To obtain a picture corre- 
sponding to the bromide print, immerse 
plaster in acid bath 10 to 15 seconds. A 
longer immersion will lower the relief of 
the resulting picture, giving delicacy and 
detail, while a shorter immersion will 
raise the relief, producing strong pictures 
from weak prints. The following acid 
bath gives brilliant results from over- 
exposed and veiled bromide prints, but 
should not be used for harsh or plucky 
bromides, or where delicate skies are re- 
quired : Water, 25 oz. ; citric acid, 90 
gr. ; chrome alum, 180 gr. Immerse in 
this bath not less than 15 seconds. In 
the non-transfer method the bleached im- 
age beneath the carbon picture may be 
redeveloped partially or entirely, and this 
may be made use of in various ways. For 
instance, a weak picture may be rendered 
stronger by reblackening the image under- 
neath. If a weak bromide developer be 
applied with a brush, local intensification 
may be effected, and a sky which is hard- 
ly strong enough for the rest of the pic- 
ture may be made heavier in this way ; 
the remainder of the image may be re- 
moved by a 10% hypo bath. The under- 
lying image may be also toned by the 
various bromide toning solutions. The 
developing or toning solutions must be 
removed by washing, for about 15 min- 
utes. 

Carbograph. — Outline of the Process. — 
A sensitive gelatino-bromide emulsion pa- 
per, pigmented as carbon tissue ; exposed 
as for a bromide ; developed in the usual 
way, cleared, then bichromatized, and de- 
veloped with hot water, as in carbon 
work. 

Exposure. — ^Test pieces of Rotograph 
bromide paper are supplied. The correct 
exposure for these, with the negative in 
hand, is found, then multiplied for Car- 
bograph tissue : Warm sepia, 5 times ; 
light green, 7 times ; cold sepia, 8 times ; ' 



(Ink Process) 



engraving black, 9 times ; photo brown 
and red chalk, 10 times. 

Developer. — Iron citrate, supplied by 
the manufacturers. Or, (a) Potassium 
oxalate, QV^ oz. ; hot distilled water to 
make 20 oz. (b) Ferrous sulphate, 1^/4 
oz. ; citric acid, 48 gr. ; distilled water to 
5 oz. Immediately before use add 1 part 
of (b) to 5 parts of (a), and add to 
the mixture 5 drops of a 10% solution of 
potassium bromide — i.e., 24 minims per 
fl.oz. 

Clearing Bath. — After development for 
5 to 7 minutes, at 50 to 60° F., without 
washing, immerse for 1 minute in acetic 
acid (glacial), 96 minims; water, 20 oz. 

Bichromatizing. — Potassium bichro- 
mate, 384 gr. ; water, 20 oz. ; potash alum, 
10% solution, 192 minims. Sensitize for 
3 minutes. 

Developing.— Begin at 100 to 105° F., 
increasing very gradually, if necessary. 

Fixing. — Hypo, 4 oz. ; water, 20 oz. ; 
10 to 15 minutes. 

Plardening. — Alum, 1% solution. 

Removing Silver Image. — (a) Hypo, 2 
oz. ; water, 20 oz. (b) Potassium ferri- 
cyanide, 2 oz. ; water, 20 oz. Add 1 part 
of (b) to 2 parts of (a) for use. 

A Green Print Process. — Float ordi- 
nary paper on a 2% solution of gelatine, 
made by dissolving 10 gr. of gelatine in 
1 oz. of water ; then dry. Sensitize with 
water, 100 parts ; potassium bichromate, 
3 parts ; manganese sulphate, 5 parts. 
Apply with a brush, and dry in the dark. 
Paint rather deeply, wash for 2 or 3 
minutes, until the whites appear quite 
pure. Surface dry with blotting paper, 
and lay film up on a sheet of glass, and 
apply pyrocatechin, 1 part ; water, 10 
parts ; sparingly, with a brush. When 
fully developed, wash for 5 minutes, and 
dry quickly. Brilliance somewhat lost in 
drying ; regained to a great extent by 
varnishing. 

An Ink Process. — Bichromate of pot- 
ash, 1 part ; distilled water, 20 parts. 
Dissolve, and render neutral with ammo- 
nia. To every 3 parts of this add pow- 
dered gum arabic, 1 part. Transfer to a 
bottle, and shake frequently until dis- 
solved. Filter, and spread evenly on albu- 
menized paper with a Blanchard brush, 
and hang to dry. Expose behind a nega- 
tive. Lay the print, face downward, on 
water, and allow to soak for some time, 
with repeated changing of the water. Soak 
in alum solution, and again wash. Float 
for 2 minutes on pyrogallol, 1 part ; wa- 
ter, distilled, 50 to 80 parts. Wash, and 
float on sulphate of iron, 10 parts ; dis- 
tilled water, 100 parts ; and again wash. 



[710] 



Photography 



(Oil Pigment Process) 



If not dark enough, thie process may be 
repeated. 

Bromoil, etc. — A method of producing 
a pigment print upon a bromide. A modi- 
fication of ozobrome. 

The Original Print. — A good bromide 
from a vigorous, strong negative, on thick, 
smooth paper, developed in amidol or 
metol hydroquinone, fixed in acid-alum 
hypo, washed, and dried as usual. 

Bleaching. — Soak in water until limp. 
Bleach in special bromoil solution, 1 part ; 
water, 3 parts. 

Acid Bath. — Sulphuric acid, 1 part ; 
water, 20 parts ; 2 to 5 minutes. Wash. 

Fixing. — Hypo, 4 parts ; sodium sul- 
phite, 1 part ; water, 40 parts. Wash for 
3 minutes. 

Pigmenting. — With oil pigment (print- 
ing ink), applied by brush, dabber or 
roller. 

Bromoil Varnishing Method, whereby 
prints take the varnish in the shadows, 
while the high lights and pale tones re- 
main matt. Bleach for about 2 minutes 
in solution given above. Wash. Rede- 
velop with any ordinary developer (pref- 
erably, amidol, 2 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 20 
gr. ; water, 1 oz.). Or, Sulphide in so- 
dium sulphide (10% solution), 25 min- 
ims ; water, 2 oz. ; hydrochloric acid (20% 
solution), 5 minims. The acid to be add- 
ed just before use, and the whole em- 
ployed only while quite fresh. Acid bath 
(as above: Ozobrome). Varnishing: Lay 
print, face upward, on a pad of wet pa- 
per. Varnish with Japan gold size, 5 
parts ; raw linseed oil, 1 part, mixed with 
knife or muller on a palette or piece of 
glass. Apply with a camel's-hair dabber, 
as used by cifiina painters. If varnish ad- 
heres where not wanted, wash print with 
soap and water ; or mop over with a soft 
rag moistened in paraffine, then wash with 
soap and water. 

Pigment for Bromoil. — Any pigment 
that is exceedingly fine, lampblack. Home- 
made pigment by catching the smoke from 
a lamp burning turpentine, upon any suit- 
able chilling surface — e.g., an enameled 
iron developing dish. Mix with as small 
a quantity of Japan gold size as possible, 
to a very stiff paste, and keep in a tight- 
lidded tin box or a wide-mouthed bottle. 
For use, thin down on palette with as 
small a quantity as possible of raw lin- 
seed oil, 1 part ; common benzoline, 2 
parts. 

The Oil Pigment Process. — Gelatined 
paper or sized paper is sensitized on po- 
tassium bichromate, printed in daylight 
■nnder a negative, washed out in water, 
and pigmented by rolling or dabbing with 

[71 



(Miscellaneous Processes) 



an oil paint, or greasy printing ink, or, 
preferably, with specially prepared oil pig- 
ment. 

Sensitize in potassium bichromate, 1 
oz. ; water, 20 oz. ; for 1 minute. Drain ; 
dry in dark. If water is hard, sensitize 
by brushing with a hard, flat brush ; oth- 
erwise, by floating. 

Spirit sensitizer may be used with ad- 
vantage, and is conveniently applied with 
a Blanchard brush. Or, A. Ammonium 
bichromate, 100 gr. ; sodium carbonate, 10 
gr, ; water, 4 oz. B = A, 1 part ; alco- 
hol, 2 parts ; mixed shortly before use. 

Print for about one-eighth the time 
necessary for printing out paper. 

Wash in cold water, 20 to 80 minutes, 
until all bichromate stain is removed. 

Pigmenting. — Lay the print, face up- 
ward, on a pad of damp blotting paper. 
Remove surface moisture by dabbing with 
damp, smooth rag. Spread a little pig- 
ment on a piece of glass, covered by a 
plate box to prevent evaporation of sol- 
vent. Charge the brush lightly with pig- 
ment, dab it on clean glass until evenly 
charged, then apply to print by dabbing. 
Apply very little pigment at first, strength- 
ening gradually. 

Prints from Flat Negatives. — Swell the 
gelatine in water at 100° F., for 1 min- 
ute, gradually cooling to 65° F. ; then 
pigment. 

Miscellaneous Photographic Papers and 
Processes. 

Lead Printing Paper. — To prepare a 
lead printing, proceed as follows : Lay 
some coarse drawing paper (such as con- 
tains starch) on an 8% potassium iodide 
solution. After a moment take it out and 
dry. Next, in the dark room, lay the 
paper, face downward, on an 8% lead ni- 
trate solution. This sensitizes the paper. 
Again let dry. The paper is now ready 
for printing. This process should be car- 
ried on till all the detail is out in a 
grayish color. Then develop in a 10% 
ammonium chloride solution. The tones 
obtained are of a fine blue black. 

Oxalate Silver Printing Papers. — M. 
Van Loo, a Belgian photographer, gives 
a method of preparing a photographic pa- 
per somewhat resembling platinotype, but 
much less expensive. The paper is coated 
with the following solution : Water, 100 
parts ; ferric oxalate, 15 parts ; oxalic 
acid, 3 parts ; nitrate of silver, 3 parts. 
The above proportions should be adhered 
to as nearly as possible to secure good 
results. The printing is carried out in 
the same manner as with platinum pa- 
per; that is, until the image is well dis- 

1] 



Photography 



(Citrate Paper) 



tinguished. After printing, the paper is 
placed in a developing bath made up as 
follows : Water, 100 parts ; borax, 60 
parts ; tartrate soda, 60 parts. Dissolve 
and add several drops of a 5% solution 
of potassium bichromate ; a greater pro- 
portion of bichromate gives an image hard 
and full of contrast ; by using less, the 
image becomes gray and feeble. A cer- 
tain latitude is thus given, which is of 
advantage for negatives of different in- 
tensities. After the development, which 
lasts 5 or 6 minutes, the prints are washed 
for a few moments in running water, and 
the toning is carried out with the follow- 
ing bath : Water, 100 parts ; potassium 
chloroplatinite, 1 part ; common salt, 10 
parts; citric acid, 10 parts. The prints 
are left in the bath until the desired in- 
tensity is obtained, and are then fixed in 
a 2% solution of ammonia ; the fixing 
lasts about 10 minutes. They are then 
washed thoroughly, as usual. 

Sensitizing of Photographic Drawing 
Paper. — Photographic prints of extensive 
landscapes and portraits, on a large scale, 
are successfully and artistically made by 
the use of Whatman's paper, which is 
sensitized as follows : The whole sheet 
is first plunged into a bath consisting of 
13 parts, by weight, of pure sodium chlo- 
ride, 9 parts of ammonium chloride, 0.50 
part of potassium bichromate, and 1,000 
parts, by weight, of water. After dry- 
ing, it is sensitized by holding one side 
of it for 2 minutes over a bath of 32 
parts of silver azotate, 10 parts of citric 
acid and 1,000 parts, by weight, of water. 
A strong impression is to be taken in the 
printing frame. The toning and fixing 
processes are the same as with other pho- 
tographic paper. 

Citrate Paper. — A Gelatino-Citrate of 
Silver Emulsion for Photographic Paper. 
— At a recent session of the Union Na- 
tionale des Societ6s Photographiques de 
France, M. A. Blanc brings out the fact 
that the formulas for preparing the pho- 
tographic papers of the citrate of silver 
type are little known, and he proposes to 
give a formula which he has found very 
good in practice, giving very clear whites 
with a great facility in toning. Before 
proceeding to prepare the emulsion proper 
a preservative emulsion is first prepared 
according to the formula : Alcohol, 90%, 
15 c.c, 4 dr. ; white shellac, 5 gr., 1^ 
dr. Dissolve hot, and pour rapidly into 
100 c.c. or 3 oz. of boiling water; filter 
through absorbent cotton. The yellowish 
white emulsion thus formed will keep for 
a considerable time. To prepare the sen- 
sitive emulsion he proceeds as follows. 



(Postal Cards) 



Solution A: Gelatine, best quality, 9 
grams, 2 dr., 15 gr. ; chloride of cobalt, 
5% solution, 6 c.c, 1^2 dr. ; neutral tar- 
trate of ammonia, 2 grams, 30 gr. ; citrate 
of ammonia, ^2 gram, 30 gr. ; water, 70 
c.c, 2 oz., 11^ dr. This is to be placed 
in a porcelain receptacle of about 150 
c.c, or 5 oz. capacity ; in a smaller ves- 
sel is placed solution B : Nitric acid, 2.3 
grams, 33 gr. ; distilled water, 20 c.c, 5 
dr. After mixing, add 2^2 grams or 38 
gr. of crystallized nitrate of silver. The 
vessels A and B' are placed in a water 
bath, and the temperature kept between 
70 and 80° C. Each solution having 
been well mixed, B is poured rapidly into 
A, and to the emulsion which forms is 
added: Alcohol, 90°, 10 c.c, 21/2 dr.; 
preservative emulsion, 5 c.c, 1% dr. Mix, 
and filter through absorbent cotton ; the 
emulsion is then ready to be applied to the 
paper. It should be used as soon as pos- 
sible after preparation, as it will not keep 
longer than a few days. The paper, of 
course, may be kept for a long time with- 
out deterioration. 

Photographical Postal Card. — The Pa- 
pier Zeitung gives the following method 
of preparing paper for photographical 
purposes, which is so simple that it may 
be applied to postal cards. Any well 
"sized" paper is available for the pur- 
pose, however, and even an unsized paper 
may be employed, provided it be treated 
with a 10% solution of gelatine in water 
carrying 2% of arrowroot — i.e., made sol- 
uble by boiling. A 50% decoction of car- 
ragheen is also available for the purpose. 
This, which is really a sizing, may be 
applied to the surface of the paper with 
a broad, flat pencil. A surface thus pre- 
pared is far better, and the pictures 
thereon are stronger than when an un- 
sized paper is employed. Having pre- 
pared your paper, go over the surface 
(after letting it dry thoroughly), using 
a similar pencil, with a solution of 10 
parts of iron oxalate in 100 parts of dis- 
tilled water, and let dry. With a clean 
pencil, kept especially for the puraose, 
again go over the surface with a 1% so- 
lution of silver nitrate in distilled water, 
and let dry. Red light must be used in 
these two operations. The paper is now 
ready for use, and under proper precau- 
tions, chief of which is the absolute ex- 
clusion of light, will keep for several days. 
In printing, make a strong copy, and de- 
velop in the following bath : Distilled wa- 
ter, 400 parts; potassium oxalate, neu- 
tral, 80 parts. Mix, After development 
wash thoroughly, and fix in the following 
bath : Distilled water, 100 parts ; sodium 



[712] 



Photography 



(Printing on Sateen) 



thiosulphate, 5 parts ; gold chloride solu- 
tion, 1%, 5 parts. Mix. This is the 
bath recommended, but other baths may 
be used. 

Photographic Post Cards by the Vran- 
mm Process. — A variety of tones may be 
obtained in photographic post cards sen- 
sitized with a solution of uranium, and 
Immersed in solutions of various chemi- 
cals after exposure. Two formulas given 
in the Photo-American for the uranium 
solution are : 

1. — Uranium nitrate, 160 grams ; dex- 
trine, 40 grams ; distilled water, enough 
to make 1,000 c.c. 

2, — Uranium nitrate, 160 grams ; dex- 
trine, 40 grams ; copper sulphate, 40 
grams ; distilled water, 1,000 c.c. 

Brush over the card with the solution, 
and dry. Reddish tones are obtained by 
immersing the exposed prints in potas- 
sium ferricyanide, 40 grams ; distilled 
water, enough to make 1,000 c.c. Wash, 
and dry. Green tones are obtained by im- 
mersing in a 2% solution of cobalt ni- 
trate ; greyish-black tones, by treating the 
prints with a 5% solution of silver nitrate 
after washing; violet tones, by washing 
the prints and immersing in a 5% solu- 
tion of gold chloride. 

Preparing Sateen of Various Colors for 
Photographic Printing. — Make up the fol- 
lowing mixture, under a light not stronger 
than 16 candle power: (a) Hot distilled 
water, 4 oz. ; citric acid, crystals, 1 oz. 
(b) Distilled water, 8 oz. ; ammonio cit- 
rate of iron, 1 oz. (c) Hot distilled 
water, 4 oz. ; nitrate of silver, 1 oz. Shake 
the contents of each bottle well until the 
salts are completely dissolved; add (a) to 
(b), then add (c). Filter the mixture 
through absorbent cotton, in a clean glass 
funnel, into an amber-colored, wide- 
mouthed bottle. The sensitizer is now ready 
for use. Sensitize the sateen by laying it 
back down upon a sheet of glass, apply 
the solution with a rubber-bound camel's- 
hair brush upon the face of the sateen, 
suspend to dry in a warm closet away 
from actinic light. When dry place it 
upon a negative, expose to sunlight, print 
only just as deep as the finished picture 
should be, remove from the printing 
frame, wash several times in clean water, 
pass the print through any good gold ton- 
ing bath of half the usual strength for 
15 sec. only, wash again, then place into 
a solution of hyposulphite of soda, 2 oz. 
to 20 of water. About 5 min. will fix the 
print. Wash well for a quarter of an hour 
in running water, wring the print well 
during washing, then place it face down 
upon a carefully waxed and polished ferro- 

[ 



(Ceramic Photography) 



type plate, spread it flat with a squeegee. 
When dry the print can be easily re- 
moved, cut to shape, and finished accord- 
ing to taste. 

Photographing on Silk. ■ — The silk 
(China silk is said to be the best) is 
thoroughly and carefully washed, to free 
it from dressing, and then immersed in 
the following solution : Sodium chloride, 
4 parts ; arrowroot, 4 parts ; acetic acid, 
15 parts ; distilled water, 100 parts. Dis- 
solve the arrowroot in the water by warm- 
ing it gently, then add remaining ingred- 
ients. Dissolve 4 parts of tannin in 100 
parts of distilled water and mix the solu- 
tions. Let the silk remain in the bath 
far 3 minutes, then hang it carefully on 
a cord stretched across the room to dry. 
The sensitizing mixture is as follows : Sil- 
ver nitrate, 90 parts ; distilled water, 750 
parts ; nitric acid, 1 part. Dissolve. On 
the surface of this solution the silk is to 
be floated for 1 min., then hung up till 
superficially dry, then pinned out care- 
fully on a flat board until completely dry. 
This must, of course, be done in the dark 
room. Print, wash and tone in the usual 
manner. A writer in the Chemist and 
Druggist some time ago recommended a 
mixture of the acetate and sulphocyanide 
toners as giving the best results. 

CERAMIC ENAMELS AND WATCH 
DIAL PHOTOGRAPHY 

Organizer and Sensitizer. — 1. — Organ- 
izer : Dextrine, 3 dr. ; honey, 4 dr. ; albu- 
men, 6 dr. ; glucose, 1 oz. ; water to 10 
oz. 2. — Sensitizer : A cold saturated solu- 
tion of potassium bichromate in water 
(about 1 oz, to 10 oz. ). Or, 1. — Organ- 
izer: Fish glue (Le Page's), 1 oz. ; glu- 
cose, 4 oz. ; glycerine, 10 drops ; water, 
10 oz. 2. — Sensitizer : Ammonium bi- 
chromate, 1 oz. ; water to 10 oz. Or, 
Dextrine, 60 gr. ; white sugar, 75 gr. ; 
ammonium bichromate, 30 gr. ; glycerine, 
2 to 8 minims ; distilled water, .3 oz. — 
Obernetter. Or, Gum arable, 60 gr. ; 
glucose, 45 gr. ; glycerine, 10 minims; po- 
tassium bichromate, 30 gr. ; distilled 
water, 2 oz. 

Borax Transfer Solution. — Saturated 
solution (boiled) of fused borax, 3 parts; 
water, 1 part. 

Transfer Solution (to be used when 
image is transferred with proper side 
down to plaque. — Water, 80 oz. ; sugar 
candy, 16 oz. 

Transferring. — Certain: diflBculties in 
"firing" arise from an imperfect transfer. 
For the transfer collodion use: Enamel 
collodion, 1 part ; ether, 1 part. If too 
thick, "frizzle" in the firing, unless the 
713] 



Photography 



(Oramic Photography) 



heat is applied very gradually until the 
collodion film turns brown. Air in the 
transferring water sometimes causes blis- 
ters. Use distilled, or well boiled and 
cool water ; also it is well to add to the 
water a little sugar, or a little of the 
mucilage of quince seeds. These help to 
make the transfer adhere well to the 
plaque without blistering. 

Fluxes Fusible at Fairly Low Tem- 
peratures. — Silica, 1 part ; minium, 8 
parts ; borax, 2 parts. Or, Silica, 3 
parts ; minium, 6 parts ; borax, 3 parts ; 
saltpeter, 1 part. Mix thoroughly and 
fuse together in a crucible at a quick 
heat ; well stir with an iron rod ; spread 
upon metal plates to cool ; pulverize and 
sift. 

White Enamel. — Arsenic, 1 part ; salt- 
peter, 1 part ; silica, 3 parts ; litharge, 
6 parts. 

Black Enamel Powder. — Flux as above, 
2 to 3 parts ; black oxide of iron, 1 part. 

Brilliant Black Enamel Powder. — Flux 
as above, 2 to 3 parts ; red or bright yel- 
low oxide of iron, 1 part. 

The Substitution Process of ceramic 
work is very diflBcult, and few people have 
worked it satisfactorily. 

Firing the Ceramics is best entrusted to 
a china manufacturer. Alternatively, use 
a muffle furnace, and test the temperature 
with a tint test plate obtainable from the 
dealers who supply the colors. 

Watch Dials, Photographs on. — For 
the production of photographic pictures 
on watch dials, the following method of 
procedure is recommended : Beat the 
white of an egg, with addition of a little 
ammonia, to a white foam ; add 300 c.c. 
(9 oz. 3 dr.) of water and beat again. 
After the egg has settled, filter and let 
the liquid run once over the dial, which 
has previously been thoroughly cleaned 
with ammonia. After the surplus has 
run off, coat once more and allow to dry. 
The sensitive collodion is now produced 
as follows: Dissolve 0.6 gram (9 gr.) 
of chloride of zinc in 20 c.c. (5 dr.) of 
alcohol ; add 0.5 gram of collodion cot- 
ton and 26 c.c. (6i/^ dr.) of ether, and 
shake the whole forcibly. Then dissolve 
1.5 grams (22 gr.) of nitrate of silver 
in hot water, add 6 c.c. (li/^ dr.) of al- 
cohol, and keep the whole in solution by 
heating. The silver solution is now added 
in small quantities at a time to the col- 
lodion, which must have well settled. 
This, of course, is done in the dark room. 
After 24 hours the emulsion is filtered by 
passing it through cotton moistened with 
alcohol. This durable collodion emulsion 
is now flowed in the usual way thinly 



(Lantern Slides) 



upon the prepared watch dial, which, 
after the collodion has coagulated, is 
moved up and down in distilled water 
until the fatty stripes have disappeared. 
The water is then changed once, and the 
dial is, after a short immersion, left to 
dry upon blotting paper. It is now ready 
for exposure. Expose under the original 
magnesium light and develop with a cit- 
rate oxalate developer, or with the follow- 
ing hydroquinone developer : Hydroqui- 
none, 4 gr. (1 dr.) ; bromide of potassium, 
25 grams (6 dr.) ; sulphite of soda, 48 
grams (1% oz.) ; carbonate of soda, 10 
grams {2% dr.) ; water, 450 c.c. (14 
oz.). After fixing and drying, coat with 
a transparent positive varnish. In place 
of the developing process, the printing 
out process with chloride of silver collo- 
dion can also be applied, with the advan- 
tage that the pictures can be toned. The 
collodion for this purpose is made in the 
following way : Dissolve 8 gr. (2 dr. ) col- 
lodion in 100 c.c. (3 oz. 1 dr.) of ether, 
and 100 c.c. (3 oz. 1 dr.) of alcohol; add 
0.3 gram (45 gr.) of chloride of stron- 
tium, and then 0.2 gram (30 gr.) of 
chloride of lithium, which has previously 
been dissolved in 2 c.c. (% dr.) of hot 
water. To this solution add also 1 gram 
(15 gr.) citric acid which has been dis- 
solved in alcohol slightly heated. The 
solution is left standing for 24 hours, 
and is then filtered through cotton. The 
prepared dial is coated in the ordinary 
way with this emulsion, and printed, after 
which it is toned as usual. 

LANTERN SLIDES 

Gelatino-Ghloride Emulsion for Lantern 
Plates. — (a) Sodium chloride, IVz oz. ; 
gelatine, 2 oz. ; water, 20 oz. (b) Silver 
nitrate, 3 oz. ; water, 5 oz. (c) Gelatine, 
2 oz. ; water, 25 oz. Dissolve the gela- 
tines in a water bath at a temperature of 
120° F. Mix (b) and (c), and add (a) 
in small quantities at a time, stirring 
well all the time. Allow to stand for 10 
min., and pour out in a dish to set ; break 
up and wash in the usual way. For a 
warm-toned emulsion add 1 to 2 oz. of 
citric acid to (a). This gives a very 
slow emulsion, but by digesting the emul- 
sion at 110° for half an hour greater 
rapidity is obtained, and the color of the 
pictures tends more towards browns and 
blacks. 

Ghloro-Bromide Emulsion. — Rinse 40 
gr. of Nelson's No. 1 gelatine in 2 or 3 
changes of water, and place in a jam pot 
with 4 oz. of distilled water. Heat gently, 
and add ammonium bromide, 110 gr. : 
sodium chloride, 30 gr. ; hydrochloric acid 



[714] 



Photography 



(Lantern Slides) 



(10% solution), 10 minims. Test the am- 
monium bromide for acidity ; if acid, 
neutralize with ammonia. Dissolve 200 
gr. of silver nitrate in 1 oz. of distilled 
water. Add the silver solution in a very 
fine stream to the bromized gelatine, 
which should be kept at a temperature of 
125° F., stirring all the time, and digest 
in a water bath at 150° for 10 min. Then 
add 175 gr. of hard gelatine which has 
been previously soaked and well rinsed 
in 2 or 3 changes of water and well 
drained. Set till firm, then cut up into 
small dice and hang in a canvas bag in 
a pail of water for half an hour, changing 
the Water every 5 min. Well drain the 
emulsion, remelt, filter, and add tannin, 

2 gr. 

Spotting. — The standard spotting in 
Britain and the Colonies is with 2 round 
spots, of color distinct from that used 
for the binding, placed at the top of the 
picture, as viewed the same way round 
as it appears in nature. These spots go 
downward, and next to the condenser, in 
projecting. The American standard 
method is to spot with 1 "thumb-spot" 
at the bottom left-hand corner of the 
picture, as viewed in its proper direction. 
This spot is covered by the thumb of the 
right hand when the lantern is fed from 
the right-hand side, and is at the upper 
right-hand corner, next to the condenser, 
during projection. 

Azol Developer. — Azol, 25 minims ; po- 
tassium bromide (10%), 5 minims; water 
to 1 oz. 

Certinal. — For ordinary lantern plates : 
Certinal, 1 part ; water, 30 parts. For 
"gas-light" or "contact" plates : Certinal, 
1 part ; water, 15 parts. Nearly all nega- 
tive developers can be used if diluted with 
an equal quantity of water and ^4 gr. of 
potassium bromide added to every oz. 

Pyro-Ammonia (warm 'black tones). — 
(a) Pyro, 20 gr. ; potassium metabisul- 
phite, 60 gr. ; ammonium bromide, 20 gr. ; 
water, 10 oz. (b) Liquid ammonia 
(.800), 80 minims; water, 10 oz. Use 
equal parts. Mix fresh for each slide. 
Or, (a) Pyro, 10 gr. ; soda sulphite, 45 
gr. ; citric acid, 15 gr. ; potassium bro- 
mide, 10 gr. ; water, 10 oz. Add, per oz., 
at time of using, 30 minims of 10% 
ammonia solution. Requires full expo- 
sure. Mix fresh for each slide. 

Pyro-Garhonate for Various Tones. — ■ 

(a) Pyro, 1 oz. ; soda sulphite (crystals), 

3 oz. ; citric acid, ^ oz. ; water to 10 oz. 

(b) Liquid ammonia (.880), 1 oz. ; water 
to 10 oz. (c) Ammonium bromide, 1 oz. ; 
water to 10 oz. (d) Ammonium carbo- 
nate, 1 oz. ; water to 10 oz. Take ^ oz. 



(Lantern Slides) 



of (a) and ^ oz. of (b) ; adding, for 
black tones, ^ oz. of (c) ; for brown 
tones, 160 minims of (c) and 160 minims 
of (d) ; for purple tones, 1 oz, of (c) 
and 1 oz. of (d) ; and for red tones, 2 oz. 
of (c) and 2 oz. of (d) ; making up, in 
each case, to 8 oz. with water. All re- 
duction, intensification, and toning meth- 
ods applicable to bromide paper are appli- 
cable to slides. 

Metol-Hydroquinone for Warm Tones. 
— Normal Developer: (a) Metol, 44 gr. ; 
hydroquinone, 22 gr. ; sodium sulphite, 1 
oz. ; sodium carbonate, 1 oz. ; water, 20 
oz. (b) Ammonium carbonate, 1 oz. ; 
ammonium bromide, 1 oz. ; water, 10 oz. 
(c) Hypo, 1 oz. ; water, 10 oz. 

Physical Development. — Plates should 
be quite fresh, and dishes perfectly clean. 
Exposure about 4 times normal. Metol, 
88 gr. ; citric acid, 1 oz. ; water, 10 oz. 
To every oz. add^ 48 minims of 10% 
silver nitrate solution, just before apply- 
ing to plate. The silver may deposit every- 
where and all over the plate, but on 
scrubbing hard with cotton wool this is 
removed, leaving image of bluish tone and 
great delicacy and transparency. The 
operation may be repeated if necessary. 

Warm Tones hy Redevelopm,ent. — 
Bleach rather thin slide in potassium bi- 
chromate, % oz. ; hydrochloric acid, % 
oz. ; water, 10 oz. Wash well, and re- 
develop with any warm-toned developer. 
All the toning methods applicable to bro- 
mide paper are applicable to lantern 
slides. 

Adhesive for Binding Strips. — Sugar 
candy (240 gr.) in hot water (1 oz), 
and stir into Le Page's fish glue (2 oz.). 
Brush on to thin "needle" paper, dry, 
and cut into strips. Or, Apply to the 
strip at time of use thin glue with a 
little oil of lavender added. 

When Mounting, warm the slide to 
make it thoroughly dry, and thus increase 
its permanency. Damp slides may melt 
in the lantern. 

White Ink for Writing on Slides. — 
Rub up artists' zinc white with water 
containing about 40 gr. of gum arable per 
oz. 

Tinting Lantern Slides. — Aniline colors 
may be used, these acting more as stains 
than colors. The better-class workers 
use oil colors in tubes, care being taken 
to employ only those that show their true 
tint when viewed by transmitted light. 
The most useful are gamboge, Italian 
pink (yellow), burnt and raw sienna, 
Prussian blue, crimson lake, and red mad- 
der. Thin with copal varnish. 



[715] 



Photography 



(Spotting Prints) 



Lantern Slide Diagrams. 

Draw with hard pencil on fine ground 
glass, and varnish with strong solution 
of gum dammar in benzole. Or, Flow a 
matt varnish of sandarac, 10 gr. ; gum 
mastic, 10 gr. ; methylated ether, 1 oz. ; 
and benzole, 100 minims, over plain glass. 
The matt surface takes the pencil well 
and the slide is made transparent again 
with : Sandarac, 15 gr. ; gum mastic, 15 
gr. ; methylated ether, 1 oz. Or, Use 
etching ground : Canada balsam, 4 parts ; 
rectified turpentine, 8 parts ; liquid sicca- 
tive, 1 to 2 parts ; plus lampblack or 
dropblack, suflficieht to give a consistency 
of thick cream. Coat evenly with a 
badger's hair softener, to give an intense- 
ly opaque, even film. Diagrams can be 
sketched thereon, then scratched through 
with a needle or fine stylus. Or, Etching 
ground : Yellow ocher, 100 gr. ; white dex- 
trine, 150 gr. ; sal ammoniac, 10 gr. ; 
water, 75 minims; alcohol (methylated), 
25 minims. Mix alcohol and water, and 
with them mull up the color on a slab, 
or grind it in a mortar. Coat the glass 
with a printer's roller or a roller squee- 
gee. 

Black for Diagram Making. — Benzole, 

1 to 1^/^ oz. ; bitumen, 4 dr. ; ivory black, 
5 dr. ; beeswax, 2 scruples. 

SPOTTING, COLORINGS, ETC., 
PRINTS 

Print Varnish. — Borax, 15 gr. ; pale 
yellow shellac, 30 gr. ; soda carbonate, 5 
gr. ; glycerine, 15 minims : water, % oz. 
Boil, cool, and add alcohol, % oz. Add 
pumice powder or whitening, to throw 
down lac wax, shake up, allow to stand 

2 or 3 days, and filter. 

Preservatives for Medium. — Alcohol, 
alum, acetic acid, carbolic acid, etc., are 
given as preservatives for media contain- 
ing animal and vegetable substances lia- 
ble to decompose. To keep these mix- 
tures for any long time, however, they 
should be in bottles with well-fitting corks 
that have been soaked for a long time in 
hot parafiine wax. 

Preparing for Coloring. — For greasy, 
thumbed prints, use ox-gall ; for albumen 
prints, use an albumen medium. 

Gum Medium. — Colorless gum arabic, 
2 oz. ; sugar, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 1 fl.oz. ; alum, 
% oz. ; water, 20 fl.oz. Filter after com- 
plete solution. 

Colored Media. — Some tinters like to 
use three-colored media and a small num- 
ber of colors. There are some advantages 
in this when coloring large numbers of 
cheap prints (post cards, etc.). Yellow 



(Coloring Prints) 



medium and blue pigment gives washes of 
green, etc. Yellow : Saturated solution 
of picric acid ; deepen the color by adding 
a small quantity of ammonia. Red : 5% 
solution of safranine G (best bought in 
alcoholic solution and diluted with water) . 
Blue : Indigotine, or methylene blue, in 
a weak solution of albumen. 

Ammoniacal Medium. — Media made 
with ammonia must not be used with cer- 
tain colors {e.g. Prussian blue.). 

Alhumen Medium for Water Colors. — 1 
oz. of albumen ; 4 gr. of common salt ; 2 
gr. of quinine sulphate ; 4 gr. of gum 
arabic ; and water to make 2 oz. Dis- 
solve the gum in the water before mixing 
with the other ingredients. Or, White 
of 1 egg ; common salt, 4 gr. ; gum arabic, 
4 gr. ; quinine sulphate, 4 gr. ; water to 
2 oz. Water colors in powder are mixed 
with these media. 

Ox-Gall Medium. — Purified ox-gall 
paste, 60 gr. ; distilled water, 16 oz. ; rec- 
tified spirit, 4 oz. Apply with flat camel's- 
hair brush ; when dry, prints will take 
both oil and water color, 

Quillai Bark Medium. — Quillai bark in 
coarse powder, 1 oz, ; boiling water, 10 
oz. Let stand 12 hours, filter, and add 
salicylic acid (50 gr.) dissolved in recti- 
fied spirit, 10 oz. Keep well stoppered 
and apply with a brush to print, lantern 
slide, or plain glass, which will then take 
any color. 

Medium for Oil Colors. — Gum mastic, 
1 oz. ; turpentine, 10 oz. Tube oil colors 
are mixed with this medium. If rapid 
drying is desirable, the mastic may be 
dissolved in 4 oz. of chloroform. 

Prepared Glazed Print for Painting. — 
Dissolve 1 oz. of freshly bleached lac in 
10 oz. of methylated spirit. Filter 
through paper and apply to print by 
means of spray diffuser. 

Spotting Bromide Prints. — Mix to- 
gether Payne's gray and Indian ink (the 
color should match that of the film). 

Preparing Bromides for Working Up 
in Crayon. — Fine pumice powder applied 
with the palm of the hand. 

Preparing Carbon Prints for Oil Color- 
ing. — Brush with: Isinglass (180 gr.), 
soaked for 2 hours in water (10 oz.). 
Dissolve on water bath ; add methylated 
spirit (10 oz.), with stirring. 

Aniline Dyes for Tinting. — Packet dye, 
1 packet ; glacial acetic acid, 2 dr. ; water 
to 2 oz. Apply with brush. 

Glossy Colors for Prints. — Water colors 
or transparent aniline dyes, the gloss be- 
ing determined by the amount of strong 
gum (or albumen) solution added. 

Tinting Albumen Prints. — Apply a size 



[716] 



Photography 



(Coloring Prints) 



made by dissolving gelatine in acetic acid 
until it forms a pasty mass and then thin- 
ning it to 1 part of acetic gelatine in 6 
parts of water. Ck)lor with aniline or 
water colors. 

To Remove Oil Stains from Prints. — ■ 
Apply pure benzole and blot off a few 
seconds later with clean white blotting 
paper. Repeat. 

Spotting Medium for Printing Out 
Papers. — Rouge and ivory black (in pro- 
portions suited to the tone of the print), 
10 parts ; saturated solution gum arable, 
2 parts ; white honey, 2 parts ; powdered 
sugar candy, 1 part. Mix thoroughly in 
a mortar and use in the same way as 
water color. An addition of indigo is 
favored by some workers. 

Spotting Printing-Out-Paper Prints. — 
Add a little carmine to the above. When 
mixture is dry (on the palette) work in 
a strong solution of gum, rubbing the 
brush one way Olily, to avoid making air 
bells. If the prints are to be enameled 
or glazed by stripping after spotting, then 
artists' oil colors with benzole in which 
gum dammar has been dissolved, or water 
colors, may be used with shellac water 
varnish. 

Spotting Prints to he Enameled or 
Squeegeed to Glass. — Oil color, with a 
medium of : Dammar, ^4 oz. ; turpentine, 
5 oz. Or, Artists' oil colors in tubes, 
thinned with benzole and dammar (or 
copal) varnish. 

Encaustic Paste or Cerate. — Pure bees- 
wax, 500 parts ; gum elemi, 10 parts ; 
benzole, 200 parts ; essence of lavender, 
800 parts ; oil of spike, 15 parts. Or, 
Beeswax, 100 gr. ; dammar varnish, 40 
minims; pure oil of turpentine, 100 
minims. Melt, and amalgamate by thor- 
ough stirring. 

Wet-Effect Varnish and Size. — San- 
darac, 1 oz. ; benzole, 4 oz. ; acetone, 4 
oz. ; absolute alcohol, 2 oz. Allow to 
stand with occasional agitation till dis- 
solved, then allow to stand some days till 
it settles quite clear, or filter. Brush the 
print freely with this; blot off excess. 
Or, Use any of the following: (a) Ar- 
tists' size, diluted with warm water ; 
applied freely, (b) Megilp, a somewhat 
similar material, similarly used. (c) 
Fixative. A suitable mixture for this 
purpose is made by diluting 1 part of 
mastic varnish with 8 parts of alcohol, 
(d) For stronger effects ordinary negative 
cold varnish or gum arabic mucilage may 
be locally or generally applied with a 
brush, (e) Swell 20 gr. of gelatine in 
an oz. of cold water, and melt by gentle 
beat. Soak the print in this and bang 



(Crystoleum) 



up to dry. (f) 20 parts of white wax; 
15 parts of gum elemi ; melt on water 
bath, and add 1 part of oil of spike. Re- 
move from all flame or fire, and stir in 
30 parts of alcohol and finally 15 parts 
of benzole. 

Waxing Solution. — For Carbon Prints, 
or for Removing Collodion Films. — Bees- 
wax, 40 gr. ; benzole (rectified), 8 oz. 

Lubricator for Hot Burnishing. — 1. — 
Cetaceum, 1 part; Castile soap, 1 part; 
alcohol, 100 parts. 

2. — Glace Lubricator. — If a greater 
polish is desired than can be produced by 
the ordinary soap and alcohol lubricator, 
the following may be employed : Alcohol, 
absolute, 4 fl.oz. ; Castile soap (white), 
25 gr. ; spermaceti, 25 gr. Dissolve by 
heat ; add 1 fl.oz. of chloroform. Apply 
in the usual manner. Dry thoroughly, 
and remove all traces of the lubricator 
with a piece of Canton flannel. Burnish ; 
have the burnisher quite hot. 

3. — Burnishing Solution, — Castile soap, 
4 gr. ; alcohol (90%), 1 oz. Rub on the 
Surface of the print, allow to dry, then 
burnish. 

Crystoleum. — Adhesive. — A clear solu- 
tion of gum arabic is used. Ordinary gum 
arabic has a yellowish tint, but this may 
be got rid of by boiling and exposing to 
air and sunlight. 

Clearine. — For making the print trans- 
parent. Dissolve % oz. of pure Canada 
balsam in 3 oz. of benzine or chloroform 
(the former is the cheaper). 

Preservative. — Used to prevent fading 
and appearance of white blotches which 
occur when the print actually comes into 
contact with the photogram. Gum copal, 
in small lumps, is heated to about 400° 
F., volatile oils being driven out. The 
residue is taken and mixed with boiled 
linseed oil until dissolved (three or four 
hours) ; when the solution is so viscous 
that it can be "pulled" just like trans- 
parent elastic, the addition of linseed oil 
is concluded. Thin down with turpentine 
if necessary. 

Another Method. — Adhesive. — Add 1 
oz. of clear gelatine and 1 oz. of acetic 
acid to 1 pt. of water and boil until dis- 
solved. 

Clearine. — Mix thoroughly 3 oz. of cas- 
tor oil with 1 oz. of alcohol. 

Preservative. — Mix thoroughly 4 oz. of 
olive oil, 1 oz. of turpentine and 1 oz. of 
Canada balsam. 

Prints for Crystoleum should be deeply 
printed and warm-toned ; preferably 
printing out papers or albumen. 

The Crystoleum Squeegee is made of 
thin flat wood or bone (a tooth-brush 



[717] 



Photography 



(Mountants) 



handle, for instance), one end sand- 
papered to a rounded flat end, the other 
to a rounded curved end. 

Mounting. — Soak the print and blot 
off. Smear the glass with the smallest 
possible quantity of fresh starch paste or 
photo-mountant and the face of print 
similarly. Lay pasted surfaces in contact 
and gently press together with finger-tips, 
beginning at center. Lay a piece of thin 
writing paper on the print and gently 
squeegee from center to edge. Dry thor- 
oughly but slowly. 

Removing the Paper. — Grind away 
with fine emery cloth, cut to small round 
patches fitting a finger-tip and working 
in small circles all over the print until 
very little paper remains. 

Translucing. — Make the glass and 
print hot enough to melt solid paraflSne 
wax, smear print therewith and rub well 
with a paraffine-waxed linen or fine cot- 
ton rag until the print is filled and a thin 
film of wax remains all over. When cool, 
but not set hard, polish with waxed cloth. 

Mountants and Mounting. ( See also Ce- 
ments, Pastes, etc.) 

In preparing mountants, where starch, 
arrowroot, dextrine, etc., are used, always 
rub down to a smooth paste with a little 
water and a spoon or fork before adding 
boiling water or heating the mixture to 
swell the grain. With gelatine, swell in 
cold water, then warm gently until dis- 
solved in a jacketed pan or on a water 
bath. In stirring pastes always stir in 
one direction the whole time of cooking ; 
never reverse. (See also Cements, 
Glues, Pastes, etc.) 

Arrowroot-Gelatine. — Bermuda arrow- 
root, 8 oz. ; water, 4 oz, ; and soften Nel- 
son's No. 1 soft gelatine, 360 gr., in 
water, 64 oz. Mix both in enameled iron 
saucepan and boil for 5 minutes. When 
cool add methylated spirit, 5 oz. ; car- 
bolic acid (liquid), 25 minims. Strong 
adhesive. Used cold. Keeps. 

Starch-Gelatine. — Wheat starch, 2 
parts ; rice starch, 1 part ; mix thorough- 
ly in a mortar. Gelatine, 50 gr. ; water, 
10 oz. Swell and dissolve by heat. Cool 
to about 65° F., then add the mixed 
starches in small quantities, stirring until 
about the consistency of thin cream is 
formed. Heat slowly in a jacketed pan 
until the starch thickens, and continue 
boiling, stirring constantly, until about 
one-fifth of the water has evaporated. 
Add slowly, with constant stirring, alco- 
hol, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 50 minims. A 
stiff, perfectly smooth paste, which causes 
almost no cockliAg if carefully applied. 



(Mountants) 



Starch-Dextrine. — Dextrine, 1 oz. ; hot 
water, 1 1/{. oz. ; starch, 1 oz. ; mixed with 
cold water, iy2 oz. Add dextrine to 
starch gradually and heat on water-bath 
till whole jellifies. When cold, add thy- 
mol, 2 gr. per oz. weight. 

Gulliver's Paste keeps very well indeed ; 
does not cockle prints and will not thick- 
en. Pound 1 oz. of white gum arable 
and mix with 4% oz. of dextrine, add 16 
oz. of boiling water, a little at a time, and 
then boil the mixture in an enameled pan 
for about 15 minutes. Allow to cool ; add 
ammonia, 10 drops, and bottle for use. 

Dextrine. — Dextrine, 25 oz. ; alum, 1 
oz. ; sugar, 4 oz. ; water, 30 oz. ; carbolic 
acid (10% solution), li/^ oz. Keeps 
well ; great adhesion ; cockles the mount 
very little and permits print to be moved 
about. 

Gelatine, Non-cockling. — Soak sheet 
gelatine, 4 oz., in water, 16 oz. till soft, 
melt on water-bath, add methylated spirit, 
5 oz., in thin stream, stirring rapidly, 
and, lastly, glycerine, 1 oz. To apply, 
rinse clean ground glass in hot water, 
drain and brush over with hot mountant. 
Lay print face up on glass, rub lightly 
down through piece of clean paper, re- 
move and lay on mount. Prints stick 
firmly and mounts do not cockle by this 
plan. 

Liquid Gelatine. — Swell Cologne glue 
or gelatine, 1 part, in water, 6 parts ; d" 
solve on the water-bath and add chloral 
hydrate, 1 part. Heat for a short time 
and neutralize the sticky fluid with a few 
drops of soda solution. 

Gelatine for Thin-leaved Alhums.- 
Sheet gelatine, 1 oz. ; water, 4 oz. Melt, 
cool and add methylated spirit, 1^ oz., 
very slowly and stirring constantly. Then 
add glycerine, ^ oz. 

Shellac Mountant for Thin Mounts. — ■ 
Make a strong solution of shellac in meth- 
ylated spirit. Apply to print and mount 
in a thin film and rub into contact. Does 
not cockle the thinnest mount. 

Backing Varnish (to prevent loss of 
gloss or cockling during mounting) . — 
Bleached lac, 1 oz. ; methylated spirit, 20 
oz. Break the lac small, wash well, then 
dissolve with occasional shaking. Pow- 
dered borax, 2 dr. ; Castile soap, 2 dr. ; 
warm water, 2 oz. Dissolve, mix with, 
the lac solution, settle and decant. 

Dry Mounting Sheets. — Gum sandarac, 
10 parts ; copal, 3 parts ; orange shellac, 
4 parts ; rosin, 3 parts ; Venice turpen- 
tine, 2 parts; alcohol, 11 parts; spirits of 
turpentine, 11 parts. Wax a sheet of 
glass, laying tissue paper thereon, and 
paint freely with the above mixture. Al- 



[718] 



Fhotography 



(Mountants) 



low to dry and strip. The paper thus 
treated is cut to size, laid between the 
print and mount and ironed with a hot 
flat-iron. 

Dextrine Dry Mountant. — When suffi- 
cient heat and pressure are available, 
prints may be mounted perfectly by pow- 
dering the backs with fine dextrine and 
hot-pressing them into contact with the 
mounts. 

Dry Mounting. — Dip thin tissue paper 
in a solution of shellac in methylated 
spirit and dry. Fix print to tissue by a 
touch with a hot iron, then trim print and 
tissue together. Lay tissued print on 
mount, cover with clean blotting paper 
and press with a flat-iron, not so hot as 
for ironing linen. If too hot, print and 
mount will curl up. If too cool, they 
will not adhere. 

Directions for Dry Mounting Photo- 
graphs. — A solution of shellac in alcohol 
is prepared by pouring the spirit over the 
shellac and slightly heating the solution in 
a water bath. The solution, which must 
not be too thick, is spread uniformly with 
a brush over the back of the photograph. 
When dry, the photograph is laid on the 
cardboard, covered with a thin linen cloth 
and a hot flat-iron passed over it ; it will 
immediately adhere firmly and neatly to 
the cardboard. The many disadvantages 
of wet mounting are avoided by this 
process. Another method is similar to 
that described above, differing only in the 
composition of the dry adhesive. A piece 
of tissue paper is coated by means of a 
broad brush with the following solution : 
White gum lac, 30 parts by weight ; gum 
elemi, 3 parts by weight ; Canada balsam, 
5 parts by weight; alcohol (94°), 100 
parts by weight. After drying for about 
15 minutes, the other side is coated and 
likewise dried. The piece of paper thus 
treated is placed between the photograph 
and the cardboard and a hot flat-iron 
passed over it. The sheets will adhere 
perfectly without warping or stretching 
and the photograph will be protected 
against any damage from sour paste. By 
again applying heat the photographs may 
easily be separated from each other. 

Temperatures recommended, not higher 
than: Carbon and "gum" prints, 140° to 
150° F., 60° to 65° C. ; gelatino-chlo- 
rides, lightly alumed, 160° F., 70° C: ; 
gelatino-chlorides, strongly alumed, 165° 
to 175° F., 75° to 80° C. ; collodio-chlo- 
rides, 185° F., 85° C. ; bromide, 185° to 
195° F., 85° to 90° C. ; albumen, 195° F., 
90° C. ; platinums, plain salted silver, 
and other prints with matt faces and no 
gelatine, 195° to 205° F., 90° to 95° C. 



(Enameling Prints) 



These are for a dwell of 5 seconds. 
Slightly lower temperature and longer 
dwell are recommended as a rule. Very 
thick papers should have low tempera- 
ture (140° F.) and long dwell. 

Unmounting Dry-Mounted Prints. — 
Heat a metal plate to 250° or 300° F. 
(120° to 150° C.) and lay the mount 
upon it. When hot, press a corner of the 
print with a clean flannel until loose, then 
raise this corner and press another part. 

Mounting Prints on Glass. — This 
method of making brilliant prints for 
"opaline" and framing purposes depends 
upon manipulation rather than formula. 
Use a hot solution of gelatine, 1 oz., in 
20 of water. Have the glass perfectly 
clean and hot, soak the print in the gela- 
tine solution for a minute or two, slip the 
hot glass under the print, withdraw them 
from the solution together, and squeegee 
the print into contact with a flat squee- 
gee. Want of attachment is due to (a), 
air-bells; (b), cooling of the gelatine too 
soon and before the squeegeeing is com- 
plete ; (c), careless handling of the 
mounted prints before the gelatine is set 
hard; or (d), dirtiness or greasiness of 
the glass. 

Mounting Prints on Celluloid. — Float 
dry print on and coat celluloid with cel- 
loidin, 30 gr. ; amyl acetate, 1 oz. Squee- 
gee together. 

Mounting Paper on Metal. — Traga- 
canth, 3 parts ; gum arable, 12 parts ; 
water, 50 parts. Or, Gum acacia, 10 
parts ; water, 20 parts ; aluminum sul- 
phate (hot alum), 1 part. 

Varnish for Prints on Wood. — Canada 
balsam and turpentine, equal parts, melt- 
ed together in a warm place. Apply two 
coats with stiff brush. Or, Size the prints 
with a coating of thin gelatine solution, 
allow to dry, and then apply artists' copal 
varnish. This dries glossy and has a hard 
surface less liable to injury than Canada 
balsam. 

Enameling Photo Prints. — Use very 
clean plates and rather larger than the 
prints to be enameled. Wipe them well, 
rub them with talc and remove the excess 
with a soft brush passed lightly over the 
surface. In a dish, half filled with ordi- 
nary water, immerse the photographs and 
allow them to soak. This being done, 
coat one of the talcked plates with enam- 
eling collodion in the ordinary way, agi- 
tate to cause the ether to evaporate, and 
when the film has set — that is to say, in 
a few seconds — steep this plate, the col- 
lod'onized surface up. in a second dish 
containing pure water. Now take one of 
the prints in the first dish and apply the 



[719] 



Photography 



(Glossing Prints] 



printed side to the collodion, remove the 
plate from the dish, keeping the print in 
Its place with the finger of the left hand, 
and remove the air bubbles by lightly rub- 
bing the back of the photograph with the 
forefinger of the right hand. Care has 
been taken beforehand to prepare some 
very pure starch paste, passed through a 
cloth, and some thin cardboards, or sim- 
ply thick paper, the size of the plates 
used. The air bubbles having completely 
disappeared, and the perfect adherence of 
the print ascertained, dry with bibulous 
paper and spread over the prepared card- 
board on paper a coating of the collodion 
by means of a flat brush. Apply this 
sheet on the print, pass the finger over it 
to obtain complete adherence, and give it 
24 hours to dry. At the expiration of 
this time cut with a penknife the card- 
board or paper even with the print and 
detach by one corner. If the plate has 
been well cleaned, the print will come off 
itself. We get in this manner a very 
brilliant surface, and as solid as that ob- 
tained by the use of gelatine, which, as 
it is seen, is entirely done away with in 
this process. The prints are afterward 
mounted on thick cardboard in the usual 
way. It is possible, by mixing with the 
collodion some methyl blue dissolved in 
alcohol (a few drops are sufficient), to 
obtain moonlight effects, especially if a 
rather strong negative has been used. 
For sunsets make use of an alcoholic 
solution in coccinine. 

Glace Prints. — Apply the prints face 
down while wet to the smooth varnished 
side of a ferrotype plate, squeezing it by 
rolling a rubber roller over the back, hav- 
ing blotting paper between the print and 
paper. When dry, it will have a high pol- 
ish and drop off the sheet. The polish 
is called glace finish. To mount such 
prints without losing the gloss, make the 
following mounting solution : Soak 1 oz. 
refined gelatine in cold water for an hour, 
then drain off and squeeze out the water 
as much as possible ; put the gelatine in a 
jelly pot and place the latter in a pan of 
hot water on the fire ; when the gelatine 
has melted, stir in slowly % oz. pure 
alcohol and bottle for use. This glue will 
keep indefinitely and can be melted for 
use in a few minutes by standing the 
bottle in a basin of hot water. As it 
contains a very small percentage of water, 
it hardly affects the gloss of the prints 
and dries almost immediately. 

To Gloss Prints. — Give the glass a 
good washing with soap and water (using 
an ordinary nail brush). When thor- 
oughly clean rinse under the tap. Now 



(Orthochromatic Photography) 

take a print (which must have been soak- 
ing in a dish of clean water for 3 or 4 
minutes), place it face downward on the 
glass and squeegee. When partly dry, 
mount a piece of backing paper on print, 
then set up to dry. It is not necessary 
that the prints should have been through 
an alum bath, provided they are not put 
on glass direct from the washing water. 
They must be allowed to dry first and 
then damped just before putting on glass, 
as the film is too soft after being 1 or 2 
hours in water. After standing on a 
mantelpiece for about 3 hours, the prints 
will leave the glass without any trouble, 
and they will have a gloss free from 
marking caused by small particles of 
chalk, etc., sticking to glass. 

Glazing Gelatine Prints. — ^Many ama- 
teurs are troubled by having their prints 
adhere very firmly to the glasses to which 
they have been squeegeed for glossing. In 
some cases this is caused by putting them 
on the side of the glass which was not 
prepared for them. To remedy this, paint 
a large B with Brunswick black on the 
back of the glass. This will insure the 
same side always being used. Pieces of 
paper put on for this purpose are often 
washed off. To clean the glasses thor- 
oughly take a few drops of solution made 
by dissolving 30 gr. spermaceti wax in 5 
oz. of benzine and rub it all over the glass 
with a piece of paper until the surface is 
polished. Repeat this every time the 
glass is used. 

ORTHOCHROMATIC PHOTOGRA- 
PHY 
Light Filters. 

Yellow and orange light filters of pot- 
metal glass of the cheaper kind are made 
by stirring a bar of wood in the molten 
glass. The charred wood gives a brown- 
ish-yellow color, but it also gives a good 
deal of black carbon, so that a light filter 
of a given intensity, judged by the extent 
to which it lengthens the exposure, does 
not give nearly such good color correction 
as a pot-metal colored in a different way, 
which would lengthen the exposure to the 
same extent. This is one reason why it 
is not wise to buy the cheapest kind of 
orthochromatic light filter. 

Methods of Making Color Filters. — 1. — 
With collodion film on glass. — Dissolve 
celloidin chips (90 gr.) in alcohol, 5 oz. 
ether, 5 oz. To this collodion add the dye 
(see later). Shake well and allow to 
stand a day or two. Pour off the clear 
collodion and flow over the glass plate, 
previously cleaned with ammonia, and 
then with alcohol. In place of collodion, 



[720] 



Photography 



(Light Filters) 



celluloid in amyl acetate, or ordinary 
spirit varnish, may be used. Collodion 
screens are very liable to fade. 

2. — With Gelatine Film on Glass. — 
Swell best transparent gelatine in eight 
times its weight of cold water. Liquefy, 
filter through a hot-water funnel and add 
dye solution in carefully measured dose. 
Warm flat plate glass (at least 7-32 in. 
thick) on warm iron plate and pour over 
gelatine solution. Leave to set, and when 
dry cement to flat cover-glass with Can- 
ada balsam. If the filters are used close 
in front of the plates, ordinary dry plates 
may be fixed and dried, and soaked in the 
dye solution. 

3. — Gelatine Films Stripped from 
Glass. — Clean a piece of glass thoroughly 
and flow over 1% solution of white wax 
in benzole, and rub almost all off with a 
tuft of cotton wool. Soak 220 gr. Hein- 
rich's gelatine in 10 oz. water, liquefy at 
105° F. and filter warm. Flow over the 
leveled plate and leave to set. When dry 
flow over aurantia collodion or aurantia 
negative varnish. Leave to dry and again 
flow on the gelatine solution. Leave to 
set and dry, cut round the edges, strip 
off and fix in a stop of the lens. 

Method No. 2 is the best. 

Yellow Light Filters for Plates Sensi- 
tive to Yellow and Green. — 1. — Tartrazin, 
of the Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik. 
Add a 1% solution to the gelatine solu- 
tion given under (2) above. Test depth 
by photographing a test chart. Dark 
Prussian blue should be clear glass in the 
negative and chrome yellow-black. Tar- 
trazin gives a beautifully bright screen, 
requiring very little extra exposure. 

The newer dye, rapid filter yellow K, is 
even better than tartrazin, and may be 
used in the same way. 

Brilliant yellow gives a gradual absorp- 
tion and may be used in increasing 
strength according to the depth of filter 
required. 

2. — Aurantia used as per method (1) 
above gives a good light filter. About 1% 
gr. per oz. of collodion is an average. 
For deeper screens increase the dye. The 
blue is cut off gradually, according to 
depth of tint. 

3. — Naphthol-yellow, used in collodion, 
cuts off the blue sharply about the blue- 
green. 

Orange Filter for Plates Sensitive to 
Red.— AM "Echtes Rot" or Rose Bengal 
and tartrazin in proportion of 1 or 1% 
to 10 to gelatine solution given above. 

Bichromate of Potassium Filter. — One 
of the simplest light filters is a solution 
of bichromate of potassium contained in a 

[ 



(Light Filters) 



cell. This will do for almost all ordinary 
orthochromatic work, as it may be made 
of any strength according to the color of 
original, a saturated solution being or- 
ange-colored and serving for red-sensitive 
plates, or it may be diluted to make the 
palest screen for landscape work on yel- 
low and green-sensitive plates. 

Filters for Three-Color Negatives. — 
According to Miethe, filter and plate 
should be so adjusted that the blue record 
extends from 4,000 to 4,900, the green 
record from 4,900 to 5,890, the red record 
from 5,890 to 7,000. According to New- 
ton and Bull, the records should have 
some overlap and are as follows : Blue, 
4,000 to 5,000 ; green, 4,600 to 6,000 ; red, 
5,800 to 7,000. 

Wet filters giving the latter absorp- 
tions : 

Blue Filter. — Victoria blue B (Bayer), 
( 1 : 100 solution ) , 23 parts ; naphthol- 
green (1:100 solution), 9 parts; water, 
460 parts. 

Green Filter. — Rapid filter green 
(1:100 solution), 4 parts; naphthol- 
green ( 1 : 100 solution ) , 4 parts : rapid 
filter yellow K (1:100 solution), 4 
parts ; water, 460 parts. 

Red Filter. — Rose Bengal (1:100 so- 
lution), 46 parts; rapid filter yellow K 
(1:100 solution), 46 parts; water, 460 
parts. These solutions are used in cells 
of cm. thickness. The blue filter does 
not keep in solution. It is therefore gen- 
erally the practice to use a non-color sen- 
sitive plate for the blue record and substi- 
tute a 1% solution of quinine sulphate in 
water acidified with sulphuric acid for the 
blue filter. 

Dry filters may be made by coating 
plate-glass carefully leveled with gelatine 
as in (2) above, and then staining up in 
dye solutions made up as above, but with 
less water, until a test by spectrum photo- 
graph shows that absorptions are correct. 
The most scientific way to make the 
filters is to add the dye in measured quan- 
tity to the gelatine solution and carefully 
coat a given area of glass with given 
amount of dye to give the exact absorp- 
tion required. 

These filters are probably the best for 
all-round color work, whatever plates are 
used. The best plate is a panchromatic 
plate for all three negatives. If home- 
bathed plates are used, then an ordinary 
plate may be used for blue record nega- 
tive, a plate bathed in pinachrome tor 
green and one bathed in plnacyanol for 
red. Where only one class of plate is 
used, then one bathed in pinachrome is 
best, or one bathed in a mixture of pina- 
721] 



Photography 



(Light Filters) 



chrome and pinacyanol, taking of the 
stock solutions 3 parts of former to 2 of 
latter. 

The above filters will also do for collo- 
dion emulsion, or the following may be 
substituted for the blue filter if "A" sen- 
sitized emulsion is used : 1% rhodamin, 
2 parts; water, 100 parts. 

Trichrome Filters. — The ratio of three- 
color filters should be determined by pho- 
tographing black, white and a scale of 
grays, which should come alike on all 
three negatives. The exposures should be 
made under the same conditions of light 
and sensitive material that are proposed 
when making the actual three-color ex- 
posures. 

Light Filters and Prints. — ^The red 
filter negative is the blue printer; green 
filter is red printer ; blue filter is yellow 
printer. 

Order of Printing the Colors. — Usually 
yellow, red, blue. The color printed last 
is generally the most predominant. 

The S anger-Shepherd, Pinachrome, Lu- 
miere, Rotary and Other Processes. — In- 
struction in booklets obtainable from the 
respective firms. 

Sensitizing Trichrome Tissues. — Potas- 
sium bichromate, 1 oz. ; water, 30 oz. ; 
ammonia, .880, about 1 dr. Add ammo- 
nia until the solution changes to a clear 
yellov/ and just turns red litmus paper 
faintly blue. For hard, strong negatives, 
2 oz. bichromate to 30 oz. water ; for soft, 
flat negatives, ^^ oz. bichromate. If 
printing by enclosed arc lamps, bichro- 
mate must be much lessened in amount. 

Dyes for Tri-Color Transparencies hy 
the Staining Method. — For blue : Thio 
blue A, or soluble Prussian blue, slightly 
acidified with sulphuric acid. For pink : 
A mixture of eosin and rhodamin pink. 
For yellow : Best brilliant yellow or ani- 
line yellow. For blue : Methylene blue, 
16 gr. ; cold water, 4 oz. For pink : 
Magenta red, 16 gr. ; hot water, 4 oz. ; 
acetic acid, 10 minims. For yellow : 
Ammonium picrate, saturated solution. 
Rinse in each case with water made acid 
with acetic acid. 

Cement for Tri-Color Films. — ^Gelatine, 
150 gr. ; acetic acid (glacial), 150 min- 
ims; water, to 10 oz. Soak the gelatine 
until swelled, heat in jacketed pan at 
150° F. until dissolved and add slowly, 
with constant stirring and keeping up the 
temperature, methylated alcohol, 26 oz. 
Heat before use ; paint freely over the 
transparency or print ; have the next 
image well drained and surface dry, ready 
to lower on to the first one as soon as the 
cement becomes just tacky. Or, Use 



(LumiSre Process) 



white dextrine, gum or almost any trans- 
parent mucilage. 

Colors of Printing Inks for Three- 
Color. — Theoretically correct colors (non- 
permanent) : Yellow, pink and blue-green. 
Inks : Cadmium or light chrome yellow, 
rose lake and greenish peacock blue. 
Nearest correct (permanent) colors: 
Yellow, madder lake and turquoise blue. 

Pinatype Three-Color Light Filters. — 
(a) Gelatine, 384 gr. ; water, 10 oz. (b) 
Crystal violet, 5 gr. ; distilled water 
(warm), 1 oz. ; acetic acid (glacial), 1 
drop, (c) Rapid filter green I, 5 gr. ; 
distilled water (hot), 1 oz. (d) Rapid 
filter red, 12 gr. ; distilled water (hot), 1 
oz. Take 1 oz. of (a), with 96 m'nims 
of (b), (c) and (d), for the blue, green 
and red filters respectively. Use 120 min- 
ims of dyed gelatine to every 16 square 
inches of glass, or 7% minims per square 
inch. Each filter consists of 2 glasses of 
the same color, bound face to face. 

Pinatype Print Plates. — Hard gelatine, 
185 gr. ; chrome salt (ammonium bichro- 
mate), 31 gr. ; water, 10^/^ oz. ; alcohol, 
1 oz. Is sensitive to light and ready for 
use as soon as dry. 

The Lumiere Process. — Light Filters. — 
Plates coated with warm 10% gelatine 
solution (5 c.c. for each 10 sq. cm. of 
surface) are dyed 5 minutes at 70° F., 
rinsed and dried, two of each being ce- 
mented together with Canada balsam. 
Green Screens. — Methylene blue (%% 
sol.), 5 c.c; auramine G (%% sol.), 36 
c.c. For "A" plate. Blue-Violet Screen. 
—Methylene blue (V2% sol.), 20 c.c; 
water, 20 c.c. For blue label plate. Or- 
ange Screen. — Erythrosin (l^% sol.), 18 
c.c; metanile yellow (sol. saturated at 
60° F.), 20 c.c For "B" plate. 

Safe Light. — For "A" plate, weak red. 
For "B" and blue label, faint green. 

Paper for the Positives. — Edge a glass 
plate with masticated rubber, 40 gr. ; ben- 
zole, 10 oz. Dry and coat with collodion 
as follows : Alcohol, 5 oz. ; ether, 6% 
oz. ; pyroxylin, 55 gr. ; castor oil, 15 min- 
ims. Edge glass with rubber and coat 
with collodion. When dry, paper is 
squeegeed into contact. After drying, 
surface of paper is waterproofed with 
varnish, and after receiving gelatine coat- 
ing is stripped from glass for use. Mount 
paper on glass by immersing both 
(baryta-coated side in contact with col- 
lodion) in 7% gelatine solution at 145° 
F. Let dry for 12 hours and coat with 
gelatine mixture, allowing 5 c.c. per 13 X 
18 cm. plate (=4% X 7 in.). 

Gelatine Mixture. — Water, 1,000 parts ; 
emulsion gelatine, 120 parts; hard glue 



[722] 



Photography 



(Lumi^re Process) 



(C5oignet's), 120 parts; ammonium bi- 
chromate, 60 parts ; potassium citrate 
(25% sol.), 40 parts; cochineal red, 1 
part ; alcohol, 200 parts. Soak gelatine 
and glue in the water 12 hours, melt at 
120° to 140° F., cool to 95° F. and add 
then in order given, with constant stir- 
ring, ammonium bichromate, potassium 
citrate and cochineal. Add the alcohol 
little by little, and filter through a fine 
cloth. Place plates on leveling slab to 
set, dry at temperature not above 68° F., 
time of drying being not more than 12 
hours. 

Exposure of Positives. — Papers are 
stripped from their glass supports when 
dry and exposed as in carbon printing. 

Development of Positives. — Collodion- 
ize glass plate and coat with rubber solu- 
tion (20 gr. in benzole, 10 oz.). Immerse 
plate and print in ice water for 15 or 20 
seconds, bring into contact, and squeegee. 
Put under pressure for 5 or 10 minutes, 
soak in cold water for 2 hours, then in 
water at 100° F. for half an hour, when 
the paper support will leave the print. 
Develop as usual in carbon work, wash 
in cold water, place in alcohol for 5 min- 
utes and dry. 

Staining Positives. — Immerse for 12 
hours at ordinary temperature in red bath 
for green sCreen positive : Water, 1,000 
parts; erythrosin J (3% sol.), 25 parts. 
Blue bath for orange-green positive : 
Water, 1,000 parts; diamine F (3% sol.), 
50 parts; hard glue (15% sol.), 70 parts. 
Yellow bath for violet-green positive : 
Chrysophenine G, 4 parts ; water, 1,000 
parts. Dissolve at 160° F. and add alco- 
hol, 50 parts. After staining, wash briefly 
in cold water to remove excess of dye. 
Immerse red and blue prints in 5% cop- 
per sulphate solution. Rinse and dry all 
three. 

To reduce red or yellow images, soak in 
water. To reduce blue image, soak in 
%% or 1% glue solution. To reduce red 
greatly, use 5% ammonium solution. To 
intensify red, soak in erythrosin solution. 

Combining Positives. — When color ef- 
fect is right, coat the surface of prints 
with 1 in 5 rubber solution, let dry, and 
coat with 1% collodion. Coat paper with 
15% hard glue solution and apply to yel- 
low positive. Dry, strip off the paper 
(which brings with it the yellow film), 
apply the latter to the blue positive, using 
as mountant water, 1,000 parts; hard 
gelatine, 120 parts ; glycerine, 50 parts. 
Use warm, immersing yellow image and 
blue image (on glass). Bring into con- 
tact, register and squeegee. When dry, 
strip paper from glass, bringing blue and 



(Lumiere Process) 



yellow films thereon. Apply this to glass 
bearing red image, using same solution of 
gelatine and glycerine. The paper on 
stripping will bear the three films, which 
are transferred to glass by means of the 
gelatine and glycerine solution. 

Autochromy. — The new simplified 
method. The developer (aa:bb) given in 
next paragraph may be used in place of 
quinomet. 

Developer. — Distilled water, 1,000 c.c. 
or 35 oz. ; quinomet, 15 grams or ^ oz. ; 
anhydrous soda sulphite, 100 grams or 
3l^ oz. ; ammonia, 32 e.g. or 9 dr. ; po- 
tassium bromide, 6 grams or 90 grains. 
Dissolve the quinomet in warm water 
(about 100°), add sulphite and then am- 
monia. 

Reversing Bath. — Water, 1,000 c.c. or 
35 oz. ; potassium permanganate, 2 grams 
or 30 gr. ; sulphuric acid, 10 c.c. or 3 dr. 

First Development. — For one ^ plate 
use 1 oz. of developer with 4 oz. of water. 
For correct exposures develop for exactly 
2^ minutes, temperature of bath being 
about 60°. Time of development is 
shortened for over-exposure and prolonged 
for under-exposure. For development of 
uncertain exposures, see below. 

Reversal. — On removal from developer 
rinse in running water, then place in 
about 3 oz. of reversing bath and take 
into daylight. The plate will gradually 
become transparent and the colors will be 
visible on examination. At the end of 
3 or 4 minutes, when the negative should 
be completely transparent, remove from 
bath and wash for about % minute in 
running water. 

Second Development. — Redevelop in 
full daylight, using the solution which has 
served for the first development (kept in 
the dish without special precautions). 
When the h.igh lights are completely dark- 
ened (about 3 or 4 minutes), wash for 3 
or 4 minutes and place to dry. Fixing is 
unnecessary unless the plate is intensified. 

The Original Method, Improved. — 
Some of the best workers still prefer this 
method (with the substitution of (aa) 
and (bb) for the (a) and (b) solutions 
given in our last volume) to the newer 
method with fewer operations. They 
claim that they secure more plucky, bril- 
liant-colored autochromes. The solutions. 
— First development: (aa). Bisulphite of 
soda solution, 2 drops ; pyro, 45 gr. ; po- 
tassium bromide, 45 gr. ; water, 3^?^ oz. 
(bb) Anhydrous sodium sulphite, 3 dr.; 
ammonia. % oz. ; water, 3 oz. Reversal 
of the image: (c) Water, 1,000 c.c. or 35 
oz. ; potassium permanganate, 2 grams or 
30 gr. ; sulphuric acid, 10 c.c. or 3 dr. 



[7231 



Photography 



(LumiSre Process) 



Second development : (d) Distilled water, 
1,000 c.c. or 35 oz. ; anhydrous sulphite, 
15 grams or Yp oz. ; dianol, 5 grams or 
75 gr. Oxidation: (e) Water, 1,000 c.c. 
or 35 oz. ; solution (c), 20 c.c. or 5 dr. 
Intensification: (f) Water, 1,000 c.c. or 
35 oz. ; pyrogallic acid, 3 grams or 45 gr. ; 
citric acid, 3 grams or 45 gr. (g) Dis- 
tilled water, 100 c.c. or SV2 oz. ; silver 
nitrate, 5 grams or 75 gr. Clearing: (h) 
Water, 1,000 c.c. or 35 oz. ; potassium 
permanganate, 1 gram or 15 gr. Fixing : 
(i) Water, 1,000 c.c. or 35 oz. ; hypo, 150 
grams or 5% oz. ; saturated solution of 
soda bisulphite, '50 c.c. or 1% oz. Var- 
nishing : Crystallizable benzine, 100 c.c. 
or 2% oz, ; gum dammar, 20 grams or 
308 gr. 

Tentative Development of Uncertain 
Exposures. — The dark-room lamp should 
be fitted with the LumiSre "Virida" light 
filter. Development of one plate (5x7, 
or half plate) : (1) Put in one measure 
glass 15 c.c. (1/^ oz.) and in another 45 
c.c. (11/^ oz.) of the concentrated de- 
veloper (aa) and (bb) or quinomet 
(above). (2) Put in the developing 
dish : Water, 80 c.c. or 21^ oz, ; concen- 
trated developer, 5 c.c. or 85 minims, at 
a temperature of 60° F. Immerse the 
plate in this solution and count the num- 
ber of seconds elapsing before the first 
outlines of the image appear, disregard- 
ing the sky. Immediately these outlines 
are discernible, pour into the dish either 
15 c.c. (% oz, ) or 45 c,c. (l^^ oz.), 
whichever may be necessary. 

Variation in Time of Development Due 
to Temperature. — At 50° F. develop 4 
min. ; at 60° F. develop 21/2 min. ; at 68° 
F. develop 2 min. ; at 77° F. develop ll^ 
min. 

Modifications in Autochrome Develop- 
ment. — For known over-exposure. — Up 
to 4 times normal : Develop l^/^ min. at 
60° F. 4 to 8 times normal: (a), 20 
c.c; (b), 5 c.c; water, 100 c.c. — 6i/^ 
min. 8 to 15 times normal : (a), 20 c.c ; 
(b), 3 c.c; water, 100 c.c- — 6% min. 
For known under-exposure — V2 to ^ 
normal: (a) 10 c.c; (b), 20 c.c— 6 
min. Less than % normal: (a), 6 c.c; 
(b), 20 cc— 6 min. 

Flat, Under-exposed Autochromes. — t 
(a) Hypo, 1/^ oz. ; water, 10 oz. (b) 
Potassium ferricyanide, 30 gr. ; water, 10 
oz. Dissolve and mix. Reduce the plate 
for 5 min. herein. Wash 2 min. ; intensi- 
fy with solutions (f) and (g) above. 
Treat with (h), and fix with (i). 

Stand Development. — Lumi&re's (a) 
solution, 5% dr.; (b) solution, 51/^ dr.; 



(Ives' Tripak Process) 



water, 50 oz. With under-exposed plates, 
develop for 1 hour, 

Acid-Amidol Developer. — Sodium bisul- 
phite lye, 20 minims ; sodium sulphite 
(anhydrous, 15 gr, ; potassium bromide 
(10% solution), 10 minims; diamido- 
phenol (amidol), 5 gr, ; water, 1 oz. 
Develops a correctly exposed plate in 20 
min. at 60° F,, and is recommended be- 
cause the application of the developer im- 
mediately decreases the plate's sensitive- 
ness to light, so that development may be 
watched in a deep green safe-light, A 
more energetic developer, with the same 
characteristics, is : Amidol, 5 gr, ; potas- 
sium bromide (10%), 5 minims; sodium 
sulphite (anhydrous), 15 gr, ; water, 1 oz. 
Developing Autochromes by Observa- 
tion. — Use Virida safe-light, and even 
from this screen the plate as much as 
possible ; in fact, it should be protected 
from the light entirely until in the de- 
veloper. Lay the plate quickly in the de- 
veloper and count seconds at once, until 
the image is first seen, disregarding the 
sky ; but as the image never appears, even 
with great over-exposure, till 22 sec. have 
passed, the dish may be covered for the 
first 22 sec. The solutions are: (aa) 
Water, 100 cc. ; bisulphite of soda lye, 
3 drops ; pyro, 3 grams ; potassium bro- 
mide, 3 grams, (bb) Water, 85 cc, ; an- 
hysodium sulphite, 10 grams ; ammonia, 
.920, 15 cc For use dilute (bb) to 
quarter strength, i.e., water, 150 cc. ; so- 
lution (bb), 50 c.c. In what follows, 
"ammonia solution" means (bb) thus 
diluted to quarter strength. 

Development. — For a half-plate put in 
a dish: Water, 80 cc, ; solution (aa), 
10 cc ; ammonia solution, 10 cc. ; and 
have in a small graduate 45 cc. of am- 
monia solution to be added wholly or in 
part to the bath during development. 
Temperature, 60° F. If this cannot be 
adhered to, it remains to work out tables 
for other temperatures. The dish should 
be kept in shadow, and only brought near 
the light occasionally to judge the "time 
of appearance." When that is noted and 
the extra ammonia added if indicated, 
the dish may be kept covered until time 
is up. 

Zves' Tripak Color Photography and 
Formulas. — The method consists in ex- 
posing a pack of 3 color sensitive gelatino- 
bromide of silver plates in a special nlate 
holder and camera, which are supplied by 
the manufacturer grouped together in such 
a way that they can be opened out for 
exposure in the camera through color 
compensating screens and be developed as 
a unit in a tank developer. The exposure 



[724] 



Photography 



(Ives' Tripak Process) 



in bright sunlight with F-8 stop in lens 
is 1 sec. Exposure with stop F-16 is 4 
times longer. The preferred developer 
is glycine, as follows : Hot water, 80 oz. ; 
sulphite of soda (dry), 3 oz. ; glycine, 1 
oz. ; carbonate of potash, 5^^ oz. ; bro- 
mide of potassium, 60 gr. This solution 
is cooled to 60° F. before use. The de- 
veloper keeps well and can be used over 
and over again for weeks. If the nega- 
tives appear too thin after many have 
been developed, they may be left in longer 
or a little fresh undiluted stock added, 
stirring well to obtain a perfect mixture. 
The plates in the pack are removed from 
the plate holder in the dark room and 
immersed in tank of developer at 70° F. 
for 8 min. ; if temperature is 60° or 
cooler, development in the tank will re- 
quire 12 min. Correct exposure will in- 
sure good negatives. After development 
the plates are washed in water, then fixed 
in a hypo sulphite soda bath of the usual 
proportions, 1 oz. of hypo to 6 oz. of 
water, then washed and dried. 

Transparent prints on a specially pre- 
pared bichromate sensitized collodion fish 
glue film (sensitized with a bichromate of 
potash solutfon) are made from all of the 
3 negatives at one time, and are fixed by 
washing in water for 3 min. The back 
side of the sensitized film is printed in 
contact with the glass negative in a print- 
ing frame, in sunlight if possible, until a 
piece of solio paper matches tint, say No. 
7 in the tripak exposure meter. The ex- 
posed sheet is then removed from the 
frame, laid on and clamped to a sheet of 
glass, and washed under a stream of 
water as previously mentioned. After de- 
velopment the plate and film attached is 
immersed for 2 min. in a chromic acid 
bath (30 gr. to 16 oz. of water), after 
which it is drained and hung up to dry. 
When quite dry the images are removed 
from the glass support and cut apart and 
immersed (still face up) in 3 respective 
dye baths; the print from the (r) nega- 
tive in the peacock blue, that from the (c) 
negative in magenta, and that from (b) 
negative in the yellow. The coloring is 
usually completed in 5 min., but the film 
may be left in longer without affecting the 
result. After coloring, the films are dipped 
one at a time in clear water to remove the 
surplus dye. They may then be pressed 
between blotting paper to remove most of 
the water and hung up to dry. When 
quite dry any fluff adhering from the 
blotting paper may be removed by means 
of a chamois leather. The magenta film 
may be dipped in a solution of hydrogen 
peroxide Instead of plain water before 



( Photo-Mechanical ) 



blotting off. It fixes the action of the 
dye better on the film. When absolutely 
dry the prints may be superposed in reg- 
ister on a glass and bound together be- 
tween 2 glasses like a lantern slide. The 
peacock blue film should be laid on the 
glass first and clamped at one end with a 
wide steel spring ; then the crimson film 
laid upon this and shifted until each de- 
tail exactly corresponds with the blue, 
then held with the fingers till the clamp 
can hold both in position. Then the yel- 
low print is superposed and registered 
and clamped in the same way. Thus com- 
pleted, the result is a picture in the colors 
of nature when viewed by transmitted 
light. The various supplies are furnished 
by the Ives' Inventions Co. of New York. 
Two-color Heliochromy. — Some marvel- 
lously effective color-prints and transpar- 
encies can be made from 2 exposures. 
Make 2 negatives through blue and orange 
light-filters respectively. From the orange- 
filter negative make a ferro-prussiate 
print or transparency. From the blue- 
filter negative print in orange (e.g. by 
gum bichromate coated over the blue 
print). For stereoscopic effect, 1 blue 
print and 1 silver print toned to an 
orange will give good results, with no need 
for superposition. The compound color 
effect can be seen in the stereoscope, even 
if the negatives have not been made 
stereoscopically ; but in this case there 
will not be stereoscopic relief. 

PHOTO-MECHANICAL OPERATING 
(MONOCHROME AND THREE- 
COLOR) 
Tri- Color Light-Filters. 

Red Filter, Blue Printer. — Dye solu- 
tions : Rose Bengal, 4 gr. ; flavazine, 20 
gr. ; 10% gelatine solution, 9 oz. The 
gelatine is Crentz's middle hard. Soak 
a quantity in a small measured quantity 
of water, dissolve by heat, and add water 
to make 10 times the quantity of the 
original gelatine. 

Green Filter, Red Printer. — Rapid 
filter green, 1 gr. ; naphthol green, 2 gr. ; 
flavazine, 3 gr. ; 10% gelatine, 9 oz. Pro- 
ceed as above. 

Blue Filter, Yelloiv Printer. — Dye so- 
lutions : Victoria blue B, 5 gr. ; naphthol 
green, 2 gr. ; 10% gelatine, 9 oz. Proceed 
as above. 

Yellow Filter, Black Printer. — Dye so- 
lution : Tratrazine (1 to 100), 1 oz. 400 
minims. Proceed exactly as above. 

Light Filters. 

Yelloio Screens. — Stock Solution : 
Rapid filter yellow (k), 2 gr. ; distilled 



[725] 



Photography 



( Photo-Mechanical ) 



water, 365 minims. No. 1 Filter: 6% 
gelatine solution, 120 parts ; stock dye 
solution, 3 parts ; water, 21 parts. No, 2 
Filter : 6% gelatine solution, 120 parts ; 
stock dye solution, 6 parts ; water, 18 
parts. No. 3 Filter: 6% gelatine solu- 
tion, 120 parts ; stock dye solution, 12 
parts; water, 12 parts. No. 4 Filter: 
6% gelatine solution, 120 parts ; stock dye 
solution, 24 parts. Coat 118 minims (7 
c.c.) on every 16 sq. in. (100 sq. c.c.) of 
glass. Cement 2 filters together. The 
increase of exposure for these filters is 
11/4 : 1.7 : 2 : 3 times for erythrosine or 
pinachrome bathed plates. 

Three-Color Filters (for suhtractive 
methods). — Stock gelatine solution: A 
6% solution. The Violet Filter (yellow 
printing negative). — Stock dye solution: 
Crystal violet, 31 gr. ; warm water, 6 oz. 
76 minims ; glacial acetic acid, 3 drops. 
To make the filter, add 20 parts of dye 
solution to 100 parts gelatine solution, 
filter. Or, 2 stock dye solution : Rapid 
filter blue, 15^4 gi'- ; water, 6 oz. 160 
minims; ammonia, 10 drops. Filter: 
Gelatine solution, 100 parts ; dye solution, 
20 parts. No. 2 is more staple to light 
than No. 1. Green Filter (red printing 
negative). — Stock dye solution: Rapid 
filter green (i), 62 gr. ; water, SVq oz. 
Filter : Gelatine solution, 100 parts ; dye 
solution, 20 parts. This transmits the 
extreme red ; the following does not, and 
should always be used with panchromatic 
plates. Stock dye solution : Filter blue- 
green, 15% gi'- ; filter yellow (k), 15^4 
gr. ; water, 3i/^ oz. Filter : Gelatine solu- 
tion, 100 parts ; dye solution, 20 parts. 
Red Filter (blue printing negative). — ' 
Stock dye solution: Rapid filter red (i), 
38% gr. ; water, 3i^ oz. Filter: Gela- 
tine solution, 100 parts ; dye solution, 20 
parts. Cement 2 glasses of each color 
together. Relative exposures for pina- 
chrome or pinacyanol bathed plates : 4 : 
8-12 :8-12. 

Additive Filters (for negatives for 
chromoscope or projection). — Violet Fil- 
ter. — Stock dye solution : Crystal violet, 
23 gr. ; methylene blue, 7% gr. ; water, 
4 oz. 192 minims ; glacial acetic acid, 3 
drops. Filter: Gelatine solution, 100 
parts ; dye solution, 20 parts. Green 
Filter. — Stock dye solution : Rapid filter 
green (ii), 61% gr. ; water, 414 oz. Fil- 
ter : Gelatine solution, 100 parts ; dye 
solution, 20 parts. This transmits the 
extreme red ; the following does not. 
Stock dye solution : Filter blue-green, 11 
gr. ; filter yellow (k), 191/4 gr. ; water, 
BV2 oz. Filter: Gelatine solution, lOO 
parts ; dye solution, 20 parts. Red Filter. 



( Photo-Engraving) 



— Stock dye solution : Filter rapid red 
(ii), 381/^ gr. ; water, 31/2 oz. Filter: 
Gelatine solution, 100 parts ; dye solution, 
20 parts. Allow 118 minims of dyed gel- 
atine to every 16 sq. in. Cement 2 
screens of the same color together. Ratio 
of exposures for pinachrome or pinacyanol 
bathed plates— 4 :12 :12. 

Developers. 

Developers for Photo-Mechanical Dry 
Plates. — Pyro-Ammonia. — (a) Pyro, 30 
gr. ; ammonium bromide, 30 gr. ; potas- 
sium metabisulphite, 30 gr. ; distilled 
water to 10 oz. (b) Ammonia (.880), 
70 minims ; distilled water to 10 oz. 
Equal parts. 

Pyro-Soda. — (a) Pyro, 1 oz. ; water, 86 
oz. ; pure nitric acid, 20 drops ; potassium 
bromide, 120 gr. (b) Soda sulphite, 9 
oz. ; soda carbonate (crystals), 10 oz. ; 
water, 86 oz. Equal parts (a) and (b). 

Hydroquinone. — (a) Hydroquinone, V2 
oz. ; potassium metabisulphite, i/^ oz. ; 
potassium bromide, V2 oz. ; water, 20 oz. 
(b) Caustic potash, 1 oz. ; water, 20 oz. 
To use. Shake bottles well. Take equal 
parts (a) and (b), develop 2 min., wash 
thoroughly before fixing. 

Metol-Hydroquinone. — (a) Metol, 40 
gr. ; hydroquinone, 50 gr. ; sulphite of 
soda, 120 gr. ; bromide of potassium, 30 
gr. ; water, 20 oz. (b) Caustic potash, 
180 gr. ; water, 20 oz. 

Fixing Bath for Dry Plates. — Hypo, 16 
oz. ; potassium metabisulphite, 1 oz. ; 
water, 40 oz. 

Drying. — To enable dry plates to be 
dried over gas, fix in : (a) Hypo, 48 oz. ; 
water, 96 oz. (b) Sulphuric acid, i/4 oz, ; 
crystallized sulphite soda, 4 oz. ; chrome 
alum, 2 oz, ; water, 32 oz. Add (b) to 
(a) very gradually. 

Reducer. — (a) Hypo, 1 oz. ; water, 4 
oz. (b) Potassium ferricyanide, 50 gr. ; 
water, 1 oz. Wash negative, and just 
cover with (a) for 2 min. Pour off (a) 
solution, add a few drops of (b), and re- 
turn to dish. If too slow, pour off again 
and add more (b). 

Intensifier. — Bleach with mercury and 
blacken with ammonia or other suitable 
alkali. 

Miscellaneous Photo-Engraving Formu- 
las. 

Passing or Removing Bath for Zinc. — 
Alum, 2 oz. ; nitric acid, 1^2 oz. ; water, 
80 oz. 

Passing Bath for Copper. — A weak so- 
lution of iron perchloride, for about 1 min. 
Wash well, and bathe with ammonia 
(.880), 1 part; water, 10 parts, unti' 



[726] 



Photography 



( Photo-Engraving ) 



oxide is removed. Or, Chromic acid, 1 
oz. ; water, 40 oz. 

Fish Glue, To Clarify. — Use a spe- 
cially clarified glue when possible. In an 
emergency, take ordinary fish glue (pref- 
erably a non-acid sample) and clarify by 
mixing fish glue, water, and white of egg 
in equal quantities, beating well, to mix 
thoroughly. Heat in a jacketed pan, stir- 
ring all the time, until boiling-point is 
reached; then boil for 1 min., until the 
albumen has coagulated, which it will do 
around the suspended matter in the glue. 
Filter through a couple of thicknesses of 
fine muslin. 

Fish Glue, To Preserve. — Fish glue that 
is really fit for process work is eflBciently 
treated with preservative for ordinary 
conditions. With very small or irregular 
amount of work, entailing the keeping of 
part of a supply of fish glue in a part- 
empty bottle for a long time, there is 
risk of deterioration. In such cases, de- 
cant from the stock bottle into several 
smaller bottles, properly corked. Use 
from one at a time. Fish glue keeps 
much better before than after dilution. 

Albumen for Line Work on Zinc. — 
White of 1 egg (or 70 gr. of dried albu- 
men in 1 oz, of distilled water) ; ammo- 
nium bichromate, 130 gr. ; water, 20 oz. 
Addition of 144 minims fish glue makes 
the print develop more easily. — Bolt 
Court. 

Fish Glue for Line Work on Zinc. — 
Fish Glue, 5 oz. ; water, 100 oz. ; am- 
monium bichromate, ^ oz. ; ammonia 
added drop by drop until solution changes 
to bright yellow. Gets slower with keep- 
ing. 

Bitumen Process for Line Work on 
Zinc. — Dissolve 150 gr. of finest pow- 
dered Syrian asphaltum in 2 oz. of chlo- 
roform and 3 oz. of anhydrous benzole. 
Add 30 gr. of Venice turpentine and 10 
drops of oil of lemon or oil of lavender. 
Film should be a transparent golden tint. 
Develop with rectified turpentine. 

Fish-Glue Enamel: The Original For- 
mula. — Fish glue, 2 oz. ; eggs (whites), 
2 oz. ; water, 4 oz. ; ammonium bichro- 
mate, 120 gr. 

Fish-Glue Enamel. — Fish glue (Le 
Page's photo-mechanical) 5 oz. ; water, 6 
oz. ; ammonium bichromate (saturated 
solution), 3 oz. Mix, stand for 3 or 4 
hours, and filter before use. 

Fish-Glue-Alhumen Enamel. — Fish glue 
(Le Page's), 3 oz. ; water, 8 oz. ; ammo- 
nium bichromate, ISO gr. ; white of 2 eggs. 
Beat egg whites for 5 min. ; add to glue 
solution ; beat again with egg-whisk ; 
stand for 8 or 10 hours. Filter. 



( Photo-Engraving ) 



Tschorner^s Tested Formulae, — The re- 
sult of a long series of tests in the Im- 
perial Technical Institute, Vienna, gives 
the following as the best formulae and 
proportions. For daylight printing : 
Clarified fish glue, 30 c.c, ; ammonium bi- 
chromate (10% solution), 35 c.c; al- 
bumen (dried), 4 gr. ; water, 65 c.c. For 
printing by arc and mercury-vapor lamps : 
Clarified fish glue, 30 c.c. ; ammonium 
bichromate (10% solution), 20 c.c; al- 
bumen (dried), 4 gr. ; water, 80 c.c 

Hardening Bath for Enamel on Zinc. — 
Use as for copper and dye with violet. 
After thorough washing place for 3 min. 
in ammonium bichromate, 2 oz. ; chromic 
acid, Yz oz. ; methylated alcohol, 5 oz. ; 
water, 50 oz. Wash dry, and burn in. 

Gold Enamel on Zinc. — Print as usual 
in fish glue, burn in only until the color 
of the dye is discharged, and etch with 
alcohol, 40 oz. ; water, 60 oz. ; nitric 
acid, 1 to 2 oz. 

Cold Enamel for Newspaper Work and 
to stand the most forceful machine etch- 
ing. A coating that overcomes the var- 
ious disadvantages of previous "cold" 
enamels, (a) Place 5 parts of raw rub- 
ber in a bottle that will hold 100 parts, 
and add tar oil, 20 parts, and soak for 
24 hours. Shred 2}^ grams of gutta 
percha into a porcelain tray and heat on 
sand bath until melting begins. Stir in 
a small quantity of carbon bisulphide, 
and pour this off into the bottle contain- 
ing rubber and oil ; repeat with a little 
more bisulphide until about 65 grams have 
been used, and all the gutta percha has 
been dissolved. Cork the bottle very well, 
and let it stand a few days until it con- 
tains a homogeneous thick syrup. Will 
keep indefinitely if well corked. Vapor 
must be kept from fire or open flame, (b) 
Bitumen, 40 parts ; chloroform, 60 parts. 
Dissolve and filter through cotton w^ool. To 
use take : Bitumen solution, 100 parts ; 
rubber syrup, 5 parts ; mix ; filter well. 
Flow a little on a piece of glass, and if 
film is too thick, add a little chloroform. 
To coat the metal see that it is cold ; flow 
with the mixture, and run to the corners 
as in varnishing a negative. Dry. Rub 
all over with a thick solution of gum 
arabic on a little cotton wool ; wash 
well ; coat with a thin coating of sensi- 
tized fish glue. Whirl with as little heat 
as possible, drying the fish-glue coating 
slowly. If much heat is used the film 
will reticulate and crack. In printing, 
have the negative cold or only slightly 
warm. Give a strong exposure to sun- 
light or powerful electric arcs ; develop 
in cold water ; dry. Coat with enough of : 



[727] 



Photography 



( Photo-Engraving ) 



Turpentine, 3 parts ; benzine, 2 parts, to 
just cover ; let it stand 5 sec. on the 
plate ; wash quickly under the tap ; pass 
with sponge and gum-arabic solution, and 
rub with cotton wool to wash away any 
fish glue remaining. Dry. Etch. 

Dry Enamel Process. — Ammonium bi- 
chromate, 125 gr. ; sugar candy, 270 gr. ; 
chromic acid, 80 gr. ; albumen, whites of 
2 eggs ; liquor ammonia, 120 drops ; water, 
10 oz. After printing, dust with finely 
powdered anhydrous carbonate of soda, 
or carbonate of magnesia, with a soft 
brush, brushing until the image is clear. 
Use small dark room or cupboard for the 
dusting, and keep atmosphere moist by 
having a bowl of hot water standing on 
the floor. Or, Grape sugar, 180 gr. ; 
water, 8 oz. ; ammonium bichromate, 150 
gr. ; chromic acid (10% solution), 35 
minims. — Tschorner. 

8topping-out Varnish. — Best pale shel- 
lac, 8 oz. ; methylated alcohol, 20 oz. ; 
methyl violet, 2 dr. ; oil of lavender, 1 
dr. Or, Methylated alcohol, 20 oz. ; shel- 
lac, 6 oz. ; dragon's blood, 3 oz. ; oil of 
lavender, i/^ oz. ; lampblack, 1 oz. Dis- 
solve the shellac, add the other ingredi- 
ents as given. Or, Best litho ink, 4 oz. ; 
beeswax, 2 oz. ; rosin, 2 oz. ; bitumen, % 
oz. ; well mixed, with turpentine to make 
it workable. 

Rolling Up with Ink. — Gum up the 
plate as for line work, and ink up with 
a glazed roller, and starting ink thinned 
down with machine oil or thin varnish. 
Dust with bitumen, and burn in. 

Etch for Copper Half-Tones. — Iron 
perchloride, 1 lb. ; water, 14 oz. ; or test 
by Beaume hydrometer to from 40 to 45°. 
Improved by adding 1 part of old, used 
bath to 4 parts of new. For fine etching, 
dilute to 35° Beaume. The best strength 
is 35° Beaume, if the solution is changed 
frequently, and not used for too long. 

Quicic Etching for Copper. — Heat the 
solution to 100° F. and insert the plate 
face downward ; or, if depth is not re- 
quired, place face upwards, rock the bath, 
and brush face of plate occasionally. 

Deep Etching Copper Half-Tones. — 
Stop out with strong stopping-out varnish, 
or roll up as for line zinc. Add a little 
hydrochloric acid to the perchloride solu- 
tion, or the etching may be done with 
nitrous acid. Use a brush freely on the 
bare parts. Penrose's glass etching brush 
is good. Rock the bath ; heat to about 
100° F. 

Etching Enamel on Zinc. — Before plac- 
ing the plate in the etch, roll it up all 
over with the thinnest possible film of 
good letterpress proofing ink, which will 



( Photo-Engraving ) 



help to prevent the enamel leaving thf 
zinc. 

Etch for Half-Tone on Zinc. — First 
bite : Water, 100 oz. ; nitric acid, 1 oz. 
Deep etch : Water, 100 oz. ; nitric acid, 
10 oz. Fine etch : Water, 100 oz. ; nitric 
acid, 7^ oz. 

Deep Etch for Zinc {dragon's blood 
process). — First bite: Water, 100 oz. ; 
nitric acid, 5 oz. Second bite : First bath, 
strengthened further for further bites if 
necessary. Or, First bite : Nitric acid, 
4 oz. ; water, 80 oz. ; powdered alum, 3 
oz. ; 5 to 6 min. Roll up, rinse and re- 
place in same bath to which 4 oz. more 
acid has been added ; 5 min. To finish, 
remove the rolling-up ink ; paint out the 
solid blacks ; and place in nitric acid, 3 
oz. ; water, 60 oz. ; alum, 1 oz. ; 3 to 4 
min. 

'^StilV^ Etching for Zinc. — Sulphuric 
acid, 6 oz. ; potassium nitrate, 2 oz. : 
water, 20 oz. Dissolve the nitrate ; add 
the acid slowly, then dilute gradually with 
water until there is no more bubbling. 

Viscous Acid -Bath. — The addition of 
fish glue, gum arable, brown sugar, or 
similar thickening matter to the nitric 
acid etching bath is recommended by some 
very good etchers as helping to give a 
smooth edge to the etched line. Some 
add alum (1% or less) to the bath. 

Levy Etching for Zinc. — Usually nitric 
acid, 1 part ; water, 6 parts ; may be in- 
creased to nitric acid, 1 part, water, 3 
parts. First bite, 30 to 40 sec. V2 lb. 
air pressure ; second bite, 60 to 90 sec, 
1 lb. air; third bite, 4 to 5 min., l^^ lb. 
air. 

Acid-Blast Etching for Zinc. — ^Nitric 
acid, 1 part ; water, 7 parts. First bite, 
20 seconds ; second bite, 45 to 60 seconds ; 
third bite, 2 to 4 minutes. After the 
third bite give a heavy four-way powder- 
ing, and etch out the whites to avoid 
much routing. 

Etch Potvdering. — To protect the 
"shoulder" of the lines in deep etching. 
Brush dragon's blood against one side of 
lines with a "badger softener." Heat 
plate until powder is fused. Thoroughly 
cool, and repeat operation for remaining 
three sides of lines, so that the level zinc 
is left bare, but the powder piled against 
all sides of the elevations. Heat only un- 
til the powder just melts. 

Rolling-up Process for Zinc. — First, 
etch, roll up with best black litho ink, 
thinned with middle litho varnish ; second, 
third, and other etchings, roll up with 
"starting" ink (see later) thinned with 
middle litho varnish. Finishing etch, 
clean off all ink, and reink with hard 



[728] 



Photography 



( Photo-Engraving ) 



etching ("finishing") ink, applied with a 
glazed roller. 

Soft Etching Ink. — Beeswax, 3 oz. ; tal- 
low, 3 oz. ; asphalt, 1 oz. ; good litho ink, 
8 oz. ; litho varnish (thin), 8 oz. Melt 
first 4 ingredients, and mix well ; add 
litho varnish, allow to cool, and work well 
with a muller on an ink slab. 

Starting Ink for Line Work. — Good 
letterpress ink, 1 lb. ; beeswax, 1 lb. ; thin 
litho varnish, 4 oz. Melt, mix and mull 
thoroughly. 

Hard Etching Ink. — Good litho print- 
ing ink, 8 oz. ; beeswax, 2 oz. ; shoemak- 
er's wax, 6 oz. ; rosin, 6 oz. Melt, and 
mix thoroughly. 

Black Wax. — Asphaltum, 2 oz. ; white 
wax, 5 oz. ; stearic acid, 5 oz. ; sperma- 
ceti, 10 oz. Melt, and mix thoroughly. 
Or, Beeswax, rosin and tar, in equal 
quantities, melted, and thoroughly mixed. 

Rolling-up Ink. — Letterpress ink, 1 lb. ; 
bitumen, 4 oz. ; rosin, 3 oz. ; beeswax, 3 
oz. ; turpentine, 10 oz. 

Rolling Up. — Heat the plate on a hot 
bed, and roll up with glazed roller, exam- 
ining with a magnifier until all the top 
is well covered and each dot just shows 
a yellow rim around it. If too heavily 
inked, or too greatly heated, the ink will 
cover the hollows that should be etched. 

Clearing Solution for Copper. — Chro- 
mic acid, 1 dr.; water, 20 oz. ; sulphuric 
acid, 1 dr. May also be used to clean up 
plate after etching. After using it, the 
plate should be passed through weak ni- 
tric acid solution. Or, Hydrochloric acid, 
2 oz. ; common salt, 4 oz. ; water, 20 oz. 

Removing Enamel from Plates. — Hot 
saturated solution of crude American pot- 
ash is generally used, brushing with a 
stiff brush. A solution of 1 lb. of potash 
to 1% gal. of water is said to be effective. 
Caustic soda will do as well. If the plate 
is stained and dirty, it can be brightened 
with the clearing solutions given above, 
or a rock or two in nitric acid bath. 

Removing Ink or Varnish from Plate. — 
Wash the plate well with turps and 
methylated spirit together ; then with 
methylated spirit alone. Immerse in wa- 
ter, 10 oz. ; chromic acid, i^ oz. ; hydro- 
chloric acid, 3 oz. ; methylated spirit, 3 
oz. Stand for a few minutes before use. 
Immei-se the plate for a few seconds, and 
with an etching mop or cotton wool free 
it from scum or deposit. 

Ink. — (a) Litho writing ink, 4 sticks; 
Burgundy pitch, 8 oz. ; benzole, 10 oz. ; 
let stand for 2 days, (b) Ground bitu- 
men, 16 oz. ; turpentine, 40 oz. Mix (b) 
and add to (a) ; then add 1 lb. of Win- 
ston's black zinco ink ; then add 2 oz. of 



( Photo-Engraving ) 



Lucca oil (in winter, but less in sum- 
mer). To ink plate, take 1 part of above 
to about 5 parts of turpentine, rub well 
in with wad of flannel, and roll even with 
dry composition roller. Allow plate to 
stand, if possible, under ink for 12 hours, 
then develop, as above. 

Swelled Gelatine Line Process. — The 
films. — Nelson's amber gelatine, 4 oz. ; 
swell for some hours in 15 oz. of water, 
then melt in jacketed pan, and add sugar, 
1 oz. ; chrome alum (saturated solution), 
10 drops. Stir well, strain, and coat on 
plates, which already have been coated 
with plain enamel collodion, and dried. 
Use 1 oz. of gelatine solution for every 
40 sq. in. of glass. Dry, and store. To 
sensitize : Ammonium bichromate, 1 oz. ; 
methylated alcohol, 5 oz. ; water, 15 oz. 
Immerse 3 minutes ; dry in dark room. 
Print under negative until image shows 
through glass. Soak in cold water for 2 
to 4 hours. Dab dry with soft rag, level 
on bench, and surround with a wall of 
paper an inch deep to hold the plaster. 
Casting : Mix fine plaster of paris with 
water, to be as stiff as can be poured 
freely, pour over the film to about y2 
in. deep, feeling all over with fingers or a 
brush to break air bells. Allow to set, 
dry thoroughly, and strip plaster from 
gelatine relief. Molding : Set the dry 
cast level in porcelain tray, and pour 
water around (not over) it, leaving it 
until the face is evenly moist. Then re- 
move from water, renew paper wall, and 
pour melted beeswax and fine black lead 
over the cast. When set, strip, level, 
build up the large whites with more wax, 
using a molding tool, hot, and electro- 
type. 

For High Reliefs. — Soak 2l^ oz. of 
soft (Nelson's amber) gelatine in 10 oz. 
of water. Dissolve, and add 150 gr. of 
potassium bichromate. Coat at rate of 
6 oz. to 12 X 10 plate. 

Sioelled Gelatine (Woodhury^s). — Nel- 
son's sheet gelatine, 4 oz. ; sugar, ^ oz. ; 
glycerine, 100 gr. ; phenol, 2 minims; In- 
dian ink, 2 gr. ; potassium bichromate, 200 
gr, ; water, 14 oz. , 

Chalk Plates. — Dissolve pure gum ara- 
ble in warm water to consistency of 
cream. To every teacupful of precipi- 
tated chalk add 1 teaspoonful of gum ara- 
ble solution. Add water, and stir until 
the whole becomes a thin emulsion. Re- 
move rust from the base plates with em- 
ery paper. Blue these plates on a hot 
fire, and while still warm pour on the 
chalk emulsion. Bake slowly in an oven 
until the water is all evaporated. The 
upper crust will crack, and can be peeled 



[729 1 



Photography 



(Collotype) 



off, when the chalk surface can be scraped 
smooth. If coating too hard, too little 
chalk ; if too soft, too little gum. 

Collotype : Photo-Lithography and 
Kindred Processes. 

Collotype; the Basis. — Usually plate 
glass'; may be metal, preferably zinc, i/4 
in. thick ; or gelatined paper for small 
runs. 

Graining Bath for Zinc. — Nitric acid, 
% oz. ; alum (saturated solution), TV2 
oz. ; water to make 50 oz. Rock until 
zinc is evenly silver gray ; wash ; remove 
scum with cotton wool. 

Copper Basis. — Grain with a glass mul- 
ler and fine emery powder. 

Aluminum Basis. — Grain with sulphu- 
ric acid, 1 oz. ; water, 30 oz. 

Class Basis. — Should be absolutely level 
plate, and finely ground. If not, prepare 
with glass muller and fine emery in wa- 
ter. Or grind 2 plates face to face. 

Substratum. — Silicate of potash, 1 oz. ; 
cold beer (four-ale), 10 oz. ; tannic acid, 
% gr. ; add silicate to beer ; filter ; flow 
over plate, avoiding air bubbles ; dry 
spontaneously. When dry, if a white 
scum shows on surface, rinse with dis- 
tilled water. Should no scum be seen, 
rub plate well with a wad of papier Josef, 
when it will be ready for coating. Or, 
Albumen of fresh eggs, 16 oz. ; potassium 
silicate, 7 oz. ; water, 20 oz. 

Sensitized Gelatine Solution. — Middle 
hard gelatine, 2 oz. ; bichromate of pot- 
ash, % oz. ; distilled water, 20 oz. Soak 
gelatine in 20 oz. of distilled water. After 
thoroughly saturated, pour remaining wa- 
ter off into measure, and note quantity. 
Throw this away. Replace same quan- 
tity, add to gelatine, and dissolve on water 
bath, not above 120° F. When thor- 
oughly dissolved, add the bichromate 
(powdered), gradually stirring all the 
while. Cook for 14 hour, add 10 to 20 
drops of ammonia (.880) ; filter through 
jacketed warm-water funnel. Coat about 
10 dr. to 1 sq. ft. of glass. 

"Etch" or Damping Solution. — Solu- 
tions of sugar, gum, glycerine, etc., to 
keep the plate evenly moist, and repellent 
of greasy ink. Possible varieties are end- 
less. Types are : Glycerine, 30 oz. ; wa- 
ter, 20 oz. ; common salt, 50 gr. Or, 2 
oz. of ammonia (.880) in place of the 
salt. Or, Glycerine, 30 oz. ; water, 20 
oz, ; salt, 1 oz, ; hypo, % oz. ; oxgall, ^4 
oz, : ammonia (,880), 2 oz. 

To Recover a Flat-working Plate. — 
When high lights print muddy, wash out 
the ink with turps, dab the plate surface 
dry, wash over quickly with glycerine, 5 



(Collotype) 



[730] 



oz. ; potassium cyanide, 10 gr. ; water, 
20 oz. Wash off immediately with a 
sponge saturated with water. This may 
make the plate refuse all ink, in which 
case let it dry, "etch" as usual, for half 
an hour, and ink up. 

The Artotype Method. — Support, glass. 
Substratum: (a) Albumen (fresh egg), 
150 grams; ammonia (.80), a few drops, 
(b) Potassium bichromate, 3 grams; wa- 
ter, enough to just dissolve the bichro- 
mate. Ammonia (.880), added drop by 
drop, until color changes to bright yel- 
low. Beat (a) to a light froth; let 
stand; add (b). Sensitive coating: Soft 
gelatine, 160 grams ; ammonium bichro- 
mate, 30 grams; water, 2,400 c.c. Coat 
plate, and dry at 110° F. for 10 minutes. 
Second sensitive solution : When first is 
thoroughly dry : (a) Gelatine, 75 grams ; 
water, 1,000 c.c. (b) Isinglass, 75 
grams ; water, 1,000 c.c. ; potassium bi- 
chromate, 18 grams, (c) Chrome alum, 
10 grams ; potassium bichromate, 2 
grams ; water, 200 c.c. Take 50 grams 
of (a), 50 grams of (b) and 2 grams of 
(c). Dry in oven, at 110° F., for 12 
minutes, and complete the drying slowly. 

Gelatino-Bromide Collotype. — Coat plate 
glass with gelatino-bromide emulsion ; ex- 
pose behind a negative. Develop with so- 
dium carbonate, 20 gr. ; water, 1 oz, ; py- 
rogallic acid, 1 gr. Fix, wash, and brush 
over with calcium nitrate, 1 oz. ; water, 
2 oz. Stand for % hour ; wipe off super- 
fluous moisture, ink up, and print. Re- 
etch with the calcium nitrate solution. 

Dry-Plate Collotype. — Soak a ground- 
glass transparency plate in potassium bi- 
chromate, 1 oz. ; water, 20 oz. ; ammonia, 
100 minims. Dry. Expose under a nega- 
tive, and also through the glass. Varnish 
in a wide strip around the edges with 
shellac varnish or wax, to prevent frill- 
ing. Wash up for 15 minutes, and it is 
ready to print. "Etch" if necessary. 

Collotype from an Ordinary 'Negative. 
— An ordinary negative, not developed 
with pyro, or treated with any hardening 
agent, is immersed in: (a) Ferric chlo- 
ride, 60 gr, ; water, 14 oz. (b) Tar- 
taric acid, 20 gr. ; water, % oz. Dissolve 
separately, and filter; then mix, and di- 
lute to 4 oz, with water. In this the 
negative bleaches, a superficial bleaching 
being sufficient. Wash until free from alj 
yellowness, and dry, "Etch" with glycer- 
ine, ammonia and water in the usual way, 
and ink up. To prevent the plate break- 
ing during printing, support it on a gela- 
tine slab : Gelatine, 2 oz. ; glycerinp. 2 
oz. ; glucose, 2 oz. ; water, 5 oz. Swell 
the gelatine, melt in a jacketed pan, add 



Photography 



(Photo-Litho. Work) 



other ingredients, and run into a shallow 
tin to set. 

The Pretsch Swelled Gelatine Process. 
— (a) Coignet's gold medal gelatine, 1 
oz. ; water, 6 oz. ; swell and dissolve the 
gelatine with gentle heat, (b) Silver ni- 
trate, 30 gr. ; water, ^ oz, (c) Potas- 
sium bichromate (saturated solution), 2 
oz. To 1 oz. of (a) add (b). To the 
remainder of (a) add (c) ; and, while 
still warm, add the mixture of (a) and 
(b) to the mixture of (a) and (c). Mix 
thoroughly ; then add calcium chloride 
(cryst.), 100 gr. ; glycerine, 50 gr. 
Filter. Coat the glass, dry in dark ; ex- 
pose, wash until the whole plate appears 
granular, then ink up and transfer to 
litho plate or stone ; or to metal plate, 
and etch for type printing. The strength 
of grain depends upon amount of calcium 
chloride. 

Photo-Litho Transfer Paper. — Float 
good hard-sized wove (not laid) paper on 
Nelson's amber gelatine, 3 oz. ; sugar, ^ 
oz. ; water, 40 oz. Swell, dissolve, and 
add solution of chrome alum, 4 gr., in 
1 dr. of water. Float several times, un- 
til the geiatine sets on the paper, then 
hang to dry : and float again in similar 
manner. Albumenize and sensitize by 
floating on whites of 20 eggs ; water, 20 
oz. ; ammonium bichromate (saturated 
solution), 10 oz. Or, Bermuda arrow- 
root, 4 oz. ; potassium bichromate, 1% 
oz. ; water, 60 oz. Dry in cupboard at 
70 to 80° F. Printing 1 hour in direct 
sunlight, or 2% hours to 2 enclosed arc 
lamps. Develop with benzole, 8 parts ; 
French turpentine, 50 parts ; aniline oil, 

1 part ; and a large tuft of cotton wool. 
Use turpentine and this developer alter- 
nately. Wash, dry with chamois leather, 
and use methylated alcohol to remove all 
traces of turpentine. 

Transfer Paper. — (a) Glue, ^ oz. ; 
swell and dissolve with heat, in 10 oz. of 
water. With this rub down 3 oz. of flour, 
and heat gradually until it boils, and 
"plims" to a thick paste, (b) Plaster of 
paris, 4 oz. ; water, to just cover. Rub 
down with a spoon until the plaster 
thickens; add a little more water, and rub 
down until it thickens again. Continue 
adding, and rubbing or stirring, until the 
plaster thickens or sets no more; then 
mix well with the flour paste. Coat good 
printing paper, brushing with a broad 
brush, first one way, then across. Hang 
to dry. Or, Corn flour, 2 oz. ; glycerine, 

2 oz. ; water, 10 oz. 

Sensitizing Solution. — For winter : Po- 
tassium bichromate, 7 oz. ; water, 160 oz. ; 
ammonia (.880), added very slowly until 

[ 



(Photo-Litho. Work) 



solution turns lemon yellow. For sum- 
mer : Potassium bichromate, 4 oz. ; man- 
ganese oxysulphate, % oz. ; water, 16 oz. 
Float, face upward, 4 to 5 minutes on 
solution, which must be about 64 to 65° 
F. 

Transferring on Hand Platen Press. — ■ 
Lay the zinc on the bedplate, damp the 
transfer in the usual way, and after lay- 
ing down on the zinc, put several sheets 
of blotting paper on as backing. Pull 
with good pressure several times, remove 
backing, and damp the transfer again, 
turn the plate around, replace the back- 
ing, and put through the press again. Re- 
peat these operations about 4 times. Then 
remove the transfer paper with hot water. 

Transferring to Zinc on Litho Press. — ■ 
To avoid cutting or marking the tympan, 
cut out an opening the size of the zinc 
plate (and as near its thickness as pos- 
sible) in a sheet of strawboard the size 
of the stone, and place the plate in the 
opening, or place pieces of millboard at 
top and bottom of the plate. The scraper 
should be covered with a strip of leather, 
A piece of good, pliable and nicely sea- 
soned leather between the tympan and 
the plate is also an advantage. Put 2 
or 3 sheets of paper between the stone 
and the zinc plate, 

Rolling-up Ink. — For albumen process 
prints : Good black litho ink, 8 oz. ; 
palm oil, 1 oz, ; Burgundy pitch, 2 oz, ; 
beeswax, 2 oz, ; middle varnish, 2 oz. ; 
oil of lavender, % oz. For photo-litho 
transfers, thin down with turpentine. 

Litho Zinc or Aluminum Etching Fluid. 
— Boil in 50 oz. of water 3 oz, 100 gr, 
of powdered nutgalls, and let it evap- 
orate till 35 oz. remain ; then filter 2 or 
3 times through fine linen. When cool, 
add 400 gr, gum arable, previously dis- 
solved in least possible quantity of water. 
Well mix the whole, then add nitric acid, 
150 gr, ; hydrochloric acid, 230 gr, ; phos- 
phoric acid, 150 gr. 

Ahmiinum Plates. — "Preparation" for 
transfer: Gum arable solution (10° 
Beaume). 1,000 c.c. ; phosphoric acid 
syrup (45° Beaume), 30 c,c. For origi- 
nals in pen and pencil work reduce the 
phosphoric acid to 15 c,c. 

Aluminum Plates, Graining. — New 
plates, 90 minutes ; old plates. 45 minutes, 
in a graining machine making 180 turns 
per minute. Grain 00 for finest trans- 
fers, wood balls and very fine pumice pow- 
der. Grain for ordinary transfers, wood 
balls, and coarse pumice. Only these 2 
grains are used for transfers. Grain 1, 
glass balls and silex passed through No, 
80 sieve. Grain 2, glass balls and silex 
731] 



Photography 



(Photogravure) 



through 70 sieve. Grain 3, glass balls 
and silex through 60 sieve. These grains 
are for crayon and poster work. 

Aluminum, Gumming and Inking, as 
tor htone. — If there is any difficulty with 
transfer, gum the plate again. Dry. 
Place in essence of rectified terebenthin, 
bOO c.c. ; rectified benzine, 200 c.c. ; bi- 
tumen, powdered, 100 grams ; copal litho 
writing ink, 1/2 stick. Treat with pow- 
dered rosin and talc, as for stone, and 
prepare as usual. To de-prepare any part, 
ink the plate thoroughly; rosin and talc 
it; then treat with oxalic acid (saturated 
solution), 40 c.c; nitric acid, 40 c.c; 
distilled water to 1,000 cc Erasure of 
old work : Clean with petroleum or es- 
sence of terebenthin and fine pumice pow- 
der, followed by benzine ; finish with pol- 
ishing felt, and nitric acid, 60 cc. ; hy- 
drofluosilicic acid, 100 c.c ; water to 1,000 
c.c, and wash well. 

Photogravure; Photo- Aquatint. 

Tissue /2eswf.— Special carbon tissue is 
sensitized with bichromate of potash, 1 
oz. ; ammonia (.880), 5 drops; water, 20 
oz. I^ liter after complete solution. 

Tarnish Remover. — Acetic acid, 2 oz • 
common salt, 2 oz. ; water, 20 oz. Flow 
over the copper plate before laving down 
the tissue. 

Gelatine Coating to Prevent ''Devils" 
—Nelson's No. 1 gelatine, 120 gr. ; bi- 
chromate of potash, 6 gr. ; water, 9 oz. 
J^ liter carefully, and apply warm to the 
warmed copper plate. Dry, and expose 
to sunlight until insoluble. Recoat, drain- 
ing from the opposite corner to the one 
previously drained, and again expose to 
sunlight. The printed carbon resist is 
transferred to plates thus prepared. 

Dust Ground. — Finely powdered rosin, 
or gum copal, is used by the principal 
trade workers in France. Fine asphal- 
tiim powder is recommended by both 
Thomas Huson and Herbert Denison. 

Liquid Ground.— Asphsiltum, common 
rosm, and certain other gums, are applied 
(m solution in benzole or ether) by means 
ot a scent spray or an air brush. Ex- 
cept where discriminating grain is need- 
ed, these seem to have no advantage over 
the dust ground. 

Reticulated Ground. — Rosin, in pure 
water-free alcohol, saturated solution (a 
tew days to dissolve, with frequent shak- 
ing). For use, alcohol, 2 oz. ; rosin so- 
lution, % oz. Flow over leveled plate 
and allow to dry. Coarser reticulations. 
more rosin ; finer, more alcohol. 
_ Varnish for Edges.— Brunswick black 
IS most convenient. Rule lines around 



(Photogravure) 



[732] 



Ihl fcl^ rS ^ i"^'"^ P^°' then coat 
the rest of the edges with brush. Or, 
bitumen, 1 oz. ; benzole, 6 oz. ; turpentine^ 

Varn^h for Back of Plate.— Brunswick 
black, diluted with a small quantity of 
benzoline. 

Etching Bath for Talbot-Klic Process. 
"-•^nree to six different solutions of iron 
perchloride are used, beginning with the 
strongest, the general strengths being 40, 
36 33 and 30° Beaum6. After placing 
in the strongest bath the plate is watched 
to see whether there is any etching effect 
on the thinnest portions of the resist. If, 
after some time, no effect is seen, remove 
to the next bath. In each bath the etch 
(indicated by discoloring of the copper) 
IS watched until it ceases to spread fur- 
ther, then the plate is transferred to the 
next weaker, which will penetrate some 
thicker portions of the resist. The etch- 
ing must be stopped just before the very 
highest lights of the picture are attacked. 

Stock Etching Bath, To il/a/ce.— Take 
7 lb of lump perchloride of iron, add 60 
oz. of water, and heat until dissolved. To 

and^drnf ^ ^^f" ^^ °^- ^f «tock solution! 
and drop m strong ammonia (.880), stir- 

aXf S'^.^^'.}?^"1 ^^ ^" ^"^^^ thick;' then 
add this to the stock solution, and boil. 

n?h ;. ^if"^"^. ^"^ ^^^^^ fo^ 24 hours. 
Dilute with water until the proper den- 
sity is shown by the hydrometer. The 
densities vary with the nature of the 
?? nn'^ qn"' r"^ general series is 40, 36, 
about 80? ^Beaumc Heat before use to 

Time of Etching.— This var'w^ wifTi 
every plate but an"" actual! tSed exS 
ence of Herbert Denison w 11 gi ve a rS 

l3° 2 Snf'"^ i^o Beaumf no%ff'ect^ 
4d , J minutes ; 40°, 4 minutes • ^8° i 
minutes; 36°, 3 minu'tes ; 33° 2 ^inStes^ 
tacks fhp'^i""'^'-^,^^^ fi^^t bath that at: 
2 mfnutls. ' ''''^ ^"^^ "^^^^ ^han 

Single Etching Bath.—Vse 1 etching 
bath of perchloride of iron of exactly thi 
strength 38° Beaumg, at a temperature 

.« \t H Ju ^". t^^'^^ 1 ^^' to every 
sq. in. of the surface. 

Etching Ground.— To be applied to the 
face of the plate to protect it while titles 
or other line work are being etched. The 
etch ground is spread over the whole 
plate, and the lettering, etc, is scratched 
through the ground to the copper, the ti- 
tle being etched with perchloride of iron 
as used for etching the photogravure it- 
self. White wax, 400 gr. ; gum mastic, 
^00 gr. ; asphaltura, 200 gr. ; melt to- 
gether, and pour them into oil of laven- 



Photography 



(Flashlights) 



der, 1^/2 oz. Mix well, pour into wide- 
mouthed, glass-stoppered bottles, and, 
when set, pour a little oil of lavender on 
the top to prevent drying. 

After Etching. — Remove the resist with 
a 5% solution of caustic potash. 

To Remove Grain. — Use mixture of 
benzole and turpentine. 

The Steel Facing Solution. — Protosul- 
phate of iron, 1 oz. ; double sulphate of 
iron and ammonia, 1 oz. ; chloride of am- 
monium, 2 oz. ; water, 40 oz. Dissolve, 
and filter. 

To Preserve Steel-Faced Plates. — Heat 
well, and rub with beeswax until it melts 
and flows over whole plate. 

Ink for Photogravure. — Frankfort black, 
4 oz. ; brown red, 1 oz. Mix with me- 
dium oil, and reduce, when using, with 
weak oil to suit work. 

FLASHLIGHT AND ARTIFICIAL 
LIGHT 

Cautions. — Never grind potassium chlo- 
rate and sulphur together. The mixture 
is very explosive. Never grind any two 
constituents of a flash powder together. 
Flashlight mixtures, which are explosive, 
must not be used in magnesium lamps, 
except in such as have flat, open trays. 
Blow-through lamps are for pure pow- 
der only. 

Sublimed sulphur, or flowers of sul- 
phur, often contains free sulphuric acid, 
which is the cause of danger with flash 
powders containing sulphur. Wash in 3 
or 4 lots of distilled water, testing until 
wash water is found neutral. 

Flash Powders. — (a) Sift magnesium 
powder, 3 parts, on to a sheet of paper; 
powder potassium chlorate, 6 parts, and 
antimony sulphide, 1 part, separately, to 
the finest powder, and sprinkle over mag- 
nesium. Mix all with a feather or the 
dry finger, or shake together in a card- 
board tube. 7 gr. burn in from 1-20 to 
1-40 of a second, (b) Potassium perman- 
ganate, fine powder, 1 part ; magnesium 
powder, 5 parts, (c) Potassium nitrate, 
1 part; magnesium powder, 1 part, (d) 
Chrome alum, 1 part ; magnesium, 1 part. 
All chemicals must be dry, and in finest 
powder. Rub each separately, in a glass 
or Wedgwood mortar. Keep well stop- 
pered. The above are all good powders, 
(c) burns rapidly, and is not liable to 
explode. 

Flashlight Powder, To Burn. — A square 
metallic spirit lamp, having a flat top, is 
fitted with 2 wicks, one in front of the 
other, and separated by 2 or 3 inches. 
Immediately behind this lamp is a short, 
wide-mouthed bottle containing magne- 



( Flashlights) 



slum in powder. Dipping into this pow- 
der is a glass tube, the other end being 
carried up through the cork and bent to- 
ward the flames of the spirit lamp, which 
are in a line with the direction of the 
blowpipe. A second short piece of tube 
is passed through the cork, its outer end 
being connected with the rubber tube of 
a pneumatic ball. On giving this ball a 
quick, sharp squeeze, a small quantity 
of the powder is suddenly ejected from 
the blowpipe nozzle against the flames, 
this being attended by a dazzling flash. 
This is capable of being repeated as long 
as any of the magnesium powder remains 
in the battle. 

Flashlight Powders. — 1. — Magnesium 
powder, 6 oz. ; potassium chlorate, 12 oz. ; 
antimony sulphide, 2 oz. ; 75 to 150 gr. 
of the powder should be used. 

2. — Guncotton, 15 gr., and magnesium 
powder, 30 gr., are used. 

3. — Magnesium, 40% ; permanganate of 
potassium, 40% ; peroxide of barium, 
20%. 

4. — Purchase 1 oz. of magnesium pow- 
der and 1 oz. of negative guncotton from 
dealers in photographic materials. Place 
on a dustpan enough cotton, when pulled 
out, to measure about 3^/^ in. in diame- 
ter. Sprinkle it over with 20 gr. of mag- 
nesium powder to form a thin, even film. 
Lay over the magnesium, thus arranged, 
a very thin layer of guncotton. Connect 
to the bunch of cotton a small fuse of 
twisted cotton about 6 in. long, so that 
it will extend to the side of the dustpan. 
Then set the pan on a stepladder near 
the object, and, when ready, light the 
guncotton fuse with a match, when in- 
stantly a brilliant flash will ensue. There 
are several ready prepared magnesium 
compounds now sold, with special devices 
and lamps to fire them. 

5. — For photographing the interior of 
very large caves in such a manner as to 
bring out every possible detail, the fol- 
lowing is recommended : Magnesium, in 
powder, 20 parts ; barium nitrate, 30 
parts ; flower of sulphur, 4 parts ; beef 
suet, 7 parts. Melt the suet, and add 
the other ingredients after having first 
mixed them by passing through a fine 
sieve. When thoroughly stirred in, pour 
the mass into zinc boxes of a suitable 
size. A box 3 in. in diameter and 4 in, 
deep will hold about 1 lb., and will give 
a flash of 20,000 candle power. Such a 
flash, used in signaling in France, has 
been seen at a distance of 100 kilometers, 
or about 62 miles. 

6. — German patents have been granted 
on a series of slow combustion flashlight 



[733] 



Photography 



(Flashlights) 



powders of the following composition : 

(a) Potassium permanganate, 30 parts; 
zinc filings, 10 parts ; magnesium powder, 
10 parts ; iron, fine filings, to 100 parts. 

( b ) Potassium nitrate, 30 parts ; iron, 
fine filings, 30 parts ; magnesium powder, 
20 parts ; aluminum powder, to 100 parts. 

(c) Barium peroxide, 33.3 parts; mag- 
nesium powder, 33.3 parts ; aluminum 
powder, 33.3 parts. When any of these 
powders is ignited it gives, at first, a 
reddish light, of low actinic value ; the 
light gradually becomes more and more 
intense, until a maximum of actinic effect 
is reached. This slow combustion offers 
an advantage over the old rapidly acting 
flashlight powders, in that the eyes of 
sitters become gradually accustomed to 
the flash ; hence the pictures do not pre- 
sent the staring eyes that are so offen- 
sive in the majority of flashlight photo- 
graphs. 

A Safe Flash. — Soak blotting paper for 
a few minutes in a strong solution of 
potassium nitrate (saltpeter). Hang up 
to dry. Dry unoxidized magnesium pow- 
der may be spread on this, with the result 
of a combined touchpaper and flashlight. 

A Slow Flash-Torch Mixture. — Nitrate 
of baryta, 12 oz. ; powdered magnesium, 
10 oz. ; potassium chlorate, 3 oz. ; flowers 
of sulphur, 2 oz. ; melted fat from beef 
suet, 6 oz. Add first the nitrate of baryta, 
then the magnesium, chlorate of potas- 
sium, and lastly the sulphur, to the fat, 
in a warm state, in an earthen pot, stirred 
with a glass rod. When the mixture is 
in the condition of a thick paste pack it 
in boxes of zinc or aluminum, not tin- 
plate. The boxes burn with the mixture, 
and add to the light. 

Flash Sheets. — Prepare glass plates by 
cleaning them well, and polishing with 
talc powder or French chalk. Mix flex- 
ible collodion, 5 oz. ; powdered magnesium, 
2 oz. ; potassium chlorate, powdered, 20 
gr. ; in alcohol, 1 oz. Add the magnesium, 
then the potassium chlorate dissolved in 
the alcohol ; shake the mixture well in 
a wide-mouthed bottle ; pour a pool of 
this preparation upon the center of one 
of the plates ; allow it to flow all over 
so as to extend to each corner; then lay 
the plate upon a slab of slate or marble 
that has been previously leveled, so that 
it may become well set. At no time must 
this preparation be used near a naked 
flame, because the vapor is very inflam- 
mable. When the coating is quite dry, 
cut around Yg in. from the outer edges 
with a penknife and straight-ed^e ; lift 
the film at one comer, when it will leave 
the plate, and can be cut in halves, and 



(Flashlights) 



stored between sheets of thin paper. To 
use, pin to any convenient holder, and 
light one corner with a match. 

A Slow Flash Powder. — Powdered shel- 
lac, 2 oz. ; nitrate of baryta, I/2 oz. ; chlo- 
rate of potassium, 1 oz. ; powdered mag- 
nesium, 2 oz. The shellac causes slow 
burning. Keep dry. 

Magnesium- A luminum Flash. — Substi- 
tute ^ of the magnesium by a similar 
amount of aluminum. Improvement 
claimed. 

Flashlight ( Orthochromatic ) . — Lithium 
carbonate, 1 part ; calcium carbonate, 1 
part ; magnesium powder, 20 parts. 

Flashlight, Panchromatic. — Flashlight 
powder, 1 oz. ; strontium oxalate, 50 gr. ; 
sodium oxalate, 50 gr. Or, Pure ^mag- 
nesium, 1 oz. ; ammonium nitrate, 25 gr. ; 
strontium oxalate, 50 gr. ; sodium oxalate, 
50 gr. Use a medium yellow light filter. 

To Prevent SmoJce from Flashlight. — 
To prevent the smoke from magnesium 
ribbon or powder from spreading through- 
out the room, support over the point 
where the ignition is to take place a large 
flat pad of damp wool lint. This may 
be done by tacking the lint to the under- 
side of a board supported on legs. When 
ignition takes place, the products of com- 
bustion, for the most part, will become 
absorbed by the wool. 

Touchpaper. — Mix potassium chlorate 
and antimony sulphide (previously finely 
powdered separately) in equal parts; add 
French polish — i.e., strong shellac solu- 
tion in spirit — ^to make a thick cream, and 
apply evenly to paper. Dry without ap- 
plication of heat, and cut into strips about 
% in. broad. Or, soak thin blotting pa- 
per in a. solution of saltpeter (about 
10%) for a few minutes, then dry. 

Aluminum. — Bronze powder is usually 
slightly greasy. The oil is purposely add- 
ed in the manufacture to make the pow- 
der more suitable for its ordinary deco- 
rative purposes. Photographers should 
insist upon having it free from this addi- 
tion, and should also see that it is quite 
fine and flourlike. For oil, test as with 
magnesium. 

A Smoke Bag, consisting of fine mus- 
lin, loosely stretched over a fev/ light 
hoops of wire or cane, and large enough 
to allow the flash to be contained within 
it without fear of catching alight, is most 
useful. 

Fireproofing Muslin. — Ammonium phos- 
phate, 5 oz. ; common salt, 2 oz. ; water. 
90 oz. Heat to 120° F., and soak the 
muslin for half an hour or so, then hang 
to dry. After washing, the muslin will 
always need refireproofing. 



[734] 



CHAPTER XXI 



PEESEEYI]S"G AND CAK^l^IlS^Gj COT^DIMEJS^TS, FOOD 
PEEPAEATIONSj ETC. 



FRUIT, PRESERVING AND CAN- 
NING 
Caution. 

The provisions of the "Food and Drugs 
Act" must not be violated in putting up 
food preparations. If you use a coloring 
or preserving agent other than those par- 
ticularized in the law as permissible, and 
provided they are not expressly prohibited 
by the law, you must note the name and 
quantity on the label, as prescribed by 
the law. The laws relating to adultera- 
tions are very severe, and it is unwise to 
contravene them. For detailed informa- 
tion as to what can and what cannot be 
done, consult the Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C. 

Utensils Needed for Canning and Pre- 
serving. 

In preserving, canning and jelly-mak- 
ing, iron or tin utensils should never be 
used. The fruit acids attack these metals 
and give a bad color and metallic taste 
to the products. The preserving kettles 
should be porcelain lined, enameled, or of 
a metal that will not form troublesome 
chemical combinations with fruit uices. 
The kettles should be broad, rather than 
deep, as the fruit should not be cooked 
in deep layers. Nearly all the necessary 
utensils may be found in some ware not 
subject to chemical action. A list of the 
most essential articles follows : 

Two preserving kettles, 1 colander, 1 
fine strainer, 1 skimmer, 1 ladle, 1 large- 
mouthed funnel, 1 wire frying basket, 1 
wire sieve, 4 long-handled wooden spoons, 
1 wooden masher, a few large pans, knives 
for paring fruit (plated, if possible), flat- 
bottomed clothes boiler, wooden or wil- 
low rack to put in the botom of the boiler, 
iron tripod or ring, squares of cheese 
cloth. In addition, it would be well to 
have a flannel straining bag, a frame on 
which to hang the bag, a syrup gauge, 
and a glass cylinder, a fruit pricker, and 
plenty of clean towels. 



The regular kitchen pans will answer 
for holding and washing the fruit. Mix- 
ing bowls and stone crocks can be used 
for holding the fruit juice and pared fruit. 
When fruit is to be plunged into boil- 
ing water for a few minutes before par- 




Wire Basket 



ing, the ordinary stewpans may be em- 
ployed for this purpose. 

If canning is done by the oven process, 
a large sheet of asbestos, for the bottom 
of the oven, will prevent the cracking of 
jars. 

The wooden rack on which the bottles 
rest in the washboiler is made in this 
manner: Have two strips of wood meas- 
uring 1 in. high, 1 in. wide, and 2 in. 
shorter than the length of the boiler. On 
these pieces of wood tack thin strips of 
wood that are 1% in. shorter than the 
width of the boiler. These cross strips 
should be about 1 in. wide, and there 
should be an inch between two strips. 
This rack will support the jars, and will 
admit the free circulation of boiling wa- 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[735] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Utensils) 



ter about them. Young willow branches, 
woven into a mat, also make a good bed 
for bottles and jars. 

The wire basket is a saver of time 
and strength. The fruit to be peeled is 
put into the basket, which is lowered into 
a deep kettle partially filled with boil- 




Wire Sieve 

ing watei'. After a few minutes the bas- 
ket is lifted from the boiling water, 
plunged for a moment into cold water, 
and the fruit is ready to have the skin 
drawn off. 




Fruit Pricker 

A strong wire sieve is a necessity when 
purees of fruit are to be made. These 
sieves are known as pur^e sieves. They 
are made of strong wire, and, in addition, 
have supports of still stronger wire. 

A fruit pricker is easily made, and 
saves time. Out a piece half an inch 
deep from a broad cork ; press through 
this a dozen or more coarse darning nee- 
dles ; tack the cork on a piece of board. 
Strike the fruit on the bed of needles, 
and you have a dozen holes at once. When 
the work is finished remove the cork from 
the board, wash and dry thoroughly. A 
little oil on the needles will prevent rust- 
ing. With needles of the size suggested 
there is little danger of the points break- 



( Utensils) 



ing, but it is worth remembering that the 
use of pricking machines was abandoned 
in curing prunes on a commercial scale 
in California because the steel needles 
broke and remained in the fruit. 




Wooden Vegetable Masher 

A wooden vegetable masher is indis- 
pensable when making jellies and purees. 

A syrup gauge and glass cylinder are 
not essential to preserving, canning and 
jelly-making, but they are valuable aids 
in getting the right proportion of sugar 
for fruit or jelly. The syrup gauge costs 
about 50 cents and the cylinder about 25 
cents. A lipped cylinder that holds a 
little over a gill is the best size. 

Small iron rings, such as sometimes 
come off the hubs of cart wheels, may be 
used instead of a tripod for slightly rais- 
ing the preserving kettle from the hot 
stove or range. 

To make a flannel straining bag, take 
a square piece of flannel (27 by 27 in, 
is a good siize), fold it to make a three- 
oornered bag, stitch one of the sides, cut 
the top square across, bind the opening 
with strong, broad tape, stitch on this 
binding four tapes with which to tie the 
bag to a frame. 

To use this bag, tie it to a strong 
frame, or to the backs of two kitchen 
chairs. If the chairs are used, place some 
heavy articles in them ; or the bag may 
hang on a pole (a broom handle) which 
rests on the backs of the chairs. A high 



[736] 



Preserv'mg, Canning, Etc. 



(Selection of Fruit) 



stool, turned upside down, makes a good 
support for the bag. Put a bowl on the 
floor, under the bag; then pour in the 
fruit juice, which will pass through com- 
paratively clear. Before it is used, the 
bag should be washed and boiled in clear 
water. 




Glass Cylinder (A) and Syrup Gauge (B) 

Selection and Preparation of the Fruit. 

1. — The selection of fruit is one of the 
first steps in obtaining successful results. 
The flavor of fruit is not developed until 
it is fully ripe, but the time at which 
the fruit is at its best for canning, jelly- 
making, etc., is just before it is perfectly 
ripe. In all soft fruits, the fermentative 
stage follows closely upon the perfectly 
ripe stage ; therefore, it is better to use 
underripe rather than overripe fruit. This 
is especially important in jelly-making, 
for another reason also : In overripe 
fruit the pectin begins to lose its jelly- 
making quality, 

2. — 'All fruits should, if possible, be 
freshly picked for preserving, canning and 
jelly-making. No imperfect fruit should 
be canned or preserved. Gnarly fruit 
may be used for jellies or marmalades by 
cutting out defective portions. Bruised 
spots should be cut out of peaches and 



(Selection of Fruit) 

pears. In selecting small-seeded fruits, 
like berries, for canning, those having a 
small proportion of seed to pulp should bo 
chosen. In dry seasons berries have a 
larger proportion of seeds to pulp than in 
a wet or normal season, and it is not 
wise to can or preserve such fruit unless 
the seeds are removed. The fruit should 
be rubbed through a sieve that is fine 
enough to keep back the seeds. The 
strained pulp can be preserved as a puree 
or marmalade. 

3. — When fruit is brought into the 
house, put it where it will keep cool and 
crisp until you are ready to use it. 

4. — Begin by having the kitchen swept 
and dusted thoroughly, that there need 
not be a large number of mold spores 
floating about. Dust with a damp cloth. 
Have plenty of hot water, and pans in 
which jars and utensils may be sterilized. 
Have at hand all necessary utensils, tow- 
els, sugar, etc. 

5. — Prepare only as much fruit as can 
be cooked while it still retains its color 
and crispness. Before beginning to pare 
fruit, have some syrup ready, if that is 
to be used ; or if sugar is to be added 
to the fruit, have it weighed or meas- 
ured. 

6. — Decide upon the amount of fruit 
you will cook at one time, then have 
two bowls — ^one for the sugar and one 
for the fruit — that will hold just the 
quantity of each. As the fruit is pared 
or hulled, as the case may be, drop it 
into its measuring bowl. When the meas- 
ure is full put the fruit and sugar in 
the preserving kettle. While this is cook- 
ing, another measure may be prepared, 
and put in the second preserving kettle. 
In this way the fruit is cooked quickly 
and put in the jars and sealed at once, 
leaving the pans ready to sterilize an- 
other set of jars. 

7. — If the fruit is to be preserved or 
canned with syrup, it may be put into 
the jars as fast as it is prepared. As 
soon as a jar is filled pour in enough 
syrup to cover it. 

8. — ^If several people are helping, and 
large kettles are be»ing used for the pre- 
serving, or where fruit (like quinces and 
hard pears) must be first boiled in clear 
water, the pared fruit should be dropped 
into a bowl of cold water made slightly 
acid with lemon juice (1 tablespoonful 
of lemon juice to 1 qt. of water). This 
will keep the fruit white. 

9. — All large, hard fruit must be washed 
before paring. Quinces should be rubbed 
with a coarse towel before they are 
washed. 



[737] 



Preserving, Carming; Etc, 



(Syrup) 



10. — ^If berries must be washed, do the 
work before stemmmg or hulling them. 
The best way to wash berries is to put 
a small quantity into a colander and 
pour cold water over them ; then turn 
them on a sieve to drain. All this work 
must be done quickly, that the fruit may 
not absorb much water. 

11. — Do not use the fingers for hulling 
strawberries. A simple huller can be 
bought for 5 cents. 

12. — 'If practicable, pare fruit with a 
silver knife, so as not to stain or darken 
the product. The quickest and easiest 
way to peel peaches is to drop them into 
boiling water for a few minutes. Have 
a deep kettle a little more than half full 
of boiling water ; fill a wire basket with 
peaches ; put a Ipng-handled spoon under 
the handle of the basket and lower into 
the boiling water. At the end of 4;hree 
minutes lift the basket out by slipping 
the spoon under the handle. Plunge the 
basket for a moment into a pan of cold 
water. Let the peaches drain a minute, 
then peel. Plums and tomatoes may be 
peeled in the same manner. 

13. — 'If the peaches are to be canned m 
syrup, put them at once into the steril- 
ized jars. They may be canned whole or in 
halves. If in halves, remove nearly all the 
stones or pits. For the sake of the flavor, 
a few stones should be put in each jar. 

14. — When preparing cherries, plums or 
crab apples for canning or preserving, the 
stem, or a part of it, may be left on the 
fruit. 

15. — ^When preparing to make jelly, 
have ready the cheese-cloth strainer, en- 
ameled colander, wooden spoons, vegetable 
masher, measures, tumblers, preserving 
kettles and sugar. 

16. — ^If currant jelly is to be made, free 
the fruit from leaves and large stems. 
If the jelly is to be made from any of 
the other small fruits, the stems and hulls 
must be removed. 

17. — When the jelly is to be made from 
any of the large fruits the important part 
of the preparation is to have the frUit 
washed clean, then to remove the stem 
and the blossom end. Nearly all the large 
fruits are better for having the skin left 
on. Apples and pears need not be cored. 
There is so much gummy substance in 
the cores of quinces that it is best not 
to use this portion in making fine jelly. 

Making Syrup for Use in Canning and 
Preserving. 

1. — Such syrups as are used in canning 
and preserving axe made with varying 
proportions of water and sugar. When 



(Syrup) 



the proportion of sugar is large, and that 
of the water small, the syrup is said to 
be heavy. When the water predominates 
the syrup is light. 

2. — There are several methods of meas- 
uring the proportion of sugar in a syrup. 
The most scientific and accurate is with 
the syrup gauge. Careful measurement 
or weighing is, however, quite satisfac- 
tory for all ordinary work if the syrup 
need not be boiled a long time. In boil- 
ing, the water evaporates, and the syrup 
grows thicker and richer. The amount 
of evaporation depends upon the surface 
exposed and the pressure of the a'tmos- 
phere. For example, if a large quantity 
of syrup is boiled in a deep kettle the 
evaporation will not be rapid. If the 
same quantity of syrup were boiled the 
same length of time in a broad, shallow 
kettle, the water vi»ould evaporate more 
rapidly, and the syrup would be thicker 
and heavier. If a given quantity of 
syrup were boiled the same length of time 
in a high altitude, Colorado, for example, 
and at the sea-level, it would be found 
that the syrup boiled at the sea-level 
would be thicker and less in v«olume than 
that boiled in Colorado. From this it 
will be seen that it is difficult to say what 
proportion of sugar a syrup will contain 
after it has been boiling 10 or more min- 
utes. Of course, by the use of the syrup 
gauge the proportion of sugar in a syrup 
may be ascertained at any stage of the 
boiling. After all, however, it is possi- 
ble to measure sugar and water so that 
you can know the percentage of sugar 
when the syrup begins to boil. The fol- 
lowing statement gives the percentage of 
sugar at the time when the syrup has 
been boiling 1 minute, and also what 
kind of syrup is suitable for the various 
kinds of fruit : 

a. — 1 pt. of sugar and 1 gill of water 
gives syrup of 40° density. Use for pre- 
served strawberries and cherries. 

b. — 1 pt. of sugar and % pt. of water 
gives syrup of 32° density. 

c. — 1 pt. of sugar and 3 gills of water 
gives syrup of 28° density. Use either 
this or the preceding for preserved 
peaches, plums, quinces, currants, etc. 

d. — 1 pt. of sugar and 1 pt. of water 
gives syrup of 24° density. Use for 
canned acid fruits. 

e. — 1 pt. of sugar and 1^^ pt. of water 
gives syrup of 17° density. 

f. — 1 pt. of sugar and 2 pt. of water 
gives syrup of 14° density. Use either of 
these two light syrups for canned pears, 
peaches, sweet plums and cherries, rasp- 
berries, blueberries and blackberries. 



[738] 



Preserving, Carmmg, Etc. 



(Canning Fruit) 



3. — ^The lightest syrups may be used 
for filling up the jars after they are taken 
from the oven or boiler. The process of 
making a syrup is very simple, but there 
are a few points that must be observed 
if syrup and fruit are to be perfect. Put 
the sugar and water in the saucepan and 
stir on the stove until all the sugar is 
dissolved. Heat slowly to the boiling 
point, and boil gently, without stirring. 
The length of time that the syrup should 
boil will depend upon how rich it is to 
be. All syrups are better for boiling them 
from 10 to 30 minutes. If rich syrups 
are boiled hard, jarred, or stirred, they 
are apt to crystallize. The syrup may 
be made a day or two in advance of can- 
ning time. The light syrups will not 
keep long unless sealed, but the heavy 
syrups keep well if covered well. 

Use of the Syrup Gauge. — ^1. — The 
syrup gauge is a graduated glass tube, 
with a weighted bulb, that registers from 
to 50°, and that is employed to de- 
termine the quantity of sugar contained 
in a syrup. 

2. — If this gauge is placed in pure wa- 
ter, the bulb will rest on the bottom of 
the cylinder or other container. If sugar 
be dissolved in the water the gauge will 
begin to float. The more sugar there is 
dissolved in the water the higher the 
gauge will rise. In making tests, it is 
essential that the syrup should be deep 
enough to reach the zero point of the 
gauge. If a glass cylinder holding about 
1/^ gill is filled to about two-thirds its 
height, and the gauge is then placed in 
the cylinder, the quantity of sugar in 
the syrup will be registered on the gauge. 

3. — Experiments have demonstrated 
that when sugar is dissolved and heated 
in fruit juice, if the syrup gauge regis- 
ters 25°, the proportion of sugar is ex- 
actly right for combining with the pectin 
bodies to make jelly. The syrup gauge 
and the glass cylinder must both be heated 
gradually, that the hot syrup may not 
break them. If the gauge registers more 
than 25°, add a little more fruit juice. 
If, on the other hand, it registers less 
than 25°, add more sugar. In making 
syrups for canning and preserving fruits, 
the exact amount of sugar in a syrup may 
be ascertained at any stage of boiling, 
and the syrup be made heavier by adding 
sugar, or lighter by adding water, as the 
case demands. 

CANNING FRUIT 

This method of preserving fruit for 
home use is,, from all points, the most 
desiriable. It is the easiest, and commonly 



(Canning Fruit) 



considered the most economical and the 
best, because the fruit is kept in a soft 
and juicy condition, in which it is be- 
lieved to be easily digested. The wise 
housekeeper will can her principal fruit 
supply, making only enough rich preserves 
to serve for variety and for special oc- 
casions. 

The success of canning depends upon 
absolute sterilization. If the proper care 
is exercised, there need be no failure, ex- 
cept in rare cases, when a spore has de- 
veloped in the can. There are several 
methods of canning, and while the prin- 
ciple is the same in all methods, the con- 
ditions under which the housekeeper must 
do her work may, in her case, make one 
method more convenient than another. 
For this reason three will be given which 
are considered the best and easiest. These 
are : Cooking the fruit in the jars, in 
an oven ; cooking the fruit in the jars, 
in boiling water ; and stewing the fruit 
before it is put in the jars. The quan- 
tity of sugar may be increased if the 
fruit is liked sweet. It is most important 
that the jars, covers, and rubber rings 
be in perfect condition. Examine each 
jar and cover to see that there is no de- 
fect in it. Use only fresh rubber rings, 
for if the rubber is not soft and elastic 
the sealing will not be perfect. Each 
year numbers of jars of fruit are lost 
because of the false economy in using an 
old ring that has lost its softness and 
elasticity. Having the jars, covers and 
rings in perfect condition, the next thing 
is to wash and sterilize them. Have two 
pans partially filled with cold water. Put 
some jars in one, laying them on their 
sides, and some covers in the other. Place 
the pans on the stove, where the water 
will heat to the boiling point. The wa- 
ter should boil at least 10 or 15 min- 
utes. Have on the stove a shallow milk 
pan in which there is about 2 in. of boil- 
ing water. Sterilize the cups, spoons, and 
funnel, if you use one, by immersing in 
boiling water for a few minutes. When 
ready to put the prepared fruit in the 
jars, slip a broad skimmer under a jar 
and lift it, and drain free of water. Set 
the jar in the shallow milk pan, and fill 
to overflowing with the boiling fruit. Slip 
a silver-plated knife, or the handle of 
a spoon, around the inside of the jar, that 
the fruit and juice may be packed sol- 
idly. Wipe the rim of the jar, dip the 
rubber ring in boiling water, and put it 
smoothly on the jar, then put on the 
cover, and fasten. Place the jar on a 
board, and out of a draught of cold air. 
The work of filling and sealing must be 



t739 3 



Preserving, Canning, 'Etc: 



(Canning Fruit) 



done rapidly, and the frifit must be boil- 
ing hot when it is put 'into the jars. If 
screw-covers are used, it will be neces- 
sary to tighten them after the glass has 
cooled and contracted. When the fruit 
is cold wipe -the jars with a wet cloth. 
Paste on the labels, if any, and put the 
jars on shelves in a cool, dark closet. In 
canning, any proportion of sugar may be 
used, or fruit may be canned without the 
addition of any sugar. However, that 
which is designed to be served as a sauce 
should have the sugar cooked with it. 
Fruit intended for cooking purposes need 
not have the sugar added to it. _ Juicy 
fruits, such as berries and cherries, re- 
quire little or no water. Strawberries 
are better not to have water added to 
them. The only exception to this is when 
they are cooked in a heavy syrup. 

Canned Fruit Cooked in the Oven. 

Cover the bottom of the oven with a 
sheet of asbestos, the kind plumbers em- 
ploy in covering pipes. It is very cheap, 
and may usually be found at plumbers' 
shops. If the asbestos is not available, 
put into the oven shallow pans in which 
there are about 2 in. of boiling water. 
Sterilize the jars and utensils. Make 
the syrup ; prepare the fruit the same 
as for cooking in the preserving kettle. 
Fill the hot jars with it, and pour in 
enough syrup to fill the jar solidly. Run 
the blade of a silver-plated knife around 
the inside of the jar. Place the jars in 
the oven, either on the asbestos or in 
the pan of water. The oven shouM be 
moderately hot. Cook the fruit 10 min- 
utes ; remove from the oven, and fill the 
jar with boiling syrup. Wipe, and seal. 
Place the jars on a board and out of a 
draft of air. If the screw-covers are 
used, tighten them after the glass has 
cooled. Large fruits, such as peaches, 
pears, quinces, crab apples, etc., will re- 
quire about 1 pt. of syrup to each quart 
jar of fruit. The small fruit will require 
a little over % pt. of syrup. The amount 
of sugar in each quart of syrup should 
be regulated to suit the fruit with which 
it is to be used. 

Canned Fruit Cooked in a Water Bath. 

Prepare the fruit and syrup as for 
cooking in the oven. FMl the sterilized 
jars and put the covers on loosely. Have a 
wooden rack in the bottom of a wash boil- 
er. Put in enough warm water to come to 
about 4 in. above the rack. Place the filled 
jars in the boiler, but do not let them 
touch one another. Pack clean white cot- 
ton rags, or, perhaps better, cotton rope, 



(Canning Fruit) 



between and around the jars to prevent 
them from striking one another when the 
water begins to boil. Cover the boiler, 
and let the fruit cook 10 minutes from 
the time the water surrounding it begins 
to boil. Draw the boiler back and take 
off the cover. When the steam passes 
off take out one jar at a time and place 
in a pan of boiling water beside the boil- 
er, fill up with boiling syrup, and seal. 
Put the jars on a board, and do not let 
cold air blow upon them. If screw-covers 
are used, tighten them when the glass has 
cooled and contracted. 

Receipts for Canning Fruit. 

BlacJcherries. — The same as for rasp- 
berries. 

Blueberries. — Berries, 12 qt. ; sugar, 
1 qt. ; isvater, 1 pt. Put water, berries 
and sugar in the preserving kettle ; heat 
slowly. Boil 15 minutes, counting from 
the time the contents of the kettle be- 
gin to bubble. 

Cherries. — Cherries, 6 qt. ; sugar, 1^^ 
qt. ; water, % pt. Measure the cherries 
after the stems have been removed. Stone 
them or not, as you please. If you stone 
them, be careful to save all the juice. 
Put the sugar and water in the preserv- 
ing kettle, and stir over the fire until the 
sugar is dissolved. Put in the cher- 
ries, and heat slowly to the boiling 
point. Boil 10 minutes, skimming care- 
fully. 

Grab Apples. — ^Apples, 6 qt. ;, sugar, 1% 
qt. ; _ water, 2 qt. Put tlae sugar and wa- 
ter into the preserving kettle. Stir over 
the fire until the sugar is dissolved. When 
the syrup boils, skim it. Wash the fruit, 
rubbing the blossom end well. Put it in 
the boiling syrup and cook geatly until 
tender. It .will take from 20 to 50 min- 
utes, depending upon the kind of crab 
apples. 

Currants. — Currants, 12 qt. ; sugar, 4 
qt. Treat the same as for raspberries. 

Gooseberries. — Berries, 6 qt. ; sugar, 
1% qt. ; water, 1 pt. For green goose- 
berries dissolve the sugar in the water, 
then add the fruit, and cook 15 minutes. 
Ripe gooseberries are to be treated the 
same as the green fruit, but use only 
half as much water. Green gooseberries 
may also be canned the same as rhubarb. 

Grapes. — Grapes, 6 qt. ; sugar, 1 qt. ; 
water, 1 gill. Squeeze the pulp of the 
grapes out of the skins. Cook the pulp 
5 minutes, and then rub through a sieve 
that is fine enough to hold back the seeds. 
Put the water, skins and pulp into the 
preserving kettle and heat slowly to the 
boiling point. Skim the fruit, and then 



[740] 



Preservmg, Canning y Etc. 



(Canning Fruit) 



add the sugar. ' Boil 15 minutes. Sweet 
grapes may be canned with less sugar; 
very sour ones may have more. 

Peaches. — Peaches, 8 qt. ; sugar, 1 qt. ; 
water, 3 qt. Put the sugar and water 
together, and stir over the fire until the 
sugar is dissolved. When the syrup boils, 
skim it. Draw the kettle back where 
the syrup will keep hot but not boil. Pare 
the peaches, cut in halves, and remove 
the stones, unless you prefer to can the 
fruit whole. Put a layer of the prepared 
fruit into the preserving kettle and cover 
with some of the hot syrup. When the 
fruit begins to bo'il, skim carefully. Boil 
gently for 10 minutes, then put in the 
jars and seal. If the fruit -is not fully 
ripe it may require a little longer time 
to cook. It should be so tender that it 
may be pierced easily with a silver fork. 
It is best to put only one layer of fruit 
in the preserving kettle. While this is 
cooking the fruit for the n.ext batch may 
be pared. 

Pears. — If the fruit is ripe it may be 
treated exactly the same as peaches. If, 
on the other hand, it is rather hard, it 
must be cooked until so tender that a sil- 
ver fork will pierce it readily. 

Plums. — Plums, 8 qt. ; sugar, 2 qt. ; 
water, 1 pt. Nearly all kinds of plums 
can be cooked with the skins on. If it is 
desired to remove the skin of any variety, 
plunge them in boiling water for a few 
minutes. When the skins are left on, prick 
them thoroughly with the fruit-pricker to 
prevent bursting. Put the sugar and water 
into the preserving kettle and stir over-the 
fire until the sugar is dissol-ved. Wash 
and drain the plums. Put some of the 
fruit in the boiling syrup. Do not crowd 
it. Cook 5 minutes ; fill and seal the 
jars. Put more fruit in the syrup. Con- 
tinue in this manner until all the fruit 
is done. It may be that there will not 
be sufficient syrup toward the latter part 
of the work ; for this reason it is well to 
have a little extra syrup on the back of 
the stove. 

Quinces. — 1. — Quinces, pared, cored and 
quartered, 4 qt. ; sugar, 2 qt. ; water, 1 
qt. Boil the fruit in clear water until 
it is tender, then skim out and drain. 
Put the 2 qt. of sugar and 1 qt. of wa- 
ter in the preserving kettle ; stir until 
the sugar is dissolved. Let it heat slowly 
to the boiling point. Skim well, and boil 
for 20 minutes. Pour one-half of the 
syrup into a second kettle. Put one-half 
of the cooked and drained fruit into each 
kettle. Simmer gently for half an hour, 
then put in sterilized jars. The water 
in which the fruit was boiled can be used 



(Preserving Fruit) 



with the parings, cores and gnarly fruit 
to make jelly. 

2. — Quinces, pared, cored and quartered. 
4 qt. ; sugar, ll^ qt. ; water, 2 qt. Rub 
the fruit hard with a coarse crash towel, 
then wash and drain. Pare, core and 
quarter ; drop the pieces into cold 
water. Put the fruit in the pre- 
serving kettle with cold water to cover 
it generously. Heat slowly, and simmer 
gently until tender. The pieces will not 
all require the same time to cook. Take 
eacli piece up as soon as it is so tender 
that a silver fork will pierce it readily. 
Drain on a platter. Strain the water in 
which the fruit was cooked through 
cheese cloth. Put 2 qt. of the strained 
liquid and the sugar into the preserving 
kettle ; stir over the fire until the sugar 
is dissolved. When it boils skim well, 
and put in the cooked fruit. Boil gently 
for about 20 minutes. 

Raspberries. — Raspberries, 12 qt. ; 
sugar, 2 qt. Put 2 qt. of the fruit in 
the preserving kettle ; heat slowly on the 
stove ; crush with a wooden vegetable 
masher ; spread a square of cheese cloth 
over a bowl and turn the crushed ber- 
ries and juice into it. Press out the juice, 
which .turn into the preserving kettle ; 
add the sugar, and put on the stove ; 
stir until the sugar is dissolved. When 
the syrup begins to boil add the remain- 
ing 10 qt. of berries. Let them heat 
slowly. Boil 10 minutes, counting from 
the time they begin to bubble. Skim 
well while boiling. Put in cans, and seal 
as directed. 

Raspberries and Currants. — Raspber- 
ries, 10 qt. ; currants, 3 qt. ; sugar, 2^^ 
qt. Heat, crush, and press the juice from 
the currants, and proceed as directed for 
raspberries. 

Rhubarb. — Cut the rhubarb when it is 
young and tender. Wash it thoroughly, 
and then pare ; cut into pieces about 2 in. 
long. Pack in sterilized jars. Fill the 
jars to overflowing with cold water and 
let them stand 10 minutes. Drain off 
the water and fill again to overflowing 
with fresh cold water. Seal with steril- 
ized rings and covers. When required fbr 
use, treat the same as fresh rhubarb. 
Green gooseberries may be canned in the 
same manner. Rhubarb may be cooked 
and canned with sugar in the same man- 
ner as gooseberries. 

PRESERVING FRUIT 

In the case of most fruits, canning with 
a little sugar is to be preferred to pre- 
serving with a large quantity of sugar. 
There are, however, some fruits that are 



[741] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Preserving Fruit) 



only goad when preserved with a good 
deal of sugar. Of course, such prepara- 
tions of fruits are only desirable for oc- 
casional use. The fruits best adapted for 
preserving are strawberries, sour cher- 
ries, sour plums and quinces. Such rich 
preparations should be put up in small 
jars or tumblers. 

Fruit Preserved in Grape Juice. 

Any kind of fruit can be preserved by 
this method, but it is particularly good 
for apples, pears and sweet plums. No 
sugar need be used in this process. Boil 
6 qt. of grape juice in an open preserv- 
ing kettle until it is reduced to 4 qt. 
Have the fruit washed and pared, and, 
if apples or pears, quartered and cored. 
Put the prepared fruit in a preserving 
kettle, and cover generously with the 
boiled grape juice. Boil gently until the 
fruit is clear and tender, then put in 
sterilized jars. 

Jelly, Methods of Making. 

In no department of preserving does 
the housekeeper feel less sure of the re- 
sult than in jelly-making. The rule that 
works perfectly one time fails another 
*^^ime. Why this is so the average house- 
keeper does not know ; so there is nearly 
always an element of uncertainty as to 
the result of the work. These two ques- 
tions are being constantly asked : "Why 
does not my jelly harden?" "What causes 
my jelly to candy?" It is an easy mat- 
ter to say that there is something in the 
condition of the fruit, or that the fruit 
juice and sugar were cooked too short 
or too long a time. These explanations 
are often true, but they do not help the 
inquirer, since at other times just that 
proportion of sugar and time of cooking 
have given perfect jelly. In the follow- 
ing pages an attempt is made to give a 
clear explanation of the principles un- 
derlying the process of jelly-making. 

Selection and Handling of Fruit for 
Jelly-Making. — An acid fruit is the most 
suitable for jelly-making, though in some 
of the acid fruits, the strawberry, for 
example, the quantity of the jelly-making 
pectin is so small that it is difficult to 
make jelly with this fruit. If, however, 
some currant juice be added to the straw- 
berry juice, a pleasant jelly will be the 
result ; yet, of course, the flavor of the 
strawberry will be modified. Here is a 
list of the most desirable fruits for jelly- 
making. The very best are given first : 
Currant, crab apple, apple, quince, grape, 
blackberry, raspberry, peach. 

1. — Apples make a very mild jelly, and 



(Preserving Fruit) 



it may be flavored with fruits, flowers or 
spices. If the apples are acid it is not 
advisable to use any flavor. 

2. — ^Juicy fruits, such as currants, 
raspberries, etc., should not be gathered 
after a rain, for they will have absorbed 
so much svater as to make it difficult, 
without excessive boiling, to get the juice 
to jelly. 

3. — If berries are sandy or dusty, it 
will be necessary to wash them, but the 
work should be done very quickly, so that 
the fruit may not absorb much water. 

4. — ^Large fruits, such as apples, peaches 
and pears, must be boiled in water until 
soft. The strained liquid will contain 
the flavoring matter and pectin. 

5. — It requires more work and skill 
to make jellies from the fruits to which 
water must be added than from the juicy 
fruits. If the juicy fruits are gathered 
at the proper time one may be nearly 
sure that they contain the right propor- 
tion of water. If gathered after a rain, 
the fruit must be boiled a little longer, 
that the superfluous water may pass off 
in steam. 

6. — ^In the case of the large fruits, a 
fair estimate is 3 qt. of strained juice 
from 8 qt. of fruit and about 4 qt. of 
water. If the quantity of juice is greater 
than this it should be boiled down to 3 qt. 

7. — Apples will always require 4 qt. of 
water to 8 qt. of fruit, but juicy peaches 
and plums will require only 3 or 31/4 qt. 

8. — The jelly will be clearer and finer 
if the fruit is simmered gently and not 
stirred during the cooking. 

9. — It is always best to strain the juice 
first through cheese cloth, and without 
pressure. If the cloth is double the juice 
will be quite clear. When a very clear 
jelly is desired, the strained juice should 
pass through a flannel or felt bag. The 
juice may be pressed from the fruit left 
in the strainer, and used in marmalade 
or for a second-quality jelly. 

10. — ^To make jelly that will not crys- 
tallize (candy), the right proportion of 
sugar must be added to the fruit juice. 
If the fruit contains a high percentage 
of sugar, the quantity of added sugar 
should be a little less than the quantity 
of fruit juice. That is to say, in a sea- 
son when there has been a great deal 
of heat and sunshine there will be more 
sugar in the fruit than in a cold, wet 
season ; consequently, 1 pt. of currant 
juice will require but % pt. of sugar. 
But in a cold, wet season the pint of 
sugar for the pint of juice must be meas- 
ured generously. Another cause of the 
jelly crystallizing is hard boiling. When 



[742] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Preserving Fruit) 



the syrup boils so rapidly that particles 
of it are thrown on the upper part of 
the sides of the preserving kettle, they 
often form crystals. If these crystals are 
stirred into the syrup they are apt to 
cause the mass to crystallize in time. 

11. — ^The use of the syrup gauge, and 
care not to boil the syrup too violently, 
would do away with all uncertainty in 
jelly-making. The syrup gauge should 
register 25°, no matter what kind of fruit 
is used. Jellies should be covered closely 
and kept in a cool, dry, dark place. 

Preparation of the Glasses for Jelly. — 
Sterilize the glasses ; take from the 
boiling water and set them in a shallow 
baking pan in which there is about 2 in. 
of boiling water. 

Covering Jellies. — Jellies are so rich in 
sugar that they are protected from bac- 
teria and yeasts, but they must be cov- 
ered carefully to protect them from mold 
spores and evaporation. The following 
methods of covering jellies are good : 
Have disks of thick white paper, the size 
of the top of the glass. When the jelly 
is set, brush the top over with brandy 
or alcohol. Dip a disk of paper in the 
spirits and put it on the jelly. If the 
glasses have covers, put them on. If 
there are no covers, cut disks of paper 
about % in. in diameter larger than the 
top of the glass. Beat together the white 
of 1 egg and 1 tablespoonful of cold wa- 
ter. Wet the paper covers with this mix- 
ture and put over the glass, pressing down 
the sides well to make them stick to tlie 
glass ; or the covers may be dipped in 
olive oil and be tied on the glasses ; but 
they must be cut a little larger than when 
the white of egg is used. A thick coat- 
ing of parafBne makes a good cover, but 
not quite so safe as the paper dipped in 
brandy or alcohol, because the spirits de- 
stroy any mold spores that may happen 
to rest on the jelly. If such spores are 
covered with the paraflBne ttey may de- 
velop under it. However, the paper wet 
with spirits could be put on first and 
the paraffine poured over it. If paraflSne 
is used, break it into pieces and put in 
a cup. Set the cup in a pan of warm 
water, on the back of the stove. In a 
few moments it will be melted enough 
to cover the jelly. Have the coating 
about H in. thick. In cooling, the par- 
affine contracts, and if the layer is very 
thin it will crack, and leave a portion of 
the jelly exposed. 

Marmalades. 

Marmalades require great care while 
cooking, because no moisture is added to 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



the fruit and sugar. If the marmalade is 
made from berries, the fruit should be 
rubbed through a sieve to remove the 
seeds. If large fruit is used, have it 
washed, pared, cored and quartered. Meas- 
ure the fruit and sugar, allowing 1 pt. 
of sugar to each quart of fruit., Rinse 
the preserving kettle with cold water, 
that there may be a slight coat of mois- 
ture on tJie sides and bottom. Put alter- 
nate layers of fruit and sugar in the ket- 
tle, having the first layer fruit. Heat 
slowly, stirring frequently. While stir- 
ring, break up the fruit as much as pos- 
sible. Cook about 2 hours, then put in 
small sterilized jars. 

Receipts for Preserves, Jams, Jellies, 
Marmalades, etc. 

The following recipes are arranged al- 
phabetically, according to the fruits to be 
used. 

Apple Jam. — To each pound of fruit, 
weighed after being pared, cored and 
sliced, allow % lb. of preserving sugar, 
the finely grated rind of 1 lemon and the 
juice of % lemon. Choose firm, sound 
apples of the same kind ; peel, core, and 
cut them into thick slices. Barely cover 
the. bottom of a large stewjar with cold 
water, add a good layer of sliced apples, 
cover thickly with sugar, and sprinkle 
with lemon rind and lemon juice. Repeat 
until all the materials are used, cover 
the jar closely, place it on the stove, or 
in a moderate oven, in a tin half full of 
boiling water, and stew gently until the 
apples are tender. If the preparation 
appears rather dry it may at once be put 
into the pots ; if not, the lid must be re- 
moved, the stewjar taken out of the wa- 
ter and placed on the stove, and the 
contents boiled and stirred until the 
greater part of the moisture has evapo- 
rated. Requires from 2% to 3 hours. 

Apple and Blackberry Jam. — Apples, 4 
lb. ; blackberries, 2 lb. ; preserving sugar, 
41/^ lb. Pick the blackberries, put them 
into a stewjar with 1 lb. of sugar, and 
let them remain thus for at least 12 hours. 
When ready, place the jar on the stove, 
or in a cool oven, and stew gently until 
the juice is extracted. Pare, core and 
cut the apples into thick slices. Put them 
into a preserving pan, strain the juice, 
add the rest of the sugar, and boil gently 
from 45 to 50 minutes. Pour into jars, 
cover closely, and store in a dry, cool 
place. Requires altogether, about 14 
hours. 

Apple Jelly. — Apples, 10 lb. ; water, 10 
pt. ; to each pint of liquid obtained from 
these allow 1 lb. of sugar and the juice 



[743] 



Preservmg, Canning, Etc. 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



of 2 lemons. Rub the apples well with 
a dry cloth, but do not pare them. "Cut 
them into quarters, remove the cores, and 
put them into a preserving pan with the 
sugar. Simmer until perfectly soft, but 
not broken, then strain off the liquid with- 
out squeezing the pulp. If not clear, pass 
through a jelly bag or clean dry cloth un- 
til it becomes so. Add sugar and lemon 
juice in the proportion stated above, and 
simmer gently until a little, poured on a 
cold plate, almost immediately begins to 
stiffen. Pour into pots or glasses, cover 
closely, and store in a cool, dry place. 
Requires from 25 to 30 minutes, after 
straining. The apple pulp may be sweet- 
ened, flavored with ginger or cinnamon, 
and made into jam. 

Apple Marmalade. — Apples, 2 lb. ; 
sugar, 4 oz. ; butter, 1 oz. Peel, core and 
quarter the apples, place them in a jar 
with the sugar and butter, and stand the 
jar in a saucepan containing boiling wa- 
ter, or, when more convenient, in a cool 
oven. Cook until soft, pass through a 
fine sieve, and use for filling turnovers, 
or other kinds of pastry. Requires 1^^ 
hours. 

Apricot Jam or Marmalade. — Equal 
weight of firm, ripe apricots and fine pre- 
serving sugar. Skin the apricots care- 
fully, break them in halves and remove 
the stones. AVeigh the fruit, and allow 
an equal amount of sugar. Pile the apri- 
cots on a large dish, sprinkle each layer 
with sugar, let them stand for 12 hours, 
and meanwhile remove the kernels from 
the stones and blanch them. When ready, 
place the fruit, sugar and kernels in a 
preserving pan, simmer very gently, skim- 
ming meanwhile, and as the pieces of 
apricot become clear remove them from 
the syrup and place them at once in the 
pots. Pour on the syrup and kernels, 
cover with pieces of paper dipped in salad 
oil, and stretch over the tops of the jars 
tissue paper brushed over with white of 
egg. When dry, the cover will be perfect- 
ly hard and airtight. Requires 12 hours, 
sprinkled with sugar. 

Blackherry Jam. — Blackberries, half 
their weight in sugar. Boil the blackber- 
ries and sugar together for 40 minutes. 
Cover closely, and keep in a dry. cool 
place. The jam will be less insipid if a 
little lemon juice is added. Requires 40 
minutes. 

Blackberry Jelly. — Make the same as 
currant jelly. 

Brandied Fruits. — There seems to be a 
limited demand for brandied fruits, but 
lack of space forbids the inclusion of 
receipts in this book. In the Scientific 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



American, Nos. 896 and 897, will be 
found some very good receipts. 

Cherries. — The sour cherries, such as 
Early Richmond and Montmorency, are 
best for this preserve. Remove the stems 
and stones from the cherries and proceed 
as for strawberry preserve. 
^ Cherry Jam. — Sound, ripe cooking cher- 
ries, an equal quantity of preserving 
sugar ; to each pound of fruit allow i/4 
pt. of red currant juice or water, or the 
two mixed in any proportion that may be 
convenient. Remove the stones, keeping 
the cherries as whole as possible, and pre- 
serve the kernels. Put the red currant 
juice or water into a preserving pan with 
the sugar, and boil to a syrup. Add the 
cherries and kernels, and simmer gently 
until the cherries are tender, but not 
broken, and the juice jellies almost im- 
mediately when a little is poured on a 
cold plate. Pour into jars, cover with 
paper dipped in brandy, and stretch over 
the top tissue paper brushed over with 
white of egg. Store in a cool, dry place. 
Requires about 1 hour. 

Cherries, Preserved. — 1. — Sound, ripe 
cooking cherries ; to each pound allow i/^ 
lb. of preserving sugar and i/4 pt. of wa- 
ter. Remove the stones carefully, keep- 
ing the fruit as whole as possible. Boil 
the sugar and water to a syrup, add the 
cherries, simmer them gently for 15 min- 
utes, then turn both fruit and syrup into 
a large basin and put aside until the fol- 
lowing day. Strain the syrup into a 
preserving pan ; to each pint add from 4 
to 6 oz. of sugar, according to taste, bring 
to boiling point, skim well, then put in 
the fruit and simmer gently for about 10 
minutes. Pour into jars, cover at once 
with paper dipped in brandy, stretch tis- 
sue paper, brushed over with white of 
eggy on the top, and fasten down secure- 
ly. Store in a cool, dry place. Requires 
altogether about 26 hours. The flavor 
may be considerably improved by substi- 
tuting the juice of either red or white 
currants for the water. 

2. — Cherries Preserved with Currant 
Juice. — Cherries, 12 qt. ; currants, 3 qt. ; 
sugar, 2 qt. Put the currants in the pre- 
serving kettle and on the fire. When 
they boil up, crush them, and strain 
through cheese cloth, pressing out all the 
juice. Stem and stone the cherries, be- 
ing careful to save all the juice. Put the 
cherries, fruit juice and sugar in the pre- 
serving kettle. Heat to the boiling point 
and skim carefully. Boil for 20 minutes. 
Put in sterilized jars or tumblers. This 
gives an acid preserve. The sugar may 
be doubled if richer preserves are desired. 



[744] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



Cider, Boiled. — When the apple crop is 
abundant, and a large quantity of cider 
is made, the housekeeper will find it to 
her advantage to put up a generous sup- 
ply of boiled cider. SucTi cider greatly 
improves mince meat, and can be used 
at any time of the year to make cider 
apple sauce. It is also a good selling 
article. The cider for boiling must be 
perfectly fresh and sweet. Put it in a 
large, open preserving kettle, and boil un- 
til it is reduced one-half. Skim frequent- 
ly while boiling. Do not have the ket- 
tle more than two-thirds full. Put in 
bottles or stone jugs. 

Cider Apple Sauce. — Boiled cider, 5 
qt. ; sweet apples, pared, quartered and 
cored, 8 qt. Put the fruit in a large pre- 
serving kettle and cover with the boiled 
cider. Cook slowly until the apples are 
clear and tender. To prevent burning, 
place the kettle on an iron tripod or ring. 
It will require from 2 to 3 hours to cook 
the apples. If you find it necessary to 
stir the sauce, be careful to break the 
apples as little as possible. When tlie 
sauce is cooked put in sterilized jars. In 
the late spring, when cooking apples have 
lost much of their flavor and acidity, an 
appetizing sauce may be made by stewing 
them with diluted boiled cider, using 1 
cupful of cider to 3 cupfuls of water. 

Cider Pear Sauce. — Cooking pears may 
be preserved in boiled cider the same as 
sweet apples. If one prefers the sauce 
less sour, 1 pt. of sugar may be added 
to each quart of boiled cider. 

CraT} Apple Jelly. — Crab apples (Sibe- 
rian crabs), 4 lb. ; water, 4 pt. ; cloves, 6 ; 
ginger, 1 in. ; sugar, 1 lb., to each pint 
of strained liquid. Halve the crab apples 
with a silver knife. Place them in the 
water, add the cloves and ginger, simmer 
until tender, then drain well, but do not 
squeeze the apples. Replace the drained 
liquid in the pan, add the sugar, boil un- 
til the syrup jellies quickly when tested 
on a cold plate, then pour into small jars 
or glasses. Cover securely with parch- 
ment, and store in a cool, dry place. 

Currant Jam, Black. — To each pound 
of fruit allow 1 lb. of loaf sugar and i/4 
pt. of water. Remove the fruit, which 
should be ripe and perfectly dry, from the 
stalks, put it into a preserving pan with 
the water, bring to boiling point, and sim- 
mer gently for 20 minutes ; add the sugar, 
and boil for about % hour from the time 
the jam reboils, or until a little almost 
immediately sets when tested on a cold 
plate. Toward the end of the process the 
jam must be stirred almost continuously, 
to prevent it boiling over or sticking to 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



the bottom of the pan. Pour into pots, 
at once cover closely, and store in a cool, 
dry place. Requires from 50 to 60 min- 
utes. 

Currant Jam, Red. — Red currants, pre- 
serving sugar. Remove the stalks, put 
the fruit into a preserving pan, and to 
each pound allow % lb. of preserving 
sugar. Stir occasionally until the fruit 
is nearly boiling, and afterward almost 
continuously. Boil gently for about 40 
minutes, or until a little will set when 
poured on to a cold plate. Turn into 
pots, cover closely, and store in a cool, 
dry place. Requires about 1 hour. 

Currant Jelly. — 1. — The simplest meth- 
od of making currant jelly is perhaps the 
following: Free the currants from leaves 
and large stems, put them in the pre- 
serving kettle, crush a few with a wooden 
vegetable masher or spoon, and heat slow- 
ly, stirring frequently. When the currants 
are hot, crush them with the vegetable 
masher. Put a hair sieve or strainer over 
a large bowl ; over this spread a double 
square of cheese cloth. Turn the crushed 
fruit and juice into the cheese cloth and 
let it drain as long as it drips, but do 
not use pressure. To hasten the process 
take the corners of the straining cloth 
firmly in the hands and lift from the 
sieve ; move the contents by raising one 
side of the cloth and then the other. Aft- 
er this put the cloth over another bowl, 
twist the ends together, and press out 
as much juice as possible. This juice 
may be used to make a second quality 
of jelly. The clear juice may be made 
into jelly at once, or it may be straiJied 
through a flannel bag. In any case, the 
method of making the jelly is the same. 
Measure the juice, and put it in a clean 
preserving kettle. For every pint of juice 
add 1 pt. of granulated sugar. Stir until 
the sugar is dissolved, then place over 
the fire ; watch closely, and when it boils 
up draw it back and skim ; put over the 
fire again, and boil and skim once more; 
boil and skim a third time, then pour 
into hot glasses taken from the pan of 
water on the stove, and set on a board. 
Place the board near a sunny window in 
a room where there is no dust. It is a 
great protection and advantage to have 
sheets of glass to lay on top of the tum- 
blers. As soon as the jelly is set cover 
by one of the three methods given. 

2. — To make very transparent currant 
jelly, heat, crush and strain the currants 
as directed in the simplest process. Put 
the strained juice in the flannel bag and 
let it drain through. Measure the juice 



[745] 



Fre serving y Canning, Etc. 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



and sugar, pint for pint, and finish as 
directed above. 

3. — To make currant jelly by the cold 
process, follow the first rule for jelly as 
far as dissolving the sugar in the strained 
juice. Fill vrarm, sterilized glasses with 
this. Place the glasses on a board, and 
put the board by a sunny window. Cover 
with sheets of glass, and keep by the 
window until the jelly is set. The jelly 
will be more transparent if the juice is 
strained through a flannel bag. Jelly 
made by the cold process is more delicate 
than that made by boiling, but it does 
not keep quite so well. 

Damsons, Bottled. — Damsons, sugar. 
Remove the stalks, but not the stones ; 
place the fruit in wide-necked glass bot- 
tles, and tie a piece of bladder securely 
over the top of each one. Cover the bot- 
tom of a large boiling pot with a thin 
layer of straw, stand the bottles side by 
side on top of it, and surround them with 
cold water. Bring slowly to boiling point, 
then remove the boiling pot from the fire, 
but let the bottles remain in it until the 
contents are perfectly cold. Before stor- 
ing them remove the bladder, fill the 
mouths of the bottles with ^sugar, and 
cork with tight-fitting corks. _ Jcver with 
melted wax, and store in a cool, dry place. 
Requires altogether about 12 hours. 

Damson Jam. — To each pound of fruit 
allow from % lb. to 1 lb. of preserving 
sugar, according to taste. Remove the 
stalks, put the fruit and sugar into a 
preserving pan, let it stand by the side 
of the fire until some of the juice is ex- 
tracted, then bring slowly to boiling point, 
occasionally stirring meanwhile. Boil 
gently for about 45 minutes, or until the 
syrup, when tested on a cold plate, stiff- 
ens readily. Pour into pots. Cover with 
paper brushed over with white of egg. 
Requires about 1^ hours. 

Damson Jelly. — Damsons, preserving 
sugar. The fruit must be firm, dry and 
ripe. Remove the stalks, put the fruit 
into a large jar or stewpot, cover closely, 
place it in a boiling pot of cold water, 
and cook very slowly until the plums are 
perfectly tender. Strain the juice through 
a jelly bag, or fine cloth, into a preserv- 
ing pan, add from 8 to 10 oz. of sugar 
to each pint of juice, and boil until the 
jelly sets quickly wlien tested on a cold 
plate. Pour into pots, cover closely with 
paper brushed over with white of egg, 
and fasten securely, so as to exclude the 
air. Store in a cool, dry place. Requires 
altogether from 6 to 7 hours. 

Damsons (or any Plums), Preserved. — • 
Let the damsons, or other plums, be 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



dry and sound. Place in wide-necked jars, 
cover completely with boiling water, and 
pour over a good layer of melted mutton 
suet. Cover with parchment to complete- 
ly exclude the air. The fruit will keep 
a considerable time, and when required 
for use the water should be poured off 
and the jelly at the bottom of the jar 
used to improve the flavor of the fruit. 

Figs, Preserved. — Green figs. To each 
pound allow 1 lb. of sugar and % pt. 
of water, brine that will float an egg. 
Make a slit across the top of each fig, 
cover them with brine, and let them re- 
main for 8 days. Drain well, boil gently 
in a little water until quite tender, then 
drain again and cover with cold water. 
Change the water daily for 3 days, and 
on the third day have ready a syrup made 
of the sugar and water in the proportions 
given above. Boil the figs in the syrup 
for 10 minutes, repeat the process daily 
for 3 or 4 days, until the figs are tender 
and green. Place them in jars or bottles, 
add the syrup, cover closely, and store in 
a dry, cool place. 

Ginger, Green, Preserved. — Put the 
green ginger regularly, every night and 
morning for a fortnight, into fresh boil- 
ing water. Remove the outside skin with 
a sharp knife, boil it in water until it 
is quite soft, and slice it in thin slices. 
Make ready a syrup of 1 lb. of loaf sugar 
to 1/^ pt. of water, clarify it, and put 
the ginger into it. Boil until it is clear. 
Requires 14 days. 

Gooseberries, Bottled. — Head and tail 
firm, sound, unripe green gooseberries, put 
them into wide-necked glass bottles, and 
wrap a little hay or straw around each 
bottle. Put a thin layer of the same on 
the bottom of a large boiling pot, stand 
the bottles on the top of it, and surround 
them to at least three-quarters of their 
depth with cold water. Bring the water 
slowly to boiling point, then remove the 
pan from the fire, but allow the bottles 
to remain in it until the gooseberries be- 
gin to rise in them. Now add to each 
one a little boiling water, cork with new 
corks, and cover the bottles with blad- 
der. Place them on their sides, in a 
cool, dry place. When using the fruit, 
sugar or syrup must be added, according 
to taste. Requires altogether about 1 
hour. 

Gooselerry Jam. — Equal weights of 
green gooseberries and preserving sugar. 
To 7 lb. of fruit allow 1 pt. of cold wa- 
ter. Head and tail the gooseberries. Put 
the sugar and water into a preserving 
pan, let it stand by the side of the fire 
until the sugar is dissolved, then add the 



[ 74'6 ] 



Preservmg, Canning, Etc. 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



fruit. Bring slowly to boiling point, stir- 
ring occasionally, then boil slowly until 
the syrup readily stiffens when tested on 
a cold plate ; this will be when the jam 
has boiled for about 40 minutes. Pour 
the jam into jars, cover it at once with 
paper brushed over with white of egg, 
and keep it in a cool, dry place. Requires 
about 1% hours. 

Gooseberry and Currant Jam. — Goose- 
berries, red hairy, 6 lb. ; preserving sugar, 
4 lb.; currant juice (see red currant jel- 
ly). V2 pt. Head and tail the gooseber- 
ries, put them into a preserving pan, and 
allow them to stand by the side of the 
fire until some of the juice is extracted. 
Bring to boiling point ; -when the goose- 
berries have boiled for 10 minutes add 
the sugar gradually, put in the red cur- 
rant juice, and boil until the jam sets 
when tested on a cold plate. The scum 
must be removed as it rises, and the jam 
should be well stirred toward the end of 
the boiling process. When ready, pour 
into pots, cover closely, and store in a 
cool, dry place. Requires from 1% to 
2 hours. 

Gooseberry Jelly. — To each pint of 
gooseberries allow % pt. of water ; to 
each pint of juice obtained from these 
add 1 lb. of either loaf or preserving 
sugar. Put the fruit and water into a 
preserving pan, and boil slowly until re- 
duced to a pulp. Strain through a jelly 
bag of fine cloth until clear, then put it 
into the preserving pan with the sugar, 
and boil until it will set when a little is 
poured on a cold plate. Turn into small 
pots, cover with paper brushed over with 
white of egg, fasten securely down, so as 
to completely exclude the air, and store 
the jelly in a cool, dry place. Requires 
about 2 hours. 

Grape Jam. — Firm, sound, unripe 
grapes. To each pound allow V^ lb. of 
preserving sugar. Place the fruit and 
sugar in layers in a preserving pan, al- 
low to stand by the side of the fire until 
the whole mass is thoroughly hot and 
some of the juice is extracted, then bring 
slowly to boiling point. Boil until the 
juice sets quickly when tested on a cold 
plate, pour it into small pots, cover close- 
ly, and keep the jelly in a cool, dry place. 
Requires about 1 hour. 

Grape Jelly. — 1. — Ripe. — An acid grape 
is best for this jelly. The sweet, ripe 
grapes contain too much sugar. Half-ripe 
fruit, or equal portions of nearly ripe 
and green grapes will also be found sat- 
isfactory. Wild grapes make delicious 
jelly. Make the same as currant jelly. 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



2. — Green. — Make the same as apple 
jelly. 

Grape Marmalade. — Remove the stalks, 
put the fruit into a preserving pan, bare- 
ly cover with boiling water, and simmer 
gently until perfectly soft, but the grapes 
must not be allowed to break. Drain 
well, pass through a fine sieve, and re- 
turn the pulp to the pan. To each pint 
add from 12 to 16 oz. of sugar, accord- 
ing to the degree of sweetness required, 
and boil from 20 to 25 minutes, reckon- 
ing from the time the entire mass reaches 
boiling point. Turn into jars, cover at 
once with paper brushed over on both 
sides with white of egg, and store in a 
cool, dry place. Requires about 1 hour. 

Greengage Jam. — Firm, sound green- 
gages. To each pound allow % lb. of 
preserving sugar. Remove the stalks and 
stones, crack a few of the latter, and put 
the kernels aside. Cover the bottom of 
a preserving pan to the depth of % in. 
with cold water, put in. the fruit and 
kernels, bring slowly to boiling point, and 
boil gently for 15 minutes. Meanwhile, 
the sugar should have been placed in 
the oven in a deep tin or dish, and al- 
lowed to bf ome thoroughly hot. It may 
now be addeu> gradually to the fruit, and 
the boiling must be continued until the 
jam sets quickly when tested on a cold 
plate. Pour into pots, cover with paper 
brushed over with white of egg, and store 
in a cool, dry place. Requires from 1 to 
114 hours. 

Greengages Preserved in Syrup. — To 
each pound of fruit allow 1 lb. of either 
loaf or preserving sugar and % pt. of 
water. Proceed exactly as in the pre- 
ceding recipe, with the exception of re- 
moving the stones before putting the fruit 
into the syrup. Boil the fruit for 10 
minutes on 3 consecutive days, adding on 
the last day half the kernels, which should 
be previously blanched. Throughout the 
whole process the scum must be carefully 
removed as it rises, otherwise the syrup 
will not be clear. Requires altogether 3 
days. 

Lemon Marmalade. — Plarce the lemons 
in a preserving pan, cover them with cold 
water, and boil them gently for 2 hours, 
during which time the water must be 
drained off and replaced by fresh boiling 
water at least 3 times. Let them cool 
slightly, slice thinly, remove all the pips, 
and weigh the fruit. To each pound al- 
low 2 lb. of loaf sugar and 1 pt. of the 
water the lemons were last boiled in, and 
boil these together until a thin syrup is 
obtained. Then add the prepared fruit, 
and boil until the marmalade jellies when 



[747] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



tested on a cold plate. Cover closely with 
paper brushed over on both sides with 
white of egg, and store in a cool, dry 
place. Requires from 3 to 3% hours. 

Mangoes, To Preserve. — Let the man- 
goes lie for a few hours in cold water, 
then peel them thinly and remove the 
stones. Cover with weak lime water, and 
at the end of 1 hour drain well and place 
them in a preserving pan. Barely cover 
with cold water, boil gently for 10 min- 
utes, and drain well. Replace the man- 
goes in the pan, cover with syrup, boil 
gently until the sugar begins to crystal- 
lize, and when cool transfer carefully into 
jars or wide-necked bottles. During the 
first month the syrup must be examined 
from time to time, and if it appears at 
all thin it should be reboiled. It may 
be necessary to repeat this process two 
or three times before finally corking down. 

'Nectarines, Preserved. — Split the nec- 
tarines in halves, remove the stones, crack 
them, and put the kernels aside. Weigh 
the fruit, put an equal amount of sugar 
into the preserving pan, add ^ pt. of 
water to each pound of sugar, and boil 
to a syrup. Now put in the fruit, boil 
very gently until it is quite tender, but 
not broken, then lift it out carefully with 
a spoon and put it into pots. Boil the 
syrup rapidly until it sets quickly when 
tested on a cold plate, pour it over the 
fruit, cover closely, and store in a cool, 
dry place. Requires about 1^/4 hours. 

Orange Marmalade. — 1. — Oranges, 12 ; 
lemons, 2 ; preserving sugar. Slice the 
fruit thinly, removing inner pith and pips. 
Weigh it, and to each pound add 3 pt. 
of cold water. Let the whole remain cov- 
ered in an earthenware vessel for 3 days, 
then turn the preparation into a preserv- 
ing pan and boil gently until quite tender. 
Let it cool, weigh again, and to each 
pound of fruit add 1 lb. of sugar. Bring 
to boiling point, skim well, and cook 
gently until the syrup stiffens quickly 
when tested on a cold plate. Turn into 
pots, cover with paper brushed over on 
both sides with white of egg, and store 
in a cool, dry place. Requires altogether 
4 days. 

2. — Grated Marmalade. — Large Seville 
oranges, 12 ; lemons, 2 ; sugar. Grate 
the rinds of 6 oranges, remove all the 
white pith and throw it away. Remove 
and throw away both rind and pith of 
the remaining 6 oranges. Weigh the or- 
anges, and to each pound allow 1 lb. of 
sugar. Divide into sections, scrape out 
the pulp, and soak the pips and pith in 
a little cold water. Place the sugar, juice 
of the 2 lemons, orange rind, pulp and 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



juice in a preserving pan, add the water 
strained from the pips and pith, and boil 
gently until the marmalade jellies quickly 
when tested on a cold plate. Cover the 
jars closely, and store them in a diy, cool 
place. 

3. — Made with Honey. — ^Boil the rinds 
until tender, then shred them finely. Re- 
move the pith and pips, measure the pulp, 
and to each pint allow 1 lb. of honey and 
^ lb. of the prepared rinds. Simmer 
gently for about 4() minutes, stirring fre- 
quently, then turn the marmalade into 
jars or glasses, and cover these with 
parchment. Store in a cool, dry place. 

Pears, Preserved. — Firm, sound, not 
overripe pears, an equal weight of loaf 
sugar. Pare, halve and core the pears. Put 
half the sugar into a preserving pan, to 
each pound add 2 pt. of water, and boil 
to a thin syrup. Let it cool, put in the 
prepared fruit, and simmer very gently 
until half cooked. Turn the whole into 
an earthenware bowl, cover, and allow 
them to remain for 8 days. When ready, 
drain the syrup into a preserving pan, 
add the remainder of the sugar and a 
tablespoonful of lemon juice to each pint 
of liquid, and boil gently for 15 minutes, 
skimming well meanwhile. Now put in 
the fruit, simmer very gently until quite 
tender, then transfer them carefully to 
jars, and pour over the syrup. Cover 
closely and store in a cool, dry place. Re- 
quires altogether 2 days. 

Pears, Sioeet Pickled. — Firm pears. To 
each pound allow i/^ lb. of brown sugar 
and ^ pt. of malt vinegar ; cloves, cin- 
namon, all spice. Peel the pears, and tie 
the spices in muslin. Place the vinegar, 
sugar and spices in a preserving pan ; 
when boiling, add the pears, and cook 
them gently until tender. Remove the 
pears to a bowl or large basin, boil the 
syrup for 10 minutes longer, then pour 
it over the fruit. On the following day 
boil up the syrup, and repeat the process 
the two following days. On the third 
day place the pears in jars or wide-necked 
bottles, and remove the spices before add- 
ing the vinegar to the fruit. Store in a 
dry, cool place. Requires 3 days. 

Pineapple Marmalade. — To each pound 
of pineapple pulp add 14 oz. of loaf sugar. 
Peel, core and slice the pineapples, and 
either pound or grate them finely, prefer- 
ably the latter. Boil the pulp and sugar 
together until thick and clear, then turn 
into pots, cover first with brandied pa- 
per, and afterward with parchment. Store 
in a cool, dry place. Requires 2 to 3 
hours. 

Pineapples, Preserved. — Pineapples ; 



[748] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



pounded loaf or castor sugar. Pare and 
slice the fruit thinly, pile.it on a large 
dish, and sprinkle each layer liberally 
with sugar. Keep it in a hot closet, or 
put it daily for 7 or 8 days into a cool 
oven, turning it frequently. When quite 
dry, bake a few slices at a time in a 
moderately hot oven. When quite cold, 
pack them in airtight boxes, with paper 
between each layer. Requires about 8 
days. 

Plum Jam. — To each pound of plums 
allow from 12 to 16 oz. of sugar, accord- 
ing to the degree of sweetness required, 
and the amount of acidity contained in 
the plums. Divide the plums, take out 
the stones, or, if preferred, cut them 
across and remove the stones as they rise 
in the pan. Pile the fruit on a large 
dish, with the sugar spread thickly be- 
tween each layer ; allow them to remain 
thus until the following day, then put the 
whole into a preserving pan, and heat 
slowly by the side of the fire, stirring oc- 
casionally meanwhile. Boil gently until 
the jam sets quickly when tested on a 
cold plate, then turn it into pots, cover 
closely, and keep it in a cool, dry place. 
Requires altogether 26 hours. 

Plum Jelly. — 'Use an underripe acid 
plum. Wash the fruit and remove the 
stems. Put into the presenang kettle 
with 1 qt. of water for each peck of fruit. 
Cook gently until the plums are boiled 
to pieces. Strain the juice and proceed 
the same as for currant jelly. 

Plums, To Preserve.— 1. — To each 
pound of plums allow 1 lb. of loaf sugar 
and % pt. of water. Put the water and 
sugar into a preserving pan, and boil to 
a thin syrup. Remove the stalks from 
the plums, prick them slightly to prevent 
them breaking, pour over them the pre- 
pared syrup, and allow them to remain 
thus for 2 days. Turn the whole into a 
preserving pan, boil very gently until the 
plums are tender, then lift them carefully 
into pots. Boil the syrup to the "large 
thread" degree, pour it over the plums, 
cover closely, and store them in a cool, 
dry place Requires altogether 2 days. 

2. — Greengages, 4 qt. ; sugar, 2 qt. ; 
water, 1 pt. - Prick the fruit and put it 
in a preserving kettle. Cover generously 
with cofd water.. Heat to the boiling 
point, and boil gently for 5 minutes. 
Drain well. Put the sugar and water in 
a preserwng kettle, and stir over the fire 
until the sugar is dissolved. Boil 5 min- 
utes, skimming well. Put the drained 
greengages in this syrup, and cook gently 
for 20 minutes. Put in sterilized jars. 
Other plums may be preserved in the same 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



manner. The skins should be removed 
from white plums. 

Plumbs, Spiced. — Prick the plums well 
with a fork, place them in a large jar, 
with cinnamon, cloves and orange rind be- 
tween each layer. Cover with vinegar, 
and on the following day strain ofE and 
boil for 10 minutes. Let it cool, pour 
it over the fruit, and at the end of 24 
hours again strain and measure it. To 
each pint add 3 oz. of sugar, boil the two 
together for 10 minutes, pour it over the 
plums, and when cold cover closely, and 
store in a dry, cool place. Requires 3 
days. 

Plums. — (See also Damsons; Greene- 
gages. ) 

Quince Jelly.—Ruh the quinces with a 
coarse crash towel ; cut out the blossom 
end. Wash the fruit', and pare it and cut 
in quarters. Cut out the cores, putting 
them in a dish by themselves. Have a 
large bowl half full of water; drop the 
perfect pieces of fruit into this bowl. Put 
the parings and imperfect parts, cut very 
fine, into the preserving kettle. Add 1 
qt. of water to every 2 qt. of fruit and 
parings. Put on the fire and cook gently 
for 2 hours. Strain, and finish the same 
as apple jelly. The perfect fruit may be 
preserved or canned. To make quince 
jelly of a second quality, when the par- 
ings and fruit are put on to cook, put 
the cores into another kettle and cover 
them generously with water, and cook 
2 hours. After all the juice has been 
drained from the parings and fruit put 
what remains into the preserving kettle 
with the cores. Mix well, and turn into 
the straining cloth. Press all the juice 
possible from this mixture. Put the juice 
in the preserving kettle with 1 pt. of 
sugar to 1 pt. of juice ; boil 10 minutes. 

Quince Marmalade. — To each pound of 
quince -pulp allow % lb. of loaf or pre- 
serving sugar. Pare the fruit, put it into 
a preserving pan with as much water as 
will just cover the bottom of the pan, 
and stew gently until reduced to a pulp. 
Pass through a hair sieve, weigh the 
pulp, replace it in the pan, add the sugar, 
and cook very gently until the marmalade 
sets quickly when tested on a cold plate. 
Turn into pots, cover with paper btushed 
over on both sides with white of egg, and 
store 'in a cool, dry place. Requires about 
4 hours. 

Quinces, Preserved. — ^Pare, quarter and 
core the quinces, and preserve the skins 
and cores. Put the fruit into the pre- 
serving pan with barely enough water to 
cover them, and simmer until soft, but 
not broken. Place the quinces singly on. 



[749] 



Preserving^ Canningy Etc. 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



large dishes, add the cores and parings 
to the water in which the quinces were 
cooked, and simmer gently for 1 hour. 
Strain through a jelly bag until quite 
clear, return it to the pan with the ad- 
dition of 1 lb. of loaf sugar for each 
pound of fruit, bring to boiling point, and 
skim well. Put in the quinces, boil for 
15 minutes, then turn the whole carefully 
into an earthenware bowl, and let the 
preparation remain until the following 
day. Drain the syrup once more into the 
pan ; when boiling add the fruit, cook 
gently for 15 minutes, then lift the 
quinces carefully into small jars, which 
they should three-quarters fill. Continue 
boiling the syrup until it forms a thick 
jelly when tested on a cold plate, pour 
it over the fruit, cover the jars closely 
with paper brushed over on each side 
with white of egg, and store in a cool, 
dry place. Requires altogether 2 days. 

Raspberry Jam. — To every pound of 
raspberries allow 1 lb. of sugar and ^4 
pt. of red-currant juice. Let the fruit 
for this preserve be gathered in fine 
weather, and used as soon after it is 
picked as possible. Take off the stalks, 
put the raspberries into a preserving pan, 
break them well with a wooden spoon, and 
let them boil for i/4 hour, keeping them 
well stirred ; add the currant juice and 
sugar, and boil again for ^^ hour. Skim 
the jam well after the sugar is added, or 
the preserve will not be clear. The ad- 
dition of the currant juice is a very great 
improvement to this preserve, as it gives 
it the piquant taste which the flavor of 
the raspberries seems to require. Requires 
about 1 hour. 

Raspberry and Currant Jelly. — Make 
the same as currant jelly, using half cur- 
rants and half raspberries. 

Rhubarb Jam. — To each pound of rhu- 
barb allow 1 lb. of preserving sugar, % 
teaspoonful of ground ginger and the 
finely grated rind of % lemon. Remove 
the outer stringy part of the rhubarb, 
cnt it into short lengths, and weigh it. 
Put it into a preserving pan with sugar, 
ginger and lemon rind in the above pro- 
portions, place the pan by the side of 
the fire, and let the contents come very 
slowly to boiling point, stirring occa- 
sionally meanwhile. Boil until the jam 
sets quickly when tested on a cold plate. 
Pour it into pots, cover closely, and store 
in a cool, dry place. Requires from 1 
to 11^ hours, according to the age of the 
rhubarb. 

Rhubarb and Orange Jam. — ^Finely cut 
rhubarb, 1 qt. ; oranges, 6 ; preserving 
sugar, 1% lb. Out the rinds of the or- 



(Jams, Jellies, Etc.) 



anges into sections, remove them, and 
scrape off as much of the white pith as 
possible. Free the pulp from fibrous skin 
and pips, put it into a preserving pan 
with the sugar, rhubarb and orange rinds, 
previously finely shredded. Bring slowly 
to boiling point, skim well, and boil un- 
til the jam stiffens when tested on a cold 
plate. Cover closely, and store in a cool, 
dry place. Requires about 1 hour. 

Rhubarb Marmalade. — ^To each pound 
of rhubarb allow 2 tablespoonfuls of sugar 
and ^ teaspoonful of ground ginger. 
Wipe, string, and cut the rhubarb into 
short lengths. Put the rhubarb, sugar 
and ginger in a jar, place the jar in a 
rather cool oven, or in a saucepan con- 
taining boiling water, and cook until soft. 
Pass through a fine sieve, and use for 
filling turnovers and similar kinds of 
pastry. Requires 1^^ hours. 

Strawberry Jam. — To each pound of 
fruit allow from 12 to 16 oz. of preserv- 
ing sugar. Remove the stalks from the 
fruit, put it into a preserving pan, cov- 
ering each layer thickly with sugar. Place 
the pan by the side of the fire, bring 
the contents slowly to boiling point, and 
stir occasionally. Skim well, boil gently 
until the jam sets when tested on a cold 
plate, taking care in stirring to keep the 
fruit as whole as possible. Pour into 
pots, cover with paper brushed over on 
both sides with white of egg, and keep 
in a cool, dry place. Requires about 1 
hour. 

Stratvberry Jelly. — To 10 qt. of straw- 
berries add 2 qt. of currants, and proceed 
as for currant jelly, but boil 15 minutes. 

Strawberries, Preserved. — 1. — An equal 
weight of fruit and loaf sugar. Straw- 
berries for preserving must be very dry, 
otherwise they will not keep ; the stalks 
must be removed, and any unsound fruit 
rejected. Put the sugar into a preserving 
pan ; to each pound add % pt. of cold 
water and a small pinch of cream of tar- 
tar, and boil to the "small ball" degree. 
Now put in the prepared fruit, cover the 
pan, allow it to remain on the stove, but 
as far away from the fire as possible, for 
about 1 hour, then bring the contents to 
boiling point and skim well. Boil gently 
for 5 minutes, then turn into jars, cover 
closely, and store in a cool, dry place. 

2. — Use equal weights of sugar and 
strawberries. Put the strawberries in the 
preserving kettle, in layers, sprinkling 
sugar over each layer. The fruit and 
sugar should not be more than 4 in. deep. 
Place the kettle on the stove, and heat 
the fruit and sugar slowly to the boiling 
point. When it begins to boil, skim care- 



[750] 



Preserving, Canning, J^ic. 



(Fruit for Exhibition) 



fully. Boil 10 minutes, counting from 
the time the fruit begins to bubble. Pour 
the cooked fruit into platters, having it 
about 2 or 3 in. deep. Place the plat- 
ters in a sunny window, in an unused 
room, for 3 or 4 days. In that time the 
fruit will grow plump and firm, and the 
syrup will thicken almost to a jelly. Put 
this preserve, cold, into jars or tumblers. 

Tomato Marmalade. — Ripe tomatoes, 7 
lb. ; loaf sugar, 8 lb. ; lemons, 6 ; water, 
1 pt. Blanch and skin the tomatoes and 
cut them in halves. Remove the rinds 
and all the white pith of the lemons, and 
slice the fruit thinly. Boil the sugar and 
water to a thin syrup, add the prepared 
tomatoes and lemons, and bring to boil- 
ing point. Stir and skim frequently, and 
continue to boil gently until the marma- 
lade quickly jellies when tested on a cold 
plate. Pour into pots or glasses, and 
store in a cool, dry place. Requires about 
1^ hours. 

Tomatoes, Preserved. — ^Firm, ripe toma- 
toes, 7 lb. ; sugar, 3i/^ lb. ; cloves, allspice 
and cinnamon, of each, 1 oz. ; vinegar, 
1 pt. Scald, drain and peel the toma- 
toes. Tie the spices in mnslin, boil them 
for 5 minutes, with the sugar, in the vin- 
egar, then add the tomatoes, and simmer 
very gently for % hour. Keep closely 
covered, in a dry, cool ^lace. Requires 
% hour to cook the tomatoes. 

Wild Fruits for Jellies. — Wild raspber- 
ries, blackberries, barberries, grapes and 
beach plums all make delicious jellies. 
The frequent failures in making barberry 
jelly come from the fruit not being fresh 
or from being overripe. 

To Preserve Fruit for Exhibition Pur- 
poses Only. 

The following preservatives are used 
by the U. S. Department of Agriculture : 

1. — Formalin, 1 lb. ; water, 44 lb. ; al- 
cohol, 5 pt. Allow the mixture to stand, 
and should there be any sediment, pour 
off the clear liquid and filter the remain- 
der through filter paper. This 2% solu- 
tion of formalin has been found very use- 
ful for preserving strawberries so as to 
give them a natural appearance. 

2. — Boric acid, 1 lb. ; water, 45 lb. Dis- 
solve by agitation, then add 5 pt. of alco- 
hol. If the fluid is not clear, allow to 
stand and settle, when the clear upper 
portion may be poured off and the re- 
mainder filtered. 

3. — Dissolve % lb. of zinc chloride in 
15 lb. of water. Agitate till dissolved, 
then add 1 2-3 pt. of alcohol. Allow to 
stand until settled, then pour off the clear 
liquid and filter the remainder. 



(Pickles and Catsups) 

4.— Sulphurous acid, 1 pt. ; water, 8 
pt. ; alcohol, 1 pt. Allow the mixture to 
stand, and should there be any sediment 
pour off the clear liquor and filter the 
remainder. 

5. — List of fruits with number of the 
preservative. Where two are given either 
may be used, but the first is preferred : 

Strawberries No. 1 

Raspberries, red " 2 No. 1 

Raspberries, white " 4 " 3 

Raspberries, black " 2 

Blackberries " 2 " 1 

Cherries, red or black .... "1 "2 

Cherries, white " 4 

Currants, red "1 "2 

Currants, white "4 "3 

Currants, black " 2 

Gooseberries " 1 " 2 

Apples, green and russet. " 3 

Apples, more or less red. " 2 

Apples, white or yellow. . "4 

Pears, russet " 3 

Pears, green or yellow. . . "4 

Plums, dark-colored "1 "2 

Plums, green or yellow.. . " 4 

Peaches, apricots " 4 " 3 

Nectarines or quinces. .. . "4 "3 

Grapes, red or black "1 "2 

Grapes, green or yellow. . . "4 

Select the finest specimens of fruit as 
to form and size. Handle carefully, and 
place in bottles, arranging them so as to 
show best. Fill each bottle to the neck 
with fruit, then pour on the liquid recom- 
mended, filling the bottles to within ^^ in. 
of the stopper, so as to entirely cover the 
fruit. Then place the stopper in the bot- 
tle and run a little melted beeswax or 
parafSne over the joint to make it air- 
tight. Tie the stopper down with a piece 
of strong cotton. Wrap the bottles in 
paper, to exclude the light, and preserve 
in a cellar or other cool place until re- 
quired for shipment. Strawberries and 
raspberries should be cut from the plants 
or bushes with a pair of scissors, leaving 
a short piece of stem attached to each. 

PICKLES AND CATSUP'S 
Beans, French, Pickled. 

Cover young French beans with strong 
salt and water, let them remain for three 
days, then drain. Place them in a sauce- 
pan with vine leaves under and over, cover 
with salted boiling water, cook gently for 
a few minutes, then drain, and pack loose- 
ly in jars. Cover with boiling spiced 
vinegar, drain it off, and reboil on two 
following days. The pickled beans should 



[751] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Pickles and Catsups) 

be kept closely covered in a cool, dry 
place. 

Cabbage, Pickled Red. 

Good, firm red cabbage, 1 ; vinegar, 1 
qt. ; whole pepper, % oz. ; allspice, % oz. 
Remove the outer leaves of the cabbage, 
quarter it, remove the center stalk, and 
cut each section across into very fine 
strips. Pile the shredded cabbage on a 
large dish, sprinkle it liberally with salt, 
and let it remain thus until the following 
day. Meanwhile boil the vinegar, pep- 
per and spice together, the latter being 
tied together in a piece of muslin, and 
allow the preparation to become quite 
cold. Turn the cabbage into an earthen- 
ware or enameled colander, and when well 
drained put it into a large jar and pour 
in the vinegar. It will be fit for use in 
3 or 4 days ; if kept for any length of 
time it loses the crispness and color which 
are its chief recommendations. Requires 
altogether 2 days. 

Catsups. 

Anchovy Catsup. — Good ale, 1 qt. ; an- 
chovies, % lb. ; finely chopped shallots, 3 ; 
mushroom catsup, 1 tablespoonful ; castor 
sugar, % teaspoonful ; ground ginger, % 
teaspoonful ; ground mace, % teaspoon- 
ful ; cloves, 2. Put all these ingredients 
into a stewpan, simmer very gently for 
about 1 hour, and strain. When quite 
cold, pour the catsup into small bottles, 
cork them tightly, and store in a cool, 
dry place. 

Cucumber Catsup. — 1. — Pare the cucum- 
bers, slice them as thinly as possible into 
a basin, and sprinkle them liberally with 
salt. Let them remain closely covered 
until the following day, then strain the 
liquor from the cucumbers mto a stew- 
pan, add 1 teaspoonful of peppercorns to 
each pint, and simmer gently for about 
% hour. "When cold, strain into bottles, 
cork tightly, and store in a cool, dry 
place. This catsup imparts an agreeable 
flavor to sweetbreads, calf's brains, 
chicken mixtures, and other delicate prep- 
arations. 

2. — Peel ripe cucumbers, grate the 
fleshy portion, and pass it through a col- 
ander or coarse sieve to free it from 
seeds. To each 3 pt. of the pulp add 2 
oz, of salt, % oz. of white pepper in pow- 
der, and 1 pt. of vinegar. Macerate for 
a fortnight, occasionally stirring, and 
strain. 

Horseradish Catsup. — ^Macerate 1 lb. of 
grated horseradish in 2 pt. of vinegar 
for a month, and strain. 

Mushroom Catsup. — Upon a suitable 



(Pickles and Catsups) 



quantity of the fresh mushrooms sprinkle 
salt (about 1 to 4 of the fungi), and after 
3 days squeeze out the juice. To every 
gallon of juice add black pepper, ginger 
and cloves, of each % oz. ; pimento, 2 oz. ; 
mustard seed, 2 oz. ; and a sufBcient quan- 
tity of salt. Boil for 5 minutes and set 
aside to settle. Strain after 7 days. 

Soy, Indian. — This sauce is usually 
bought ready prepared. It is imported 
from China and Japan, where it is made 
from a small bean, the produce of Doli- 
chos Soja. Japanese soy is usually pre- 
ferred to that of China, because it is free 
from the sweet treacly flavor which dis- 
tinguishes the latter. When well made it 
has a good brown color, thick consist- 
ency, and is clear. 

Soy, Japanese. — An equal weight of 
beans, coarse barley meal and salt. Wash 
the beans well, boil them in water until 
tender, and pound them in a mortar, add- 
ing the barley meal gradually. Put the 
mass into an earthenware bowl, cover 
with a cloth, and let it stand in a warm 
place for several days, until it is suffi- 
ciently fermented, but not moldy. To 
each pound of salt add 4 pt. of water, 
stir until the salt is dissolved, then stir 
into the fermented mass. Keep the bowl 
or pan closely covered for 3 months, dur- 
ing which time it must be daily stirred 
for at least 1 hour. At the end of this 
time strain through fine cloths, pressing 
the insoluble portion well, in order to 
extract as much of the moisture as pos- 
sible. Let it stand again until quite clear, 
then drain off and bottle for use. In 
making Chinese soy, the liquid extracted 
is boiled and reboiled with a varying 
amount of sugar, mace, ginger and pep- 
per until it acquires the desired consist- 
ency. 

Tomato Catsup. — Ripe tomatoes, 3 
doz. ; chillie vinegar, 1 pt. ; garlic, 1 oz. ; 
shallots, 1 oz, ; common salt, 2 oz. ; cay- 
enne pepper, ^4 dr. ; lemon juice, 5 oz. 
Put the tomatoes into a jar, and warm in 
an oven until tender. Cool, skin and pulp 
the fruit, and add to the liquor in the 
jar, along with the rest of the ingredients. 
Mix well and bottle. 

Walnut Catsup. — Crush 10 doz. green 
walnuts, and to the mass add ground black 
pepper, 1% oz, ; ground nutmeg, 1^^ oz. ; 
ground cloves, % oz, ; ground ginger, % 
oz. ; ground mace, % oz. Boil the whole 
in 1/^ gal, of vinegar for half an hour, 
then set aside for a week and strain. 

Pickles. 

Cauliflowers, Pickled. — Firm white cau- 
liflowers ; vinegar to cover them ; to each 



[752] 



Preserving, C arming. Etc. 



(Pickles and Catsups) 



quart of which allow 1 teaspoonful of 
peppercorns, 1 teaspoonful of allspice and 
6 cloves. Break the cauliflowers into 
small sprays, place them on a dish, sprin- 
kle them liberally with salt, and let them 
remain thus for 6 hours. Meanwhile tie 
the seasoning ingredients in muslin, boil 
them in the vinegar for % hour, and al- 
low it to become quite cold. Drain the 
cauliflowers well from the salt, place them 
in wide-necked bottles or unglazed jars, 
and pour the prepared vinegar over them. 
Cover closely, store in a cool, dry place 
for about 1 month, and they will then be 
ready for use. Requires 1 month. 

Cauliflowers, Pickled with Onions. — • 
An equal weight of cauliflower sprays 
and silver onions, vinegar to cover. To 
each quart of vinegar allow 1 level tea- 
spoonful of peppercorns, 1 level teaspoon- 
ful of allspice, 1 level teaspoonful of black 
pepper, 1 blade of mace, 1 oz. of turmeric, 
1 tablespoonful of curry powder, 1 table- 
spoonful of dry mustard, 1 tablespoonful 
of salt, 1 tablespoonful of lemon juice, 1 
tablespoonful of raw lime juice. Put as 
much water as will cover the sprays of 
cauliflower into a large saucepan ; to each 
quart add 4 oz. of salt, boil for 10 min- 
utes, and allow it to become quite cold. 
Break the cauliflowers into small sprays, 
cover them with the cold brine, let them 
remain immersed for 3 days, then drain 
well. Peel the onions, place them in jars 
or wide-necked bottles in layers, alter- 
nating with sprays of cauliflower ; sprin- 
kle each layer with a little allspice, a few 
peppercorns, and 1 or 2 pieces of mace. 
Mix the black pepper, turmeric, curry 
powder, mustard and salt, lemon juice 
and lime juice to a smooth paste, add the 
vinegar gradually, and pour the whole 
over the cauliflowers and onions. Cover 
closely, and store in a cool, dry place. 
The pickle will be ready for use in 3 or 
4 weeks. Requires from 3 to 4 weeks. 

Cherries, Pickled. — Sound, not over- 
ripe Kentish cherries ; French vinegar to 
cover them. To each pint of vinegar al- 
low 1/2 lb. of sugar, and to the whole 
add cayenne to taste. A few drops of 
cochineal or carmine. Pick the cherries 
carefully, rejecting those which are not 
quite sound, leave about 1 in. of their 
stalks, and put the fruit into jars. Boil 
the vinegar, add to it the sugar and cay- 
enne, skim well, let it boil for a few min- 
utes, then turn it into an earthenware 
vessel. When cold, add a few drops of 
carmine or cochineal, pour it over the 
cherries, cover closely, and store in a cool, 
dry place. Requires from 3 to 4 hours. 

Chutney, English. — Sour apples, 3 doz. ; 



(Pickles and Catsups) 



coarse brown sugar, 3 lb. ; salt, V2 lb. ; 
sultana raisins, 2 lb. ; green ginger, % 
lb. ; bird's-eye chillies, 6 oz. ; mustard 
seed, 2 oz. ; medium-sized Spanish onions, 
5 ; shallots, 6 ; good malt vinegar, 3 qt. 

Chutney, Indian. — Malt vinegar, 1 qt. ; 
sour apples, 1 lb. ; sour apples, peeled, 
cored and sliced, 1 lb. ; onions, peeled and 
coarsely chopped, i/^ lb. ; moist sugar, 1 
lb. ; raisins, stoned and quartered, Mi lb. ; 
salt, 4 oz. ; ground ginger, 4 oz. ; dry 
mustard, 2 oz. ; cayenne, i/4 oz. ; 4 cloves 
of garlic finely chopped. Cook the apples, 
onions and garlic with the salt, sugar and 
vinegar until quite soft, and pass them 
through a fine hair sieve. Add the rais- 
ins, ginger, cayenne and mustard, mix well 
together, turn into a jar, and stand it in 
a warm, but not hot place, until the fol- 
lowing day. Have ready some perfectly 
dry, wide-necked small bottles or jars, fill 
them with chutney, and cover closely so 
as to exclude the air. This chutney may 
be kept for a year or two. 

Chutney Mango. — Green mangoes, 50 ; 
vinegar, 6 pt. ; sugar, 3 lb. ; tamarinds, 
stoned, 2 lb, ; raisins, stoned, 1 lb. ; green 
ginger, sliced, 1 lb. ; powdered cinnamon, 
1 good teaspoonful ; nutmeg, 1 level tea- 
spoonful ; salt, 1 Ib.^ Peel and slice the 
mangoes thinly, sprinkle over them the 
salt, let them remain for 36 hours, then 
drain well. Make a syrup by boiling to- 
gether 3 pt. of vinegar and the sugar. 
Put the remainder of the vinegar into a 
preserving pan, add the mangoes, boil up, 
simmer gently for 10 minutes, then add the 
tamarinds, raisins, ginger, cinnamon and 
nutmeg. Cook very slowly for % hour, 
adding the syrup gradually during the 
last 10 minutes. Stir and boil the mix- 
ture until the greater part of the syrup 
is absorbed, then turn into bottles, cork 
securely, and store in a dry place. Re- 
quires about 11/^ hours to cook. 

Cucumhers, Pickled. — Cucumbers ; good 
vinegar to cover them. To each pint of 
vinegar allow i/^ oz. of peppercorns, % 
oz. of allspice, V2 teaspoonful of salt. 
Peel the cucumbers, cut them into %-in. 
slices, sprinkle them liberally with salt, 
and let them remain until the following 
day. Let the cucumbers drain for at 
least 2 hours on a hair sieve, then place 
in wide-necked glass bottles. Boil the 
vinegar, salt, peppercorns and spice to- 
gether, pour it, while hot, over the cu- 
cumbers, and cover closely. If stored in 
a cool, dry place, this pickle will keep 
good for some time ; but as it is liable 
to become moldy, the bottles should be 
frequently examined. When the first 
speck of mold appears reboil the vinegar, 



[753] 



Preserving, Cannmg, Etc. 



(Pickles and Catsups) 



immerse the slices of cucum'ber in it for 
1 minute, then put them into a clean, 
dry bottle, and pour the boiling vinegar 
over them. Requires 2 days. 

Cucumiers, Preserved. — Pare and slice 
the cucumbers thinly, sprinkle liberally 
with salt, and let them remain until the 
following day. Drain off the liquor, pack 
the slices closely in jars, sprinkling each 
layer thickly with salt, and cover with 
parchment pa]>er, or paper coated on both 
sides with white of egg. When wanted 
for use, wash well in cold water, drain 
well, and dress with pepper, vinegar and 
oil. Requires 24 hours. 

Gherkins, Pickled. — To each quart of 
vinegar allow ^4 oz. of allspice, ^ oz. of 
black peppercorns, 4 cloves, 2 blades of 
mace. Cover the gherkins with salt and 
water, and let them remain in the brine 
for 3 days. At the end of the time drain 
them well, dry them with a cloth, and 
pack them compactly in a jar of suitable 
size. Boil sufficient vinegar to cover 
them, with peppercorns and spices in the 
above proportions, for 10 minutes, and 
pour the liquid over the vinegar, simmer 
very gently for 10 minutes longer, and 
when quite cold pour into small bottles. 
Cork securely, cover the corks with melt- 
ed wax, and store for use, in a cool, dry 
place. 

Horseradish, To Bottle. — Horseradish, 
scraped or grated, 6 tablespoonfuls ; white 
sugar, 1 tablespoonful ; vinegar, 1 qt. 
Scald the vinegar, and pour, boiling hot, 
over the horseradish. Steep a week, 
strain, and bottle. Exposure to the air 
will discolor. 

Horseradish, Pickled. — Scrape the outer 
skin off the horseradish, cut it into %-in. 
lengths, and place them in wide-necked 
bottles or small unglazed jars. Cover 
with good malt vinegar, cork the bottles 
tightly, or fasten parchment paper se- 
curely over the tops of the jars. Keep 
the pickle in a cool, dry place. 

Lemon Pickle. — Lemons, 12 ; baysalt, 1 
lb. ; mustard seed, tied in muslin, 4 oz. ; 
peeled garlic, 2 oz. ; grated nutmeg, % 
oz. ; ground mace, ^ oz. ; ground cloves, 
% oz. ; white-wine vinegar, 1 qt. Remove 
the rinds of the lemons in thin slices, 
and put them aside, to be afterward dried 
and used for flavoring purposes. Leave 
all the pith on the lemons, cut them 
lengthwise and across, thus forming four 
quarters, sprinkle over them the salt, and 
place them singly on a large dish. Let 
the dish remain near the fire until all the 
juice of the lemons has dried into the 
pith, then put them into a large jar. Add 
the rest of the ingredients, cover closely. 



(Pickles and Catsups) 



and let it stand near the fire, but not on 
the stove, for 5 days. At the end of the 
time cover the lid with parchment paper 
or bladder, and put the jar in a cool, dry 
place. At the end of 3 months strain 
off the vinegar through a hair sieve and 
press the fruit well to extract as much 
moisture as possible. Strain 2 or 3 times, 
and when quite clear bottle for use. 

Limes, Pickled. — Limes, 25 ; salt, 4 oz. ,* 
green chillies, 4 oz. ; green ginger, 4 oz. ; 
mustard seed freed from husks, 2 oz. ; 
ground turmeric, 1 oz. ; good vinegar, ly^ 
pt. Cut the limes across in halves, 
squeeze out all the juice, add 2 oz. of salt, 
and cover closely. Sprinkle the remain- 
ing salt over the rinds, let them remain 
for 6 hours, then dry them in the sun 
for 3 days, or until hard. Boil the chil- 
lies, green ginger, mustard seed and tur- 
meric in the vinegar for 20 minutes. Let 
the preparation cool, mix it with the lime 
juice, and strain it over the lime rinds, 
previously laid compactly in wide-necked 
bottles or jars. Cover closely, place them 
in the sun for 3 or 4 days, then store for 
use. Requires 5 days. 

Melons, Pickled. — Small melons, small 
French 'beans, grated horseradish, cloves, 
ground nutmeg, cinnamon, pepper, vine- 
gar, and to each quart add 1 teaspoonful 
each of cloves, allspice and black pepper- 
corns. Cut off one end, scoop out the 
inside of each melon, then replace and 
secure the end. Cover the melons with 
strong brine, let them remain undisturbed 
for 4 days, then drain and dry well. Sprin- 
kle the inside of each melon liberally with 
cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg and pepper, and 
stuff them with well seasoned French 
beans and horseradish. Replace and tie 
on the ends, and pack the melons in a 
large jar, keeping the cut ends uppermost. 
Boil the vinegar and spices together for 
10 minutes, and when cold pour the li- 
quid over the melons. On three consecu- 
tive days reboil the vinegar, and pour it 
boiling over the melons. When cold, cov- 
er closely, and store in a cool, dry place. 

Mixed Pickles. — To each gallon of 
vinegar allow ^ lb. of bruised ginger, ^4 
lb. of mustard, i/4 lb. of salt, 2 oz. of 
mustard seed, 1% oz. of turmeric, 1 oz. 
of ground black pepper, 14 oz. of cayenne, 
cauliflowers, onions, celery, gherkins, 
French beans, nasturtiums, capsicums. 
Have a large jar, with a tight-fitting lid, 
in which put as much vinegar as required, 
reserving a little to mix the various pow- 
ders to a smooth paste. Put into a basin 
the mustard, turmeric, pepper and cay- 
enne ; mix them with vinegar, and stir 
well until no lumps remain ; add all the 



[754] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc, 



(Pickles and Catsups) 



ingredients to the vinegar, and mix well. 
Keep this liquor in a warm place, and 
thoroughly stir it every morning for 1 
month, with a wooden spoon, when it will 
be ready for the different vegetables to 
be added to it. As these come in season, 
have them gathered on a dry day, and 
after merely wiping them with a cloth 
to free them from moisture, put them into 
the pickle. The cauliflowers must be di- 
vided into small bunches. Put all these 
into the pickle raw, and at the end of 
the season, when as many of the vege- 
tables as could be procured have been add- 
ed, store the pickle away in jars, and tie 
over with bladder. This old-fashioned 
method of preserving vegetables is largely 
employed by those who live in the coun- 
try. The pickle should be kept for at 
least 3 months in a cool, dry place before 
being used. 

Mushrooms, Pickled. — ^Button mush- 
rooms, 1 qt. ; vinegar, 1 qt. ; bruised whole 
ginger, 1 oz. ; white peppercorns, ^2 oz. ; 
mace, 3 blades ; salt, to taste. Wash, dry 
and peel the mushrooms, and cut off the 
tops of the stalks. Place them in a stew- 
pan, sprinkle salt over them, shake them 
over the fire until the liquor flows, and 
keep them on the stove, uncovered, until 
the greater part of the moisture has evap- 
orated. Then add the vinegar, pepper- 
corns, etc., bring to the boil, and s'.mmer 
gently for 10 minutes. Turn into jars, 
cover closely, and store in a cool, dry 
place. 

Onions, Pickled. — ^To each quart of vin- 
egar add 2 teaspoonfuls of allspice, 2 tea- 
spoonfuls of whole black pepper. Have 
the onions gathered when quite dry and 
ripe, and with the fingers take off the 
thin outside skin ; then with a silver knife 
(steel should not be used, as it spoils the 
color of the onions) remove one more 
skin, when the onions will look quite 
clear. Have ready some very dry bottles 
or jars, and as fast as the onions are 
peeled put them in. Pour over sufficient 
cold vinegar to cover them, with pepper 
and allspice in the above proportions, tak- 
ing care that each jar has its share of 
the latter ingredients. Tie down with the 
bladder, and put them in a di*y place, 
and in a fortnight they will be ready for 
use. 

Piccalilli. — Cauliflowers, onions, gher- 
kins, French beans, capsicums, spiced vin- 
egar, mustard, turmeric, curry powder. 
Divide the vegetables into convenient 
pieces, throw them into boiling brine suffi- 
ciently strong to float an egg, and cook 
for 3 minutes. Drain well, spread them 
on large dishes, and let them remain in 



(Canning Vegetables) 



the sun until perfectly dry. Prepare the 
vinegar as directed, and add % oz. each 
of turmeric and curry powder to each 
quart of vinegar. Also allow to each 
quart of vinegar 1 oz. of mustard, which 
must be mixed smoothly with a little cold 
vinegar, and afterward stirred into the 
boiling vinegar, but not allowed to boil. 
Place the prepared vegetables in jars, cov- 
er them completely with vinegar, and 
when quite cold cover closely. 

Tomato Chow Chow. — Large tomatoes, 
6 ; Spanish onion, 1 ; green capsicum, 1 ; 
brown sugar, 2 tablespoonfuls ; salt, 1 
tablespoonful ; vinegar, i/^ pt. Peel and 
chop the onion coarsely. Blanch the to- 
matoes, remove the skins, and slice them 
finely. Place the onion and tomatoes in 
a stewjar, add the capsicum, finely 
chopped, the sugar, salt and vinegar, and 
cook in a slow oven until the onion is 
quite tender. When cold turn into small 
jars or wide-necked bottles, cover closely, 
and store in a cool, dry place. 

Tomatoes, Pickled. — Small tomatoes, 
spiced vinegar, moist sugar. Prepare the 
vinegar as directed, and to each quart add 
1 dessertspoonful of sugar. Pack the to- 
matoes loosely in a large jar, cover them 
with boiling vinegar, and put on a close- 
fitting lid or plate to keep in the steam. 
Tie down to completely exclude the air. 
This pickle will only keep for a short 
time. 

Tomatoes and Onions, Pickled. — An 
equal weight of firm tomatoes and me- 
dium-sized Spanish onions ; vinegar to 
cover. To each pint of vinegar allow 1 
teaspoonful of peppercorns, ^ teaspoon- 
ful of allspice and % teaspoonful of salt. 
Peel the onions, place them, with the to- 
matoes, compactly in a stewpan ; add the 
salt, allspice and peppercorns, tied to- 
gether in muslin ; cover with vinegar, and 
simmer very gently for 5 or 6 hours. Turn 
into wide-necked bottles or jars ; when 
cold, cover closely, and store in a cool, 
dry place. 

Walnut Pickle. — Walnut pickle is made 
by steeping fresh and ripe walnuts (freed 
from shells) in strong brine for a week, 
removing, drying in the air for a day, then 
packing in jars and covering with boiling 
pickling vinegar. 

CANNING AND PRESERVING VEG- 
ETABLES, HERBS, ETC. 

Selection and Preparation of Vegetables. 

The first step in successful canning is 
the selection and preparation of the vege- 
tables. Never attempt to can any vege- 
table that has matured and commenced 
55] 



Presewmg, Cannmg, Etc. 



(Canning Vegetables) 



to harden, or one that has begun to de- 
cay. As a general rule, young vegetables 
are superior in flavor and texture to the 
more mature ones. This is especially 




Sterilizer, Showing False Bottom 

true of string beans, okra, and asparagus. 
Vegetables are better if gathered in the 
early morning, while the dew is still on 
them. If it is impossible to can them 
immediately, do not allow them to wither, 
but put them in cold water or in a cold, 
damp place, and keep them crisp until 
you are ready for them. Do your can- 
ning in a well kept and well dusted room. 
This will tend to reduce the number of 
spores floating about, and lessen the 
chances of inoculation. 




Steam Cooker 

In the following, directions are given 
for canning some of the more common 
vegetables, but the housewife can add to 
these at will. The principle of steriliza- 
tion is the same for all meats, fruits and 
vegetables. 

Exclusion of the Air. 

Even after sterilization is complete the 
work is not yet done. The spores of bac- 



( Canning Vegetables) 



teria are so light that they float about 
in the air and settle upon almost every- 
thing. The air is alive with them. A 
bubble of air no larger than a pea may 
contain hundreds of them. Therefore, it 
is necessary, after sterilizing a jar of 
vegetables, to exclude carefully all out- 
side air. If one bacterium or one of its 
spores should get in and find a resting 
place, in the course of a few days the 
contents of the jar would spoil. This is 
why the exclusion of air is an important 
factor, not because the air itself does any 
damage, but because of the ever-present 
bacteria. All of this may seem new-fash- 
ioned and unnecessary to some housekeep- 
ers. The writer has often heard it said : 
"My grandmother never did this, and she 
was the most successful woman at can- 
ning that I ever knew." Possibly so ; 
but it must be remembered that grand- 
mother made her preserves — delicious they 
were, too — and canned her tomatoes, but 
did not attempt to keep the most nutri- 
tious and most delicately flavored vege- 
tables, such as lima beans, string beans, 
okra, asparagus, or even corn. 

Containers for Sterilizing. — A tin 
clothes boiler, with a false bottom made 
of wire netting cut to fit it, may be used. 
The netting is made of medium-sized gal- 
vanized wire (No. 16) with ^-in. mesh. 
A false bottom is absolutely necessary, 
as the jars will break if set flat upon the 




Fig. 1 — ^Spring-top Jar 

bottom of the boiler. Narrow strips of 
wood, straw, or almost anything of this 
nature, may be used for the purpose, but 
the wire gauze is clean and convenient. 
There are several varieties of patent 



[756] 



Preservings C arming. Etc, 



(Canning Vegetables) 



steamers or steam cookers in common use. 
These have either one or two doors, and 
hold a dozen or more quart jars. They 
are ideal for canning, but they are some- 




Fig. 2 — Position of Spring During Steril- 
izing 

what expensive, and can be easily disr 
pensed with. A common ham boiler or 
clothes boiler with a tight-fitting cover 
will answer every purpose. 




Fig. 3- 



-Position of Spring After Steril- 
izing 



The most satisfactory jar is the one 
shown in Figs, 1, 2, 3 and 4. This has 
a rubber ring, and glass top, which is 
held in place by a simple wire spring. 
There are several brands of these jars 
on the market, so no diflSculty should be 



(Canning Vegetables) 



experienced in obtaining them. Vege- 
tables often spoil after being sterilized 
because of defective rubbers. It is poor 
economy to buy cheap rubbers, or to use 
them a second time. As a general rule, 
black rubbers are more durable than white 
ones. 

Buy a good grade of jar. The best 
quality usually retails at from $1.00 to 




Fig. 4 — Manner of Testing 

$1.25 a dozen. The initial expense may 
be, therefore, somewhat high, but with 
proper care they should last many years. 
The annual breakage should be less than 
3% on the average. In selecting a jar, 
always give preference to those having 
wide mouths. In canning whole fruit or 
vegetables, and in cleaning the jars, the 
wide mouth will be found to be decidedly 
preferable. 

Freshness of Flavor and Color. 

Vegetables, when canned properly, 
should retain their attractive color and 
lose very little of their flavor. It will 
be found almost impossible to detect any 
difference either in taste or in appear- 
ance between the canned and the fresh 
article if these directions are carefully 
followed. The volatile oils which give 
flavor to most vegetables are not lost dur- 
ing this process of sterilization. Cook- 
ing for three short periods in a closed 
container, at a comparatively low tem- 
perature, instead of cooking for one short 



[757] 



Preservings Cannings Etc. 



(Canning Vegetables) 



period at a high temperature, or for one 
long period in an open vessel, makes the 
vital difference, and insures freshness of 
flavor and color. After the jars have 
been sterilized and tested they should be 
kept in the dark,- as the sunlight will soon 
destroy the color of the vegetable. 

How to Open a Jar. 

Jars of vegetables are sometimes hard 
to open, unless it is done in just the 
right way. Run a thin knife blade un- 
der the rubber, next to the jar, and press 
against it firmly. This will usually let 
in enough air to release the pressure on 
the top. In case it does not, place the 
jar in a deep saucepan of cold water, 
bring to a boil, and keep it boiling for 
a few minutes. The jar will then open 
easily. 

Cautions. 

These directions for canning apply only 
to pint and quart jars. If half-gallon jars 
are used, always increase the time of 
boiling, making it an hour and a half in- 
stead of one hour. Do not go into can- 
ning too deeply at first. Experiment with 
a few jars in the early part of the sea- 
son and see if they keep well. It is not 
a difficult matter to can vegetables prop- 
erly. 

Recipes for Canning Vegetables. 

Corn. — Contrary to general opinion, 
corn is one of the easiest vegetables to 
can. The United States Department of 
Agriculture has shown that the amount 
of sugar in the sweet varieties dimin- 
ishes very rapidly after the ear is pulled 
from the stalk ; therefore, in order to re- 
tain the original sweetness and flavor it 
is necessary to can corn very soon after 
it is pulled — within an hour, if possible. 
Select the ears with full grains, before 
they have begun to harden, as this is the 
period of greatest sugar content. Husk 
them, and brush the silks off with a stiff 
brush. Shear off the grains with a sharp 
knife and pack the jar full ; add salt to 
taste, usually about 1 teaspoonful to 1 
qt. is sufficient, and fill up the jar to 
the top with cold water. Put the rub- 
ber ring around the neck of the jar, and 
place the glass top on loosely. Be care- 
ful not to press down the spring at the 
side of the jar. 

Place the false bottom in the boiler, 
and put In as many jars as the boiler 
will conveniently hold. Don't try to 
crowd them in. Leave space between 
them, Pour, in about 3 in. of cold water, 



(Canning Vegetables) 



or just enough to form steam and to pre- 
vent the boiler from going dry during the 
boiling. It is not necessary to have the 
water up to the neck of the jars, as the 
steam will do the cooking. Put the cover 
on the boiler, and set it on the stove. 
Bring the water to a boil and keep it 
boiling for 1 hour. At the end of that 
time remove the cover of the boiler and 
allow the steam to escape. Press down 
the spring at the side of the jar. This 
clamps on the top, and will prevent any 
outside air from entering. The jars can 
now be removed and cooled, or allowed 
to stand in the boiler until the next day. 

On the second day raise the spring at 
the side of the jar. This will relieve 
any pressure from steam that might ac- 
cumulate inside the jar during the sec- 
ond cooking. Place the jars again in the 
boiler and boil for 1 hour. Clamp on 
the top, as on the preceding day, and 
allow them to cool. Repeat this opera- 
tion on the third day. In removing the 
jars from the boiler be careful not to 
expose them to a draft of cold air while 
they are hot, as a sudden change in tem- 
perature is likely to crack them. After 
the sterilization is complete the jars may 
be set aside for a day or two and then 
tested. This is done by releasing the 
spring at the side and picking up the jar 
by the top. If there has been the least 
bit of decomposition, or if sterilization 
has not been complete, the top will come 
off. This is because the pressure on the 
top has been relieved by the gas formed 
by the bacteria. In this case it is always 
best to empty out the corn and fill up the 
jar with a fresh supply. If canning 
fruits, or some expensive vegetable, how- 
ever, examine the contents of the jar, and 
if the decomposition has not gone far 
enough to injure the flavor, place it once 
more in the boiler and sterilize over again. 
If the top does not come off you may be 
sure that the vegetable is keeping. 

Beans. — (See Lima Beans; String 
Beans.) 

Beets. — Although beets will keep in the 
cellar over winter, it is very desirable 
to can them while they are young and 
tender, as the mature beet is apt to be 
stringy, and lacking in flavor. Wash the 
young beets, cut off the tops, and put 
them in boiling water for about an hour 
and a half, or until they are thoroughly 
cooked. Take off the skins, cut in thin 
slices, and pack into the jars. Cover 
with water, and sterilize in the manner 
previously described. If a mild pickle is 
desired, make a mixture of equal parts 
of water and good vinegar, sweeten to 



[75&] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Canning Vegetables) 



taste, and cover the beets with this mix- 
ture instead of water. 

Carrots and Parsnips. — 'These, if gath- 
ered during the early summer, and canned, 
make most excellent vegetables for the 
winter. The young plants at that season 
are not stringy, and have not yet devel- 
oped the strong taste that is so objec- 
tionable to some people. Prepare as you 
would for the table, and sterilize. 

Cauliflower. — This vegetable usually 
keeps very well, but if the supply for the 
winter should begin to spoil it may be 
necessary to can it during the summer. 
Prepare it as you would for the table, 
pack it into jars, and sterilize. 

Eggplant. — Pare the eggplant, cut in 
thin slices, and drop in boiling water for 
15 or 20 minutes. Drain off the water and 
pack the slices in the jar. Cover with 
water, and sterilize as directed under 
Corn. The slices of eggplant are pliable, 
and may be taken from the jar without 
being broken, and either fried in bread 
crumbs or made into pudding, and baked. 

Herbs for Winter Use, To Dry. — Gath- 
er the herbs on a dry day, just before 
they begin to flower. Dry them quickly, 
before or near the fire, then strip the 
leaves from the stalks, put them in a 
moderately hot oven, on baking tins, until 
crisp, then rub them between the palms 
of the hands until reduced to a powder. 
Pass through a fine sieve to remove the 
small stalks, put into hot, perfectly dry 
bottles, cork tightly, and store for use. 
Herbs are sometimes dried, and put into 
paper bags, but this method is not to be 
recommended, for they not only lose much 
of their flavor, but they are less easily 
powdered than when freshly dried. 

Mushroom Powder. — Large mushrooms, 
V2 peck ; onions, 2 ; cloves, 12 ; pounded 
mace, % oz. ; white pepper, 2 teaspoon- 
fuls. Peel the mushrooms, wipe them 
perfectly free from grit, remove the black 
fur, and reject all those that are at all 
worm-eaten. Put them into a stewpan 
with the above ingredients, but without 
water; shake them over a clear fire until 
all the liquor is dried up, but be careful 
not to let them bum. Arrange them on 
tins, dry them in a slow oven, pound 
them to a fine powder, which put into 
small, dry bottles, and cork well. Seal 
the corks and keep it in a dry place. In 
using this powder, add it to the gravy 
just before serving, when it will merely 
require to be boiled up. 

Mushrooms, Preserving. — ^To 1 lb. of 
button mushrooms, carefully wiped and 
trimmed, add 1 oz. of fine salt, evenly 
distributed. After a few minutes' stir- 



( Canning Vegetables) 



ring, put them in a covered jar and set 
for ^ hour in a moderately hot oven. 
Then pour off the exuded liquor, to it add 
one-fifth of its measure of B. P. acetic 
acid, and raise to the boiling point in 
an enameled saucepan. Finally, pour it 
back upon the mushrooms, sti'll kept 
warm, adding y^ dr. of mace (broken 
up) and 1^ dr. of whole black pepper. 
Set aside for a fortnight. 

Kohlrabi. — Prepare it as you would 
turnips, pack in the jar, and sterilize. 

Lima Beans. — Lima beans lose their 
flavor very quickly after being shelled ; 
therefore, it is necessary to can them as 
soon as possible after gathering. Discard 
all pods that have begun to harden, and 
proceed as you would with corn. 

OJcra or Gumbo. — This is a vegetable 
worthy of more extended culture. Al- 
though extensively grown in the South, 
it is comparatively unknown in the North. 
It is easily kept, and makes a delicious 
vegetable for the winter. Wash the young 
and tender pods, cut them in short lengths, 
pack in the jars, cover with water, and 
sterilize. Okra is used for soups or stews. 

Parsley, To Preserve. — Use freshly 
gathered parsley for keeping, wash it per- 
fectly free from grit and dirt, put it into 
boiling water which has been slightly 
salted and well skimmed, and then let it 
boil for 2 or 3 minutes. Take it out, let 
it drain, and lay it on a sieve in front 
of the fire, when it should be dried as 
expeditiously as possible. Store it away 
in a very dry place, in bottles, and when 
wanted for use pour over it a little warm 
water and let it stand for about 5 min- 
utes. 

Peas, English. — When prepared and 
canned in the proper way, peas are easily 
kept, and never lose tke delicate flavor 
that they possess when fresh. Shell the 
young peas, pack in jars, and sterilize as 
directed under Corn. 

Potatoes, To Preserve. — For preserving 
potatoes in store, the floor is sprinkled 
with fine quicklime ; this is covered with 
a layer 4 or 5 in. thick of potatoes ; 
this by a sprinkling of quicklime again, 
and so on, using the lime in the propor- 
tion of about 1 measure to 40 measures 
of potatoes. This method checks disease 
when it is present, and improves the po- 
tatoes if they are watery or waxy. Lay- 
ers of straw and powdered plaster of 
paris may be substituted for the lime. 

Pumpkin or Winter Squash. — ^If pro- 
vided with a warm, dry cellar, one may 
keep certain varieties of these vegetables 
all winter. Some of the best varieties, 
however, do not keep well, and even the 



[75^] 



Preservings Cannings Etc. 



(Canning Vegetables) 



best keepers, when not properly housed, 
begin to decay in December or January. 
It is then necessary to can them in order 
to save them. If one has a limited num- 
ber of jars, it is a good plan to fill them 
all with other vegetables during the sum- 
mer, and upon the approach of frost to 
gather the pumpkins and bring them in- 
doors. By the time the pumpkins begin 
to spoil, enough jars will be emptied to 
hold them. They can now be steamed 
and canned in the same way as summer 
squash. In this way a supply of jars 
may be made to do double service. 

Soup Herb, Essence of {Kitchener) . — ■ 
Lemon thyme, 1^^ oz. ; winter savory, 1% 
oz. ; sweet marjoram and sweet basil, of 
each, 1% oz. ; grated lemon peel, % oz. ; 
eschalots, % oz. ; bruised celery seed, % 
oz. ; proof spirit, l^/^ pt. Digest from 
10 to 14 days. A good flavoring essence 
for soups, gravies, etc. 

String Beans. — Select young and ten- 
der beans, string them, and break them 
into short lengths. Pack firmly in the 
jar, cover with cold water, and add 1 
teaspoonful of salt to each quart. Put 
on the rubber and top, and boil for 1 
hour on each of three successive days, as 
directed under Corn. A small pod of red 
pepper placed in the bottom of the jar 
will give a delightful flavor to this vege- 
table. 

Succotash. — The writer has found that 
a mixture of corn and lima beans, or suc- 
cotash, is one of the most difiicult things 
to keep. This furnishes one of the very 
best mediums for bacterial growth, so ex- 
treme care must be taken in the process 
of canning. It is advisable to gather the 
corn and beans early in the morning, and 
prepare and sterilize them in the manner 
already described. As with summer 
squash, it is best to boil for 1^ hours 
instead of 1 hour. 

Summer Squash. — 'Cut the vegetable 
into small blocks, pack in the jars, and 
cover with water ; add 1 teaspoonful of 
salt to each quart, and sterilize. It is 
sometimes preferable with this vegetable, 
however, to pare off the skin, boil or steam 
until thoroughly done, mash them, and 
then pack in the jars, and sterilize. If 
canned in the latter way, it is advisable 
to steam them for 1% hours instead of 
1 hour, on each of three days, as the heat 
penetrates the jar very slowly. It is ab- 
solutely necessary that the interior of the 
jar should reach the temperature of boil- 
ing water. A jar will usually hold about 
twice as much of the cooked vegetable as 
it will of the uncooked. 

Tomatoes. — Every housewife knows 



(Preserving Eggs) 



how to can tomatoes. They are very eas- 
ily kept, even in the common screw-top 
Mason jar. If one already has on hand 
a number of jars of this pattern, it is 
best to use them for preserves or for 
canning tomatoes, and to purchase the 
more modern styles for canning other veg- 
etables. In using the Mason jars, be 
careful to sterilize them first by placing 
in cold water, bringing to a boil, and boil- 
ing for about 10 minutes. The rubber 
and top should also be immersed in boil- 
ing water for the same length of time. 
Remove them from the boiling water when 
needed, handling as little as possible. Be 
careful not to put the fingers on the in- 
side of the top or the inner edge of the 
rubber. Fill the jar with the cooked to- 
matoes while steaming hot, put on the 
rubber, screw on the top firmly, invert 
it, and let it stand in that position until 
cool. 

Walnuts, To Preserve. — To every pint 
of water allow 1 teaspoonful of salt ; wal- 
nuts. Place the walnuts in the salt and 
water for at least 24 hours ; then take 
them out and rub them dry. Old nuts 
may be freshened in this manner; or wal- 
nuts, when first picked, may be put into 
an earthen pan, with salt sprinkled among 
them, and with dampened hay placed on 
the top and then covered down with a 
lid. The walnuts must be well wiped be- 
fore they are put on the table. 

PRESERVING EGGS, MEAT, ETC. 
Coffee. 

Preservation of Roasting Cofee (Lie- 
hig's Method). — After roasting, while still 
hot, sprinkle over it pulverized sugar, stir 
it in well, sprinkle on some more, and 
then put it up for keeping in well closed 
receptacles. The coffee looks as if coated 
with varnish, and even if kept for a long 
time suffers no Joss of aroma. 

Eggs. 

To Tell the Age o/.— This method is 
based upon the decrease in the density of 
eggs as they grow old. Dissolve 2 oz. of 
kitchen salt in 1 pt. of water. When 
a fresh-laid egg is placed in this solution 
it will descend to the bottom of the ves- 
sel, while one that has been laid on the 
day previous will not quite reach the 
bottom. If the ^gg be 3 days old it will 
swim in the liquid ; and if it is more than 
3 days old it will float on the surface, 
and project above the latter more and 
more in proportion as it is older. 

To Pack Eggs to Keep for Winter. — 
1. — Dip the eggs into a solution of 2 oz. 



[760] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Preserving Eggs) 



of gum arable in 1 pt. of cold water, let 
them dry, and pack in powdered, well 
burned charcoal. 

2. — Packing Liquid.— Lime, slaked with 
water, 1 bu. ; common salt, 2 or 3 lb. ; 
cream of tartar, % lb. ; water, q. s. to 
form a mixture strong enough to float an 
egg. Used to preserve eggs, which it is 
said it will do for 2 years, by simply 
keeping them in it. 

3. — In the common "liming" process, a 
tight barrel is half filled with cold water 
into which is stirred slaked lime and salt, 
in the proportion of about % lb. of each 
for every pail or bucket of water. Some 
dealers use no salt, and others add a 
small quantity of niter — 14 lb. to the half 
harrel of pickle. Into this the eggs, which 
must be perfectly fresh and sound, are 
let down with a dish, when they settle 
to the bottom, small end down. The eggs 
displace the liquid, so that when the bar- 
rel is full of eggs it is also full of the 
pickle. Eggs thus pickled, if kept in a 
cool place, will, ordinarily, keep good for 
several months. Long storage in this li- 
quid, however, is apt to make the shells 
brittle, and impart a limy taste to their 
contents. This may be, in a great meas- 
ure, avoided by anointing the egg all over 
with lard before putting in the pickle. 
Eggs thus prepared are said to keep per- 
fectly for 6 months or more when stored 
in a cool cellar. 

4. — A much better method of storing 
eggs is the following : Having selected 
perfectly fresh eggs, put them, a dozen 
or more at a time, into a small willow 
basket, and immerse this for 5 seconds in 
boiling water containing about 5 lb. of 
common brown sugar per gallon of water. 
Place the eggs immediately after on trays 
to dry. The scalding water causes the 
formation of a thin skin of hard albumen 
next the inner surface of the shell, the 
sugar effectually closing all the pores of 
the latter. The cool eggs are then packed, 
small end down, in an intimate mixture 
of 1 measure of good charcoal, finely pow- 
dered, and 2 measures of dry bran. Eggs 
thus stored have been found perfectly 
fresh and unaltered after 6 months. 

5. — A French authority gives the fol- 
lowing : Melt 4 oz. of clear beeswax in 
a porcelain dish over a gentle fire, and 
stir in 8 oz. of olive oil. Let the result- 
ing solution of wax in oil cool somewhat, 
then dip the fresh eggs, one by one, into 
it, so as to coat every part of the shell. 
A momentary dip is suflBcient, all excess 
of the mixture being wiped off with a 
cotton cloth. The oil is absorbed in the 
shell, the wax hermetically closing all the 



(Preserving Eggs) 



pores. It is claimed that eggs thus treat- 
ed and packed away in powdered char- 
coal, in a cool place, have been found 
after 2 years as fresh and palatable as 
when newly laid. 

6. — ParafBne, which melts to a thin li- 
quid at a temperature below the boiling 
of water, and has the advantage of being 
odorless, tasteless, harmless and cheap, 
can be advantageously substituted for the 
wax and oil, and used in a similar man- 
ner. Thus coated, and put into the lime 
pickle, the eggs may be safely stored away 
for many months ; in charcoal, under fa- 
vorable circumstances, for a year or more. 

7. — Dry salt is frequently recommended 
as a good preservative packing for stored 
eggs, but practical experience has shown 
that salt alone is but little better than dry 
bran, especially if stored in a damp place, 
or exposed to humid air. 

8. — A mixture of 8 measures of bran 
with 1 measure of powdered quicklime 
makes an excellent packing for eggs in 
transportation. 

9. — Water glass — silicate of soda — has 
recently been used in Germany for ren- 
dering the shells of eggs non-porous. A 
small quantity of the clear syrupy solu- 
tion is smeared over the entire surface of 
the shell. On drying, a thin, hard, glassy 
film remains, which serves as an admirable 
protection, and substitute for wax, oil, 
gums, etc. Eggs thus coated, and stored 
in charcoal powder, or a mixture of char- 
coal and bran, would keep a very long 
time. 

10. — In storing eggs in charcoal, the 
latter should be fresh, and perfectly dry. 
If the eggs are not stored when perfectly 
fresh, they will not keep under any cir- 
cumstances. A broken egg, stored with 
sound ones, will sometimes endanger the 
whole lot. In packing, the small end of 
the egg should be placed downward ; if 
in charcoal or other powder, they must be 
packed so that the shell of one egg does 
not touch that of another, the interstices 
being filled with the powder. Under all 
circumstances, stored eggs should be kept 
in as cool a place as possible. Frequent 
change of temperature must also be avoid- 
ed. 

11. — Experiments have been made by 
Director Strauch, of the Agricultural 
School, in Neisse (Germany), with vari- 
ous methods for keeping eggs fresh. At 
the beginning of July, 20 fresh eggs were 
treated by the same method, and exam- 
ined at the end of February. The results 
are given below : Kept in brine, all un- 
fit for use ; not decayed, but unpalatable 
from being saturated with salt. Wrapped 



[761] 



"Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Preserving Meat) 



(Preserving Meat) 



in paper, per cent, spoiled, 80 ; kept in 
a solution of salicylic acid and glycerine, 
80% ; rubbed with salt, 70% ; packed in 
bran, 70% ; coated with parafBne. 70% ; 
painted with a solution of salicylic acid 
and glycerine, 70% ; immersed in boiling 
water 12 to 15 seconds, 50% ; treated 
with a solution of alum, 50% ; kept in a 
solution of salicylic acid, 50% ; coated 
with soluble glass, 40% ; coated with col- 
lodion, 40% ; coated with varnish, 40% ; 
rubbed witli bacon, 30% ; packed in wood 
ashes, 20% ; treated with boric acid and 
soluble glass, 20% ; treated with potas- 
sium permanganate, 20% ; coated with 
vaseline and kept in lime water, all good ; 
kept in soluble glass, all very good. 

Meat, To Preserve. 

Meat preservatives are now forbidden 
by law, so none are given. 

Dr. Richardson says that putrefactive 
changes in meat are due to the decompo- 
sition of the water contained in the tis- 
sues. The means which have been found 
to arrest this decomposition are, first, a 
low temperature ; second, a high state of 
desiccation ; third, the application of anti- 
septics ; fourth, the exclusion of air. 

Refrigeration. — Subjection to a low 
temperature is a thoroughly effective way 
of preserving meat, but it can be con- 
sidered only as temporary, decomposition 
ensuing when the cold state is abandoned. 
Nevertheless, its effects are sufficiently 
lasting to serve practical ends, and the 
process seems most likely to solve the 
problem of conveying large quantities of 
fresh meat to foreign countries. Numer- 
ous plans have been devised, all aiming at 
the production of a sufficiently low tem- 
perature at a remunerative cost. 

Beef, Pickle for. — Pickle to keep beef 
tongues and pork. To each gallon of wa- 
ter add 1% lb. of salt, ^ lb. of sugar, 
% oz. of saltpeter, and Y2 oz. of potash. 
Let these be boiled together until all the 
dirt from the sugar rises to the top and 
is skimmed off. Then throw it into a 
tub to cool, and when cold pour it over 
the beef or meat, to remain the usual 
time, say 4 or 5 weeks. ^ The meat must 
be well covered with pickle, and should 
not be put down for at least 2 days after 
killing, during which time it should be 
slightly sprinkled with saltpeter, which 
removes all the surface blood, etc., leav- 
ing the meat fresh and clean. Some omit 
boiling the pickle, and find it to answer 
well, though the operation of boiling puri- 
fies the pickle by throwing off the dirt al- 
ways found in salt and sugar. 

Beef, etc.. To Preserve in Hot Weather. 



■ — Put the meat into a hot oven, and let 
it remain until the surface is browned 
all over, thus coagulating the albumen 
of the surface and inclosing the body of 
the meat in an impermeable envelope of 
cooked flesh. Pour some melted lard or 
suet into a jar of sufficient size, and roll 
the latter around until the sides are even- 
ly coated to the depth of half an inch with 
the material. Now put in your meat, tak- 
ing care that it does not touch the sides 
of the jar (thus scraping away the en- 
velope of grease), and fill up with more 
suet or lard, being careful to completely 
cover and envelop the meat. Thus pre- 
pared, the meat will remain absolutely 
fresh for a long time, even in the hottest 
weather. When required for use the 
outer portion may be left on, or may be 
removed, as the occasion may be. The 
same fat may be used over and over again 
by melting, and retaining in the melted 
state a few moments each time, by which 
means not only all solid portions of the 
meat which have been retained fall to 
the bottom, but all septic microbes are 
destroyed. 

Hams, Curing. — Few persons under- 
stand the proper ingredients and exact 
proportions to make a suitable pickle for 
curing hams. This information will 
doubtless prove of value. The desidera- 
tum is to cure the meat so that it will 
keep in hot weather, with the use of as 
little salt as possible. Pickle made in 
the following manner, it is believed, will 
accomplish this: Salt (coarse or alum 
salt is best), 1% lb.; saltpeter, i^ oz. ; 
molasses, 1 pt., or brown sugar, 1 lb. ; 
saleratus, 1 teaspoonful. Let these be 
added to 1 gal. of water, and the amount 
increased in the same proportions to make 
the quantity required. Bring the liquor 
to a boil, taking care to skim just before 
it begins to boil. Let the pickle cool, 
and pour it over the meat until entirely 
covered. The meat shonld be packed in 
clean, tight casks, and should remain in 
the pickle 6 or 7 weeks, when it will be 
fit to smoke. Green hickory wood is the 
best article for this purpose. Shoulders 
prepared in the same way are nearly as 
good as hams. This pickle is just the 
thing to make nice corned beef, or corned 
beef tongues, or any lean meat for dry- 
ing. 

SmoTcing Meat. — 1. — Pyroligneous Acid. 
— Take the meat out of the pickle, and 
dry ; with a sponge or brush wash all 
over with crude pyroligneous acid ; hang 
up in a cool place, and repeat the appli- 
cation at intervals of a few days, until 
three coats have been applied. 



I 



[762] 



Preservmgy Canning, Etc. 



(Mustard) 



2. — Liquid Smoke. — Rectified spirits of 
tar, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 4 oz. ; mix, and add 
crude pyroligneous acid, 20 oz. Shake 
well, and filter through a filter wetted 
with the acid. Let the meat dry well 
after salting, then apply the liquid smoke 
with a brush to one side of the meat ; let 
it dry a few hours, and then apply to 
other side ; after drying for a few hours, 
hang up for several days. Then repeat 
the process, and in another week the meat 
is ready to be eaten. One quart of liquid 
smoke is enough for 250 to 300 lb. of 
meat. See U. S. D., 17th ed., page 21, 
for uses of crude pyroligneous acid. 

Smoking Eels or Salmon. 

To smoke eels or salmon, salt them 
with ordinary salt and a little niter, and 
keep them for 4 days in the brine. Then 
take a large cask, as high a one as pos- 
sible, remove the bottom, bore a number 
of holes at the top and through the staves, 
and rest it upon stones rather more than 
a foot high, so that there is an empty 
space beneath. Now suspend the eels or 
salmon, previously fastened to thin sticks, 
in the cask, and light under them a 
choked fire of birch or oak leaves, juniper 
twigs and juniper berries, and allow them 
to remain therein for 3 days. It is im- 
portant that the fire should not be al- 
lowed to burst into flame, and that an 
abundant quantity of smoke should be 
produced. To be considered good, smoked 
eels and salmon should have a nice golden 
yellow color on the outside and a fresh 
red color like raw ham on the inside. 
They should also have a pleasant smell. 

MUSTARD 
^■^ Prepared Table Mustard. — 1. — Ordi- 
nary Mustard. — Stir gradually 1 pt. of 
good white wine into 8 oz. of ground mus- 
tard seed and a pinch of pulverized cloves, 
and let the whole boil over a moderate 
coal fire. Then add a small lump of 
white sugar, and let the mixture boil up 
once more. 

2.— Pour 1/^ pt. of boiling white vinegar 
over ,8 oz. of ground mustard seed, in 
an eb-then pot, stir the mixture thor- 
oughly, then add some cold vinegar, and 
let the pot stand overnight in a warm 
place. The next morning add ^ lb. of 
sugar, % dr. of pulverized cinnamon, i/^ 
dr. of pulverized cloves, 1^4 dr. of Ja- 
maica pepper, some cardamom, nutmeg, 
half the rind of a lemon, and the neces- 
sary quantity of vinegar. The mustard 
is now ready, and is kept in pots tied 
up with bladder. 

3. — Mix 8 lb. of ground mustard seed 



(Mustard) 



with iy2 pt. of good cold vinegar, heat 
the mixture over a moderate fire for 1 
hour, add 1 dr. of ground Jamaica pep- 
per, and when cold keep it in well closed 
jars. 

4. — Very Fine Table Mustard. — Digest 
1% oz. of fresh tarragon leaves, 2 bay 
leaves, 1 lemon (juice and rind), % dr. 
each of cloves and cinnamon, % dr. of 
black pepper, % oz. of dill, and 1 onion 
in y2 gal. of good vinegar. It is best to 
use a steam apparatus for the purpose. 
Then strain the fluid into a porcelain 
vessel, and while it is yet warm, mix 
with it 1 lb. of ground black mustard 
seed, a like quantity of white mustard, 

1 lb. of sugar, and 3% oz. of common 
salt. Let the whole digest, stirring fre- 
quently, until the mustard has lost some 
of its sharpness by the evaporation of 
the ethereal oil, and then dilute, accord- 
ing to taste, with more or less vinegar. 

Duesseldorft Mustard. — Brown mustard 
cake, 10 oz. ; yellow mustard cake, 48 oz. ; 
boiling water, 96 oz. ; wine vinegar, 64 
oz. ; cinnamon, 5 dr. ; cloves, 15 dr. ; 
sugar, 64 oz. ; good white wine, 64 oz. 
Mix, after the general directions given 
above. 

Frankfort Mustard. — Mix 1 lb. of white 
mustard seed, ground, a like quantity of 
brown mustard seed, 8 oz. of pulverized 
loaf sugar, 1 oz. of pulverized cloves, 2 
oz. of allspice, and compound the mixture 
with white wine or wine vinegar. 

French Mustard. — ^Take salt, 1^ lb. ; 
scraped horse radish, 1 lb. ; garlic ; 2 
cloves ; boiling vinegar, 2 gal. Macerate 
in a covered vessel for 24 hours, strain, 
and add sufficient flour of mustard. 

German Table Mustard. — Laurel leaves, 
8 oz. ; cinnamon, 5 dr. ; cardamom seed, 

2 dr. ; sugar, 64 oz. ; wine vinegar, 96 
oz. ; brown cake, 10 oz. ; yellow cake, 48 
oz. Mix after general directions as given 
above. 

Kirschner Wine Mustard. — Reduce 30 
qt. of freshly expressed grape juice to 
half that quantity by boiling over a mod- 
erate fire, in a water bath. Dissolve in 
the boiling liquid 5 lb. of sugar, and pour 
the syrup through a colander containing 
2 or 3 large horseradishes cut into very 
thin slices and laid on a coarse towel 
spread over the bottom and sides of the 
colander. To the colate add the fallow- 
ing, all in a state of fine powder: Car- 
damom seeds, 2% dr. ; nutmeg, 2% dr. ; 
cloves, 4% dr. ; cinnamon, 1 oz. ; ginger, 
1 oz. ; brown mustard cake, 6 lb. ; yellow 
mustard cake, 9 lb. Grind all together 
to a perfectly smooth paste, and strain 
several times through muslin. 



[763] 



treserving. Canning, Etc. 



(Mustard) 



Lenormand^s Mustard. — Mix with 2 lb. 
of ground mustard seed, % oz. each of 
fresh parsley and tarragon, both cut up 
fine, 1 clove of garlic, also cut up very 
fine, and 12 salted anchovies ; grind the 
mixture very fine, add the required mus- 
tard and 1 oz. of pulverized salt, and for 
further grinding dilute with water. To 
evaporate the water, after grinding the 
mustard, heat an iron rod red hot and 
cool it off in the mixture, and then add 
wine vinegar of the best quality. 

Ravigotte Mustard. — Parsley, 2 parts ; 
chervil, 2 parts ; chives, 2 parts ; cloves, 
1 part ; garlic, 1 part ; thyme, 1 part ; 
tarragon, 1 part ; salt, 8 parts ; olive oil, 
4 parts ; white wine vinegar, 128 parts ; 
mustard flour, sufficient. Cut or bruise 
the plants and spices, and macerate them 
in the vinegar for 15 or 20 days. Strain 
the liquid through a cloth, and add the 
salt. Rub up mustard with the olive 
oil in a vessel set in ice, adding a little 
of the spiced vinegar from time to time 
until the whole is incorporated, and the 
complete mixture makes 381 parts. 

Soyer's. — Steep mustard seed in twice 
its bulk of distilled vinegar for 8 days, 
grind to a paste, and put it into pots, 
thrusting a red-hot poker into each. Mou- 
tarde a I'Estragon : Gently dry 1 lb. 
of black mustard seed, then powder it 
fine, and mix it with 2 oz. of salt and 
sufficient tarragon vinegar to make a 
paste. In a similar way are prepared 
several other mustards, by employing vin- 
egars flavored with the respective sub- 
stances, or walnut or mushroom catsup, 
or the liquor of the richer pickles, in pro- 
portions to suit. Suitable mortars or 
grinding apparatus can be procured 
through any jobber in hardware utensils 
or druggists' sundries, provided only the 
smallest articles are desired ; otherwise, 
they will have to be made specially. 

Spiced Mustard. — 1. — Yellow mustard 
flour, 10 lb. ; brown mustard flour, 40 lb. ; 
tarragon, 1 lb. ; basil, herb, 5 oz. ; laurel 
leaves, 12 dr. ; white pepper, 3 oz. ; cloves, 
12 dr. ; mace, 2 dr% ; vinegar, 1 gal. Mix 
the herbs, and macerate them in the vine- 
gar to exhaustion ; then add to the mus- 
tards, and grind together. Set aside for 
a week or 10 days, then strain through 
muslin. 

2. — French Mustard. — The following 
mixture is to be mixed with good wine 
vinegar, or, better yet, a vinegar in which 
has been macerated some celery root, gar- 
lic, onion and chives : Colman's mus- 
tard, 900 parts ; sugar, 100 parts ; salt, 
100 parts; pepper, 50 parts; cinnamon, 



(Spices, Etc.) 



25 parts; cardamom, 10 parts; and gin- 
ger, 15 parts. 

Tarragon Mustard. — Brown mustard 
flour, 40 parts ; yellow mustard flour, 20 
parts ; vinegar, 6 parts ; tarragon vine- 
gar, 6 parts. Boil the mustard in the 
vinegar, and add the tarragon vinegar. 



SPICED AND VEGETABLE FLAVOR- 
INGS 

Caramel, Preparation of. — Dissolve 7 
lb. of crushed sugar in 1 pt. of water; 
boil it in a 5-gal. copper kettle, stirring 
occasionally until it gets brown; then 
reduce the fire and let the sugar burn 
"until the smoke makes the eyes water." 
When a few drops, let fall into a tum- 
bler of cold water, sink to the bottom 
and harden sufficiently to crack, it is 
done. Then pour on it, by degrees, about 

2 qt. of warm water, stirring all the time. 
When well mixed, filter it, hot, through 
a coarse flannel filter. Some use lime 
water to dissolve the burnt sugar. Care 
must be taken not to overburn it, as a 
greater quantity is thereby rendered in- 
soluble. The heat should not exceed 221° 
C, nor be under 204° C. 

Cayenne, Soluhle. — A strong tincture is 
made by percolating 1 lb. of pods with 
rectified spirit until 2^2 pt. of tincture 
are obtained; half the spirit is distilled 
off (and used for the next percolation) 
and the residue mixed with 5 lb. of fine 
dry salt, dried very gently, passed through 
a sieve, and stored in dry bottles. Some- 
times a little Sanders or Brazil wood is 
added to the capsicum. 

Celery Compound. — 1. — Ground celery 
seed, 25 parts ; ground cocoa leaves, 25 
parts ; ground black haw, 25 parts ; 
ground hyoscyamus leaves, 12.5 parts ; 
powdered podophyllum, 10 parts ; ground 
orange peel, 6 parts ; granulated sugar, 
100 parts ; alcohol, 150 parts ; water, q. s. 
add 400 parts. Mix the alcohol with 150 
parts of water, and macerate drugs for 
24 hours ; pack in percolator, and pour 
on menstruum till 340 parts is obtained ; 
dissolve sugar in it, and strain. 

2. — Celery seed, fresh powder, 3 av.oz. ; 
mace, fresh powder, i/^ av.oz. ; pimento, 
fresh powder, % av. oz. ; fine table salt^ 
12 av.oz. Mix. 

3. — Celery seed, fresh powder, 2 av.oz. ; 
fine table salt, 14 av.oz. Mix. 

Gurry Powder. — 1, — The foimula for 
Dr. Kitchener's celebrated curi-y is said 
to be : Coriander seed, 3 oz, ; turmeric, 

3 oz. ; black pepper, 1 oz. ; mustard, 1 oz. ; 
ginger, 1 oz. ; allspice, % oz. : cardamom, 
'V2 oz- ; cumin seed, ^ oz. Reduce to s 



[764] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Spices, Etc.) 



fine powder, mix thoroughly, and preserve 
in well stoppered bottles. 

2. — For those who prefer a hot_ curry, 
a formula likely to give satisfaction is 
Coriander seed, 1% lb. ; cumin seed, % 
lb. ; turmeric, 1 lb. ; ginger, 2 oz. ; muR 
tard, 1 oz. ; fenugreek, 1 oz. ; cayenne, 
1% oz. Prepare as above. Great care 
should be exercised in selecting the ma- 
terials, in order to obtain satisfactory re- 
sults. It is said that in India some of 
the ingredients are mixed together while 
fresh, thoroughly bruised, dried, and then 
made into a powder with the other sub- 
stances. 

3. — ^The following is said to be true 
Indian curry ; Coriander seed, 360 gr. ; 
.turmeric, 100 gr. ; fresh ginger, 260 gr. ; 
cumin seed, 18 gr. ; black pepper, 54 gr. ; 
poppy seed, 94 gr. ; cinnamon, 20 gr. ; 
cardamom, 40 gr. ; cloves, 20 gr. ; half 
a cocoanut, grated. All but the cocoanut 
to be ground together. In order to ob- 
tain good results the materials should be 
selected with great care. 

Imperial Spices. — Lemon peel (the thin 
outer part only), 180 parts; common salt, 
80 parts ; mustard seed, 40 parts ; black 
pepper, 40 parts ; cloves, 20 parts ; gin- 
ger, 20 parts ; cayenne pepper, 20 parts ; 
powder, and mix well together. Lemon 
peel of the character mentioned can be 
obtained in the German market, and pos- 
sibly here. If not, it may be prepared 
by peeling fresh lemons in the manner 
indicated. This, of course, adds to the 
cost of the product, but at the same time 
improves its flavor. 

Mixed Spices. — 1. — Powdered allspice, 
14 oz. ; powdered nutmeg, 1 oz. ; pow- 
dered cloves, 1 oz. ; powdered cinnamon, 
1 oz. 

2. — Allspice, 140 parts ; cloves, 140 
parts ; ginger, 115 parts ; long pepper, 100 
parts ; black pepper, 75 parts ; coriander 
seed, 75 parts ; white pepper, 60 parts ; 
cassia bark, 55 parts ; nutmeg, 55 parts ; 
capsicum, 45 parts ; white mustard seed, 
45 parts ; cassia buds, 35 parts ; mace, 
25 parts ; caraway seed, 10 parts ; anise 
seed, 3 parts ; cardamom seed, 2 parts. 

3. — Powdered turmeric, 1 oz. ; powdered 
licorice, 1 oz. ; powdered coriander, % oz. ; 
powdered caraway, 4 dr. ; powdered fenu- 
greek, 1 dr. ; powdered anise, 1 dr. Mix. 

4. — Powdered ginger, 1 oz. ; powdered 
nutmegs, % oz. ; powdered cloves, % oz. ; 
powdered mace, i/4 oz. ; powdered cinna- 
mon, 1 oz. ; powdered allspice, 1 oz. Mix. 

Salt. To Prevent the Caking of. — It is 
claimed that by adding to salt, glycerine, 
or a mixture of glycerine and cotton-seed 
oil, in the proportion of 10 oz. of glyc- 



( Spices, Etc.) 



erine to 125 lb. of salt, or 2 to 8 oz. of 
glycerine and 2 to 3 oz. of cotton-seed 
oil, the caking of table salt is entirely 
prevented. 

Sausage Seasoning. — 1. — Cayenne pep- 
per, 1 oz. ; cumin, 1 oz. ; cassia, 1 oz. ; 
nutmeg, 2 oz. ; pimento, 6 oz. ; black pep- 
per, 8 oz. ; salt, 8 oz. Mix. 

2. — It will be noticed that this formula, 
from a British source, omits that old 
American standby, sage : Capsicum, 1 
part ; cumin, 1 part ; cassia, 1 part ; 
nutmeg, 2 parts ; pimento, 6 parts ; black 
pepper, 8 parts ; salt, 8 parts. 

3. — Flavor for Gallic Sausage. — Black 
pepper, 1 lb. ; clove, 5 oz. ; nutmeg, 4% 
oz. ; ginger, 9 oz. ; anise, 2% oz. ; cori- 
ander, 2^1 oz. Grind all together. 

Vegetables, Herhs, Spices, etc., Flavor- 
ing. — ^Many flavorings are used in meat 
dishes, some of which are familiar to all 
cooks — onions, carrots, turnips and gar- 
lic being perhaps the most widely known. 
Butter, too, may be regarded as one of 
the most common seasonings, and, of 
course, makes the dish richer. _ Meat ex- 
tract is also used for flavoring many 
meat dishes and other foods, as are also, 
though less commonly, similar extracts 
made from clams or other "sea food." 
The following list includes these with va- 
rious others, a number of which it is 
convenient to keep always on hand : On- 
ions, carrots, green peppers, parsnips, tur- 
nips, tomatoes, fresh, canned or dried ; 
celery tops and parsley, either fresh or 
dried; sage, savory, thyme, sweet mar- 
joram, bay leaf, garlic, lemon rind, vine- 
gar, capers, pickles, olives, currant jelly, 
curry powder, cloves, peppercorns, celery 
seed, meat extract, chili sauce, pepper 
sauce, or some similar hot or sharp sauce, 
and some kind of good commercial meat 
sauce. Some hints regarding the use of 
such flavorings follow : 

1. — Flavor of Fried Vegetables. — Most 
of the stews, soups, braised meats and 
pot roasts are very much improved if the 
flavoring vegetables which they contain, 
such as carrots, turnips, onions, celery, 
or green peppers, are fried in a little fat 
before being cooked with the meat. This 
need not complicate the preparation of 
the meat or increase the number of uten- 
sils used, for the meat itself is usually 
seared over in fat, and the vegetables can 
•be cooked in the same fat before the 
browning of the meat. 

2. — Onion Juice. — Cook books usually 
say that onion juice should be extracted 
by cutting an onion in two and rubbing 
the cut surface against a grater. Con- 
sidering how hard it is to wash a grater, 



[765] 



/^ 



Preservingy Canning, Etc. 



(Spices, Etc.) 



this metliod lias its drawbacljs. Small 
amounts of juice may be obtained in the 
following simpler way : Peel the onion, 
and extract a few drops of juice by press- 
ing one side with the dull edge of a knife. 

3. — Green Peppers. — The flavor of green 
peppers gives an acceptable variety. The 
seed should always be removed. The pep- 
pers should be chopped and added to 
chopped meat or other meat dishes. Meat 
mixed with bread crumbs may be baked 
in the pepper shells and the stuffed pep- 
pers served as a separate dish. 

4. — Parsley. — It is easy to raise parsley 
by growing it in a pot in the kitchen 
window, and thus to have it always on 
hand fresh, or the leaves may be kept for 
a long time if sealed up in a fruit jar 
and stored in a cool place. Parsley, mint, 
and celery tops may all be dried, rubbed 
into fine bits, and kept in airtight jars. 
Recipes usually say to chop fresh parsley 
with a knife on a board. But a board 
is a hard thing to wash, and a plate serves 
the purpose quite as well. 

5. — Bay Leaf. — Bay leaf is one of the 
best, and at the same time one of the most 
abused flavors. In small quantities, it 
gives a very pleasant flavor to soups and 
gravies, but in* large quantities it gives 
a rank rosinlike taste. Remember that 
half a bay leaf is the allowance for 3 qt. 
of soup stock. This will indicate how 
small a quantity should be used for the 
portion of gravy usually served at a meal. 
With this precaution in mind, bay leaf 
may -be recommended as a flavoring for 
many sauces, particularly tomato sauce. 

6. — A Kitchen Bouquet. — A "bouquet," 
such as is often referred to in recipes, 
may be made as follows : A sprig each 
of parsley, savory and thyme, one small 
leaf of sage, and a bay leaf. Thiswill 
flavor 1 gal. of soup when cooked in it 
for an hour, and should not remain in it 
longer. 

7. — Horsera-dish. — Horseradish, like 
mustard, is more often served with meat 
than used to flavor it during cooking. A 
very palatable sauce, especially good with 
boiled beef, is made by adding grated 
horseradish and a little vinegar .to a lit- 
tle whipped cream, or as follows : Thicken 
milk wfth cracker crumbs by heating them 
together in a doulale boiler, using 3 table- 
spoonfuls of cracker crumbs to 1% cup- 
furs of milk. Add one-third cupful of 
grated horseradish, 3 tablespoonfuls of 
butter and % teaspoonful of salt, or 
thi-cken with butter and flour some of the 
water in which the meat was boiled ; add 
a generous quantity (1 or 2 tablespoon- 

[7 



(Spices, Etc.) 



fuls) of grated horseradish, boil a short 
time, and serve. This recipe is the most 
usual in German homes where the sauce 
is a favorite. 

8. — Acid Flavoring. — Vinegar, lemon 
juice and sour jelly, like currant, are often 
used to flavor the thick gravies which are 
a part of meat stew or which are served 
with it. Vinegar is an old-fashioned rel- 
ish, which was often added to bacon or 
salt pork and greens, pork and beans, 
corned beef and cabbage, and similar 
dishes. These flavors combine well with 
that of brown flour, but not with onions 
or other vegetables of strong flavor. The 
idea that vinegar, used in small quanti- 
ties, is unwholesome, seems to be with- 
out foundation. 

9. — Pickles. — Chopped pickles are some- 
times added to the gravy served with 
boiled mutton. They are cheaper than 
capers, and serve somewhat the same pur- 
pose. Chopped pickles are also very com- 
monly used in sauces for fish, and in many 
others, to give a distinctive flavor. 

10. — Olives. — Chopped olives also make 
a welcome variety in meat sauce, and 
are not expensive if they are bought in 
bulk. They will not spoil if a little olive 
oil is poured on the top of the liquor in 
which they are kept. This liquor should 
always completely cover them. 

11. — Chili Sauce, Commercial Meat 
Sauces, etc. — Recipes often may be va- 
ried by the addition of a little chili sauce, 
tomato catsup, or a commercial meat 
sauce. These may be called emergency 
flavors, and used when it is not conveni- 
ent to prepare other kinds of gravies. 

12. — Sausage. — A little sausage or- 
chopped ham may be used in chopped 
beef. 

13. — Curry Powder. — This mixture of 
spices, apparently originating in India, but 
which is now a common commercial prod- 
uct everywhere, is a favorite flavoring 
for veal, lamb or poultry. The precau- 
tion mentioned in connection with bay 
leaves, however, should be observed. A 
small amount gives a good flavor. It is 
usually used to season the thick sauces 
with which meats are served, or in which 
they are allowed to simmer. While the 
term "curry" is usually employed to de- 
scribe a particular mixture of spices made 
up for the trade, it has another meaning. 
The words "curry" or "curried" are some- 
times used to describe highly seasoned 
dishes of meat, eggs or vegetables pre- 
pared by methods that have come from 
India or other parts of the East. 

5] 



Freservmgy Cannings Etc. 



(Pudding Preparations) 



PUDDING PREPARATIONS 

Custard Powder. — 1. — Arrowroot, 8 oz. ; 
best corn flour, 7 oz. ; powdered saffron, 
10 gr. ; oil of bitter almonds, 24 drops ; 
oil of nutmeg, 12 drops. Mix the powders 
in a mortar, gradually add the oils, and 
pass through a fine sieve. 

2. — Arrowroot, 8 oz. ; rice flour, 8 oz. ; 
gum tragacanth, 1% oz. : powdered tur- 
meric, 21/^ dr. ; oil of bitter almonds, 20 
minims ; oil of lemon, 20 minims ; oil of 
nutmeg, 10 minims. 

3. — ^Corn flour, 7 lb. ; arrowroot, 8 lb. ; 
oil of almonds, 20 drops ; oil of nutmegs, 
10 drops ; tincture of saffron to color. Mix 
the tincture with a little of the mixed 
flours ; then add the essential oils, and 
make into a paste ; dry this until it can 
be reduced to a powder, and then mix all 
the ingredients by sifting several times 
through a fine hair sieve. 

Egg Powder. — The following formulas 
are said to be employed by manufacturing 
bakers : 

1. — Sodium bicarbonate, 8 oz. ; tartaric 
acid, 3 oz. ; cream of tartar, 5 oz. ; pow- 
dered turmeric, 3 dr. ; ground rice, 16 oz. 
Mix, and pass through a fine sieve. One 
teaspoonful to a dessertspoonful (accord- 
ing to the article to be made) „o be mixed 
with each % lb. of flour. Two teaspoon- 
fuls equal one medium-sized egg. 

2. — Baking powder, 1 part ; rice flour, 
2 parts. Previous to mixing, color the 
rice flour with a solution of aniline or- 
ange to a dark egg-yolk tint ; dry, then 
mix with the baking powder. 

Rennet, Liquid. — 1. — Rennet, the sub- 
stance which produces coagulation in 
"milk,^ is secreted not only in the stomachs 
of milk-consuming animals, but has been 
obtained from the digestive organs of 
fowls and fish also. What end it serves 
in the latter instances has not been ascer- 
tained. To make this ferment available 
for the rapid coagulation of milk apart 
from the natural digestive process, it can 
be easily separated by solution. The mu- 
cous membrane of the stomach of a calf 
from 5 to 10 days old is usually, if not 
always, employed as its source. 

2. — To prepare essence of rennet on a 
large scale, Hager directs that 1.5 kgm. 
of glycerine be placed in a 10-1. bottle, 
together with the insides of 20 fresh 
calves' stomachs, scraped out with a dull 
knife; 800 grams of common salt, and 
enough water to fill the bottle, to be 
added. This should be macerated for 6 
days, with occasional agitation, strained 
through cheese cloth, with pressure, mixed 



(Sauces) 



with from 150 to 200 grams of kaolin, 
and filtered. 

3. — Fresh rennets, 3 ; chloride of so- 
dium, 12 av.oz. ; glycerine, 8 fl.oz. ; alco- 
hol, 8 fl.oz. ; sour milk, 16 fl.oz. ; water, 
sufficient to make 1 gal. Chop the ren- 
nets small, dissolve the salt in % gal. of 
water, add the glycerine, alcohol and sour 
milk ; mix, and macerate the rennets in 
the mixture during 4 or 5 days, with fre- 
quent agitation ; add some precipitated 
phosphate of lime, and filter through pa- 
per, adding sufficient water through the 
filter to make the product measure 1 gal. 

4. — Junket Tablets. — Rennin, 1 gr. ; so- 
dium chloride, 5 gr. ; sugar, 5 gr. For 
one tablet. Rennin tablets may also now 
be purchased. 

5. — From Pepsin. — Pepsin, in scales, 1 
dr. ; wine, 1 fl.oz. ; glycerine, % fl.oz. ; 
water, to make 4 fl.oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 
15 drops. Mix. 

SAUCES AND SALAD DRESSINGS 

Sauces. 

Anchovy Butter. — Take 1 part of an- 
chovies which have been beaten to a paste, 
and pass through a sieve ; add 2 parts of 
butter, and spice to suit. Cayenne pep- 
per or paprika may be used to advantage. 

Anchovy Essence. — Anchovy essence can 
be made with either canned or bottled 
anchovies. Take the fish, and rub to a 
pulp in a mortar, and then pass through 
a fine sieve. To 14 lb. of anchovies add 
1/4 lb. of water ; boil for 15 minutes, and 
strain ; then add % oz. of salt and ^^ oz. 
of flour, and the pulped anchovies. The 
mixture is allowed to simmer over the 
fire for 3 or 4 minutes. After the prepa- 
ration is cool add 2 oz. of strong vinegar. 
The product should be bottled in small 
bottles and tightly corked and covered 
with bottle wax. 

■ Anchovy Paste. — Prepared by taking 1 
lb. of anchovies, 1 lb. of water, and 2% 
oz. of salt and 214 oz. of flour ; add a 
small quantity of cayenne pepper (say 
1-10 oz. ) , a small quantity of grated lem- 
on peel, and % oz. of mushroom catsup. 

Anchovy Sauce. — Take 3 or 4 ancho- 
vies, and chop them fine ; add 3 oz. of 
butter, 2 oz. of water, 1 oz. of vinegar 
and 1 oz. of flour. Melt the butter over 
a water bath, add the water and the vine- 
gar, and lastly the flour and the ancho- 
vies ; stir until the mixture is thick, then 
rub through a wire sieve. This prepa- 
ration should be kept on ice, and will 
not keep indefinitely. 

Fish. — 1. — Port wine, 1 gal. ; mountain, 
1 qt. ; walnut catsup, 2 qt. ; anchovies 



[767] 



X^' 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Sauces) 



and liquor, 2 lb. ; lemons, 8 ; shallots, 36 ; 
scraped horseradish, li/4 lb. ; flour of mus- 
tard, 8 oz. ; mace, 1 oz. ; cayenne, q. s. ; 
boil up gently ; strain, and bottle. 

2. — Anchovies, 24 ; shallots, 10 ; scraped 
horseradish, 3 spoonfuls ; mace and cloves, 
of each % oz. ; sliced lemons, 2 ; anchovy 
liquor, 8 oz. ; water, 1 pt. ; hock or Rhen- 
ish wine, 1 bottle ; walnut catsup, i/^ pt, ; 
boil to 21/^ lb., strain, and bottle. 

Gravies. — 1.— Brown Gravy Salt. — For 
coloring soups, gravies, etc. : Salt, 8 oz. ; 
white sugar, 4 oz. ; red pepper, 4 oz. Mix 
all together in a mortar ; with care trans- 
fer to a frying-pan, over a good fire, stir- 
ring constantly till brown enough, and 
rub through a sieve while hot. 

2. — Browning for Gravies. — Best white 
sugar, 8 oz. ; butter, 3 oz. Boil together 
until brown. 

Harvey Sauce. — Good vinegar, 1 qt. ; 
anchovies, 3 ; soy, 1 tablespoonful ; wal- 
nut catsup, 1 tablespoonful ; finely chopped 
shallot, 1 ; finely chopped clove of garlic, 
1 ; cayenne, ^ oz. ; cochineal, a few drops. 
Cut each anchovy into 3 or 4 pieces, 
place them in a wide-necked bottle or un- 
glazed jar, add the shallots, garlic, and 
the rest of the ingredients, and cover 
closely. Let the jar stand for 14 days, 
during which time the contents must be 
either shaken or stirred at least once a 
day. At the end of this time strain into 
small bottles, cork them securely, and 
store the sauce in a cool, dry place. 

Herb Sauce. — Horseradish, 1 stick ; 
each of winter savory, basil, marjoram, 
finely chopped shallots, 2 ; a few sprigs 
of thyme, tarragon ; cloves, 6 ; the finely 
pared rind and juice of 1 lemon ; good 
vinegar, 2 tablespoonf uls ; water, 1 pt. 
Wash and scrape the horseradish, and re- 
move the stalks of the herbs. Put all 
the ingredients together in a stewpan, 
simmer gently for 20 minutes, then strain, 
and when quite cold pour into small bot- 
tles ; cork securely, and store for use. 

Soy. — Genuine soy is a species of thick 
black sauce, imported from China, pre- 
pared with white haricots, wheat flour, 
salt and water ; but a spurious kind is 
made in England, as follows : Seeds of 
dolichos soja (peas or kidney beans may 
be used for them ) , 1 gal. : boil till soft ; 
add bruised wheat, 1 gal. ; keep in a warm 
place 24 hours ; then add common salt, 
1 gal. ; water, 2 gal. ; put the whole into 
a stone jar, bung it up for 2 or 3 
months, shaking it very frequently ; then 
press out the liquor ; the residuum may be 
treated afresh with water and salt for soy 
of an inferior quality. 

Tomato Sauce. — To each quart of to- 



( Salad Dressings) 



mato pulp allow 1 pt. of chilli vinegar, 
1/4 pt. of soy, 1 tablespoonful of anchovy 
essence, 2 finely chopped shallots, 1 finely 
chopped clove of garlic, and salt to taste. 
Bake the tomatoes in a slow oven until 
tender, rub them through a fine sieve, 
and measure the pulp. Put it into a 
stewpan, add the rest of the ingredients, 
simmer until the shallots and garlic are 
quite tender, and pass the whole through 
a tammy or fine hair sieve. Store in air- 
tight bottles. 

Vegetable Butters. — 1. — Wheat flour, 
28 lb. ; blanched Brazil nuts, 14 lb. ; earth- 
nut oil, 14 lb. ; salt, 3i/^ lb. ; butter col- 
oring. Pound the nuts in a mortar, grad- 
ually pouring in the nut oil ; then rub up 
to a jelly with flour and salt, coloring 
during the rubbing up. 

2. — Wheat flour, 14 lb. ; banana flour, 
14 lb. ; blanched peanuts, 15 lb. ; vege- 
table oil, iy2 gal.; salt, 3% lb.; butter 
coloring. As before. 

Worcestershire Sauce. — ^There are. many 
concerns, we believe, who make a sauce 
which they call Worcestershire. That 
made in England by Lea & Perrin is con- 
sidered the best, and many have tried to 
imitate it, but with indifferent success. 
Of the many formulas appearing in print, 
the following will serve as an example: 
Vinegar, 1 qt. ; powdered pimento, 2 dr. ; 
powdered cloves, 1 dr. ; powdered black 
pepper, 1 dr. ; powdered mustard, 2 oz. ; 
powdered .Jamaica ginger, 1 dr. ; common 
salt, 2 oz. ; shallots, 2 oz. ; tamarinds, 4 
oz. ; sherry wine, 1 pt. ; curry powder, 

1 oz. ; capsicum, 1 dr. Mix all together, 
simmer for 1 hour, and strain. Let the 
whole stand for a week, strain it, and 
fill in bottles. Worcestershire sauce is 
never quite clear ; straining to remove the 
coarser particles is all that is necessary. 

Salad Dressing. 

1. — The yolks of 3 hard-boiled eggs ; 
salad oil, 4 tablespoonfuls ; Worcester- 
shire sauce, or mushroom catsup, 2 table- 
spoonfuls ; vinegar, 2 tablespoonfuls ; 
made mustard, 1 teaspoonful ; salt, 1 tea- 
spoonful ; pepper, i/^ teaspoonful. Rub 
the yolks of eggs through a fine sieve, mix 
with them the salt, pepper and mustard ; 
stir in the salad oil, add the Worcester- 
shire sauce and vinegar gradually, and 
when thoroughly incorporated the dress- 
ing is ready for use. The whites of the 
eggs should be utilized for garnishing the 
salad. The above will be found an ex- 
cellent dressing for cold meat salads to 
be served with cold meat. 

2. — Salt, % oz. ; sugar, 1 oz. ; salad oil. 

2 oz. ; eggs, 2 oz. Emulsify, and add 



[768] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Salad Dressings) 



(incture of capsicum, 20 drops ; mustard, 
^2 oz. ; malt vinegar, 6 oz. Mix. 

Cooked Salad Dressing. — Eggs, 2 ; vin- 
egar, 1 gill ; milk, 2 gills ; oil or butter, 
1 tablespoonful ; salt, 1 teaspoonful ; mus- 
tard, 1 teaspoonful ; pepper, % teaspoon- 
ful. Put the oil and dry ingredients into 
a bowl, and mix well ; add the eggs, and 
beat for 5 minutes ; then add the vine- 
gar, and beat 1 minute ; now add the 
milk, place the bowl in a pan of boiling 
water, and cook until the sauce thickens 
like thin cream. It will take about 10 
minutes. Stir the sauce constantly while 
cooking. Cool,^ and bottle what you do 
not require for immediate use. This sauce 
is good for nearly all kinds of cooked 
vegetables. If butter is substituted for 
the oil, add it just before taking the sauce 
from the fire. 

Cream Salad Dressing. — 1. — Salt, 2 
dr. ; white sugar, 1 oz. ; best olive oil, 2 
oz. ; eggs, 2. Make an emulsion of above 
and add it to the following ingredients, 
previously mixed : Tincture of cayenne, 
20 drops ; mustard, 1 oz. ; malt vinegar, 
6 oz. 

2. — Sour Cream Dressing. — Sour 
cream, % pt. ; lemon juice, 2 tablespoon- 
fuls ; vinegar, 2 tablespoonfuls ; sugar, 1 
scant tablespoonful ; salt, 1 teaspoonful ; 
pepper, % teaspoonful ; mixed mustard, 
1 teaspoonful or more. Beat the cream 
with an eggbeater until smooth, thick and 
light. Mix the other ingredients together 
and gradually add to the cream, beating 
all the while. This dressing may be mod- 
ified to suit different vegetables. Having 
beaten sour cream for a foundation, the 
seasoning may be anything desired, as, 
for example, the mustard and lemon may 
be omitted, and the dressing be seasoned 
highly with any kind of catsup. A sweet 
cream may be substituted for the sour; 
it should be quite thick. 

French Dressing. — Vinegar, 1 table- 
spoonful ; olive oil, 4 tablespoonfuls ; salt, 
1^ teaspoonful ; pepper, % teaspoonful. 
Put the salt and pepper in the salad 
bowl, or in a small bowl, if the sauce is 
to be served separately : add a little oil, 
and stir well ; then gradually add the re- 
mainder of the oil, stirring all the while. 
Last of all, stir in the vinegar, which 
should be diluted with water if vei'y 
strong. This sauce may be modified to 
suit different vegetables. As it is given 
it is right for lettuce, chicory, cooked as- 
paragus, cauliflower, artichoke, etc. Cream 
may be substituted for the oil, but the 
salad is not so rich. 

Mayonnaise Salad Dressing. — Yolks of 
3 hard-boiled eggs ; syrup, 1 fl.oz. ; cay- 



( Vinegar) 



enne pepper, 15 gr. ; salt, 180 gr. ; mus- 
tard, 1 oz. ; Nestle's condensed milk, 1 
tin ; tarragon vinegar, 10 fl.oz. ; olive oil, 
221/^ fl.oz. Mix in the order given, add- 
ing the two last ingredients alternately, 
and rubbing well to form a perfect emul- 
sion. 

Olive Oil, Facsimile. — Corn (maize) 
oil, 10 gal. ; distilled water, 8 gal. ; sul- 
phur olive oil, 2 gal. ; arachis oil, 2 gal. ; 
concentrated sulphuric acid (common salt 
as neutralizer), 1 gal.; orange oil, 1 dr. 
Put olive and arachis oils into a pan 
holding about 7 gal. Float this in a tub 
of cold or iced water, and gradually add 
the sulphuric acid, stirring with a glass 
rod ; also add some water, then leave to 
rest. Next add a strong solution of salt 
in water, adding this until the acid is 
neutralized. Then settle, draw off the 
clear oil that rises to the top, mix with 
the distilled water and corn oil, color with 
the oil of orange, and finally filter through 
fuller's earth or whiting. This is a cheap 
and satisfactory oil, also quite pure and 
edible. 

Olive Oil, Factitious. — Genuine olive oil, 
20 gal. ; clear rape oil, 10 gal. ; sweet cot- 
ton oil, 10 gal. Warm the rape oil and mix 
the cotton oil, adding them to the olive oil ; 
strain, if necessary. This oil must not 
be branded as "olive oil." 

VINEGAR AND VINEGARS 

Including ordinary vinegar, aromatic, 
toilet vinegars, etc. 

Vinegar Making. 

The following description is for those 
who wish to make vinegar on a moderate- 
ly large scale. For small quantities, the 
receipts which follow are better adapted. 
The accompanying illustration shows the 
arrangements of the Hengstenberg gen- 
erators. The stock mixture is contained 
in a reservoir situated above the gener- 
ators. The generators, of which there 
may be from 3 to 7, stand vertically, one 
above the other, as stated. In the morn- 
ing the upper generator cask is filled with 
the stock mixture from the reservoir, and 
as soon as it is filled the faucet near the 
bottom of the upper cask is opened and 
the stock mixture allowed to fill the next 
lowest generator cask. From this the 
stock mixture is drawn over the next low- 
er cask, and so on to the lowest one, so 
that every generator cask has been com- 
pletely filled with the stock mixture for 
a short time. The faucets have an extra 
wide bore, so that the flow from one cask 
into the other takes the least possible 
time ; they remain open after the liquid 



[769] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Vinegar) 



has flowed off, and thus are the means 
for the admission of air into the casks. 
The shavings with which the casks are 
filled are completely and uniformly soaked 
with the stock mixture, and dry places 
or nests, which often cause great troubles 
and irregularities in other systems, are 
an absolute impossibility with this sys- 
tem. The formation and spreading of 




Vinegar Apparatus 

disease, and more especially the propa- 
gation of the so-called vinegar flies, is 
prevented in this system. After the mix- 
ture has arrived in the lowest cask, about 
one-fifth to one-quarter is racked off as 
ready vinegar, so that if six generators of 
150 gal. capacity are worked together 
daily, from 25 to 30 gal. of ready vinegar 
are drawn off. The balance of the stock 
mixture is now brought back to the reser- 
voir, and enough fresh stock mixture is 
added to fill the same up. It remains 
there till the next morning, when it is 
carried through the same circuit in the 
same manner as above described. It is 
evident that the labor is very simple ; 
the opening and closing of the faucets 
may oe attended to by an apprentice, and 
the lifting of the stock mixture to the 
reservoir may be done by any common 
and untrained laborer, if, as it naturally 
would be in larger establishments, a pump 
is not preferred for this purpose. The 
building for a vinegar factory worked 
on this plan does not require any spe- 
cial appointments, and therefore any lo- 
cality may be utilized, and such build- 
ings having rooms from 8 to 10 ft. high, 
one above the other, are very well adapt- 
ed for arrangements on a larger scale. 
In every story 2 or 3 casks can be placed 
in such a manner that the lower cask in 



(Vinegar) 



the upper story connects with upper casks 
of the next lower story by means of a piece 
of rubber hose, which is drawn over the 
faucet key, and passes through a 2-in. 
hole in the floor. The reservoir should 
be in the form of flat tubs (storage casks 
sawed in two will serve very well), and 
are placed in the top story, where it is 
warmest, and where the acidification of 
the stock mixture remains in constant 
activity. The Hengstenberg system of 
generating vinegar, on the whole, offers 
some advantages, but it would appear to 
us that these advantages can be fully util- 
ized only by works of comparatively small 
capacity, and that for yield in quantity 
and strength it cannot compete with the 
Schuetzenbach generators, if the same are 
worked by expert hands and under proper 
conditions. Nevertheless, the progressive 
manufacturer will not lose anything by 
trying a set of small generators of this 
kind ; it may toe got up with almost no 
expense at all, from a few odd barrels 
and faucets, and as it can be run regard- 
less of interruptions, it may do good ser- 
vice in the production of one or the other 
fancy brands of vinegar, which to pro- 
duce it is sometimes very desirable, al- 
though it would not be advisable to at- 
tempt the same by interrupting the work- 
ing of a large generator. 

Home-made Vinegar. — Take an alco- 
holic liquid, place on its surface traces 
even of acetic ferment, leave it exposed 
to the air in a proper temperature, and 
the ferments do the rest. This is the old 
Orleans method, which was discarded by 
the trade on account of the time it takes 
(about 2 months) before good vinegar is 
obtained. For household use, this does 
not matter, on account of the moderate 
consumption, and this process is the best 
for the purpose when employed under 
the following condition : A cask is chosen 
in accordance with the quantity con- 
sumed. A 10-gal. keg would be large 
enough for almost any household. If it 
has iron hoops, they should be painted, 
as otherwise they would be rapidly de- 
stroyed by the vapors of acetic acid. In 
each head a hole should be 'bored, say a 
quarter of the way down from the top 
chimb, and covered with mosquito net- 
ting, so as to prevent the entry of any 
insects. Below the front opening is placed 
a bent glass tube, tightly fixed in a cork, 
so as to show the level of the Hquid. A 
wooden tap is inserted below this. It is 
essential that no metal tap be used, and 
the wooden tap should turn easily, and 
the cask should be solidly fixed, so as to 
prevent any shaking, which would break 



[770] 



Preservmgy Canning, Etc. 



(Vinegar) 



the veil formed by the cellules of the fer- 
ment, and so destroy them. 

For the same reason, it is as well to 
fit a wide glass tube through the bung- 



1=-==^ 


K.==^ 


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==4 


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— 


















_ _ _ 1 










IjJ 


, 


"""yff;^---^ 


— --22SS* 



Vinegar Barrel 

hole, reaching nearly to the bottom of 
the cask, through which the wine to be 
acetified can be added without breaking 
the veil of cellules on the surface of the 
liquid. 

To start the affair working, the opera- 
tion is very simple. The wine to be aceti- 
5ed, reduced to 12% proof, together with 
one-third of its volume of good vinegar, 
is poured into the cask, so that the level 
of the liquid comes within % in. of the 
airholes in each head. Then the vinegar 
Zerment, previously prepared, is carefully 
placed on the surface of the liquid, and 
the glass tube is inserted, and secured 
into the bunghole through a cork bung, 
and the cask left in a proper tempera- 
ture. At the end of from 4 to 6 weeks 
vinegar may be drawn, and every suc- 
ceeding fortnight, each time replacing the 
quantity drawn by an -equal quantity of 
wine to be treated. 

Such an installation can be fixed in 
any house — in a kitchen, for instance, 
provided always the temperature is con- 
stant and suitable. To obtain good vine- 
gar, sound, clear wine should be used, 
and reduced to from 12% to 15% proof 
spirit. Above that strength acetification 
is slow and somewhat incomplete. 

Quick Process for Making Vinegar. — 
What is known as the German process is 
the most rapid method of making a good 
vinegar. In this, dilute alcoholic liquor 
to which one-thousandth part of honey 
or extract of malt has been added, is 
caused to trickle down through a mass 
of beechwood shavings, previously steeped 
in vinegar, and contained in a vessel 
called a vinegar generator (essigbilder) . 
It may consist of a large oak hogshead 
or barrel, furnished with a loose lid or 
cover, a few inches below which is fit- 
ted a perforated shelf having a number 



(Vinegar) 



of small holes loosely filled with pack- 
thread about 6 in. long, knotted at the 
upper end to prevent their falling througho 
Several small glass tubes, long enough to 
project slightly above and below the shelf, 
are also fitted in perforations in the shelf 
to serve as air vents. The vessel at the 
lower part is pierced with 8 or 10 holes, 
equally distributed around the sides at 
about 6 in. above the bottom, to admit 
of the entrance of air. A small siphon 
tube, the upper curve of which is 1 in. 
below the airholes, serves to carry off 
the liquid as fast as it accumulates at 
the bottom. The alcoholic liquid, at a 
temperature of 75 to 83° F., is run in 
on the shelf, and slowly trickles down 
through the holes by means of the pack- 
thi-ead, diffuses itself over the shavings, 
slowly collects at the bottom, and runs 
off by the siphon exit. The air enters by 
the lower holes, passes freely through the 
shavings, and escapes by the glass tubes. 
The temperature within the apparatus 
soon rises to about 100° F., and remains 
stationary at this point, while the action 
goes on favorably. The liquid generally 
requires to be passed 3 or 4 times through 
the cask before its acetification is com- 
plete. 

Clarifying Vinegar. 

Albumen, 3 lb. ; neutral tartrate of po- 
tassium, 4-5 oz. ; alum, % lb. ; ammo- 
nium muriate, 7 lb. The powder must 
not be added direct to the liquid to be 
cleared, but should first be mixed with 
soft water. About 20 gr. of this powder 
are said to be sufficient for clearing 1 gal. 
of fluid. 

Vinegars. 

1. — Put in 20 gal. of rain water 2% 
lb. of acetic acid, 1 gal. of molasses and 

1 qt. of yeast. Stir well, and allow to 
stand from 1 to 3 weeks. If stronger 
vinegar is desired, add more molasses. 

2. — Molasses, 2 qt. ; yeast, 1 qt. ; soft 
water, 6 gal. Put in keg, and put wire 
gauze over bung, and stand in a warm 
place for 3 weeks. 

3. — Acetic acid, 2 lb. ; molasses, 2 qt. ; 
water, 20 gal. Shake, and allow to stand 

2 or 3 weeks. 

4. — ^Cider, 20 gal. ; water, 10 gal. ; 
yeast, 2 gal. 

5. — Cheap Vinegar.— Put 2 gal. of mo- 
lasses and 2 qt. of yeast in 12% gal. of 
warm rain water. Let it ferment. As 
the vinegar is used, add the above ingre- 
dients in the same proportions. 

6. — A cheap vinegar consists of 25 gal. 
of warm rain water with 4 gal. of mo- 



[771] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Vinegar) 



lasses and 1 gal. of yeast. The mixture 
•an be used after it has been allowed to 

1 rment. 

Gamp Vinegar. — 1. — Vinegar, li^ qt. ; 
walnut catsup, 1% pt. ; mushroom catsup, 
41/2 tablespoonfuls ; garlic, 6 heads ; cay- 
enne, % oz. ; soy, 3 tablespoonfuls ; port 
wine, 3 glassfuls ; anchovies, 4 glassfuls ; 
salt, 1% tablespoonfuls. Put in a bottle, 
shake daily for a month, then decant. 

2. — Sliced garlic, 8 oz. ; cayenne pepper, 
4 oz. ; soy, 4 oz. ; walnut catsup, 4 oz. ; 
chopped anchovies, 36 ; vinegar, 1 gal. ; 
powdered cochineal, ^/2 oz. Macerate for 
a month, strain, and bottle. 

Celery Vinegar. — Finely shredded cel- 
ery, y2 lb. ; or celery seed, % oz. ; good 
pickling vinegar, 1 pt. ; salt, 1 level tea- 
spoonful. Boil the vinegar, dissolve the 
salt in it, and pour the mixture over the 
celery or celery seed. When cold, cover, 
and let it remain undisturbed for 3 weeks, 
then strain into small bottles, cork se- 
curely, and store for use. 

Chilli Vinegar. — Fresh chillies, 50 ; good 
pickling vinegar, 1 pt. Cut the chillies 
in halves ; boil the vinegar, let it become 
quite cold, then pour it over the chillies. 
Cork closely, and store for use. 

Cider Vinegar. — 1. — ^Take, say, 10 gal. 
of new cider, and suffer it to ferment 
fully, which will probably be in about 

2 weeks, if the weather be wai"m ; then 
add about 8 gal. of new cider for pro- 
ducing a second fermentation, and in 
about 2 weeks add a like quantity to pro- 
duce a third fermentation. Stop the 
bunghole of the barrel with an empty bot- 
tle, with the neck downward, and expose 
to the sun. When the vinegar is come, 
set in a cool place. When making, let 
there be a moderate degree of heat and 
free access of external air. The process 
is hastened by adding to the cider a quan- 
tity of mother of vinegar, as it is called, 
a whitish, ropy coagulum, of a mucilagi- 
nous appearance, which is formed in vine- 
gar, and acts as a ferment. The strength 
of the vinegar depends upon the amount 
of sugar or starchy matter to be ulti- 
mately converted into acetic acid. Cider 
made from late apples is esteemed the 
best for vinegar. 

2. — Put some of the cider in a clean 
cask, and add to it some vinegar contain- 
ing an abundance of mother of vinegar ; 
after some days, if the acetic fermenta- 
tion has taken place, and the souring is 
going on, add another portion of the cider, 
and at similar intervals a third and a 
fourth. When the whole has become vin- 
egar, take out as much as is equal to the 
vinegar first put in, and replace by fresh 



(Vinegar) 



cider, and so proceed. The casks should 
never be but partly full ; good exposure 
to the air is necessary, and the tempera- 
ture should be kept up to 86° F. 

3. — Cider worked as malt vinegar. 

Cress Vinegar. — Cress seed, % oz. ; 
vinegar, 1 qt. Bruise the seed in a mor- 
tar, and put it into the vinegar, previous- 
ly boiled and allowed to grow cold. Let 
it infuse for a fortnight, then strain, and 
bottle for use. 

Crystal Vinegar. — Pickling vinegar, de- 
odorized with freshly burned animal char- 
coal. 

Cucumber Vinegar. — Cucumbers ; vine- 
gar to cover them. To each pint of vine- 
gar allow 2 shallots, 1 clove of garlic, 
1 teaspoonful of white peppercorns and 
1 teaspoonful of salt. Boil ihe vinegar, 
salt and peppercorns together for 20 min- 
utes, and allow the mixture to become 
quite cold. Slice the cucumbers, without 
paring them, into a wide-necked bottle 
or jar, add the shallots and garlic, and 
the vinegar when cold. Let the prepara- 
tion remain closely covered for 14 days, 
then strain off into smaller bottles, cork 
tightly, and store in a cool, dry place. 

Culinary Vinegars. — Black pepper vine- 
gar, caper vinegar, celery-seed vinegar, 
chilli vinegar, cress-seed vinegar, garlic 
vinegar, ginger vinegar, horseradish vine- 
gai', onion vinegar, red rose vinegar, Sev- 
ille orange peel vinegar, shallot vinegar, 
truflfle vinegar, white pepper vinegar, with 
several others of a similar kind, are made 
by steeping about 1 oz. of the respective 
articles in 1 pt. of good vinegar for 14 
days, and straining. 

Currie Vinegar. — Good currie powder, 
% lb. ; vinegar, 1 gal. ; infuse for a week. 
Used as flavoring. 

Curry Vinegar. — Curry powder, 18 oz. ; 
vinegar, 1% gal. ; infuse in a warm place 
5 days. Used as a flavoring. 

Distilled Vinegar. — Vinegar (preferably 
French ) , 8 parts ; distil over with a gen- 
tle heat, 7 parts, and dilute the product, 
if necessary, with distilled water until the 
sp. gr. is 1.005. 

Ginger Vinegar. — Bruised ginger root, 
% lb. ; vinegar, 6 qt. ; macerate 2 weeks, 
and strain. 

Gooseherry Vinegar. — Bruised gooseber- 
ries, 1% lb. ; brown sugar, li/4 lb. ; water. 
1 gal. Other fruits may be substituted 
for gooseberries. 

Herb Vinegar. — Fresh horseradish, tar- 
ragon leaves, thyme, marjoram leaves, 
sage, mint and balm leaves, of each 1 
oz. ; shallots (one young), 4; vinegar, 1 
qt. Macerate for a fortnight or more, 
and filter. Should have a green color. 



[772] 



Preservings Cannings Etc. 



(Vinegar) 



Horseradish Vinegar. — Vinegar, 2 qt. ; 
horseradish root, scraped, 6 oz. ; minced 
shallots, 1 oz. ; cayenne pepper, 2 dr. Let 
it stand for 2 weeks. 

Lemon Vinegar. — Peel 12 lemons, 
squeeze out the juice, and allow to clarify 
in a vessel. Crush the peels, and pour 
15 kgm. of good vinegar on the pulp ob- 
tained. Mix the clarified lemon juice in 
it, filter the whole, and keep in well closed 
bottles. 

Mint Vinegar. — The mint for this pur- 
pose must be young and fresh. Pick the 
leaves from the stalks, and fill a bottle 
or jar with them. Cover with cold vine- 
gar, cover closely, and let the mint in- 
fuse for 14 days. Then strain the liquor 
into small bottles, cork securely, and store 
for use. 

Mustard Vinegar. — Celery, chopped 
fine, 32 parts ; tarragon, the fresh herb, 
6 parts ; coarsely powdered cloves, 6 
parts ; onions, chopped fine, 6 parts ; fresh 
lemon peel, chopped fine, 3 parts ; white 
wine vinegar, 575 parts ; white wine, 515 
parts ; crushed mustard seed, 100 parts. 
Mix, and macerate together fur a week 
or 10 days in a warm place, then strain 
off. 

Orange Vinegar. — • Peel 2 oranges, 
squeeze out the juice, which is filled in 
a bottle, and allowed to settle. Crush 
the peels, and pour 15 kgm. of good vine- 
gar on them, in a bottle ; add the clear 
juice, and filter. The orange vinegar, 
which is now ready, should be preserved 
in well closed bottles. 

Pickling Vinegar. — Ginger, % oz. ; all- 
spice, % oz. ; curry powder, 1 oz. ; black 
pepper, 2 oz. ; capsicum, % oz. ; mustard 
seed, 4 oz. ; vinegar, 4% pt. Bruise the 
spices, and macerate for 2 days in a 
warm place, with the vinegar, previously 
heated to boiling. 

Raisin Vinegar. — One cwt. of the marc 
left from making raisin wine to every 12 
or 15 gal. of water, along with a little 
yeast. 

Raspherry Vinegar. — Ripe raspberries, 
3 lb. ; white wine vinegar, 3 pt. ; loaf 
sugar. Put 1 lb. of picked raspberries 
into a wide-necked glass bottle, pour over 
them the vinegar, and let them infuse 
for 3 days. Strain the liquid through 
a hair sieve, drain the fruit thoroughly, 
but do not squeeze it. Pour the liquid 
over another pound of the raspberries, 
and after 3 days strain and drain as be- 
fore. Repeat the process with the third 
pound of raspberries. Measure the liquid ; 
to each pint allow 1 lb. of sugar ; put the 
whole into a saucepan (preferably an en- 
ameled one), and boil gently for 10 min- 



( Vinegar) 



utes, skimming when necessary, mean- 
while. When quite cold, strain into small 
bottles, cork securely, and store for use. 

Shallot Vinegar. — Good vinegar, 1 qt. ; 
shallots, 4 oz. Remove the skins, chop 
the shallots finely, and put them into a 
wide-necked bottle. Pour in the vinegar, 
cork securely, and put the bottle aside 
for 10 days, during which time it must 
be shaken at least once a day. At the 
end of this time strain the vinegar 
through fine muslin, put it into small bot- 
tles, cork closely, and store for use. 

Spiced Vinegar. — 1. — Good vinegar, 1 
pt. ; black peppercorns, ^^ oz. ; whole gin- 
ger, % oz. ; salt, % oz. ; allspice, % Oz. ; 
finely chopped shallots, % oz. ; cloves of 
garlic, bruised, 2 ; bay leaves, 2. Pound 
or crush the peppercorns, ginger and all- 
spice, put all into a jar, add the rest of 
the ingredients, and cover closely. Let 
the jar remain in a warm place for 1 
week, then place it in a saucepan con- 
taining boiling water, and cook gently 
for 1 hour. When cold, cover closely, 
and store for use. Requires 1 hour to 
cook. 

2. — ^For Gherkins. — Good malt vinegar, 

1 gal. ; black peppercorns, 6 oz. ; sliced 
ginger, 4 oz. ; chillies, 1 oz. ; garlic, in 
slices, 1 oz. Boil the spices and the gar- 
lic gently in half the vinegar for half 
an hour, strain through a sieve, and add 
the rest of the vinegar to the spices, and 
again strain. To the remnant spices add 

2 oz. of salt and 1 pt. of water, and boil 
for half an hour. After removing from 
the fire add 1 pt. of vinegar, and again 
strain into the spiced vinegar, which, 
when perfectly cold, may be poured over 
the gherkins. 

3. — For Pickles. — Malt vinegar, 1 gal. ; 
crushed black pepper, 4 oz. ; bruised gin- 
ger, 2 oz. ; chillies, 1 oz. ; nutmegs, 2 oz. ; 
salt, 2 oz. Boil the spices in the vinegar, 
then macerate for 24 hours ; strain, and 
add the salt. 

4. — ^For Walnuts (to be used hot). — 
Good malt vinegar, 2 gal. ; black pepper- 
corns, l^ lb. ; unbleached ginger, 6 oz. ; 
mustard seed, 1 lb. ; cloves, 2 oz. ; mace, 
2 oz. ; garlic, in slices, 2 oz. In 1 gal. 
of vinegar boil the whole of the spices, 
and, having strained, pour the hot liquor 
over the walnuts ; then boil the remain- 
ing gallon of vinegar and pour over spices, 
etc. This pickle takes some time to ma- 
ture, but if properly prepared should be 
ready for use in 3 months. 

Strawherrp Vinegar. — Crush 1 kgm. of 
ripe strawberries into a mush, fill into a 
bottle, and pour 15 kgm. of good pure 
vinegar on it. Place the bottle, which 



[773] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Baking Powder) 



must be closed with a tight cork, in a 
warm spot, and shake from time to time. 
After the mixture has stood for 6 to 8 
days the vinegar is filtered, and kept in 
filled-up bottles in a cool place. 

Sugar Vinegar. — Four pounds of brown 
sugar to each gallon of water. 

Tarragon Vinegar. — Tarragon leaves 
intended for this purpose should be gath- 
ered on a dry day, about the end of July, 
just before the plant begins to bloom. 
Remove the stalks, bruise the leaves 
slightly, put them into a wide-necked bot- 
tle, and cover them with vinegar. Cover 
closely, so as to completely exclude the 
air, and let the bottle stand in. a cool, 
dry place for 7 or 8 weeks. Now strain 
the liquid through fine muslin until it is 
quite clear, put it into small bottles, cork 
tightly, and store them in a cool, dry 
place. For estragon vinegar, substitute 
estragon for tarragon. 

Tarragon Vinegar Essence. — (a) 20 
parts by weight of tarragon oil and 30 
parts of Maitrank essence are mixed with 
sufficient alcohol to make up 2,000 parts. 
About 1% of this mixture is added to 
90% acetic acid. (b) 1,000 parts by 
weight of vinegar, to which 20 parts of 
alcohol have been added, are digested with 
10 parts of fresh tarragon herbs, 10 parts 
of laurel leaves and 1 part each of nutmeg 
and cloves. This concentrated aroma is 
also added to the acetic acid. 

White Wine Vinegar. — Acetic acid, 16 
fl.oz. ; tartaric acid, 1 av.oz. ; acetic ether, 
4 fl.dr. ; white wine, 16 fl.oz. ; water, 30 
fl.oz. 

Wine Vinegar Essence. — 1. — To 10 
parts by weight of cognac oil, 20 parts 
of acetic ether and 20 parts of Maitrank 
(May wine = wine flavored with wood- 
ruff) essence, sufficient alcohol is added 
to make up 1,000 parts, and 1 part of 
this mixture is mixed with 90 parts of 
80% acetic acid. 

2. — Cognac oil, 3 parts by weight, 
acetic ether 50 parts, pear ether 50 parts, 
alcohol q. s. ad 500 parts. About 2% 
of this mixture should be added to the 
acetic acid. 

MISCELLANEOUS PREPARATIONS 
Baking Powder. 

1. — A formula proposed by Crampton, 
of the United States Department of Agri- 
culture, as the result of an investigation 
of the leading baking powders of the 
market, is : Potassium bitartrate, 2 
parts ; sodium bicarbonate, 1 part ; corn 
starch, 1 part. The addition of the starch 
answers the double purpose of a "filler" 



(Honey) 



to increase the weight of the powder and 
as a preservative. A mixture of the chem- 
icals alone does not keep veil. The sta- 
bility of the preparation is increased by 
drying each ingredient separately by ex- 
posure to a gentle heat, mixing at once, 
and immediately placing in bottles or 
cans, and excluding excess of air, and 
consequently of moisture. This is not a 
cheap powder ; but we cannot recommend 
any substitute. It is the best powder that 
can be made, as to healthfulness ; there 
are others which, while cheaper, are 
strongly, and we are convinced, justly, 
opposed by sanitarians. 

2. — Chloride of sodium, 320 parts ; bi- 
carbonate of soda, 240 parts ; pure cream 
of tartar, 220 parts ; white sugar, 120 
parts ; corn starch, 100 parts. 

3. — Acid calcium phosphate, 2 lb. ; pow- 
dered exsiccated alum, 2 lb. ; sodium bi- 
carbonate, 3 lb. ; starch, 3 lb. 

4. Baking Powder is a leading 

one in the United States, and an analysis 
of it by the Agricultural Department 
shows it to have the following composi- 
tion : Sodium bicarbonate, 23.61 ; resid- 
ual sodium oxide, 1,59 ; ammonium bicar- 
bonate, 0.98 ; potassium bitartrate, 53.34 ; 
calcium sulphate, 0.31 ; starch, 16.34 ; wa- 
ter, 3.83. It would appear from this that 
the powder may be made by mixing to- 
gether 60 oz. of cream of tartar, 28 oz. 
of bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz. of carbonate 
of ammonia and 16 oz. of corn flour. A 
teaspoonful of the powder is added to 
each pound of flour. 

Honey. 

Artificial. — 1. — 'White sugar, 5 lb. ; wa- 
ter, 2 lb. Gradually bring to a boil, and 
skim well. When cool, add 1 lb. of bees' 
honey and 4 drops of peppermint. To 
make of better quality, add less water 
and more real honey. 

2. — Soft water, 6 lb. ; pure best honey, 
3 lb ; white moist sugar, 20 lb. ; cream 
of tartar, 80 gr. ; essence of roses, 24 
drops. Mix the above in a brass kettle, 
boil over a charcoal fire 5 minutes, take 
it off, add the whites of- 2 eggs, well 
beaten ; when almost cold, add 2 lb. more 
boney. A decoction of slippery elm will 
improve the honey if it be added while 
cooling, but it will ferment in warm 
weather and rise to the surface. 

3, — Havana sugar, 15 lb. ; water, 6 lb. ; 
cream of tartar, 60 gr. ; essence of pepper- 
mint, 15 drops ; honey, 4^4 lb. Dissolve 
the sugar in the water over a moderate 
fire, take off the scum ; dissolve the cream 
of tartar in a little warm water ; add, 
stirring; then add the honey, heated to 



774] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Mince Meat) 



the boiling point, then the essence of pep- 
permint. Stir a few minutes ; let it cool. 

Clarified. — Refined Honey, Strained 
Honey. — 'Clarified honey is less agreeable 
than raw honey, but it is less liable to 
ferment. On the large scale, one or the 
other of the following plans is adopted : 

1. — The honey is mixed with an equal 
weight of water, and allowed to boil up 
5 or 6 times, without skimming ; it is 
then removed from the fire, and after 
having been cooled, brought on several 
strong linen strainers stretched horizon- 
tally, and covered with a layer of clean 
and well washed sand, an inch in depth ; 
the sand is rinsed with a little cold wa- 
ter, and the mixed liquor is finally evap- 
orated to the thickness of syrup. 

2. — Dissolve the honey in water, as 
last, clarify with white of egg, and evapo- 
rate to a proper consistency. 

Malted Food for Infants. 

1. — Powdered malt, 1 oz. ; finest ground 
oatmeal, 2 oz. ; sugar of milk, 4 oz. ; 
baked flour, 1 lb. Mix thoroughly. 

2. — Baked wheat flour, 10 oz. ; ground 
malt, 2 oz. ; sugar of milk, 4 oz. There 
is no necessity to add phosphates. A 
more palatable food can be prepared by 
adding desiccated milk, but this, of course, 
is not essential, as fresh milk is always 
added before use. Dry all the ingredi- 
ents before mixing, by spreading on large 
flat dishes in a moderately cool oven. 

3. — This powder is to be added to the 
milk, and the liquid evaporated and pow- 
dered if a dry product is desired : Pow- 
dered malt, 1 oz. ; powdered oatmeal, 2 
oz. ; sugar of milk, 4 oz. ; roasted flour, 
1 lb. 

Mince Meat. 

For a small batch of mince meat about 
5 lb. of beef will be required. It should 
be thoroughly boiled or stewed until it 
is very tender. Salt should be added to 
the water after it comes to a boil ; this 
will insure that the meat is thoroughly 
seasoned. Boil away the water until it 
is practically all gone, being careful not 
to burn the meat ; then chop fine, meas- 
uring it in a bowl ; add 2 bowlfuls of 
chopped apples and 1 bowlful of chopped 
raisins to the meat. This should all be 
mixed together and set in a cool place. 
Mixed candied citron, lemon and orange 
peel are liked by many, and can be added 
to the raisins. Next, add 1 lb. of finely 
chopped suet, 1 tablespoonful of salt and 
1 teaspoonful of cinnamon and allspice, 
or mace and allspice. Some cooks pre- 
fer to add a few cloves, but this spice is 

[ 



(Yeast) 



disagreeable to many people. Then add 
1 lb. of sugar, two-thirds of a pint of 
molasses, and 1 qt. of boiled cider (see 
Index) ; put all in an enameled iron ket- 
tle, and let the mixture come to a boil. 
This results in the melting of the sugar 
and the suet. The mixture should be 
thoroughly stirred with a porcelain or 
wooden spoon. To make a brandied pie, 
add 1 large wineglassful of brandy to the 
mixture. The taste of the mince meat 
can be varied by adding liqueurs of vari- 
ous kinds ; a cordial-glassful will be suf- 
ficient. 

Yeast. 

Yeast, Without Ferment. — Boil l^ peck 
of malt in 3 qt. of water ; pour off 2 qt.,~ 
keep in a warm place 30 hours ; add 4 
qt. of a similar decoction, and stir well ; 
again ferment, repeat the addition of 4 
qt. until sufiicient yeast is obtained. 

Berlin Yeast Flour {Baking Powder). 
— Purified cream of tartar, 4 parts ; car- 
bonate of soda, 2 parts ; flour, 1 part ; 
also a mixture of 15 parts of tartaric 
acid, 16 parts of bicarbonate of soda, 16 
parts of powdered starch and 2 parts of 
carbonate of ammonia. This will yield 
an excellent preparation, closely resem- 
bling Berlin yeast flour. The carbonate 
of ammonia may be omitted, but with it 
a much whiter bread can be made than 
where it is left out. 

Brewers^ Yeast. — Brewers' yeast is 
prepared as follows : Unkilned malt, 72 
lb., and a handful of hops, are gradually 
stirred in a clean tub containing 7 gal. of 
water of 170° F. ; and to this 5y2 gal. 
of water of 200° F. are added. The tub 
is then covered tightly and left quiet. 
After some time it is cooled rapidly. This 
is accomplished by setting in cans filled 
with cold water. When the temperature 
of the mash has reached 70° the tub is 
covered again, and allowed to stand for 
12 hours longer, when l^/^ gal. of fresh 
beer yeast are to be stirred in. After 
another 12 hours have elapsed, pierce a 
hole in the layer formed by the husks of 
the malt, and dip 3% gal. of the liquor 
beneath ; then stir the whole up, and dip 
1% gal. from it (husks and liquor). This 
is the mother leaven, from wbich yeast 
can be generated all the year around by 
using it in the way described, instead of 
the ordinary beer leaven. To the remain- 
der in the tub add 5 gal. of wort of 90°, 
and make use of it within 2 hours. The 
mother yeast also must be used the same 
day for fermenting another portion. 
Flour. Self-Baising. — ^The following are 
775] 



Preserving, Canning, Etc. 



(Yeast) 



the compositions of several of tliese pow- 
ders in extensive use: 

1. — Bicarbonate of soda, 23 oz. ; burnt 
alum, 19 oz. ; starch, 57 oz. 

2. — Bicarbonate of soda, 24^4 oz. ; ses- 
quicarbonate of soda, 2^ oz. ; starch, 47 
oz. ; burnt alum, 26^/^ oz. 

3. — Bicarbonate of soda, 31 oz. ; burnt 
alum, 291/^ oz. ; starch, 39 oz. 

Home-Breiced Yeast, British. — Com- 
pound Barm or Malt and Hop Yeast. — 
Water, 20 lb.; malt, 51/2 lb.; hops, IV2 
oz. ; salt, 1% oz. Take a portion of the 
water, say 8 lb. ; to this add the hops ; 
set the vessel on the gas ring, and give 
a good boil up for a few minutes after 
ebullition sets in. Transfer this to a thor- 
oughly clean wooden bucket and add the 
remainder of the water to get a tei -- 
perature of 166° F. ; then stir in the 
malt, which must be ground, well broken 
down, but not as fine as even coarse meal ; 
then cover the bucket with % doz. bags 
to keep it hot, and let lie for 2i^ hours. 
This operation is called "mashing," the 
mixture being called the "mash." When 
the "mash" has lain 2% hours run it 
through a coarse flour sieve to separate 
out the grains ; these grains must be 
pressed firmly between the hands to ex- 
tract all the liquor possible. The liquor 
left is of a brown, muddy description, with 
a pleasant sweet taste and fine malty 
smell. This liquid, which is called 
"worts," its now run through a fine or 
hair sieve, is allowed to cool down to a 
temperature of 74° F. ; it is then 
"stocked" or "stored" with 2 lb. of yeast 
from the previous brewing, the salt stirred 
in, and all set aside and allowed to fer- 
ment for 30 hours, at the end of which 
time it is ready for use. The hops are 
kept in the boiling water so that all the 
antiseptic principles may be abstracted, 
because it is this active constituent which 
controls bacterial action in the "worts" 
during the period of fermentation, and 
helps to steady alcoholic fermentation and 
yeast growth. The temperature for mash- 
ing the malt, however, is the more im- 
portant. A temperature of 166° F. is a 
little too high, but when malt has been 
stirred in the temperature will be found 
about 160° F., the ideal heat for the ex- 
traction of all that is valuable from the 
malt. As this temperature is a very im- 
portant thing, it is always well in prac- 
tice to use a wooden bucket, and to make 
the temperature much higher at first ; the 
bucket will thus become thoroughly 
warmed before the temperature drops un- 
duly, and so success is assured. The tem- 
perature must always be sufficiently high 



(Yeast) 



to gelatinize the malt starch, but it must 
not be high enough to destroy the malt 
diastase, otherwise the barm will be no 
good, because the yeast cells will have no 
food to live upon. The principle followed 
is to keep at a safe temperature for a 
fairly long period, when the whole change 
will have taken place. If the tempera- 
ture falls below the gelatinizing point be- 
fore all the starch has been acted on, then 
the proportion of yeast food will be so 
much less. If the mash drops to a lower 
temperature than the ideal, heat may be 
applied and the action restored again ; 
but if in heating the mash, or in the first 
place adding the malt before the tempera- 
ture of the liquor has been reduced to 
the proper figure, the mischief cannot be 
undone ; the diastase is destroyed or weak- 
ened to such an extent that it is useless 
for the work of changing starch into 
sugar. When mashed sufficiently long the 
whole may be run into a barm press, and 
the grains pressed free from liquor. The 
worts, when finally stored, should be left 
alone until effervescence ceases, when it 
should be thoroughly stirred and the 
"store" taken out for the next brewing. 
While the yeast is fermenting it gives off 
a loud hissing sound, and it should not 
be used until this hissing finally ceases. 
This is not a quick-working yeast, but it 
is powerful. As a fermenting agent, malt 
and hop barm of yeast is very good in- 
deed, and many old bakers say there is, 
even now, nothing to touch it for sweet- 
flavored bread. 

Preserving Yeast. — 1. — ^The thick por- 
tion of the yeast is filled into a cham- 
pagne bottle, and on top of it is poured 
about y2 in. of olive oil. The bottle is 
then closed by tying a bladder over its 
top, and in order to protect it from ex- 
plosion a pin is put through the bladder. 
So the yeast will keep well for a long 
time if stored in a cold place. 

2. — ;Yeast, if mixed with about Vs pure 
glycerine, also keeps well for some time 
if in a cool place. 

3. — The raw yeast is carefully washed 
with cold water, afterward the greater 
part of the water is removed by pressure ; 
a further proportion is got rid of by 
means of a centrifugal apparatus ; but as 
the yeast cannot be got perfectly dry in 
this way, it is afterward placed for that 
purpose in an apparatus in which a vac- 
uum, or rarefaction of the air nearly ap- 
proaching a vacuum, can be obtained. In 
this chamber the moisture, still combined 
with the yeast, evaporates at a very low 
degree of heat, and the vapor formed is 
immediately absorbed by hygroscopic sub- 



[776] 



Preserving, Cannings Etc. 



(Yeast) 



stances introduced for the purpose, as, for 
example, chloride of lime. The yeast is 
finally exposed to a current of air in its 
ordinary state, or dried, or of carbonic 
acid gas, according to the prevailing tem- 
perature and other circumstances. Through 
these manipulations a perfectly dry pow- 
der is finally obtained, which, being her- 
metically sealed in glass or tin cases, will 
keep perfectly well for several months. 
When required to be used, the powder is 
mixed with water to the consistency of 
a thin paste, which acts in the same way 
as fresh yeast. 

4. — Reinke proceeds as follows for the 
preparation of yeast that will remain for 
months and years good for use in fermen- 
tation industries. About 2 oz. at a time 
of the well washed and thoroughly pressed 
pure-culture yeast is quickly enfolded in 
a dustless damp place in two sheets of 
blotting paper, sterilized by being kept, 
for 3 hours, at a temperature of 275° F. 
The yeast is then rolled flat, again 
wrapped in blotting paper (if necessary, 
sprinkled with boracic acid), and de- 
prived of water by pressing between ster- 
ilized asbestos slabs. After changing the 
asbestos sheets several times the packages 



(Yeast) 



of yeast and the blotting paper, several 
together, are packed in tin boxes, the in- 
terstices being filled with burned gypsum 
(which absorbs the last traces of mois- 
ture) and the tin boxes soldered up. The 
removal of water from the yeast must be 
effected as rapidly as possible. (The 
process, unless most carefully conducted, 
■will probably hardly ever yield satisfac- 
tory results. ) The details are here given 
merely as a suggestion for experiment. 

Vienna Yeast. — Indian corn, barley and 
rye, all sprouting, are powdered and 
mixed, and then macerated in water at 
a temperature of from 149 to 167° F. 
Saccharification takes place in a few 
hours, when the liquor is racked off and 
allowed to clear, and fermentation is set 
up by the help of a minute quantity of 
any ordinary yeast. Carbonic acid is dis- 
engaged during the process with so much 
rapidity that the globules of yeast are 
thrown up by the gas, and remain float- 
ing on the surface, where they form a 
thick scum. The latter is carefully re- 
moved, and constitutes the best and purest 
yeast, which, when drained, and com- 
ipressed in a hydraulic press, can be kept 
from 8 to 15 days, according to the season 



?777]1 



CHAPTEE XXII 



ErBBEK, GTJTTA PERCHA AND CELLULOID 



CELLULOID 

Properties of Celluloid. — Crude cellu- 
loid, free from all additions of coloring 
matter, body colors or other substances 
designed for the production of special 
effects, is nearly colorless, and in thin 
layers is as clear as glass or faintly yel- 
low, very elastic, transparent to trans- 
lucent, hard, solid, nearly unbreakable, 
and can be cut with a knife or shears. 
It can be made harder or softer by suita- 
ble additions, though all attempts to ren- 
der it soft and plastic like gutta percha 
have failed. Contrary to earlier state- 
ments, celluloid is not electrified by fric- 
tion. Celluloid has a faint smell of cam- 
phor, this smell, which is not disagreeable, 
becoming stronger when the mass is 
rubbed and forming a means of identify- 
ing celluloid. Heated to 12o° C. it be- 
comes plastic, and in this state can be 
molded into any desired shape. Separ- 
ate pieces will coalesce on mere contact 
when warmed. At about 140° C. cellu- 
loid suddenly loses its color and trans- 
parency, and at about 5° higher decom- 
poses with liberation of pungent, readily 
inflammable vapors. Warm, plastic cellu- 
loid forms an excellent cement for metals, 
a property of considerable utility in the 
production of inlaid work. Celluloid 
softens in warm water, becomes flexible 
and somewhat plastic, so that it can be 
easily molded to any shape. This be- 
havior, also, is very valuable m the 
manufacture of celluloid articles, since 
the molding process is greatly facilitated, 
loss of material is prevented and time 
is saved. 

When ignited, celluloid burns with a 
smoky flame and more rapidly than seal- 
ing wax, a smell of camphor being appar- 
ent at the same time. When the flame 
is blown out shortly after ignition, the 
mass continues to glow briskly and to 
give off thick fumes of camphor that will 
soon darken the room. Undoubtedly the 
guncotton burns in this case at the ex- 
pense of its own oxygen, but the temper- 



ature is not sufiiciently high to ignite 
the distilling camphor. This behavior 
indicates most clearly that celluloid is 
not a chemical combination of camphor 
and guncotton or collodion wool, since 
it is characteristic of chemical compounds 
that the substances entering into combi- 
nation cease to exist independently m the 
compound. Celluloid can be ignited only 
by a naked light, and if heated in a 
vessel of any kind it simply decomposes, 
as already mentioned, at about 150 O., 
suddenly and completely, with the libera- 
tion of a good deal of smoke. In no' 
case, however, is there any question of 
an explosion, for celluloid cannot be ex- 
ploded either by pressure, shock, percus- 
sion, friction, heat or any other means. 
Celluloid is no longer guncotton, but a 
substance differing therefrom in all its 
properties. The property of celluloid of 
softening in hot water enables it to be 
cut into sheets of any desired thickness, 
and attach itself like putty, to wood, mar- 
ble etc. If two surfaces of celluloid be 
coated with collodion and pressed to- 
gether, the two sheets, etc, will unite 
firmly to form a solid whole. 

Celluloid is insoluble in water, and on 
this account is suitable for making do- 
mestic articles, such as knife handles. 
Though it is not directly attacked by con- 
centrated sulphuric acid, it gradually 
dissolves therein in the cold, a small piece 
entirely disappearing in about 36 hours. 
It also gradually dissolves in concentrated 
nitric acid, and in boiling caustic potash. 
The tensile strength of celluloid is 
very considerable. According to the re- 
sults of a few crude tests, the elastic 
limit is about 200,000 to 240,000 lb. per 
sq. in., that of iron being 130 times as 
great, and that of wood about 7 times as 
great. The elasticity is also high, as can 
be demonstrated by an easy experiment. 
The tip of a celluloid hairpin, for in- 
stance, can be bent round until the two 
ends meet, and back again until the ends 
meet at the opposite side; and this can 
be done any number of times, the pm re- 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[779] 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Celluloid 



(Celluloid) 



taming its original appearance when 
straightened out. To break off the tip 
It must be bent to and fro rapidly with 
considerable force. These simple tests 
clearly show the extreme elastic plia- 
bility of celluloid. The substance can 
be stained any desired color, and the 
coloring matter is not absorbed merely 
superficially, but permeates the whole 
mass — as can be seen from the fractured 
surface of celluloid articles. By means 
of suitable additions and treatment, cellu- 
loid can be made to imitate a large va- 
riety of materials, for which purpose it is 
largely used. In all conditions its sur- 
face is extremely smooth and lustrous; 
it can be sawn, filed and turned in the 
lathe, and in general treated like horny 
materials. 

Celluloid can be rolled, polished, 
pressed, cut and hammered, and can also 
be kneaded at a temperature of 145° C, 
so that, occasionally, it may take the 
place of metals, stone, wood and wax. 
The specific gravity of celluloid varies 
according to the degree of pressure it has 
sustained in the manufacture, the mean 
being 1.5. 



Billiard Balls. 

The process employed is as follows: 
To 100 parts of pyroxyline, dissolved, 
ground, and stained as usual, are added 
300 to 500 parts of the solvent — alcohol, 
100 parts; naphtha, .50 parts; 100 to 
150 parts of arrowroot or starch ; 50 to 
200 parts of the best zinc white. The solid 
matters are added to the plastic solution 
of the pyroxyline, and the whole is placed 
in a closed rolling or grinding apparatus, 
the rollers being heated by steam, and the 
compound is ground up till most of the 
solvent is driven off. The latter is re- 
covered by conveying it through pipes to 
a Liebig's condenser. The mass is now 
about as stiff as clay, and may be molded 
or rolled, and placed in a warm place 
for seasoning. When well seasoned, the 
ball may be turned. When less specific 
gravity is required, it is best to employ 
as much amylaceous substances as possi- 
ble, they being lighter than the zinc. 
Ground and bleached cotton fiber may 
be rubbed up with the plastic pyroxyline, 
in the proportion of 100 parts disinte- 
grated cotton to 300 parts pyroxyline 
paste. When making colored celluloid 
with amylaceous substances or cotton, 
the colors should be added at the same 
time, and ground up with the other in- 
gredients. 



(Celluloid) 



[780] 



Celluloid Without Camphor. 

According to a French patent, plas- 
tic cellulose may be prepared from 
nitrocellulose by substituting naphthaline 
for camphor, whereby a great reduction 
in cost of production is effected. The 
formula gives these proportions: 1,000 
P^r^^o^^ nitrocellulose, 600 parts of alco- 
hol, 300 parts of acetone, 100 parts of 
naphthaline. The liquids named may be 
replaced by other solvents. The odor of 
the naphthaline disappears upon exposure 
to air. 

Coloring Finished Celluloid Articles. 

Though celluloid is obtainable in a 
variety of colors, it is sometimes neces- 
sary to stain finished articles another 
color. As a rule, coal-tar dyes dissolved 
in spirit make excellent stains for this 
material; and for special purposes the 
following methods are recommended : 

Black. — The article is dipped first in 
weak alkali, then in dilute silver nitrate, 
and left to dry in the sunlight. 

Blue. — A solution of indigo nearly neu- 
tralized with potash is used, or a solution 
of Prussian blue; or a bath of ferric 
chloride followed, after drying, by one of 
potassium ferrocyanide. 

Brown. — A solution of potassium per- 
manganate, made alkaline with soda, is 
used. 

Green.— The article is dipped in a 
solution of 2 parts of verdigris and 1 of 
sal ammoniac. 

Red. — The articles are first dipped in 
water, slightly acidified with nitric acid, 
and then in an ammoniacal solution of 
carmine. 

Purple. — Immersion in dilute chloride of 
gold, followed by exposure to strong sun- 
light. 

^ Yellow. — The article is dipped succes- 
sively into a solution of lead nitrate and 
one of yellow chromate of potash. 

Designs on Plates or Sheets of Celluloid, 
Xylonite, etc.. Method for Producing. 

The old method of producing patterns 
or designs on plates of celluloid, xylonite 
or similar plastic, nitrocellulose products, 
was by printing or pressing, with or 
without the assistance of warmth, or by 
molding and painting. A newer method 
consists in stamping a design in relief on 
sheets of white or yellow celluloid, then 
applying colors or paints, and finally im- 
parting a polish to one or both surfaces 
by means of suitable rollers or plates, 
assisted by heat and pressure, this treat- 
ment bringing the pattern up more effec- 



Rubber, Gutta Percfia and Celluloid 



(Celluloid) 



tively on the polished surface of the sheet. 
The mordant and color can be applied 
to the printed plate by dipping the latter 
in a dye bath, whereby the coloring mat- 
ter penetrates the hollows of the pattern 
and forms a thicker layer there than on 
the rest of the surface. The sheet is 
then subjected to powerful pressure, as- 
sisted by heat, between plates, which may 
be polished or not. The pressure and 
heat smoothen the engraved surface again 
and bring into admirable prominence the 
deeper portions which before were hardly 
noticeable. If one side of the sheet is to 
be polished, a polished plate is pressed 
against the portion that was not brought 
into contact with the dye, and this will 
bring the drawing up prominently on the 
polished surface, though it was actually 
impressed on the other. This polish can also 
be produced on the printed surface, or on 
both, the result in all cases being to bring 
out the pattern better. The impression 
can be imparted to the sheet by various 
means, such as wire, cloth, dies, rollers, 
etc. ; and one on both sides of the sheet 
can be colored, all over or in parts, by 
either applying the color locally with a 
brush, or dipping the sheet in a dye bath. 

Glass Substitute. 

Thin celluloid sheets can be stained su- 
perficially, on one or both sides, by dip- 
ping them in a bath of coal-tar dye, pre- 
pared by pouring an alcoholic solution 
of the coal-tar dye into a bath of 99% 
spirit containing best white shellac and 
sandarac, or some other rosin. This bath 
is acidified with boric acid, and shortly 
before use a little ether or benzol is add- 
ed to accelerate the drying of the col- 
ored layer on the surface of the cellu- 
loid. 

The celluloid sheets are immersed for a 
short time merely, this being sufficient to 
mordant and color the surface. The col- 
ored layer dries very quickly. If only 
one side of the sheet is to be stained, the 
other is first coated with asphaltum in 
the usual manner. These colored sheets 
are suitable for signals and identification 
devices, being unbreakable and fast-col- 
ored. 

Hardening and Softening Celluloid. 

There is no method of hardening cellu- 
loid after it is made ; if it is required 
hard, then 3 to 5% of rosin or shellac is 
mixed with the original pyroxyline for 
the manufacture of the celluloid. To 
soften the celluloid and render it flexible 
castor oil is used. Opaque celluloid may 
also be made much harder and more like 



(Celluloid) 



ivory by the addition of mineral rnatter 
such as carbonate of lime or zinc oxide. 

Incombustible Celluloid. 

1. — Mabille and Lerclerc patented a 
process for making a kind of incombus- 
tible celluloid. To a solution of celluloid 
is added a mixture of ether and alcohol 
containing iron salts. A clear liquid of 
the consistency of syrup results, and if 
the solvents are driven off from this, an 
incombustible non-inflammable celluloid 
remains. It would appear from the an- 
nouncement that a chloride of iron is 
used, since it is stated that should the 
celluloid become heated the gases of the 
chlorine components would extinguish the 
flames. 

2. — Non-inflammable celluloid is pre- 
pared by Asselot in the following manner : 
Ordinary celluloid is dissolved in 5 times 
its weight of acetone, and magnesium 
chloride in 3 times its weight of alcohol. 
The solutions are mixed in the proportion 
of 5 parts of the first to 1 of the second. 
A paste is formed, which is thoroughly 
mixed and dried. 

Polishing Celluloid. — Make a kind of 
putty of hot soap, free from rosin, in 
which equal parts of fine pumice stone 
and flour emery have been mixed. 

Printing on Celluloid. 

1. — For ordinary lettering, etc., or 
showing up fine colored lines, celluloid 
may be printed in the usual way. The 
material, however, has to be specially pre- 
pared so as to obtain a matt or rough 
surface of suitable grain (by handwork, 
sand-blast or other means), leaving, if 
necessary, certain parts of the surface 
intact. The sheet or plate is swilled with 
water or alcohol, to free the depressions 
from any clogging, adherent particles, and 
is then coated with a varnish made of 
2 parts of boiled linseed oil, 1 part of 
white copal varnish, and 1 part of re- 
fined ethereal oil, preferably oil of tur- 
pentine or lavender. The varnished plate 
is wiped to force the varnish into the 
artificial pores of the grain and leave 
the surface bare, and is then covered for 
several hours with a mixture of equal 
parts of finely powdered magnesium and 
barium sulphates, after removing which 
it is carefully satined. This treatment 
gives a surface containing, enclosed in 
its innumerable fine pores, a very thin, 
almost transparent layer that exerts 
chemical attraction on the fatty bodies 
in printing ink a"d absorbs and retains 
them like paper. The most delicate draw- 
ings and shades of color can be printed 



[781] 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Celluloid 



(Celluloid) 



on this surface without risk of running 
or clogg-ing. 

2. — According to F. Meyer (Bingen) 
celluloid printing is performed as follows : 
On the one hand, the desired pattern, 
etc., is printed on paper or like substance, 
and on the other, the celluloid is mois- 
tened with a known solvent, such as al- 
cohol, ether, etc. On pressing the paper 
and celluloid together a portion of the ink 
on the former dissolves out and intimate- 
ly mixes with the dissolved surface of 
the celluloid, thus forming a waterproof 
design. 

3. — J. Artner's improvements in print- 
ing on celluloid relate more particularly 
to collars, cuffs and other washable ap- 
parel, with the object of protecting the 
applied colors from the perspiration of 
the body and friction with other clothes. 
In contrast to existing methods of print- 
ing celluloid, the method adopted is to 
coat the printed surface with a trans- 
parent film, protecting the colors from con- 
tact with perspiration, other clothing and 
from water in washing. The colors or 
designs are applied by rollers engraved in 
relief so that they are printed and pressed 
in at the same time. The celluloid ar- 
ticles are then dried, and coated by dip- 
ping in a warm, transparent hard-drying 
varnish which dissolves the surface of 
the celluloid and forms a coating that 
hardens on cooling so as to prevent the 
colors from rubbing off. This method can 
be applied to all celluloid articles, is sim- 
ple and reliable, furnishing a product 
capable in a high degree of resisting ex- 
ternal influences. The varnish used is 
a solution of copal in ether, with alcohol 
and water, and a trace of oil of turpen- 
tine, the proportions being : Copal dried 
at 100° C. 6.48%; alcohol, 16.40%; 
water, 1.20%; ether (sp. gr. 0.725), 
75.47%; oil of turpentine, 0.45%. The 
copal is dissolved in the ether, the solu- 
tion diluted with the alcohol and water, 
and the oil of turpentine added last. 
The ether has a slight solvent action on 
the celluloid and assists in binding the 
varnish, whilst the oil of turpentine pre- 
vents the varnish cracking off. The 
printed and varnished articles are finally 
dried at 50 to 55° C. 

4. — Neupert (Altona) prints water- 
proof patterns on celluloid plates by 
graining the latter with equal parts of 
wax and potash, together with water, 
and oil of turpentine if too thick. A pat- 
tern applied to this surface by means of 
an alcoholic solution of coloring matter 
will partly dissolve the wax (by the al- 
cohol and alkali together) and give a 



(Celluloid) 



sharp impression. The case is parallel 
to the result obtained with sized paper 
in comparison with unsized, the dissolved 
color in the present case penetrating with 
the wax into the pores of the celluloid, 
whereas the color would run on the un- 
treated celluloid. 

5. — The Rheinische Gummi & Cellu- 
loidfabrik replace alcohol by acetic acid 
for dissolving the coloring matter, and 
thus dispense with a preliminary treat- 
ment of the surface. Probably this is due 
to the fact that this solvent attacks cellu- 
loid and thus penetrates it and dries 
therein at once. The running of the color 
on certain kinds of celluloid can be pre- 
vented by moistening the surface with oil 
of turpentine or melted parafline wax. 

Solvents for Celluloid. 

Celluloid dissolves in acetone, sulphuric 
ether, alcohol, oil of turpentine, benzine, 
amyl acetate, etc., alone, or in various 
combinations of these agents. The fol- 
lowing are some proportions for solutions 
of celluloid : 

1. — Celluloid, 5 grams ; amyl acetate, 
10 grams ; acetone, 16 grams ; sulphuric 
ether, 16 grams. 

2. — Celluloid, 10 grams ; sulphuric 
ether, 30 grams ; acetone, 30 grams ; 
amyl acetate, 30 grams ; camphor, 3 
grams. 

3. — Celluloid, 5 grams ; alcohol, 50 
grams ; camphor, 5 grams. 

4. — Celluloid, 5 grams ; amyl acetate, 50 
grams. 

5. — Celluloid. 5 grams ; amyl acetate, 
25 grams ; acetone, 25 grams. 

Substitute for Celluloid. 

A transparent, celluloid-like substance 
which is useful for the production of 
plates, tubes and other articles, but es- 
pecially as an underlay for sensitive films 
in photography, is produced by dissolving 
1.8 parts by weight of nitrocellulose in 
16 parts of glacial acetic acid, with heat- 
ing and stirring and addition of 5 parts 
of gelatine. After this has swelled up, 
admix 7.5 parts by weight of alcohol 
(96%), stirring right along. The syrupy 
product may be pressed into molds or 
poured, after further dilution with the 
said solvents in the stated proportion, 
upon glass plates to form thin layers. 
The dried articles are w^ell washed with 
water, which may contain a trace of soda 
lye, and dried again. Photographic foun- 
dations produced in this manner do not 
change, nor attack the layers sensitive 
to light, nor do they become electric, and 
in developing, they remain flat. 



[782] 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Celluloid 



(Gutta-Percha) 



Tortoiseshell, Imitation, 

Celluloid constitutes the most suitable 
imitation of tortoiseshell that has ever been 
devised ; imitations of this kind are sup- 
plied by celluloid makers as well as being 
made by consumers. Celluloid sheets em- 
ployed for this purpose range from 1-25 
to % of an in. in thickness. The ground 
color of real tortoiseshell is a faint 
brownish yellow, to imitate which the 
celluloid is stained with picric acid in the 
process of manufacture, by means of a 
solution containing a little aniline brown, 
picric acid by itself being too yellow. 
The reddish brown spots so characteristic 
of tortoiseshell are imitated by means 
of an alcoholic solution of aniline brown, 
with a little fuchsin to bring out the 
reddish tone. As celluloid is softened by 
strong alcohol, these solutions penetrate 
deeply into the mass. The sheets having 
been highly polished before applying the 
coloring, the luster removed by this latter 
operation is restored by diligent rubbing 
with woolen cloths. Articles of definite 
shape, like combs, etc., are not painted 
until the shaping process is completed. 
Incrustations of smooth-rolled metal wire, 
stars of thin leaf gold or silver for in- 
expensive cigar cases and purses, small 
fancy boxes, etc., are pressed into the 
mass as already described, the latter be- 
ing then smoothed, polished and finally 
colored. When the coloring is applied by 
a skilled operator, it is hardly possible 
to distinguish the imitation from the gen- 
uine tortoiseshell by the appearance. 

White Celluloid. 

For producing a white celluloid, with- 
out unduly increasing its specific gravity, 
the dissolved pyroxyline and other in- 
gredients are mixed with white starch, 
either from wheat, rice, potatoes, etc., 
or with arrowroot, tapioca, or other amy- 
laceous substance, or with wheat flour, or 
with cotton ground and bleached. 

Working Celluloid. 

In general celluloid is worked the same 
as horn or ivory. In turning the tool 
should be kept cool with water. In case 
the work tears, heat the celluloid in water 
until 90 to 100° F. are reached. 

GUTTA PERCHA 

The Properties, Manufacture and Uses 
of Gutta Percha and Balata are treated 
of in the Scientific American Supplement, 
Nos.ni6, *1156, 1417, 1575 and 1800. 
(*) refers to illustrated article. 

1. — Difference Between Gutta Percha 
and Ruhher. — These two substances are 



(Gutta-Percha) 



constantly confused. A standard work 
on the subject shows the difference by 
means of the following comparison in 
double columns : 



INDIA-RUBBER 
(Gum elastic) 

Raw rubber is soft 
and malleable when 
heated, but is still 
elastic within a cer- 
tain range of tem- 
perature. 

Acted on by air, be- 
comes viscous. 

Chief applications are 
in the sulphur-vul- 
canized condition. 



GUTTA PERCHA 

(Gum plastic) 
In boiling water, be- 
comes plastic and 
malleable, and if 
then shaped, pre- 
serves its form when 
cold. 
Acted on by air, be- 
comes brittle and 
resinous, but not sg 
quickly as rubber. 
Will not combine or 
intimately mix with 
sulphur. 

2. — Bleaching. — Dissolve it in 20 times 
its weight of boiling benzine, and add 
plaster of the best quality to the solu- 
tion, shaking from time to time. In a 
few days' time the plaster will have 
settled to the bottom, carrying with it 
the impurities soluble in the benzine. 
Decant the liquid and introduce it in 
small portions into a vessel containing 
double its volume of 90% alcohol, stir- 
ring continually. During this operation 
the gutta percha precipitates in the form 
of a perfectly white pastelike mass. 
The drying of the gutta percha thus 
purified requires several weeks' exposure 
to the air; this may be accelerated by 
triturating it in a mortar, and removing 
from it the water that separates. 

3. — -Cementing Cloth, Gutta Percha 
Tissue for. — Tailors use a special prep- 
aration of gutta percha for this pur- 
pose, consisting of a thin tissue, placed 
between layers of the cloth and pressed 
with a hot iron. Used extensively to 
fasten the bottom edge of trousers. 

4. — Liquid Gutta Percha. — This useful 
preparation is to be found in the United 
States Pharmacopoeia, and is made thus : 
Gutta percha in thin slices, 1 oz. ; chloro- 
form, 8 fl.oz. ; carbonate of lead, in fine 
powder, 1 oz. Add the gutta percha to 
6 fl.oz. of the chloroform in a stoppered 
bottle and shake them together frequent- 
ly until the solution has been effected. 
Then add the carbonate of lead previous- 
ly mixed with the remainder of the chloro- 
form, and, having several times shaken 
the whole together, set the mixture aside 
and let it remain at rest until the insolu- 
ble matter has subsided. Lastly, decant 
the clear liquid and keep it in a well- 
stoppered bottle. 1 part of this solution 
in 10 parts by weight of chloroform pro- 
duces an excellent and convenient prep- 
aration for painting over cuts or 



[783] 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Cellidoid 



(Rubber) 



wounds. It readily acts as a styptic 
and protective to the wound and causes 
neither tension nor pain. If pure iodo- 
form be added, about 10%, it further 
enhances the value of the styptic and 
can be used in veterinary surgery with 
marked success for applying to cuts and' 
abrasions, as it arrests hemorrhage, 
forms a coating over the wound and 
promotes a healthy cicatrization. 

5. — Melting Gutta Perclia. — The gutta 
percha may be dissolved by adding bisul- 
phide of carbon ; if the liquid thus ob- 
tained is poured upon glass, after a short 
time the gutta percha may be lifted in the 
form of a thin sheet, the bisulphide 
evaporating very quickly. 

6. — Plastic Gutta Percha. — Wlien gutta 
percha is steeped for a few hours in ben- 
zole or naphtha it becomes considerably 
swollen ; if afterward soaked in hot 
water, it is exceedingly plastic and re- 
quires but moderate pressure to obtain 
most perfect copies from even such 
fragile objects as plaster-of-paris models. 

7. — Substitute (Sorel). — a. — Pitch, 18 
parts ; calcium hydrate, 9 parts ; gutta 
percha, 24 parts. 

b. — Coal tar, 18 parts ; calcium hy- 
drate, 9 parts ; gutta percha, 24 parts. 
Used for manufacturing waterproof ar- 
ticles, tubes, machine belts, waterproof 
boots and shoes, etc. If greater tenacity 
is desired, add cotton, wool or hemp. 

RUBBER 
Rubber, Its Chemistry, Curing, Manipu- 
lation in the Manufacture of Goods, 
Tires, etc.. Utilization of Waste, Re- 
claiming, Substitutes, etc. (See the 
Scientific American Supplement, Nos. 
1204, 1231, 1791, *1271, *1767, 
*17r.8. 1135, 1385, *1456, *1457, 
1643. 1386, 1665, 1355, *1070, 1801 
and 1802. (*) refers to illustrated 
articles. 

Artificial. 

These compositions include artificial 
caoutchouc, artificial leathers, celluloid, 
viscoid, and other derivatives of cellu- 
lose, and plastic masses obtained from 
casein, maisin, gelatine, albumen and 
various other substances. 

Caoutchouc. — 1. — Waste scraps of vul- 
canized india-rubber are pulverized and 
mixed with a solution of calcium sul- 
phide and tar. The mixture is heated 
from 24 to 60 hours in a closed digester 
to dissolve out the sulphur added in vul- 
canizing, and the tar is distilled off at 
reduced pressure. The mass is then 
stirred and washed with hot water. 



(Rubber) 



2. — Neilson ^ regenerates vulcanized 
rubber by treating it with oil of rosin 
at from 400 to 570° F. 

3.-^Ducastle and Alexander employ 
benzine and solution of soda. 

4. — Groetz employs aniline, alcohol, 
bisulphide of carbon, etc., and precipi- 
tates the caoutchouc from the solution of 
amylic alcohol (fusel oil) methyl alcohol 
(wood alcohol), or acetone. 

5. — Imitations of caoutchouc are also 
made from oils, for example by treating 
a drying oil with monohydrated nitric 
acid and washing the resultant nitro 
compound, or by combining the oil with 
sulphur or chloride of sulphur. 

6. — Werbeck prepares a paste of gela- 
tine, phosphate of lime, tannin and bi- 
tuminous oil, and mixes it with olein 
soap to produce an imitation of caout- 
chouc. 

7. — Lesage uses gelatine coagulated in 
glycerine and adds a solution of genuine 
caoutchouc. 

8. — Lusenia di Rosa employs gelatine 
coagulated by tannin and mixed with 
castor oil, ether, and fulminating cotton. 
The mixture is then treated with carbon 
dioxide of acetylene, and finally evapor- 
ated. 

9. — An elastic mass, similar to caout- 
chouc, from which rubber is made, can 
be produced by combining sodium tung- 
state with certain organic substances. 
If tungstic acid or sodium tungstate is 
added to glue and then hydrochloric acid, 
a tungstic glue is produced which, at 85 
to 105° F., is so elastic that it may be 
drawn out into very thin fibers. By cool- 
ing, this mass becomes very firm and 
brittle. This product may be used for 
mordanting specially for aniline dyes. It 
was also employed for tanning leather, 
but turned with it as hard as stone, for 
which reason it has not entered greatly 
into use. 

10. — Pure caoutchouc, 1,000 grams ; 
pure amianthus, with sulphur in propor- 
tion, 10 to 30%. 5 to 10% is sufficient 
for the production of an elastic sub- 
stance ; from 10 to 20% for a semi- 
flexible article ; and 25 to 65% for a hard 
product. The mixture is made with heat 
in a suitable mixing machine; the caout- 
chouc cleaned and purified, and the 
amianthus and sulphur pulverized and 
sifted. The heating is done preferably 
inside a cylinder, and it ought to be con- 
tinued until a perfect mixture is ob- 
tained. The dough formed by this mix- 
ture is drawn out into sheets or molded 
according to requirements. The formula 



[784] 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Celluloid 



(Rubber) 



given above is not in sufficient detail to 
enable the process to be worked. 

Rubier Substitutes. — Since india-rub- 
ber first became of value through vulcan- 
ization, it has been the dream of experi- 
menters and inventors to produce it arti- 
ficially. One of the most persistent seek- 
ers after a substitute for the natural gum 
was the late Austin G. Day, who tried 
hundreds of experiments and took out 
many patents. As far back as 1866 he 
made public the results of some of his 
work, giving as formulas for rubber sub- 
stitutes the following compounds : 

1. — Linseed oil, 2 lb. ; cotton-seed oil, 

1 lb. ; petroleum, 2 lb. ; raw turpentine, 

2 lb. ; sulphur, 2 lb. Boil 2 hours. 

2. — Linseed oil, 2 lb. ; cotton-seed oil, 1 
lb. ; petroleum, 1 lb. ; raw turpentine, 2 
lb. ; castor oil, 1 lb. ; sulphur, 2 lb. Boil 
% hour. 

3. — Linseed oil, 2 lb. ; cotton-seed oil, 1 
lb. ; petroleum, 1 lb. ; raw turpentine, % 
lb. ; liquid coal tar, 3 lb. ; peanut oil, 1 
lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 lb. ; sulphur, 
4 lb. Boil 35 minutes. 

4. — Linseed oil, 2 lb. ; cotton-seed oil, 1 
lb. ; petroleum, 2 lb. ; raw turpentine, % 
lb. ; liquid coal tar, 2 lb. ; spirits of tur- 
pentine, 1 lb. ; rubber, 1-6 lb. ; sulphur, 2 
lb. Boil 1 hour. 

5.— In 1871 Mr. Day had brought his 
experimenting down to the following for- 
mula : Cotton-seed oil, 14 lb. ; linseed oil, 
14 lb. ; asphaltum, 8 lb. ; coal tar, 8 lb. ; 
sulphur, 10 lb. ; camphor, % lb. In this 
the tar and asphaltum were first mixed 
with the cotton-seed oil, after which was 
added the linseed oil and camphor, and, 
last of all, the sulphur, when the tem- 
perature was about 270° F. 

6. — A substitute designed to be used 
in rubber compounding in place, say, of 
reclaimed rubber, was made as follows : 
Ootton-seed oil, 27 lb.; coal tar, 30 lb.; 
earthy matter, 5 lb. To be mixed, and 
heated to 300° F., and then strained, and 
cooled to 200° F. Then were added 27 
lb. of linseed oil, the heat raised to 220° 
F., and 15 to 18 lb. of sulphur added, the 
heat being continually raised until the 
mass was sulphurized. When the heat 
reached 240° F., 1 to ll^ oz. of nitric 
acid were added, and at 270 to 280° F. 
from 1 to 3 oz. of camphor were added 
to help the sulphurization. The resultant 
compound was used on the following ba- 
sis : Para rubber, 20 lb. ; litharge, 5 lb. ; 
sulphur, 1 lb. ; above compound, 20 to 40 
lb. 

7. — Another curious line of substitutes 
is that based upon the use of glue and 
glycerine. Some of these have uses, while 



(Rubber) 



others, that look very attractive, are of 
no use at all, for the simple reason that 
they will absorb water almost as readily 
as a dry sponge. The first of these is 
more than 30 years old, and is said to be 
of French origin. The formula is : Glue, 
4 lb. ; glycerine, 8 oz. ; nutgall, 3 oz. ; 
acetic acid, 1 lb., in 5 lb. of water. Ten 
years later this was approached by an 
English formula in which, in place of the 
nutgall and acetic acid, chrome and tan- 
nic acids were substituted, and a modi- 
cum of ground cork was added, as a 
cheapener, probably. Some four years 
later an ingenious Prussian gave out a 
formula in which to the glue and glycer- 
ine and tannic acid were added Marseilles 
soap and linseed oil. None of the above 
have ever had a commercial value, the 
nearest approach being the glue and glyc- 
erine compound used as a cover for gas 
tubing. The substitutes that have really 
come into use generally are made either 
from linseed, cotton-seed or maize oil. 
Scores of these have been produced, and 
thousands of dollars have been spent by 
promoters and owners in trying to make 
these gums do just what crude rubber 
will. A German formula that cost cer- 
tain American investors thousands of dol- 
lars, and which for a time looked as if 
it was going to be generally adopted, was : 
Linseed oil, 80 lb., lime-hardened rosin, 50 
lbs., in solution ; add to above, sulphur, 
8 lb.; linseed oil, 42 lb.; add 20 lb. of 
sulphur, and heat to 375° F. This gum, 
although used quite largely at one time 
in the United States, France and Ger- 
many, is not manufactured now. 
^ 8.— W. Lascelles-Scott, a distinguished 
^'"^glish chemist, when on a visit to the 
L. ed States to examine the Keely mo- 
tor, called attention to some very inter- 
esting formulas of his own for the manu- 
facture of substitutes. For example, his 
soap substitutes were certainly original. 
They were : 

a. — Linseed oil, 28 lb. ; sulphur, 8 lb. ; 
aluminum soap, 28 lb. ; oil of turpentine, 
4 lb. 

b. — Aluminum soap, 15 lb. ; almadina, 
25 lb. ; caoutchouc, 50 lb. ; sulphur, 6 lb. ; 
oleum succini, 4 lb. 

9. — In others he mixed reclaimed rub- 
ber dust with hardened rosin and bitu- 
men ; also with precipitated cellulose. One 
of the most interesting was a compound 
of linseed oil, sulphur, mineral caoutchouc 
and Russian petroleum. Whether or not 
any of these are in use it is impossible to 
state. There are, however, hundreds of 
tons of rubber substitutes sold and used 
annually. About one-half of what is used 



[785] 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Celluloid 



(Rubber) 



is made in the factories far private con- 
sumption. The other half is manufac- 
tured for th etrade by supply houses. As 
a rule, this is made of one of the three 
oils named above, and may be generally 
divided into two grades: (1) the brown 
(or black) and (2) the white. The for- 
mer is made by heating one of the fatty 
oils with sulphur ; the latter is made by 
treating the oil cold with sulphur chlo- 
ride. Tlie substitutes on the market very 
somewhat, of course, as they may be 
made from raw oil, or from "blown" oil, 
or it may be that the purchaser gets an 
oil that has been adulterated withiut his 
knowledge, which will make a difference 
in thep roduct. As a rule, however, those 
who are furnishing the trade are giving 
a good article. 

Belts, Rubber Preservative. 

Dressing for. — Cut india-rubber into 
small pieces and dissolve with 5 parts by 
weight of turpentine oil in a small iron 
well-covered crucible at a temperature of 
50° C. (122° F.) over a coal fire. As 
soon as the rubber is dissolved, add 4 
parts by weight of rosin, stir, remelt, 
and add in the same way 4 parts by 
weight of yellow wax. While melting 
the mixture must be occasionally stirred. 
Then put 15 parts by weight of fish oil 
and 5 of tallow into a suflficiently large 
vessel, heat till the whole is melted, and 
add the first mixture warm, stirring all 
the while. Continue stirring till the 
mass is compact. The dressing should be 
used in the following manner : If the belts 
are old and brittle, apply the dressing 
freely with a brush on both sides in the 
sun or in a warm room and leave them 
to dry. New belts, or belts that are still 
good, should like the previously treated 
brittle belts, be lubricated a little on the 
inside from time to time while in opera- 
tion ; in this way they will be rendered 
very durable, and will engage well on 
the pulleys, drums, etc. Cheap, old rub- 
ber waste can be used instead of india- 
rubber ; it should first, however, be boiled 
for a quarter or half an hour in soda lye, 
and 6V2 parts by weight instead of 5 
should be taken. 

Corks, Rubber, To Cut and Bore. 

1. — Dip the knife, or cork borer, in 
solution of caustic potash or soda. The 
strength is of very little consequence, 
but it should not be weaker than the 
ordinary reagent solution. 

2. — Alcohol is generally recommended, 
and it works well until it evaporates, 
which is generally long before the cork is 



(Rubber) 



cut or bored through, and more has to be 
applied ; water acts just as well as al- 
cohol, and lasts longer. When, however, 
a tolerably sharp knife is moistened with 
soda lye, it goes through the india-rubber 
quite as easily as through a common 
cork ; and the same may be said of a cork 
borer, of whatever size. We have fre- 
quently bored inch holes in large caout- 
chouc stoppers, perfectly smooth and cy- 
lindrical, by this method. In order to 
finish the hole w^ithout the usual con- 
traction of its diameter, the stopper 
should be held firmly against a flat sur- 
face of common cork until the borer 
passes into the latter. 

Covering Cloth with Rubber. 

To cover cloth with rubber, naphtha, 
alcohol and benzole are chiefly employed 
for dissolving the rubber. They are mixed 
with purified solid paraffine and ground 
together. 

Deodorizing Rubber. 

1. — Place the articles, covered with 
charcoal dust, in an enclosed vessel, let 
them remain for several hours at a tem- 
perature of 94° F. Clean the charcoal 
dust from the articles ; they will be odor- 

2* — Caustic potash, % oz. ; water, l^/^ 
pt. ; dissolve and heat to boiling. Put 
the goods into this for a few minutes, 
rinse thoroughly and dry. 

3. — Both sides of the article should be 
covered with a thin layer of animal char- 
coal. Heat for 3 or 4 hours from 122 to 
140° F. 

4. — Equal parts of alcohol, 36%, and 
linseed oil, shaken together thoroughly. 
Apply to the hose with a cloth. Stretch 
the hose a little, and rub until nearly dry. 
Repeat 3 or 4 times at intervals of sev- 
eral days. This treatment renders the 
hose gastight. 

5. — Treat the rubber with solutions of 
caustic potash or caustic soda ; treatment 
with potash or soda, since caustic potash 
and caustic soda injure the rubber; boil 
with alkaline soaps ; boil with lescive 
phenix — calcined soda with water glass ; 
and lastly, after treatment with soda, 
leave the rubber for some time in a solu- 
tion of cooking salt (10 to 15%). 

Dissolving Rubber. 

The solution of india-rubber or gutta 
percha in chloroform or benzole, fre- 
quently called for in photographic work, 
Is usually attended with so many difficul- 
ties and drawbacks that in nine cases out 
of ten where the solution is required the 



[786] 



Rubber, Gutta Percha arid Celluloid 



(Rubber) 



experimentalist usually purchases it ready 
made. Yet there need be no difficulty 
about the matter. First, pure rubber 
should be obtained. When vulcanized, 
it is perfectly insoluble. Secondly, pure 
solvents are necessary. Chloroform con- 
taining a large excess of alcohol and 
water will fail to act even upon the 
purest rubber. Again, under the most 
satisfactory conditions, the action is very 
slow, and the amount of rubber capable 
of being taken up is proportionately very 
small. The plan usually adopted is to 
place a large amount of shredded rubber 
in a bottle, which is then filled up with 
the solvent, and shaken at intervals a 
few times ; and when the shreds do not 
dissolve like pieces of sugar the whole is 
thrown aside, and we are written to for 
an explanation of the failure. If a 
small quantity of rubber had been placed 
in the bottle, and the liquid added, it 
would have been observed gradually to 
swell out very considerably after the 
lapse of some time, and a mixture of 
the whole would be facilitated by stir- 
ring with a glass rod or a splinter of 
wood. The rapidity with which the rub- 
ber absorbs the solvent will depend upon 
its condition ; but the action is never 
very quick, nor is it in any way analo- 
gous to the dissolution of a crystal. One 
cause of the failure of chloroform to act 
upon the caoutchouc may arise from the 
presence of alcohol in too great a propor- 
tion. Chloroform as sold almost always 
contains alcohol in small quantity, owing 
to the fact that when none is present it 
cannot be prevented from decomposing 
spontaneously, more especially in the 
light. It is, however, stated that when 
entirely protected from light absolute 
chloroform will not undergo any change. 
A solution of gutta percha in chloroform 
has a use which is not generally known. 
It forms, when carefully made and fil- 
tered quite bright, the best possible ma- 
terial for obscuring glass for focussing 
screens. For fine microscopic work it is 
said by those whose opinions are of 
weight to be unequaled. 

Durability of Rubber Goods, To Increase. 

A great disadvantage of rubber goods 
consists in their becoming brittle or 
sticky very quickly. For the purpose of 
rendering them soft and elastic again, 
prepare a moderately strong solution of 
alum in water, into which lay the rubber 
articles for a day or two ; after that time 
they are no longer hard or sticky. It is 
of great advantage for all rubber goods, 
if seldom used, to be kept in clean water ; 



(Rubber) 



this will greatly increase their durability. 
If the objects are not easily placed under 
water, as for instance, bicycle tires and 
similar bulky pieces, it is well to wash 
them from time to time with water to 
prevent them from becoming too dry. In 
this connection it is well to mention 
that it is harmful for the tires to be 
tightly inflated over winter and the rub- 
ber to touch the floor ; the bicycle should 
rest on a stand or be suspended. More- 
over, it should be kept in a dark room in 
as even a temperature as possible, or at 
least be provided with a covering of cloth, 
since air and light exercise an equally 
destructive action upon rubber. 

Ebonite and Vulcanite. 

These two materials are practically 
the same substance, the main difference 
being in the coloring materials used. 
They consist of india-rubber and sulphur, 
practically the same as vulcanized india- 
rubber, but a greater heat, and time, are 
employed to vulcanize the compound. To 
prepare it as sold in the form of combs, 
toilet and fancy articles, the rubber is 
worked in a masticating machine with 
the proper quantity of sulphur, and when 
thoroughly mixed a sufiicient quantity 
is put into a mold of the right shape 
made of plaster of paris, or other mate- 
rial which will not combine with sulphur, 
and exposed in a steam boiler to a heat 
of 315° F., and a pressure of about 12 lb. 
to the inch for 2 hours. It is then re- 
moved from the mold, and finished, and 
polished exactly in the same manner as 
ivory. The application of heat as above 
without a steam pressure is sufficient to 
vulcanize or harden the compound, but 
the result is not always so satisfactory, 
as the material is liable to be porous, if 
not compressed while hardening. Gutta 
percha may be treated in exactly the 
same manner as rubber, and cannot be 
distinguished from it, but is rather more 
troublesome to work. The vulcanite may 
be turned or carved in the same way as 
ivory, with the advantage that it may be 
molded to the required form without the 
great waste which attends ivory carving. 
It is also much less liable to fracture. 
The smaller the proportions of sulphur 
in the rubber, and the lower the temper- 
ature used, the softer and more elastic 
will be the rubber. About 10 or 15% of 
sulphur and a temperature of 270 to 
275° F. for 4 hours, will make an elastic 
rubber; 30% of sulphur and a tempera- 
ture of 315° F. for 2 hours will make 
a hard vulcanite like ivory. 



[7871 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Celluloid 



(Rubber) 



Ebonite.- — 1. — Sulphur, 2 to 3 parts, is 
mixed with caoutchouc, 5 parts, and cured 
for several hours at 75° C, under a pres- 
sure of 4 to 5 atmospheres. Ebonite 
is apt to become porous and conductive in 
moist air or in sunlight. It keeps best 
when dry and in the dark. Heat softens 
and deforms it. To prevent loss of insula- 
tion by oxidation of the sulphur, the sur- 
face should be washed from time to time 
with boiling water, then rinsed with dis- 
tilled water, and dried. The surface 
should be shellaced or paraffined, especial- 
ly in moist climates. 

2.— Hard Good Quality.— Best Para 
rubber, 2 parts ; sulphur, 1 part, by 
weight. 

3. — American Ebonite. — Rubber, 12 
parts ; sulphur, 8 parts ; whiting, 1 part ; 
wash, 1 part, by weight. Curing molds 
for above : lead, 2 parts ; autimony, 1 
part, by weight. 

4. — Hints on Working Ebonite. — a. — 
The following are useful hints, which ap- 
peared in the American Machinist, relat- 
ing to the working of ebonite : 

The best qualities show on fracture a 
brightness something of the nature of jet, 
and the poorer sorts a corresponding dull- 
ness. Although an apparently easy ma- 
terial to machine, its wearing effect on 
cutting tools is comparatively great. In 
sawing, turning, planing, or milling, the 
best speed is that at which brass is ma- 
chined, and milling should always be ac- 
companied by the free use of soap and wa- 
ter, having regard to the fact that a mill- 
ing cutter is an expensive tool ; but for 
turning or sawing, lubricants are in the 
way, on account of the spattering round of 
ebonite cuttings and soapy water. 

b. — Turning. — ^When turning ebonite it 
is always preferable to leave the tools 
dead hard with a lot of "rake" on, and to 
take as deep a cut as possible, with a 
slow feed. Herein will be found the ad- 
vantage of tlie tool-holder system for turn- 
ing tools, in which tlie cutter can be 
taken out and replaced by a fresh one, 
saving thereby a good many journeys to 
the grindstone; for the moment a, cutter 
becomes dull, which is frequent, instead 
of cutting it "burns'* the surface of the 
material, and, of course, militates against 
tlie production of good work. 

c— Lubricants. — ^When tapping ebonite 
soft soap has been found to be the best 
lubricant. 

Oil should never be used as it works in- 
to the material and in time rots the 
thread. Taps made of rod brass will be 
found useful, for if a dozen or two^ holes 
a.re executed with an ordinary tap, it will 



(Rubber) 



be comparatively useless on metal. Brass 
taps are easily made, and last almost as 
well as steel. Reamers of brass can be 
used in the same manner; an ordinary 
nose type with four saw-slits made in the 
end, and a tapped hole admitting a taper 
screw for expanding the tool as it becomes 
worn, is as handy and as cheap a method 
of reamihg holes in ebonite as the writer 
knows of. When worn, it can be headed 
up easily and made ready for use again. 
In shops where ebonite is used it is nearly 
always found necessary to do a lot of 
sawing, and it will be found best not to 
use expensive tools. Good saws — properly 
ground for clearance — are often rendered 
useless after a day's work on this ma- 
terial, and home-made sheet-steel saws are 
as good as the more expensive ones for 
cutting, besides being more readily sharp- 
ened, the necessary clearance being given 
to them by setting the teeth over side- 
ways. Although of a brittle nature, the 
thinnest sheets can be worked in the press 
up to a thickness of about .02 in., keeping 
the tools and materials warm by means 
of a gas-jet, and, although the stampings 
come out rather rough on the edges, they 
will be found suitable for jobs where a 
smooth edge is not desired. 

d. — Polishing. — In polishing ebonite, 
after taking all tool-marks out with emery 
paper ^ (commencing with F.F. and finish- 
ing with No. 1 blue-black French paper), 
a lap of hard felt charged with bath brick 
and oil is used, after which another lap 
charged with rotten stone and oil will be 
found to give good results ; at the same 
time taking care not to exercise too much 
pressure, for an excess of friction "burns'* 
the surface of the ebonite, rendering it in- 
capable of taking a high polish. If a 
dead finish is desired, all that is neces- 
sary, after using the emery cloth, is for 
the surface to be rubbed over with a cloth 
dampened in paraffine. 

Vulcanite. — 1. — About equal parts of 
rubber and sulphur are used, to which is 
added about 7 to 10 per cent, of lamp- 
black. These are all worked together in 
the masticating machine. A very useful 
vulcanizer for small goods is that made 
for dental work. It usually takes the 
shape of a cylindrical iron vessel with 
bolted-on lid, and fitted with a pressure 
gauge, thermometer, and safety valve. Per- 
forated divisions are put inside for the ar- 
ticles to rest on. With the simple vulcan- 
izers the required heat is obtained by put- 
ting a little water in the bottom of the 
vessel, then lighting a burner underneath 
to create steam which soon reaches a high 
pressure and temperature. The safety- 



[7881 



Rubber, Gutta Percha mid Celluloid 



(Rubber) 



valve is set to blow off at the proper 
pressure. Larger vulcanizers are steam- 
jacketed, which is no advantage except 
where high-pressure steam is available. 
The heat for vulcanizing should be slowly 
raised, the whole process being extended to 
about 4 hours, the final and highest tem- 
perature being 150° C. (302° F.). In large 
works the vulcanizing chamber is a hori- 
zontal cylindrical oven with a door in one 
end, free high-pressure steam being used, 
supplied to the interior (without a 
jacket.) It may be explained that the 
pressure and temperature of steam go to- 
gether, and for 302° F. the steam pressure 
would be 55 lb. on the gauge. 

2.— (Of Gitschin.)— Thirty-six parts of 
nitrate of potash, 19 parts nitrate of soda. 
11 parts sulphur, 9 parts sawdust, 9.5 
parts chlorate of potash, 6 parts wood- 
charcoal, 4.5 parts Glauber's salt, 2.25 
parts red prussiate of potash, 2.35 parts 
sugar, 1.25 parts picric acid. 

3. — Polishing. — a. — Remove scratches 
with a smooth wet water-of-Ayr stone, 
and then polish in the lathe with fine 
pumice and a stiff brush. After washing 
the pumice off, polish it with whiting and 
soft brush. 

b. — The mathematical instrument mak- 
ers treat it as brass — that is, for flat 
work they first use water-of-Ayr stone, 
and then rotten stone and oil. Turned 
work is polished in the lathe with rotten 
stone and oil, taking care not to use too 
high a speed, which would heat the work. 
Some use lampblack and oil to finish with 
where a very high polish is wanted, or the 
bare palm of the hand, as in getting up 
silver plate. Chain and ornament work, 
made of seahorse-leather, and for work of 
irregular forms, buffs of calico. A num- 
ber of pieces of calico, 12 in. in diameter, 
are screwed together between flanges, like 
a circular-saw spindle, and used with rot- 
ten stone, always taking care not to heat 
the work ; brushes are not at all suitable 
for it. 

c. — To polish turned vulcanite which 
has been finished with a scraping tool, 
take a handful of vulcanite shavings, and 
apply these as the article revolves. Next 
prepare a piece of soft linen (a surgical 
bandage will do) by soaking in any sort 
of common oil, and sprinkle one side with 
putty powder (oxide of tin), then loop the 
prepared side round the article, holding 
the ends firmly with both hands, and work 
it evenly all over the article while the 
lathe is running, and finish the polishing 
in the same manner with a clean piece of 
linen without polishing medium. 

4. — Soft Vulcanized India Rubber. — 



(Rubber) 



Para rubber, 7.5 parts ; sulphur. 0.75 
part; lime, 0.01 part; whiting 7.5 
parts ; French chalk, 1.25 parts ; litharge, 
1.5 parts, by weight. 

5. — Vulcanizing Rubber. — Parkes' 
method is now sometimes adopted. The 
caoutchouc is immersed in a mixture of 
39 parts of bisulphide of carbon and 1 
part of chloride of sulphur. It is next 
placed in a room heated to 70° F., and 
when all the sulphide of carbon has been 
volatilized, the process is so far complete 
that it is only requisite to boil the ma- 
terial in a solution of about 18 oz. of 
caustic potassa to 2 gal. of water, the 
vulcanized caoutchouc being next washed 
to remove excess of alkali. 

6. — Working Vulcanite. — Vulcanite can 
be worked with ordinary wood-cutting, 
sawing or turning tools, as it works much 
like ivory. It is desirable to keep vul- 
canite cool when working it, as it heats 
rapidly and softens with heat. At the 
boiling point of water vulcanite can be 
bent and, when cold, will retain its new 
shape. At a little higher temperature vul- 
canite is soft enough to be impressed with 
a pattern, or to be molded. 

Joining Rubber. 

Rubber is easily joined, and made 
as strong as an original fabric, by 
softening before a fire, laying the 
edges carefully together, without dust, 
dirt, or moisture between. The edges so 
joined must be freshly cut in the begin- 
ning. Tubing can be united by joining the 
edges around a glass cylinder, which has 
previously been rolled with paper. After 
the glass is withdrawn the paper is easily 
removed. Sift flour or powdered soap- 
stone through the tube to prevent the sides 
from adhering from accidental contact. 

Marking Prices on Rubber Combs. 

Scratch the price in small figures or let- 
ters on the back or side of the comb with 
some sharp-pointed instrument, preferably 
a darning needle. A white ink may be 
made for the purpose by suspending a suf- 
ficient quantity of zinc white or other pig- 
ment in a mixture of dextrine 30 parts, 
glue 10 parts, water 60 parts (or a suf- 
ficient quantity). 

Nipples, To Pierce. 

Levy recommends the following method 
to put small holes, preferably three 
to four, in the nipples in a sim- 
ple and practical manner, so that the milk 
does not enter the baby's mouth direct, 
but only by means of sucking motions. 
Take a little pointed piece of wood, for 



[789] 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Celluloid 



(Rubber) 



instance a toothpick, introduce it into the 
top of the nipple consisting of soft rubber, 
and push it up so that a fold of about ^ 
to 1 cm. results. Next, the point of the 
pick is cut off, together with the thinly- 
stretched out rubber layer, by means of a 
sharp scissors. In this manner a sharp- 
edged hole of the same size as in the femi- 
nine breast is obtained. Repeat the pro- 
cess according to the number of holes de- 
sired. 

Ornamentation of Rubber Articles. 

Use oxidized, preferably atmospherically 
dried oil varnish. Oil varnish colors must 
therefore not be applied directly to the 
rubber, but first to a conveniently flexible 
basis (paper, fabric, etc.), which is pro- 
tected against the penetration of the var- 
nish by a coating of starch, albumen, 
glue, etc. The designs thus produced are 
completely dried in the air, then the dried 
colors are softened by moistening with vol- 
atile hydro-carbons, that dissolve rubber, 
like 6enzoIe, naphtha, etc., and pressed 
against the similarly softened surface of 
the unvulcanized rubber. After the evap- 
oration of the solvent, the backing of the 
colors is removed. Vulcanize the rubber. 

Preserving. 

1. — The hardening of the vulcanized 
india-rubber is caused by the grad- 
ual evaporation of the solvent liquids 
contained in the india-rubber, and intro- 
duced during the process of vulcanization. 
Guided by this notion, experiments have 
been made for a number of years in order 
in order to find a method for preserving 
the india-rubber. It is now found that 
keeping in an atmosphere saturated with 
the vapors of the solvents answers the 
purpose. India-rubber stoppers, tubing, 
etc., which still possess the elasticity, are 
to be kept in vessels containing a dish 
filled with common petroleum. Keeping in 
wooden boxes is objectionable, while keep- 
ing in airtight glass vessels alone is suffi- 
cient to preserve india-rubber for a long 
time. Exposure to light should be avoided 
as much as possible. Old hard india-rub- 
ber may be softened again by letting the 
vapor of carbon bisulphide act upon it. 
As soon as it has become soft, it must be 
removed from the carbon bisulphide at- 
mosphere and kept in the above way. 
Hard stoppers are easily made fit for use 
again in this manner, but the elastic prop- 
erties of tubing cannot well be restored. 

2. — In order to prevent india-rubber 
materials from hardening and cracking, 
they are steeped in a bath of melted 
paraffine for a few seconds, or several 



(Rubber) 



minutes, in accordance with the size of 
the articles, and then dried in a room 
heated to about 212° F. 

3. — Soak in the ammonia, 2 oz. ; wa- 
ter, 6 oz. 

4. — Various articles and instruments 
made of rubber are apt, with time, to be- 
come dry, to crack, grow brittle, and lose 
their elasticity. The following simple mix- 
ture is recommended : Ammonia, 1 part ; 
water, 2 parts; in which the articles 
should be immersed for a length of time, 
varying from a few minutes to one-half or 
one hour, until they resume their former 
elasticity, smoothness and softness. 

5. — Very elastic caoutchouc tubing 
gradually loses some of its elasticity. La- 
ter, the tubes break on stretching, even 
if previously laid in warm water, and 
finally they crack if pressed between the 
fingers. This change is put down to a very 
slow formation of sulphuric acid by the 
action of moist air on the sulphur con- 
tained in the caoutchouc. By frequent 
washing with slightly alkaline water, the 
action of the acid is prevented. Tubes 
washed five or six times a year remain 
perfectly elastic. 

6. — Hose, To Soften. — a. — Dip in pe- 
troleum, expose to the air and repeat 
the operation if necessary. 

b. — Ammonia, 2 parts; water, 4 parts. 
Expose for a few minutes. 

c. — If very hard, soften with vapor 
or carbon bisulphide, with the further ap- 
plication of vapor of kerosene. 

7. — Oil on India-mhher, the Action of. 
— There is a general belief that oil has an 
injurious effect upon rubber, and to a 
large extent that is pretty well proved. 
The power to injure, however, depends 
very much on the kind of oil used. Ac- 
cording to one authority the hydrocarbons, 
as petroleum and rosin oils, are least in- 
jurious, while the animal and vegetable 
oils, represented by sperm and rape, are 
most destructive. There are oils in the 
market which profess to be without action 
on rubber, but this contention is said not 
to hold good in practice, and it is not ex- 
pected such an oil will be found. Rubber 
has a certain life, and is consequently val- 
uable, and it is well known that there are 
certain mixings in the trade which are 
much superior to others for oil-resisting 
purposes, but there is still much room for 
improvement, and the ideal oil-resisting 
rubber is not yet before the world. 

8. — Rain Coats. — English mackintoshes 
oft'en lose their elasticity when brought 
into our climate, soon rendering them of 
no service. Frequent sponging with water 
is recommended. If any portion of the 



I 790 3 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Celluloid 



(Rubber) 



cloth leaves the rubber, it should be sent 
to a rubber manufacturer, as it is ex- 
tremely diflBcult to cement. 

9. — Softening Rubber. — Use the purified 
gum rubber, and soften it by contact with 
hot water or steam, and mold by pressure. 
Use powdered soapstone to prevent stick- 
ing. 

10. — Stoppers, To Soften Hardened 
Rubber. — Digest them for about 10 days 
in 5 per cent, soda lye at a temperature 
of about 104 to 122° P. Wash them off, 
scrape off the outer layer with a blunt 
knife, and wash in warm water. 

11. — Tubes. — Regarding the action of 
coal gas on rubber tubes, it has been ob- 
served that it is weakest on ordinary gray 
rubber, which withstands it the longest 
and gives off no odor. Red rubber is more 
readily affected, and the black kind still 
more so. 

To prevent rubber tubes from drying up 
and becoming brittle, they should be coat- 
ed with a 3% aqueous solution of carbolic 
acid, which preserves them. If they have 
already turned stiff and brittle, they can 
be rendered soft and pliant again by be- 
ing placed in ammonia which has been 
made with double the amount of water. 

In France rubber tubes are used as a 
core for casting pipes from cement and 
sand. In order to construct a connected 
pipe conduit in the ground, a groove is 
dug and a layer of cement mortar spread 
out. Upon this the rubber tube is laid, 
which is wrapped up in canvas and in- 
flated. The remaining portion of the chan- 
nel is then filled up with cement mortar, 
and as soon as it has set, the air is let out 
of the rubber hose and the latter is pulled 
out and used as before. In this manner 6- 
inch pipes have been produced from hy- 
draulic lime and sand at the expense of 
about 1 mark (24 cents) per meter. 

Printing on Rubber, Preparation for. 

Sprinkle the article with farina before 
vulcanization. 

Reclaiming Rubber. (For information 
on this subject see the Scientific 
American Supplement, No. 1173.) 
1. — Place the material, cut in small 
shreds, in a strong (boiler iron), airtight 
vessel, provided with a good safety valve, 
and introduce into it 4 or 5 parts of bisul- 
phide of carbon for each part (by 
weight) of rubber. Close all the openings, 
and place the vessel over a suitable water 
bath, or. what is better, have a small 
steam coil inserted within the boiler. Heat 
for an hour at the boiling point of water. 



(Rubber) 



This will insure the complete solution of 
the rubber. The vapor of the bisulphide 
is very inflammable ; and when mixed with 
air, it is explosive when ignited. For 
these reasons, as well as because of the 
offensive odor of the solvent, the operation 
is best conducted in the open air, and 
with steam heat only. 

2. — For the purpose of reclaiming old 
vulcanized caoutchouc or other forms of 
rubber, first cut it up into bits, boil it 
with constant stirring in a properly con- 
structed vacuum pan at a temperature of 
about 100° C. with five times its weight 
of commercial phenol until the material 
is completely dissolved. Provide the boil- 
ing apparatus with a reflux cooler. Thus 
arranged, the greater part of the phenol 
will be distilled off and reclaimed, and 
from the remaining solution the caout- 
chouc may be precipitated and thoroughly 
washed out by the addition of alcohol, 
soda lye, or any other convenient solvent 
for the residual phenol. 

As far as the sulphur contained in the 
vulcanized rubber is concerned, part of it 
goes off in the shape of gaseous compounds 
during the boiling process, and whatever 
remains may be precipitated out of the 
solution by the addition of a small quan- 
tity of lead acetate. Should the sulphur, 
however, not be precipitated after this 
fashion directly following the distillation 
of the phenol, then it may be precipitated 
together with the rubber, whereupon the 
resultant mixture may be immediately re- 
vulcanized. In place of phenol, creosote 
may be employed, or for that matter any 
other substance that possesses the proper- 
ties of dissolving both the rubber and the 
sulphur. 

3. — The following is an outline of a 
process described in English letters pat- 
ent : The caoutchouc, cut into shreds, is 
first heated in vacuo to 100° 0. (212° F.) 
along with 5 times its own weight of 
commercial (crude) phenic acid. By this 
boiling the sulphur is partially trans- 
formed into volatile products, and thus 
eliminated partially along with the pro- 
ducts of distillation of phenol, and par- 
tially by precipitation by lead acetate. 
The caoutchouc is then precipitated by the 
addition of some solvent of phenol, such, 
for instance, as alcohol, sodium hydrate, 
etc., and is now in a condition for im- 
mediate revulcanization. 

Repairing. 

1. — Hose. — Fill the cracks previously 
cleaned with the following solution : 20 
parts of gutta percha, 40 parts of caout- 
chouc, 10 parts of isinglass, 160 parts of 



[791] 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Celluloid 



(Rubber) 



sulphide of carbon. Very wide, gaping slits 
may be plastered with the solution in lay- 
ers and the slit drawn together with a 
string. Allow 1 to 2 days for drying. 
Then the string can be cut through and 
the protruding cement trimmed off with a 
shai-p knife, that has previously been 
dipped in water. 

2. — Pads and Covers. — a. — Before the 
patching, the cracked surfaces to unite 
well must be dried, entirely freed from all 
dirt and dust and greased well, otherwise 
the surfaces will not combine. 

b. — In case of a cover, waterproof 
coat, or rubber boots, etc., take a moder- 
ately thick piece of india-rubber, suited 
to size of the object, cut off the edges ob- 
liquely with a sharp knife moistened in 
water, coat the defective places as well as 
the cut pieces of rubber with oil of tur- 
pentine, lay the coated parts together and 
subject them for 24 hours to a moderate 
pressure. The mended portion will be 
just as waterproof as the whole one. 

c. — Rubber cushions or articles contain- 
ing air are repaired in a very simple man- 
ner, after being cleaned as aforesaid. Then 
take colophony, dissolve it in alcohol 
(90%) so that a thick paste forms, smear 
up the holes, allow all to harden well, and 
the rubber article, pillow, ball, knee caps, 
etc., may be used again. 

Softening Rubber. (See Preserving Rub- 
ber.) 
Solvents. 

1. — The best solvent and perhaps the 
most rapid consists of a mixture of meth- 
ylated ether and petroleum spirit — the 
common benzoline used for burning in 
sponge lamps. The mixture is as much 
superior in power to either of its con- 
stituents singly as the ether-alcohol is to 
plain ether in its action on pyroxyline. 

2. — A very thick solution can be made 
by dissolving 60 gr. of good india-rub- 
ber in 2 oz. of benzoline and 1 oz. of sul- 
phuric ether. If the india-rubber be cut 
up fine and the mixture shaken occasion- 
ally, the solution will be complete in two 
or three hours, when it may be diluted to 
any required strength with benzoline 
alone. The india-rubber should be as 
light-colored as possible, and all the outer 
oxidized portions must be cut away. 
Shred the clean india-rubber with a pair 
of scissors, and throw it at once into the 
solvent. 

Sponge Rubber. 

The uses to which sponge rubber are 
put are many and varied. It is used as 
a cushion for rubber stamps, in artificial 



(Rubber Stamps) 



feet, in playing balls, in semi-solid tires, 
for erasive rubber, for glove-cleaners, 
and it has been tried in horse collars, 
harness pads, cushions, and so on. In 
all cases the sponginess is induced by in- 
corporating something that will give oS. 
vapors during the process of cure. The 
very cheapest liquid for this purpose is 
water ; hence one of the first compounds 
for puff balls depended upon its damp- 
ness for sponging. It was as follows : 

1. — Soft African rubber, 5 lb. ; re- 
claimed rubber, 5 lb. ; whiting, 6 lb. ; 
litharge, 2 lb. ; palm oil, 1 lb. ; sulphur, 
5% oz. ; damp sawdust, 2 lb. The saw- 
dust was just fine enough to pass through 
a sieve of No. 20 mesh. It was thoroughly 
wet and the mixing done on a cool mill. 
A slow cure and the cooling of the molds 
before opening are of course necessary. 

2. — Compounds similar to the above 
where fiber, substitute, etc., are made the 
means of carrying the water are very com- 
mon and are exactly as good for the pur- 
pose. Quite a variety of ingredients are 
used in some of the spongy compounds, 
but none will appear to the rubber manu- 
facturer to be more novel than brown 
sugar and licorice, both of which bring 
about sponginess. Perhaps the most dis- 
tinctively "freak" compounds in this line 
are those that follow, and have been the 
subjects of British patents : 

a. — Para rubber, 50 lb. ; tungstate of 
soda, 9 lb. ; alum, 2 lb. ; carbonate of am- 
monia, 14 lb.; asbestos (fine powder) 23 
lb. ; arsenic, 1 lb. ; gum kauri, 1 lb. 

b. — Carbon of ammonia, 15i/^ lb. ; alum, 
3 lb. ; tungstate of soda, 3 lb. ; borax, 5 
lb.; camphor, 10% lb.; lampblack, 10% 
lb. ; Para rubber, 50 lb. ; sulphur, 2% lb. 

c. — Alum, 6 lb. ; tungstate of soda, 6 
lb. ; chloride of ammonium, 12 lb. ; borax, 
8% lb.; camphor, 6 lb.; lampblack, 8% 
lb. ; Para rubber, 50 lb. ; sulphur, 2% lb. 

It is an easy matter to cause rubber to 
"sponge." But to make a perfect rubber 
sponge, is quite a different problem. This 
is because the trade demands a rubber 
sponge that is odorless, that is evenly 
spongy, and one that will not harden after 
lying in stock for a month or two. Hence 
only factories in which experiments are 
continually made can produce a satisfac- 
tory article. 

Stamps, Rubber. 

The process of making rubber stamps 
being very simple, and the materials and 
apparatus for carrying out the process 
being inexpensive, doubtless many would 
undertake this branch of business if the 



[792] 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Celluloid 



(Rubber Stamps) 



details of manufacture were well known. 
The secrets of rubber stamp making have 
always been carefully guarded, thus prac- 
tically limiting the business to those 
who have learned the trade in the regular 
way. The instructions given below are 
based upon the actual practice of the best 
makers, and written after actual experi- 
ence in the business. 

The tools required for beginning the 
business are one or more fonts of regular 
printers' type, one or two chases, some 
printers' leads, and a small press. The 
chases are expensive, and as the type is 
only subjected to a moderate pressure, a 
cast-iron chase may be used instead of one 
made of wrought iron, and even a wooden 
chase may be made to answer, but this 
is not recommended. If a wooden chase is 
resorted to, it should be made from hard- 
wood, such as oak or cherry, of one and 
one-half inch bars dovetailed together. If 
ordinary type is used, the chase may be 
one-half to five-eighths of an inch high. 
In one side and one end should be insert- 
ed two or more screws for clamping the 
type in the chase. Some printers' wooden 
furniture will be needed for filling in the 
chase around the type ; leads also are 
used for the purpose and for spacing be- 
tween the lines. In each corner of the 
chase a short three-eighths inch iron rod is 
inserted. These rods form a guide for the 
matrix plate, which is perforated to re- 
ceive them, and between the matrix plate 
and the rods are placed short spiral 
springs, as shown in the engraving. These 
springs are designed to prevent the compo- 
sition, of which the mold is formed, from 
coming into contact with the type before 
the screw of the press is applied. The iron 
matrix plate is of the same size as the 
chase, and is provided with two longtitu- 
dinal ribs. The under surface of the plate, 
including the ribs, should be planed. The 
rods which form the guides for the matrix 
plate must project from the chase at right 
angles, and must be well fitted to the holes 
in the plate. The ribs of the matrix plate 
are one-eighth of an inch high. 

Type-setting is somewhat difficult for 
an amateur, but a little practice will soon 
give proficiency. The type, when set, 
reads backward, so that if it is desirable 
to see how the type will appear, a piece 
of print may be held to the light and 
viewed from the back side. When the 
form is made up it is placed in the chase 
and centered by means of the wooden fur- 
niture and leads, the leads being placed 
next to and between the rows of type. 
The form should be made up on a flat sur- 
face, such as a ^lab of marble or a level 



(Rubber Stamps) 



hardwood plank. As soon as the form is 
locked by means of the screws, the type 
is planed by laying over it two or three 
thicknesses of paper, placing on these a 
smooth, flat block, and tapping the block 
with a mallet. As soon as the surface of 
the type is leveled, the screws in the 
chase are again tightened, and the form is 
readj' to receive the impression. 

The type is now ready to receive the 
composition of which the mold is formed. 
The following is considered the best and 
most reliable formula for this composi- 
tion : Finely powdered soapstone, 1 lb. 3 
oz. : best dental plaster, 1 lb. ; fine pow- 
dered China clay (kaolin), 1 lb. These 
materials are mixed dry, and sifted 




[793] 



through a sieve having a fine mesh. A 
quantity of the composition sufficient to 
form the mold is placed in a suitable ves- 
sel, and mixed with a solution formed by 
dissolving 5 oz. of dextrine in 1 qt. of hot 
water. This is to be used cold, and can 
be prepared in advance. Enough of the 
dextrine solution is added to the composi- 
tion to make a thick dough a little stiffer 
than putty. It should be thoroughly but 
very quickly mixed and kneaded, and 
should be smooth and free from lumps. 
It is to be spread out upon the matrix 
plate so as to nearly cover the entire space 
between the longitudinal ribs ; then by 
means of a brass-edged ruler, a straight 
iron bar, or even a table knife, the top 
of the composition is smoothed and made 
level, employing the longitudinal ribs of 
the matrix plate as guides. 

When the composition is level with the 
longitudinal ribs and perfectly smooth, 
the type is well moistened with benzine, 
and the matrix plate bearing the coating 
of composition is placed over the top of 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Celluloid 



(Rubber Stamps) 



the form, the rods before alluded to form- 
ing the guides for the plate, and the plate 
is allowed to rest upon the springs. Then 
the form, together with the matrix, sup- 
ported above the type in the manner de- 
scribed, is put in the press, and sufficient 
pressure is applied to carry the matrix 
plate down so as to cause the composition 
to take a perfect impression of the type. 
The pressure is relieved, and the matrix 
plate is then removed and allowed to 
stand for about three minutes, when it 
is again put on the form above the type, 
in the manner before described, and then 
placed a second time in the press and 
again subjected to pressure, this time 
using a little more force. The distance to 
which the type penetrates the composition 
can be regulated by the printers' leads. 

The press used may be purchased from 
one of the rubber stamp supply houses, or 
an ordinary letter press may be brought 
into use, but it is absolutely essential that 
the plates of the press be parallel. Presses 
which will answer every purpose can 
be frequently picked up at the junk shops 
for a mere trifle. Many substitutes for a 
press will suggest themselves, but in this, 
as in anything else, whatever is worth do- 
ing is worth doing well ; therefore it is ad- 
vantageous to procure the best tools and 
appliances on the start. 

In any event the press must be capable 
of standing a heat of 250° F. without 
warping. 

When the matrix is removed from the 
type the mold should be glossy in every 
part, and each letter should be clear-cut 
and sharp. Small perforations are now 
made in the matrix, care being taken to 
not make them too near the impressions 
of the type. These are for vents for the 
escape of moisture. The plate is now heat- 
ed in an oven for about an hour and a 
half. The mold is sometimes apt to 
crack, but this is generally due to too 
much heat or to a lack of homogeneity in 
the composition. When the mold is thor- 
oughly dry its face is smoothed with fine 
sandpaper, and the dust is blown from the 
letters by means of a bellows. 

The rubber used in making stamps is 
especially prepared by manufacturers for 
this purpose. It is pure unvulcanized rub- 
ber prepared in a special way for vulcani- 
zation. Much of the trouble of amateurs 
in making rubber stamps arises from the 
use of vulcanized rubber, or of a wrong 
composition or thickness. The material 
should be obtained from reliable dealers in 
rubber stamp materials or from the rub- 
ber manufacturers who make a specialty 
of it. It is purchased in sheets which are 



(Rubber Varnish) 



readily cut to the required size; they 
should be a little larger than the impres- 
sion of the type. 

To prevent the adhesion of the rubber 
to the mold, before the rubber is applied 
it is thoroughly covered with powdered 
soapstone, the surplus being rubbed off. 
The press is heated to about 220° F., the 
temperature being regulated usually by a 
thermometer attached to the press, but 
this may be dispensed with by exercising 
due care in the process of vulcanization. 
A pair of Bunsen burners afford a ready 
means of securing an even and well regu- 
lated temperature. 

It is well to make a few small stamps 
first, to see that everything is working 
right. The rubber is pressed on the mat- 
rix ; a piece of sheet tin is placed over j 
the rubber; the mold, with the applied 
rubber, is placed in the warm press, and 
pressure is gradually applied, thus forc- 
ing the rubber into every part of the im- 
pression. The time required for vulcaniza- 
tion with a warm press is from three to 
five minutes ; sometimes the time is ex- 
tended to ten minutes if the press is not 
sufficiently warm. If the press is over- 
heated, the rubber will be burnt. This is 
mainly a matter of experience, and can 
be learned only by actual practice. When 
the rubber is nearly vulcanized, it has a 
bluish shade, and if it is pricked with a 
needle or awl, if the rubber is vulcanized 
no mark will be left on the removal of the 
needle ; but if it is only semi-vulcanized, 
the needle will leave a perforation. By 
occasionally pricking the rubber, the time 
of exposure to the heat may be roughly 
determined. A second impression from the 
mold requires about double the time. 
When the rubber is vulcanized it is re- 
moved from the matrix by an even pull, 
and a sheet of stamps thus formed is im- 
mediately rubbed with powdered soapstone 
applied by means of a brush. The differ- 
ent stamps are then cut apart with scis- 
sors and mounted on a handle by means of 
shellac varnish. 

For a good ink for rubber stamps see 
the chapter on Writing Material. 

Substitutes for Rubber. (See Artificial 

Rubber.) 
Varnishes for Rubber. 

India-ruhher Varnish. — 1. — An excellent 
and rapidly drying waterproof varnish is 
prepared in the following manner : Heat 
a we'ghed quantity of boiled linseed oil 
until it fumes strongly. A vessel with 
plenty of extra room in it must be used. 
Have ready some india-rubber cut small, 
and 1 oz. of it for every pound in the orig- 



[794] 



Rubber, Gutta Percha and Celluloid 



(Rubber Varnish) 



inal weight of the oil. When one piece 
thrown in melts at once, put in the rest 
gradually, and when all is melted stop the 
heating. When cold dilute the varnish 
with turps to the required consistency. 

2. — Dissolve 10 lb. of india-rubber in 
10 lb. of turpentine and 20 lb. of petro- 
leum by treating same on a water bath. 
When the solution is completed add 45 lb. 
of drying oil and 5 lb, of lampblack and 
mix thoroughly. 

3. — Dissolve 7 lb. of india-rubber in 25 
lb. of oil of turpentine. By continued 
heating dissolve 14 lb. of rosin in the mix- 
ture. Color while hot with 3 lb. of lamp- 
black. 



(Rubber Varnish) 



4. — Fuse together 10 lb. of rosin and 6 
lb. of oil of turpentine. Then add 5 lb. of 
india-rubber and 11 lb. of linseed oil and 
heat and stir to complete mixture. Then 
add 3 lb. of lampblack. 

5. — Dissolve india-rubber in 7 times its 
weight of benzol by keeping them togeth- 
er in a warm place in a stoppered bottle 
and frequent shaking. This varnish serves 
also as a cement for india-rubber. 

6. — Heat together 100 lb. of raw lin- 
seed oil, 10 lb. of india-rubber, 10 lb. of 
boiled oil and 8 lb. of Prussian blue. 



Vulcanite. 

ITE.) 



(See Ebonite and Vulcan- 



C705] 



CHAPTEE XXIII 



SOAPS AIS^D CAJN^DLES 



CANDLES 

Adamantine. — Mutton tallow, 100 lb. ; 
camphor, 21/^ I'b. ; beeswax, 4 lb. ; alum, 
2 lb. 

CaMe or Twisted Candles. — ^These are 
molded in the ordinary way, and then 
turned by means of a special laithe ; or 
they may be cast in rifled molds, from 
which, on cooling, tohey are wound out. 

Cerophane. — Melt over a water bath 50 
parts of stearic acid and 5 to 5l^ parts 
of bleached beeswax. Let it remain over 
the water bath for i/^ hour, but do not 
stir or agitate. Then allow the fluid to 
cool, until there is a slight film on the 
surface. Pour the mass into molds, which 
have been heated to the same temperature, 
but avoid stirring. 

Colored. — Among the coloring matters 
used for candles are the following : 

1. — Blue. — Prussian blue, indigo, ultra- 
marine, copper sulphate, aniline blue. 

2. — Red. — Carmine, Brazil wood, alka- 
net root, minium, vermilion aniline reds. 

3. — Yellow. — Gamboge, chrome yellow, 
naphthaline yellow. 

4. — Green. — Mixture of blue and yellow 
colors. 

5. — Purple or Violet. — Mixture of blue 
and red colors. 

6. — Neutral Tints. — Oxides of iron, yel- 
lov/ ocher, Frankfort black. 

7. — Black. — a. — Fruit of Anacardium 
occidentale, aniline blacks. In order to 
dye paraflBne candles with an aniline base, 
such as magenta, the dye is first dissolved 
in stearine, and a little of the resulting 
stearate is added to the paraffine. 

b. — Anacardium Method.— Paraffine, or 
whatever material is desired for the can- 
dles, is heated from 200 to 210° C. with 
25% of its weight of the chopped fruit 
of Anacardium occidentale. Candles pre- 
pared in this way are equally black 
throughout, and yield no irritating vapors 
when burnt. 

c. — Aniline Method. — The material to 
be dyed is heated a few degrees above its 
melting point with 1 to 2% of nigrosine 



fat color. Paraffine and spermaceti re- 
quire 1% ; stearine and wax require from 
1% to 2%. The candles thus prepared 
are said to be of a somber hue throughout, 
and of a jet black appearance. 

8. — Ceresine Candles for the Christmas 
Tree. — For coloring these candles, only 
dyestuffs soluble in oil can be employed. 

a. — ^Blue. — 23-24 lavender blue, pale or 
dark, 100-120 grams per 50 kgm. of cer- 
esine. 

b.— Violet. — 26 fast violet R, 150 grams 
per 50 kgm. of ceresine. 

c. — Silver Gray. — 29 silver gray, 150 
grams per 50 kgm. of ceresine. 

d. — Yellow and Orange. — 80 wax yel- 
low, medium, 200 grams per 50 kgm. of 
ceresine ; 61 old gold, 200 grams per 50 
kgm. of ceresine. 

e. — Pink and Red. — 27 peach pink or 
29 chamois, about 100 grams per 50 kgm. 
of ceresine. 

f. — Green. — 16-17 brilliant green, 33 
May green, 41 May green, 200-250 grams 
per 50 kgm. of ceresine. The above 
named colors should be ground in oil and 
the ceresine tinted with them afterward. 

Diaphne. — ^Melt together, in a steam 
jacket, 5 lb. of vegetable wax, 3 lb. of 
pressed mutton tallow and 11 lb. of stearic 
acid. The stearic acid and the vegetable 
wax are the hardening ingredients. 

Glycerine. — Professor Laroche makes a 
new kind of candle by dissolving 5 parts 
of colorless gelatine in 20 parts of water, 
adding 25 par'ts of glycerine, and heating 
until a perfectly clear solution has been 
formed. To this is added 2 parts of tan- 
nin dissolved by heating in 10 parts of 
glycerine. A turbidity is produced which 
should vanish on further boiling. The 
boiling is continued until the water has 
been driven off. The candles obtained in 
this way are as clear as water, and burn 
quietly, and without spreading any odor. 

Home-made Candles. — Many of our 
readers in the rural districts will find 
that candles can be made economically by 
mixing a little melted beeswax with the 
tallow to give durability to the candle 



Alwayg consult the Index when using this book. 

[797] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Candles) 



and to prevent its running. The light 
from a tallow candle can be improved in 
clearness and brilliancy by using small 
wicks which have been dipped in spirits 
of turpentine, and thoroughly dried. 

Lard, — 1. — Dissolve 1 lb. of alum and 
1 lb. of saltpeter in 2 qt. of water, over 
a slow fire ; 12 lb. of lard are added. The 
stirring must be kept up continually un- 
til all the lard is dissolved. Do not leave 
on the fire too long, as the lard is liable 
to be discolored. It is said that these 
candles are superior to tallow. 

2.— Solid Candles from Lard. — Cut 16 
lb. of lard in small pieces, put in a pot 
with % lb. of alum and % lb. of salt- 
peter (previously dissolved in 1 pt. of 
water over a slow fire). Stir constantly 
over a slow fire until all the lard is dis- 
solved. Allow to simmer until the steam 
ceases to rise, then remove from the fire. 
These candles are harder than those made 
from tallow. 

Mutton Suet Candles in Imitation of 
Wax. — Throw quicklime in melted mutton 
suet ; the lime will fall to the bottom, 
and carry along with it all the dirt of 
the suet, so as to leave it as pure and 
fine as the wax itself. Now, if to 1 
part of the suet you mix 3 parts of real 
wax, you will have a very fine, and, to 
all appearances, a real wax candle; at 
least, the mixture could never be discov- 
ered, nor even in the molding of wax or- 
naments. 

Scented or Aromatic. — These are pre- 
pared by introducing a very small quan- 
tity of any appropriate aromatic into 
the material (fat, wax, or wick) of which 
they are made, while it is in tll6 liquid 
sitate. Camphor, gum benzoin, balsam 
of Peru, cascarilla, essential oils, etc., are 
generally the substances selected. Care 
must be taken not to overdo it, as then 
the candles will burn smoky, and give lit- 
tle light. 

Spermaceti. — Spermaceti, either alone, 
or combined with hard white tallow, forms 
very good candles, but they will not bear 
carrying about in the hand without spill- 
ing the melted portion. 

Stearine. — These are made of the stear- 
ine of stearic acid, obtained from tallow, 
in the same way as other molded candles. 
They furnish a superior light, and bum 
a long time. Several years ago it was a 
general practice for the manufacturer to 
add a little arsenious acid (white arsenic) 
to the stearine, to prevent it crystalliz- 
ing, and thus spoiling the appearance of 
the candle ; but owing to the spirited way 
in which this rascality was exposed by 



(Candles) 



the press, it has been discontinued by all 
the respectable houses. 

Tallow. — 1. — To make hard tallow can- 
dles, use a mixture of mutton tallow, 10 
oz. ; camphor, i/^ oz. ; beeswax, 4 oz. ; 
alum, 2 oz. 

2. — Coating with a Hard Substance 
which Will Not Crack. — Dip the candles 
successively into the following three mix- 
tures : 

a. — White rosin, 4 parts ; good tallow, 
88 parts ; camphor, 6 parts ; stearic acid, 
20 parts ; dammar rosin, 2 parts. Melt. 

b. — Tallow, 48 parts ; camphor, 6 
parts ; stearic acid, 20 parts ; white pitch, 
4 parts ; dammar rosin, 10 parts. Melt 
together. 

c. — Stearic acid, 20 parts ; white wax, 
4 parts ; tallow, 10 parts ; camphor, 6 
parts. Melt. 

3. — Hardening. — Dip first in the fol- 
lowing: Stearic acid, 50 parts; tallow, 
44 parts; camphor, 3 parts; white rosin, 
2 parts ; gum dammar, 1 part. When 
hard, dip in other solution, which con- 
sists of stearic acid, 70 parts ; tallow, 24 
parts ; camphor, 3 parts ; white wax, 2 
parts ; gum dammar, 1 part. For a final 
coating, dip in stearic acid, 90 parts ; tal- 
low, 5 parts ; camphor, 3 parts ; white 
wax, 2 parts. 

Trickling of Burning Candles, To Pre- 
vent. — For the purpose of obviating this 
evil it is recommended to dip the candles 
into the following mixture : Magnesium 
sulphate, 15 parts ; dextrine, 15 parts ; 
water, 100 parts. The solution dries 
quickly, and does not affect the burning 
of the candle. 

Waw Candles. — 1. — These are made 
either by pouring melted wax over the 
wick or by applying the wax in a soft 
state, with the hands, and afterward roll- 
ing it smooth with a roller of polished 
boxwood, upon a table formed of polished 
walnut wood. They are then cut and 
trimmed. The first part of this process 
is usually conducted over cisterns of melt- 
ed wax, and the wicks are strung upon 
an iron hoop suspended from the ceiling. 

2. — Imitation Wax Candles. — To tal- 
low, purified by throwing powdered quick- 
lime in it when melted, add 1 part of wax 
to 1-3 part tallow. This makes a beauti- 
ful candle, resembling wax. Put 1 oz. 
of saltpeter and M, lb. of lime in 2 qt. 
of water. Dip the wicks in this. This 
prevents the tallow from running, and 
also improves the light. 

WicTcs. — 1. — Preparing. — To improve 
the light, and prevent the tallow from 
running, use the following preparation : 

a. — Steep the wicks in a solution of 



[798] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Soaps) 



lime water to wihich saltpeter has been 
added in the proportion of IV2 gal. of 
water, 3 oz. of saltpeter and % lb. of 
lime. Dry the wicks before using. 

b. — Borax, 3 oz. ; calcium chloride, salt- 
peter, chloride ammonium, each 1^^ oz 
dissolve in 4^2 qt. of water, and filter, 
Soak the wicks in this solution, then dry 

c. — Soak the wick in one of the follow 
ing : Boracic acid, 2 lb. ; water, 10 gal 

d. — Boracic acid, 8 lb. ; sulphuric acid. 
5 lb. ; water, 100 gal. In these baths 
the wicks are soaked for a few hours in 
the cold. 

e. — Ammonium chloride, 2 lb. ; sodium 
nitrate, 2 lb. ; water, 200 gal. The wicks 
are soaked in this solution for from 10 
to 15 minutes, at the boil, and then dried 
at 40 to 50° C. 

f. — Phosphoric acid, 2 lb. ; water, 400 
gal. The wicks are soaked in a hot solu- 
tion for about 10 minutes. Some makers 
use two baths. The first bath consists of 
sulphuric acid mixed with 100 times its 
weight of water. Ajfter 24 hours in this, 
the wicks are dried at a low temperature 
and put into a bath consisting of 25 lb. 
of boracic acid, 18 lb. of sulphate of am- 
monia, and 100 gal. of water. The wicks 
are then dried in a warm room. 
^ 2. — Snuffless Wicks. — The great objec- 
tion to tallow candles is the frequent ne- 
cessity for removing the snuff, or charred 
wick, which rises into the body of the 
flame and obscures the light. If the wick 
can be exposed to the air it will be en- 
tirely consumed. 

a. — This is done in composite candles 
by plaiting the cotton into a flat wick, 
which, as it burns, curves over. Some- 
times a very fine wire is included in the 
wick, which is usually dipped in a solu- 
tion of borax. 

b. — Twist the wick with one strand 
shorter than the others, which will bend 
the wick slightly when the fat melts. 

The manufacture of candles is treated 
of in our Scientific American Supplement, 
Nos. 947, 1274, 1287 and 1389. 

SOAPS 

1. — Powdered Castile soap, 7 oz. ; pow- 
dered borax, 2 oz. ; pumice stone, fine 
powder, li/^ oz. ; tripoli, 1 oz. ; Spanish 
whiting, 9 oz. ; solution of carmine, q. s. 
to color ; oil of sassafras, q. s., % dr. ; 
water, q. s. to make a thick paste. Mix, 
and keep in airtight retainers. 

2. — Fluid extract of quillaja, 2 oz. ; 
borax, 1 oz. ; fuller's earth, 1 oz. ; soft 
soap, 12 oz. water, enough. Rub the 
borax with the fluid extract, and add the 
fuller's earth. When these have been 



(Ammonia Soaps) 



thoroughly mixed, incorporate with the 
soft soap, adding a little water, if neces- 
sary, and perfume, if desired. 

Alabaster Soap, White. — Stearine, 6^/2 
lb. ; cocoanut oil, 11 lb. ; glycerine, 6i/^ 
lb. ; lye of 38° B., 9 lb. ; alcohol of 96%, 
13 lb. The stearine and cocoanut oil 
sihould be saponified by heating with the 
lye to 178° F., then the alcohol should 
be added. When these combine, add the 
glycerine. After the soap becomes clear 
let it cool to 133° F., when it may be 
put in the frames. Perfume with 2 oz. 
of oil of bergamot, ^ oz. of oil of ger- 
anium, 7 dr. of oil of neroli and ^^ oz. 
of oil of lemon. 

Almond Soap. — 1. — Oil of almonds, by 
weight, 21 oz. ; solution of caustic soda 
(sp. gr. 1.334), by weight, 10 oz. Add 
the lye to the oil in small portions, stir- 
ring frequently. Leave the mixture for 
some days at a temperature of from 64 
to 68° F., stirring occasionally, and when 
it has acquired the consistency of soft 
paste put it into molds till suflSciently so- 
lidified. It sihould be exposed to the air 
for 1 or 2 months before using. 

2. — Bitter Almond Soap. — a. — Pure 
white soap, 10 kgm. ; oil of bitter al- 
monds, 120 grams. Not colored. 

b. — White tallow soap, 56 lb. ; oil of 
almonds, % lb. For inferior kinds, nitro 
benzol is employed instead of oil of al- 
monds. 

c. — Best white tallow soap, % cwt. ; 
essence of bitter almonds, 10 oz. ; as soap 
a la rose. Very fine. 

d. — White curd soap, 100 lb. ; oil of 
bitter almonds, 20 oz. 

Ammonia. — 1. — Ammonia soap (or am- 
moniacal soap) is prepared by adding to 
hot oleic acid, stronger ammonia water 
until the odor of ammonia remains per- 
ceptible and the mass assumes a translu- 
cent, jellylike appearance. 

2. — Capsicum, 4 oz. ; mustard seed, 1 
oz. ; diluted alcohol, enough to make 8 
oz. ; olive oil, 19 oz. ; ammonia water, 1 
oz. ; distilled water, 4 oz. Macerate the 
capsicum and the mustard seed in 8 oz. 
of diluted alcohol for 10 days ; filter, and 
add sufficient diluted alcohol to bring the 
volume of the filtrate up to 8 oz. Mix 
this with the other ingredients, and shake 
well. 

3. — A soap is first formed in the usual 
way from the following ingredients : 
Stearic acid, 8 parts ; cocoanut oil, 4 
parts ; potash and soda, of each 1 part ; 
water, 6 parts. The soap, when cold, is 
cut into shavings, which are then placed 
in a retort, in which they are subjected 
to the action of gaseous ammonia at a 



[ 799 J 



Soaps and Candles 



(Borax Soap) 



pressure of 15 lb. per square inch, un-til 
the soap has become thoroughly impreg- 
nated with it. 

4, — Parts by weight : Oil of sweet al- 
monds, 8 ; ammonia, 1. 

5. — Parts by weight : Grease soap, 30 ; 
alcohol, 250 ; ammonia, 8. The soap, 
scraped into shreds, is dissolved in the 
alcohol, and the ammonia is added. 

AUar of Rose. — (See Otto of Rose.) 

Beef Marrow Soap. — To 500 lb. of beef 
marrow add 250 lb. of caustic soda lye of 
36° B., stir constantly and gently, and 
heat the mass till it becomes soluble in 
water. In this state dilute with 2,000 
parts of boiling water, and pour in 1,000 
parts of brine (containing 180 parts of 
common salt), with constant stirring. 
After allowing some time for repose, pour 
into the frames, and leave for a day or 
two to set thoroughly. 

Benzoin Soap. — 1. — Saponify 32 kgm. of 
prime Cochin cocoanut oil with 16 kgm. 
of soda lye of 40° B., in the ordinary 
way. Perfume with 2 kgm. of tincture 
of benzoin (1 part of benzoin to 6 parts 
of rectified spirits). Add, and distribute 
well, 300 c.c. of secuna earth. 

2. — White curd soap, 40 lb. ; tincture of 
benzoin, 54 oz. The soap must be in the 
form of a very stiff paste, otherwise the 
tincture of benzoin will render it rather 
soft. Brown ooher may be used as the 
coloring agent. 

Bergamot Soap. — Cocoanut oil, 4 lb. ; 
lard, 1 lb. ; soda lye, of 40°, 2y2 lb. Per- 
fume with bergamot oil, 1 oz. ; oil of ger- 
anium, 2% dr. 

Black Soap, or Farrier's Soap. — This 
is a coarse kind of soft soap, made from 
fish oils and caustic potash ; sometimes 
tar is added. Besides the substances 
above named, iodine, bromide, creosote, 
and many other chemical substances, have 
been employed for making what are some- 
times termed skin soaps, but they are all 
prepared in much the same way as above 
indicated. This is properly a crude soft 
soap made of fresh oil, tallow and pot- 
ash ; but the following mixture is usually 
sold for it : Soft soap. 7 lb. : train oil, 
1 lb. ; water, 1 gal. ; boil to a proper con- 
sistency, adding ivory black or powdered 
charcoal to color. 

Borax Soap. — The marked cleansing 
powers of borax have been long recog- 
nized, as well as its utility in restoring 
health and vigor to the diseased epider- 
mis. The soap has already been consid- 
erably employed as a toilet remedy for 
itching, freckles and eruption, as well as 
for securing a clear and healthy com- 
plexion. At the same time it forms a 



(Bubble Liquids) 



splendid shampooing soap, cleansing the 
hair from excess of fat, from dandruff, 
etc., in a thorough and expeditious man- 
ner. 

1. — Borax, 250 ; dry soap, 250 ; calcined 
soda, 1,000. 

2. — Curd soap, in powder, 5 parts ; soda 
ash, 3 parts ; silicate of soda, 2 parts ; 
crude borax, 1 part. Each ingredient is 
thoroughly dried, and all mixed together 
by sifting. 

Bouquet. — Savon au Bouquet. — 1. — 
This soap is prepared from the following: 
Wihite curd soap, 60 lb. ; olive-oil soap, 
40 lb. ; perfume with oil of bergamot, 13 
oz. ; oil of neroli, 1^ oz. ; oil of cloves, 
sassafras and thyme, each 1^ oz. Color 
with brown ocher, 22 lb. 

2. — Best tallow soap, 30 lb. ; essence of 
bergamot, 4 oz. ; oils of cloves, sassafras 
and thyme, of each 1 oz. ; pure neroli, % 
oz. ; finely powdered brown ocher, 7 oz. 
Mix as last. Very fine. 

3. — White tallow or lard soap, 10 kgm. 
Perfume with oil of bergamot, 15 grams ; 
neroli, 15 grams; sassafras, 10 grams; 
thyme, 10 grams. Color with brown 
ocher, 100 grams. The oil of neroli may 
be replaced by oil of lavender, and oil of 
cloves, 10 grams, may also be added. 

Bran Soap. — Add to good soap from 2 
to 4% of bran. 

Bubble Liquid. — 1. — White hard soap, 
25 parts ; glycerine, 15 parts ; water, 
1,000 parts. 

2. — Dry Castile soap, 1 part ; glycerine, 
15 parts ; water, 20 parts. 

3. — Palm soap, 1 part ; glycerine, 8 
parts ; water, 8 parts. 

4. — Procure a quart bottle of clear 
glass and some of the best white Castile 
soap (or, better still, pure palm-oil soap). 
Cut the soap (about 4 oz.) into thin shav- 
ings, and having put them into the bot- 
tle, fill it up with distilled or rain water, 
and shake it well together. Repeat the 
shaking until you get a saturated solution 
of soap. If, on standing, the solution 
settles perfectly clear, you are prepared 
for the next step ; if not, pour off the 
liquid and add more water to the same 
shavings, and shake as before. The sec- 
ond trial will hardly fail to give you a 
clear solution. Then add to 2 volumes 
of soap solution 1 volume of pure con- 
centrated glycerine. Grand soap bubbles 
can be blown with this preparation. 

5. — Take olive-oil soai) (genuine white 
Castile), cut it into thin shavings, and 
dry thoroughly. Dissolve these shavings 
in alcohol until the alcohol is saturated. 
The solution should show a sp. gr. of 
0.88. 



[800] 



Soups and Candles 



(Castor-Oil Soap) 



Mix glycerine with water until it shows 
a density of 17.1° B. To 6.102 cu. in. 
of solution 3 add 1.52 cu. in. of solution 
2, and boil until the alcohol is all ex- 
pelled — until the temperature rises above 
212°. Cool, and turn into a graduated 
flask, and add water to make the volume 
6.102 cu. in. Filter, if necessary, to re- 
move oleate of lime. 

Camphor Soap. — 1, — Stir together 50 
kgm. of prime cocoanut oil and 25 kgm. 
of soda lye of from 38 to 40° B., at 43 
to 44° C. (110 to 114° F.). Add 1.5 
kgm. of camphor, dissolved in alcohol or 
oil, 500 grams of kiimmel oil, and 500 
grams of oil of rosemary. Stir well in. 

2.— Tallow curd soap, 50 lb. ; oil of 
rosemary, 2% lb. ; camphor, 2}4 lb- Pow- 
der the camphor by triturating it with 
some almond oil, and sift. When the 
soap is ready to put in the frame add the 
camphor and rosemary oil. 

3. — Spermaceti, 4 oz. ; melt it by a gen- 
tle heat ; add camphor, cut small, 2 oz. ; 
and when dissolved, add the mixture to 
white curd soap, 6^ lb. 

Carbolic- Acid Soap. — Half palm soap, 
20 lb. ; starch, 1 lb. ; carbolic acid in crys- 
tals, 1 oz. ; oil of lavender, 2 oz. ; oil of 
cloves, 1 oz. The carbolic acid is added 
to the soap in a melted state, and thor- 
oughly incorporated. 

Carpet Soap. — Fuller's earth, 4 oz. ; 
spirits of turpentine, 1 oz. ; p«arlash, 8 
oz. Rub smooth, and make into a stiff 
paste with a suflBciency of soft soap. 

Castile, White. — 1. — Olive oil, 40 
parts ; ground suet, 30 parts ; tallow, 30 
parts. 

2.— Olive oil, 30 parts ; lard, 30 parts ; 
palm-nut oil, 40 parts. 

3. — Olive oil, 30 parts ; cotton-seed oil, 
30 parts ; tallow oil, 40 parts. 

4. — Palm oil (bleached), 50 parts; 
sesame oil, 20 parts ; tallow, 30 parts. 

Castor-Oil Soap. — This soap, prepared 
as below, is said by Mr. Hammer to an- 
swer best for preparing soap liniment 
(linimentum saponis co.) : Saponify 2 
pt. of castor oil with 6 oz. of caustic 
potash and 2 pt. of water, by heating un- 
til a transparent mixture is obtained ; 
then add a saturated solution of 8 oz. 
of chloride of sodium, stir until cool, al- 
low to subside for a day, decant the li- 
quid portion, cut in pieces, and dry for 
use. 

Celluloid, Polished Horn, etc.. Soap for. 
— ^Boil together 20 parts of cocoanut oil 
and 10 parts of soda lye, of 40° B., un- 
til the oil is thoroughly saponified. Re- 
move from the fire, let cool down some- 
what, and add 15 parts of finely pow- 



(Cold- Water Soap) 



dered and levigated rotten stone, and 
stir in thoroughly. If it is desired to 
perfume the soap, add sufficient oil of lav- 
ender, or, better, of a mixture of 6 parts 
of oil of lavender, 6 parts of oil of thyme, 
and 4 parts of oil of rosemary. For the 
finer class of goods, jewelers' rouge should 
be substituted for rotten stone, unless the 
latter be ground excessively fine. 

Chemical. — Powdered fuller's earth, % 
oz. ; just moisten with spirits of turpen- 
tine, and add salts of tartar, ^^ oz. ; best 
potash, % oz. ; work the whole into a 
paste with a little soap. It is excellent 
for removing grease spots. 

Chlorinated Soap. — Powdered Castile 
soap, 11 oz., and dry chloride of lime, 
1 oz., are beaten into a mass with suffi- 
cient rectified spirit, holding in solution 
oil of verbena, or ginger grass, ^ oz. 
The mass is then formed into flat tab- 
lets, and wrapped in thin sheets of gutta 
percha. 

Cinnamon Soap. — White curd soap, 60 
lb. ; palm-oil soap, 40 lb. Color with 2 
lb. of yellow ocher and perfume with oil 
of cinnamon, 14 oz. ; oil of sassafras, 21^4 
oz. ; oil of bergamot, 2^2. oz. 

Citron Soap. — Curd soap, 6 lb. ; otto 
citron zestes, % lb. ; otto of verbena 
(lemon grass), % oz. ; otto of bergamot, 
4 oz. ; otto of lemon, 2 oz. 

Cocoanut-Oil Soap. — Put 50 lb. of co- 
coanut oil and 50 lb. of caustic soda lye, 
of 27° B., into a soap kettle ; boil and 
mix thoroughly for 1 to 2 hours, until 
the paste gradually thickens ; then dimin- 
ish the heat, but continue stirring until 
the cooling paste assumes a white, half- 
solid mass ; then transfer quickly to the 
frames. A mixture of equal parts of co- 
coanut oil and tallow will make a very 
fine filled soap. Cocoanut oil, mixed with 
almost any fats, if they are not in too 
large proportions, will produce filled soaps. 

Cod Liver Oil Soap. — Cod liver oil, 2 
oz. ; caustic soda, 2 dr. ; water, 5 dr. ; dis- 
solve the soda in the water and mix it 
with the oil. 

Cold Cream Soap. — Spermaceti soap, 
25 lb. ; white soap, 37% lb. ; caustic pot- 
ash, 6°, 11/4 lb. ; gum tragacanth, 2^4 
oz. ; oil of almonds, % lb. Shred the 
soap, put in the hopper of the mill, dis- 
solve the gum in a little water, and mix 
with the lye and oil. Add this to the 
soap, and grind. Perfume with oil of 
bitter almonds, ly^ oz. ; oil of cloves, 1% 
oz. ; oil of bergamot, 6^4 oz. 

Cold-Water Soap. — Cocoanut oil, 35 
parts ; rosin. 32 parts ; soda lye, 36° B., 
33 parts. Oil and rosin are heated to 
about 122° F. and the lye quickly stirred 



[801] 



Soaps and Candles 






( Dry-Oleaning Soap) 



in. In making up large quantities, higher 
temperatures are advantageous. The con- 
siderable proportion of free alkali is add- 
ed purposely to increase the detergent or 
washing power. 

Colored Fabrics. — Fabrics dyed with 
sensitive colors are injured when washed 
with the laundry soaps ordinarily found 
on the market. A good cleansing mate- 
rial for such fabrics is furnished by a 
mixture consisting of 10 parts of extract 
of soap bark, 10 parts of borax, 30 parts 
of oxgall and 50 parts of Marseilles soap. 
In some cases, a more efficient soap is 
obtained by mixing 30 parts of stronger 
ammonia water, 40 parts of olein and 
500 parts of water. Before either of these 
remedies is applied a preliminary trial 
should be made with a lukewarm solution 
of a soap absolutely free from alkali. 

Copper and Iron Soaps. — These are 
used to give plaster articles the appear- 
ance of antique green bronze or Floren- 
tine bronze, and are made by decompos- 
ing an alkaline soap with a solution of 
sulphate of copper or of sulphate of iron. 
They are soluble in fatty oils, and espe- 
cially so in turpentine. 

Cream Soap. — Take white, soft, lard 
potash soap, recent, but moderately firm, 
and beat in small portions at a time, in 
a marble mortar, until it forms a white 
homogeneous mass ; add sufficient essen- 
tial oil of almonds, supported with a lit- 
tle oil of bergamot, or of cassia, put in 
during the pounding. 

Croton Soap. — From croton oil and li- 
quor of potassa, equal parts ; triturated 
together in a warm mortar until they 
combine. 

Deodorizing Fat for Slaking Perfumed 
Soap.— Boil 80 lb. of fat with 28 lb. of 
water containing 5 oz. of common salt, 
and 2% oz. of powdered alum. Boil for 
10 minutes. Strain off the water, and let 
the fat remain several hours before using. 

Disinfecting Soap (Jeye's Improved.) — > 
Gas tar is distilled and the light oil re- 
jected ; 16 parts of the heavier oil, 32 
parts of cocoanut oil and 16 parts of 
caustic soda at 35" B., are saponified in 
a^ jacketed pan, with or without the addi- 
tion of rosin and sodium sulphate and 
carbonate. (See also Naphtha Soap.) 

Dry-cleaning Soap. — Soaps soluble in 
benzine are employed for the dual pur- 
pose of assisting the cleaning process and 
to minimize the risk of fire. The fol- 
lowing quantities give satisfactory re- 
sults, parts by weight: Oleic acid, 5: 
caustic potash, 1 ; dissolved in methylated 
spirit, 4. These quantities are arranged 
to produce a slightly superfatted soan 



(Extract of Soap) 



freely soluble in benzine. By increasing 
the quantity of oleic acid the solubilitv 
of the soap in benzine is increased. For 
brushing on the slab, an ordinary hard 
oil soap may be employed, green olive-oil 
soap being perhaps the most satisfactory. 
A brush dipped in benzine, and rubbed on 
a bar of this soap, dissolves enough to 
produce a plentiful lather when brushing 
the goods. When a solid or semisolid 
benzine soap is employed — e.g., Saponine 
— it is usual to make a stock solution (a 
5 or 10% solution by weight) and to 
add the necessary amount of the stock 
to the machine. For use in the Barbe 
process, neutral soaps must be employed, 
those containing free acid being found to 
attack the galvanized fittings at the tem- 
perature to which the machine is raised. 

Egg-Yolk Soap. — Cocoanut oil, 8 lb. ; 
tallow, 8 lb. ; yolks of 50 eggs added to 
olive oil, q. s. to make 4 lb. ; soda lye, 
38° B., 8 2-5 lb. Perfume with oil of 
lemon, 2 oz. ; oil of cloves, ^ oz. ; oil of 
sassafras, 1^ oz. Color pale yellow. 
Good for the complexion. 

Elder Flower Soap. — Half-palm soap, 
100 lb. ; dextrine, 3 lb. Perfume with oil 
of bergamot, 8 oz. ; oil of lavender, 2 oz. ; 
oil of thyme, 2 oz. ; oil of cloves, 1 oz. ; 
oil of cassia, % oz. ; oil of almonds, % 
oz. Color light green. 
^ Essence of Soap. — Under this title va- 
rious preparations are made, but they 
are all^ solutions of soap in warm alco- 
hol, with, generally, the addition of a 
small quantity of potash. Soaps made 
from vegetable oils are preferred, because 
they remain clear and liquid when cold, 
whereas those prepared from animal fats 
become solid in cooling. Dussauce gives 
the following formula for preparing this 
soap: White Marseilles soap, 6*4 oz. : 
alcohol at 85", 1 qt. : potash, 6 dr. Cut 
the soap into fine shavings, and put them 
i^to a bottle holding about % gal. (a 
Winchester bottle would suit admirably) : 
add the alcohol and potash, and heat gent- 
ly, without boiling, over a water bath: 
stir with a glass rod. When the solution 
is complete take it out of the water bath 
and add the essences. A very sweet per- 
fume may be given to this " preparation 
bv adding to it oil of geranium, ly^ dr. : 
oil of verbena, 2*/^ dr. To color yellow, 
add 2^4 dr. of saffron. This essence con- 
tinues limpid at the ordinary tempera- 
ture. To use it, pour a little into ^ 
tumblerful of water, and stir quickly. 

Extract of Soap. — Soap, 14.8 parts ; 
anhydrous soda, 30 parts; water, 55 
parts. Manufactured from soda crystals 
find soda soap. 



[802 1 



Soaps and Candles 



(Floating Soaps) 



Floating Soaps. — 1. — Floating soaps 
can be prepared according to various 
methods, of which two will suffice — the 
preparation from fresh materials and the 
preparation from trimmings from cocoa- 
nut-oil soap. This latter will probably 
give a very welcome opportunity to many 
manufacturers to advantageously dispose 
of the heaps of trimmings often left over. 
The following is a formula for preparing 
a white floating soap from fresh mate- 
rials. The color of the soap will, of 
course, depend largely on the quality of 
the oil used, Cocoanut oil, 88 lb. ; soda 
lye, 38° B., 46.2 lb. ; potash lye, 2.5° B., 
2.2 lb. Melt the cocoanut oil in the usual 
manner, filter into capacious jacketed ket- 
tle, or one placed in a water bath, and 
heat to about 122° F. Then add the lye, 
stir well for about 10 minutes, and then 
cover up the kettle. Allow to saponify, 
and then thoroughly stir again. The soap 
will now have the appearance of fine 
woolly grains. In the foregoing process 
but little fire or steam is necessary. 
Twenty-two pounds of well warmed cal- 
cium chloride solution of 20° B., and 88 
lb. of hot water, are now gradually added, 
with constant stirring, to the curd in the 
kettle. The soap is worked up thoroughly 
to complete solution, but very little heat 
is required, as it is not necessary to make 
the soap boil. After obtaining complete 
solution, take a lye cylinder full of the 
soap solution from the kettle, allow it to 
cool to 77° F., and sink a lye hydrometer 
in the liquid, when this will indicate a 
density of BO'' B. This particular de- 
gree^ will yield a floating soap having a 
medium weight. The soan solution is then 
allowed to cool to 77° F., and a stirring 
kettle filled abnnt one-third full with the 
cooled soap. This aqueous fluid mass is 
then stirred vigorously until transformed 
to a stiff foam, ar>d is then put into the 
flames at once. The prescribed temnera- 
ture of 77° F. must be carefully adhered 
to, for if heated to a higher tempera- 
ture, sav 100° F., or over, much more 
time will be required to work un the li- 
quid into a permanent foam, and through 
the long stirring the foam would be so 
puffed out that the resulting soap would 
be too light. On the contrary, if allowed 
to cool too much, the soap obtained will 
be too heavy, because the formation of 
the foam takes place too rapidly, and the 
soap is not allowed suflBcient time to swell 
in the kettle. Floating soap should not 
be dried in a warm room nor in a drying 
oven, as, if this is done, the soap will 
shrink a great deal and become fissured. 
It is better to allow the entire block. fl« 



(French Soaps) 



it comes out of the form, to stand for 
several weeks in an. airy, light place, then 
cut into tables, allow them to dry for sev- 
eral days, and then cut up into bars or 
cakes. 

2. — 'Another process, that of making 
floating soap from trimmings, is quite sim- 
ple. For instance, place 220 lb. of the 
trimmings or scraped from cocoanut-oil 
soap in a jacketed kettle or on a water 
bath. To dissolve this, about 33 lb. of 
potassium chloride solution of 20° B., and 
about 132 to 154 lb. of water, should be 
added^ to the scraps in the kettle, the 
quantity of solution and water required 
being, of course, dependent on the degree 
to which the scraps have dried out. Con- 
siderable heat is applied at first, and the 
scraps diligently broken up to facilitate 
their solution. Strips and cubes of soap 
should have previously been passed 
through a planing machine. When very 
old, dry scraps are used, it will frequently 
prove very difficult to effect their solution. 
In this case, solution can be accelerated 
by strewing over the above quantity of 
soap from 2 to 4% lb. of salt. 

The trimmings of cocoanut-oil soap 
mentioned in the above process should 
not be from filled soap, as such, filled, for 
instance, with water glass and soda crys- 
tals, are not suitable for floating soap. 
The material used for filling renders the 
soap brittle and coarse, and when cut and 
planed the surfaces of the bars and cakes 
do not become smooth. When used in too 
large quantities, salt causes the same re- 
sult in floating soaps. These filling so- 
lutions have also an influence when meas- 
uring the degree of density of the soap 
solution. 

Frangipani. — Curd soap, previously 
colored pink, 7 lb. ; civet, % oz. ; otto of 
neroli. Mi oz. ; otto of santal, l^/^ oz. ; 
otto of rose, i/i oz. ; otto of vitivert, V2 
oz. 

French Formulce.—The following for- 
mulae represent some of the fatty com- 
binations used m different localities in 
France in the manufacture of soap : 

1. — Olive oil, B'75 lb.; earth nut oil, 
B75 lb.; lard, 900 lb.; total, 2,250 lb. 
This produces a white, odorless soap. 

2.— Bleached palm oil, 1,575 lb. ; oil of 
sesame. 450 lb. ; white tallow, 225 lb. ; to- 
tal, 2.2.50 lb. Produces a very hard soap, 
of good quality, but not so white as the 
above. It turns slightly yellow by keep- 
ing. 

.^. — Olive oil. 4.50 lb. : white tallow, 
1..^50 lb.; earth nut oil. 450 lb.; total, 
2,250 lb. This is considered to form a 
veiy good soap, and superior to that of 



[ 803 ] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Glycerine Soap) 



Marseilles, but, unfortunately, it has a 
faint smell of tallow, which restricts its 
use in domestic economy. 

4. — Olive oil, 675 lb. ; cocoanut oil, 225 
lb. ; lard, 675 lb. ; tallow, 675 lb. ; total, 
2,250 lb. This formula makes a good 
white soap, but the presence of cocoanut 
oil gives the soap a disagreeable odor, al- 
though it improves its lathering proper- 
ties. 

Frost Soap. — Ceylon cocoanut oil, 20 
kgm. ; soda lye, 38° B., 9 kgm. ; camphor, 
1 kgm. Dissolved in 96% spirit, 21/2 1. ; 
flowers of sulphur, 1 kgm. ; potash lye, 
39° B., 1 kgm. 

Glycerine Soap. — 1. — Melt any mild 
soap, and mix glycerine intimately with 
it, in the proportion of 1-20 to 1-25 of the 
weight of the soap, to form plain glycer- 
ine soap. Perfume with oil of bergamot 
or rose geranium, mixed with a little oil 
of cassia, to which sometimes a little oil 
of bitter almonds may be added. 

2. — Mutton tallow, 44 lb. ; cocoanut oil, 
44 lb. ; castor oil, 22 lb. ; pure glycerine, 
22 lb.; caustic lye, 40° B., 27 lb.; 96° 
alcohol, 48.4 lb.; water, 9.9 lb. Melt 
the grease at 104° F„ and add the alkali 
by slow degrees, keeping the heat low to 
prevent evaporation, and stir constantly. 
When the lye has become absorbed, after 
3 or 4 hours' stirring, add the alcohol, 
which should be warmed ; stir until it 
becomes clear, then add the glycerine, and 
when mixed the water and perfume. 

3. — Lilac-Glycerine Soap. — Cochin co- 
coanut oil, 67 kgm. ; compressed tallow, 
31 kgm. ; castor oil, 35 kgm. ; caustic soda 
lye, 39° B., 66 kgm. ; sugar, 40 kgm. Dis- 
solve in water, 40 kgm. ; alcohol, 30 kgm. ; 
methyl violet, 2 grams ; terpineol, 1,200 
grams ; coumarin, 20 grams ; artificial 
musk, 10 grams ; ylang-ylang oil, 20 
grams ; geranium oil, 35 grams ; civet 
tincture, 100 grams. 

4. — Liquid Glycerine Soap. — a. — Oleic 
acid, 187 lb. ; cocoanut oil, best, 33 lb. ; 
potash lye, 35° B., 114 lb.; glycerine, 10 
lb. The ingredients are saponified at a 
gentle heat, and suflScient alcohol at 95° 
added to make the soap clear. 

b. — Castile soap, 200 parts ; potassium 
carbonate, 5 parts ; glycerine, 300 parts ; 
alcohol, 500 parts. To the solution made 
from the above add 200 parts of alcohol, 
filter, and add 2 parts of oil of bergamot 
or lemon. 

e. — Soft soap, 650 parts ; glycerine, 270 
parts ; alcohol, 100 parts ; oil of bitter 
almonds, 40 drops per liter. 

d. — Spirit of soap and glycerine, of 
each 50 parts ; oil of bergamot, 30 drops 
per liter. 



(Glycerine Soap) 



e. — Olein, 500 parts ; alcohol, 100 parts ; 
potash lye, 33 1-3%, 280 parts; potash 
carbonate, 50 parts ; glycerine, 1,570 
parts ; water, 100 parts. Place the olein, 
alcohol and potash lye in a glass, and 
warm on a water bath for half an hour, 
agitating frequently. Add the potassium 
carbonate, dissolved in the water, and 
continue the heat until a sample of the 
soap is perfectly soluble in hot water. 
Now warm the glycerine, and mix with 
the soap ; allow it to stand for several 
days in a cool place, filter, and finally add 
any desired perfume. 

5. — Spike-Glycerine Soap. — Cochin co- 
coanut oil, 70 kgm. ; compressed tallow, 
40 kgm. ; castor oil, 70 kgm. ; caustic sodf 
lye, 38° B., 70 kgm.; sugar, 40 kgm. 
Dissolved in water, 40 kgm. ; alcohol, 41 
kgm. ; patchouli oil, 100 grams ; lavender 
oil, 400 grams ; spike oil, 200 grams ; 
geranium oil, African, 100 grams; Pal- 
marosa oil, 100 grams. 

6. — Transparent Glycerine Soap. — a. — 
Fresh tallow, 20 lb., and best cocoanut oil, 
10 lb., are heated at 167° F. On the 
other hand, 15 lb. of solution of caustic 
soda, 40° B., or sp. gr. 1.384, 12 lb. of 
96% alcohol, 15 lb. of glycerine, 6 lb. of 
brown sugar and 2 lb. of water are mixed, 
likewise heated to 167° F., and the mix- 
ture gradually mixed with the former, un- 
der brisk stirring. Saponification takes 
place in this manner, without the neces- 
sity^ of boiling. The reaction is accom- 
panied by a considerable increase in bulk. 
It may then be covered, and after it has 
become a little cooler, it may be scented ; 
finally, it is transferred to molds, which 
must be so placed that the soap cannot 
congeal quickly. 

b. — Dry bar soap, 100 lb., to be heated 
and melted ; then pour in 25 lb. or more 
of melted sal soda. Agitate together at 
a low heat. Then add 100 to 125 lb. of 
glycerine; agitate, keeping up a moderate 
heat. Let settle ; draw off into molds or 
soap frames. When cold, cut into bars 
and cakes. 

7. — Violet-Glycerine Soap. — Cochin co- 
coanut oil, 66 kgm. ; compressed tallow, 
31 kgm. ; castor oil, 35 kgm. ; caustic 
soda lye, 38° B., 66 kgm.; sugar, 35 
kgm. Dissolved in water, 30 kgm. ; alco- 
hol, 40 kgm. ; brown, No. 120, 160 grams ; 
bergamot oil, 450 grams ; iris oil, 70 
grams ; Peru balsam, 450 grams ; tincture 
of benzoin, 3,500 grams ; tincture of musk, 
200 grams ; terpineol, 210 grams ; vanil- 
lin, 10 grams. 

Grease. To Preserve. — ^To preserve soap 
grease, fill a cask half full of good strong 



[804] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Industrial Soaps) 



lye, and drop all refuse grease therein. 
Stir up the mixture once a week. 

Honey Soap. — 1. — Curd soap, 900 
parts ; potash soap, 100 parts ; oil of cit- 
ronella, 15 parts. Melt together, and add 
a sufficient quantity of burnt sugar col- 
oring to produce a light brown color. 
If genuine honey soap is wanted, which, 
by the way, is seldom found in the mar- 
ket, 100 parts of clarified honey may be 
substituted for the potash soap. 

2. — White Marseilles soap, 4 oz. ; 
honey, 4 oz. ; benzoin, 1 oz. ; storax, ^ 
oz. Mix well in a marble mortar. When 
thoroughly mixed, melt over a water bath, 
pass through a fine sieve, and run into 
molds. Divide into cakes. 

3. — The article commercially vended 
under this name rarely contains any 
honey. It may be prepared as follows : 
Palm-oil soap and olive oil, of each 1 
part ; curd soap, 3 parts ; melt together. 
Perfume with oil of verbena, rose ger- 
anium or ginger grass. 

Industrial Soaps. — Industry uses an 
enormous quantity of diverse sorts of 
soaps in the fulling of woolens, in the 
dyeing and printing of textiles, the scour- 
ing of fleeces, etc. Some of these have 
a soda base, others one of potash ; the lat- 
ter is to be preferred, as it gives the goods 
a silky feel, whereas soda, on the other 
hand, makes them somewhat harsh to han- 
dle. These soaps are sometimes made 
with oleic acid, sometimes with olive oil ; 
the former are often the most alkaline, 
but this is because all necessary precau- 
tions in their manufacture have not been 
taken. Still, all soaps intended to be 
used industrially should be absolutely 
pure and neutral, as an excess of potash 
or of soda is harmful to the majority 
of textiles. As for foreign matters, they 
are equally hurtful, even rosin and sili- 
cate of soda, which can be employed so 
usefully for household soaps. The for- 
mer of these articles gives to woolens, 
silk or cotton stuffs a shiny and greasy 
look that is unfavorable to the mordant- 
ing, dyeing and finishing of the goods. 
Silicate cuts the superficial fibers and 
robs the tissue of strength. For these 
reasons, manufacturers who use soap in 
their business have it analyzed frequent- 
ly, and keep themselves informed concern- 
ing the composition of the particular sorts 
they purchase, so that they generally get 
them pure. 

1. — Fulling Soap. — Used for cleansing 
and scouring woolen fabrics. It is a soft 
soap, of the composition of — 

a. — Fatty acids, 50 ; potash, 11.5 ; wa- 
ter, 38.5. 



(Industrial Soaps) 



b. — Fatty acids, 40 ; potash, 9.5 ; water, 
50.5. It should contain a slight excess 
of alkali, but no rosin, starch or silicate. 

c. — For use in woolen -manufacture, a 
genuine potash oil soap has been found 
in practice superior to all others. Rosin 
gives harshness to the fiber of the wool, 
so must not be used. Soda also injures 
the suppleness of the wool, and should be 
discarded. The natural lubricant of wool, 
called suint, is a kind of potash soap, 
containing a bare trace of soda. Silicates 
also must not be used ; if present, they 
are decomposed in the process of fulling, 
and deposit free silica, which grates on 
the fiber and injures its luster. 

2.— Silks and Printed Goods.— The late 
Professor Crace-Calvert, of Manchester, 
Eng., to whose indefatigable exertions in 
industrial chemistry manufacturers were 
indebted for much valuable information, 
suggested the following formulae for soaps 
to produce the highest brightening effect 
upon the various shades of color : 

a. — For Madder Purples. — Fatty mat- 
ter, 60.4% ; soda, 5.6% ; water, 34%. 

b. — For Madder Pinks. — Fatty matter, 
59.23%; soda, 6.77%; water, 34%. 

c. — For bleaching raw silk, white olive- 
oil soap is used on the Continent. 

d. — Oleic acid, saponified by potash lye, 
is a very suitable fatty material for mak- 
ing soft soap. The first potash lye should 
have a strength equal to about 20° B., 
and the soap may be finished with a 
stronger lye — from 25 to 28°. 

3.— Textile Industries.— a.— Tallow, 80 
lb.; cotton-seed oil, 80 lb.; bone fat, 80 
lb. ; cocoanut oil, 100 lb. ; caustic soda, 
75 lb. ; salt, 32 lb. 

b.— Tallow, 80 lb. ; peanut oil, 120 lb. ; 
bleached linseed oil, 40 lb. ; palm-kernel 
oil, 120 lb. ; caustic soda, 80 lb. ; salt, 36 
lb. 

c. — Cotton-seed oil, 80 lb. ; peanut oil, 
80 lb. ; bone fat, 80 lb. ; palm-kernel oil, 
120 lb. ; caustic soda, 80 lb. ; salt, 35 lb. 

d. — Saponified oleic acid, 100 lb. ; tal- I 
low, 40 lb. ; palm-kernel oil, 60 lb. ; caus- 
tic soda, 40 lb. ; salt, 20 lb. 

e.— Soft Soap.— (1) Tallow, 65 lb.; 
crude palm oil, 10 lb. ; saponified oleic 
acid, 75 lb. ; cotton-seed oil, 40 lb. 
bleached .linseed oil, 10 lb. 

(2) Tallow, 100 lb. ; horse fat, 100 lb. 
saponified oleic acid, 100 lb. ; crude palm 
oil, 20 lb. ; cotton-seed oil, 80 lb. 

(3) Tallow, 8 lb.; bleached palm oil. 
6 lb. ; saponified oleic acid, 14 lb. ; peanut 
oil, 9 lb. ; bleached linseed oil, 3 lb. 

f. — The firm of Trawitz, Dueringer & 
Co., Strassburg, Alsace, manufacture a 
soap for use in the textile industry which 



[805] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Laundry Soaps) 



(Laundry Soaps) 



it is claimed meets the highest require- 
ments, and perfectly replaces the best 
Marseilles soap. This Luetzelburg textile 
soap, as it is named, according to the 
analysis made in the laboratory of the 
Seifensieder Zeitung, contains fatty acid, 
65.2% ; soda, 7.6% ; water, 27.2% ; total, 
100%. The fat is completely saponified, 
and the soap absolutely neutral, and, 
therefore, suitable for any purposes of 
the textile industry. 

Laundry Soaps. — 1. — Labor-saving 
Soap. — To make it, take 2 lb. of sal soda, 
2 lb. of yellow bar soap, 10 qt. of water, 
or in like proportion. Cut the soap into 
thin slices, and boil all together 2 hours, 
and then strain through a cloth into a 
tight box or tub ; let it cool, and it is fit 
for use. Do not let it freeze. To use it, 
put the clothes to soak the night before 
you wash. The next morning put your 
water into your kettle or boiler. To 
every 2 pailfuls of water add about 1 lb. 
of the soap. As soon as the water with 
its dissolved soap begins to boil, wring 
out the clothes from the water in which 
they have been at soak during the night, 
and put them into the boiling water with- 
out any rubbing. Let them boil 1 hour, 
then suds and rinse them, and they will 
be clean and white. They will need no 
rubbing, except a little on such pieces as 
are soiled, and for that no washboard 
will be required. The clothes should be 
rinsed in 2 waters. Colored and woolen 
cloths must not be boiled as above, but 
may be washed in the suds, weakened 
with water. The clothes will last longer 
by the use of this soap, and much labor 
will be saved. Sal soda, 6 lb., bar soap, 
6 lb., and water, 30 qt., will make about 
50 lb. of the soap. The soda costs about 
8 cents a pound, and the bar soap 8 cents 
a pound. A pint measure will hold a 
pound of the labor-saving soap. This will 
save the trouble of weighing every time. 

2. — ^Lard Soap. — 'Riis soap is prepared 
by the cold process, as follows : Melt 
112 lb. of lard by gentle heat, and add 
half the lye prepared by dissolving 56 lb. 
of caustic soda to mark 36° B. Agitate 
well, without allowing the mixture to boil, 
and when it is thoroughly incorporated, 
the remainder of the lye is gradually in- 
troduced. The temperature is kept un- 
der 149° F. When the paste has suffi- 
cient consistency, and has no greasy feel, 
when pressed between the fingers, it may 
be pressed into frames. The desired per- 
fume is added while the soap is in the 
pasty state. In about 2 days it will have 
become sufficiently solid to be cut into 



tablets and pressed. This soap is very 
hard, and of a brilliant whiteness. 

3. — Marine Soap. — Fuller's earth, 40 
parts ; calcined soda ash, 40 parts ; cocoa- 
nut-oil soap, 80 parts. Used for washing 
in sea water. 

4. — Perfumes in Laundry Soaps. — To 
find an oil which will effectually cover the 
rosin and cocoanut odor in common soaps 
has been the aim of the laundry soap 
maker for many years. Of course there 
are oils which will do it, but which is 
preferable — mirbane or cocoanut, or cit- 
ronella? There has been an oil used in 
Europe quite extensively to overcome this. 
It is the oil of pennyroyal. {01. Men^ 
thee Puleggi, not Oleum hedcomw.) The 
latter is the American pennyroyal, as dif- 
ferent from the French oil as day is from 
night. It is stronger than the majority 
of oils used by soap men, stronger even 
than mirbane, and has no obnoxious odor. 
Belonging, as the name indicates, to the 
family of mints, it has that characteris- 
tic odor, backed by a greater amount of 
"natural" oil camphor, which helps to 
hold and diffuse the odor. In itself it 
would not make a good perfume, but 
mixed with other oils it does the work. 
The following formulas are recommended, 
and if proper care is used in their prep- 
aration there is little doubt of success : 

a. — Mixture for White Soap. — Oil of 
French pennyroyal, 3 lb. ; oil of thyme, 
white, 1 lb. ; oil of lavender flowers, 1 
lb. ; oil of caraway chaff, % lb. Mix, 
and use 1 lb. to 325 lb. of soap. The 
cost of the above is about $1.10 a pound, 
and it can be used to a good deal more 
soap, only the house using it, making 
1-lb. cakes, wanted a strong odor. 

b. — For Colored Soap. — Oil of French 
pennyroyal, 1 lb. ; oil of cassia, 1 lb. ; oil 
of cloves, % lb. ; oil of lavender spike, 1 
lb. Mix, and use the same as above. 

5. — Rubbing, Soap to Clean Clothes 
Without.--Take 2 lb. of sal soda, 2 lb. 
of yellow bar soap and 10 qt. of water. 
Cut the soap into thin slices, and boil 
together 2 hours ; strain, and it will be 
fit for use. Put the clothes in soak the 
night before you wash, and to every pail- 
ful of water in which you boil them add 
1 lb. of soap. They will need no rub- 
bing, but merely rinsing. 

Lead Soap or Simple Plaster. — Parts 
by weight r Pulverized litharge, 1 ; 
axunge (pig's lard), 1; olive oil, 1; wa- 
ter, 2. The lard, oil and water are put 
into a copper vessel, of which the ca- 
pacity is three times greater than the 
volume of the materials. The mixture is 
melted over a gentle fire; the litharge is 



[806] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Liquid Soap) 



added through the sieve, and stirred up 
with a wooden rod. The boiling is kept 
up by adding warm water from time to 
time as evaporation proceeds. The ma- 
terials are stirred up constantly with the 
wooden rod until the oxide of lead has 
altogether disappeared, and until the mass 
has taken a uniform white color and a 
consistency of plaster, which is gauged 
by throwing a small quantity of the con- 
tents of a pan into cold water and rub- 
bing it between the fingers. The mass is 
then removed from the fire, and, while 
still warm and soft, is kneaded to elim- 
inate the water. 

Leaves, Soap. — Glycerine, 10 parts ; al- 
cohol, 30 parts ; dry glycerine soap, 60 
parts ; ordinary neutral soap, 50 parts ; 
to form the mixture with which the pa- 
per is impregnated. This is effected in 
a trough containing the mixture, which 
is kept at a temperature of 165 to 180° 
F. In the trough there are three rollers, 
driven by steam or other power, revolving 
in the same direction, and over the under 
side of which the paper is passed. While 
under treatment the paper is sprayed with 
small quantities of oil of turpentine, 
which causes it to dry more rapidly, and 
also imparts to it an attractive glossy ap- 
pearance. 

Lemon Soap. — White soap, 50 lb. ; 
starch, 2 lb. Perfume with oil of lemon, 

4 oz. ; oil of bergamot, 2 oz. ; oil of lemon 
grass, 2 oz. ; oil of cloves, 1 oz. Color 
light yellow with cadmium yellow. 

Lettuce Soap. — Lard with lettuce, 20 
lb. ; cassia pomade, 10 lb. ; spermaceti, 

5 lb. ; castor oil, 5 lb. ; bleached palm oil, 
10 lb.; caustic lye, 36° B., 26 lb.; gum 
tragacanth, 3 oz. Perfume with oil of 
bergamot, 6 oz. ; oil of thyme, 2 oz. ; oil 
of valerian, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 1 oz. 
Color, light green. The lard with lettuce 
is made by melting the lard with its own 
weight of lettuce leaves, keeping it at 
the melting point, about 90° F., for some 
hours, or until the leaves have parted 
with their color and juice. Then steam 
off for use. 

Lihj Soap. — Wax soap, 1,500 parts; 



starch, 150 parts; oil of bergamot, 8i/4 
parts; oil of sandalwood, ^ part; oil of 
geranium, 3^^ parts ; oil of cassia, % 
part; tincture of musk, 1% parts; tonka 
bean, IVa parts; tincture of storax, 5 
parts. 

Liquid Soap. — Many of the advantages 
that would accrue from the use of liquid 
soap, in hospital wards, and in public 
places generally, are self-evident. The 
detergent properties of this form of soap, 
combined with the general sense of safety 



(Liquid Soap) 



and cleanliness that must accompany the 
use of an absolutely fresh particle of 
soap at each using, are perhaps the more 
prominent among these evident reasons 
why, when once introduced, the use of 
liquid soap is destined to displace the cake 
variety in public lavatories and in prac- 
tically all places where two or more per- 
sons are expected to use the same soap. 
One of the objections to the more wide- 
spread use of liquid soap, even at the 
present time, is the comparatively high 
cost of this form of preparation, largely 
due to the cost of the ethyl alcohol neces- 
sary in making the solution. Methyl al- 
cohol, while cheaper, offers serious objec- 
tions, and its use, in view of the many 
reported cases of untoward results, even 
from the inhalation or the external ap- 
plication of comparatively small quanti- 
ties, is not permissible. Being desirous 
of securing a liquid preparation with a 
minimum of alcohol, a series of experi- 
ments were inaugurated that resulted in 
the apparent discovery that a mixture of 
soda and potash soaps is much more sol- 
uble in water and much more stable, in 
any given dilution, than either one of its 
constituents. Elaborating on this discov- 
ery, a formula has been devised that pro- 
duces a uniformly satisfactory product, 
and one that, made from purified cotton- 
seed oil, will not cost more than 50 cents 
a gallon, buying in quantities such as an 
ordinary retail druggist would be likely 
to use. 

1. — The formula now in use is as 
follows : Sodium hydrate, 40 grams ; po- 
tassium hydrate, 40 grams; cotton-seed 
oil, 500 e.c. ; alcohol, 250 c.c. ; distilled 
water, enough to make 2,500 c.c. In a 
suitable container, preferably a glass- 
stoppered bottle, dissolve the potassium 
hydrate and the sodium hydrate in 250 
c.c. of distilled water, add the alcohol, 
and then add the cotton-seed oil in 3 or 4 
portions, shaking vigorously after each 
addition. Continue to agitate the mixture 
occasionally until saponification has been 
completed. Then add the remaining por- 
tion of distilled water, and mix. The 
only precautions that are at all necessary 
are to use IT. S. P. grade of ingredients, 
and to be sure that saponification is com- 
plete before adding the remaining portion 
of the distilled water. The water used 
must be absolutely free from soluble salts 
of the alkaline earths or the heavy met- 
als, and for this reason should be, pref- 
erably, freshly distilled. The soap can 
be readily made more alkaline, and it 
can also be made with an appreciably 
smaller quantity of the alkali. For gen- 



[807] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Liquid Soap) 



eral use as a toilet soap it would be 
necessary to give it some distinctive odor. 
This can be accomplished by replacing a 
portion of the water with distilled ex- 
tract of witch hazel, rose water, or 
orange-flower water, or by adding the 
necessary perfume, spirit or essential oils 
to suit the individual taste or need. 

Manufacture of Soap in Small Quanti- 
ties icithout Boiling. — Take exactly 10 lb. 
of double refined 98% caustic soda i>ow- 
der (Greenbank), put it in any can or 
jar with 45 lb. (4:% gal.) of water, stir 
it once or twice, when it will dissolve im- 
mediately and become quite hot ; let it 
stand until the lye thus made is cold. 
Weigh out, and place in any convenient 
vessel for mixing, exactly 75 lb. of clean 
grease, tallow, or oil (not mineral oil). 
If grease or tallow be used, melt it slow- 
ly over the fire until it is liquid and just 
warm — say, temperature not over 100° F. 
If oil be used, no heating is required. 
Pour the lye slowly into the melted grease 
or oil in a small stream, continuously, at 
the same time stirring with a flat wooden 
stirrer about 3 in. broad ; continue gently 
stirring until the lye and grease are thor- 
oughly combined and in appearance like 
honey. Do not stir too long, or the mix- 
ture will separate itself again. The time 
required varies somewhat with the 
weather and the kind of tallow, grease or 
oil used ; from 15 to 20^ minutes will be 
enough. When the mixing is completed 
pour ofE the liquid soap into any old square 
box for a mold sufficiently large to hold 
it, previously dampening the sides with 
water so as to prevent the soap sticking. 
Wrap up the box well with old blankets, 
or, better still, put it in a warm place 
until the next day, when the box will 
contain a block of 130 lb. of soap, which 
can afterward be cut up with a wire. Re- 
member the chief points in the above di- 
rections, which must be exactly followed. 
The lye must be allowed to cool. If 
melted tallow or grease be used, it must 
not be more than warm. The exact 
weights of double refined 98% powdered 
caustic soda and tallow or oil must be 
taken ; also the lye must be stirred into 
the grease, not grease or oil added to the 
lye. If the grease or tallow used be not 
clean, or contains salt, it must be ren- 
dered, or purified, previous to use ; that 
is to say, boiled with water, and allowed 
to become hard again to throw out the 
impurities. Any salt present will spoil 
the whole operation entirely, but discol- 
ored or rancid grease or tallow is just as 
good as fresh for soap-making purposes. 
If the soap turns out streaky and uneven. 



(Liquid Soap) 



it has not been thoroughly mixed. If 
very sharp to the taste, too much soda 
has been taken. If soft, mild and greasy, 
too little soda has been used. In either 
case, it must now be thrown into a pan, 
and brought to a boil with a little more 
water. In the first case boiling is all that 
is necessary ; in the other instances a very 
little oil, or a very little more of the 
double refined powdered caustic soda must 
be added to the water. These things will 
never happen, however, if the directions 
are exactly followed, and after the soap 
has been made several times, with the 
experience thus gained, the process is ex- 
tremely easy, and the result will be al- 
ways a good batch of soap. Beef tallow 
makes the hardest soap, mutton fat a 
rather softer soap ; of oils, cotton-seed is 
the cheapest and best, but the soap is 
much softer, lathering very freely indeed. 
Ordinary household fat or dripping will 
make a nice soap, and in many places 
can be obtained at a very trifling cost, 
and in exchange for goods sold. Such 
greaseu however, must be carefully exam- 
ined for salt, which it often contains. It 
will be evident that any smaller quantity 
of soap can be made at a time, accord- 
ing to the above directions, by taking the 
ingredients in exact proportion. It is not 
advisable to make more than double the 
quantity prescribed, as it is difficult to 
work more by hand. By 'making succes- 
sive batches, however, a single person 
can make 2 tons of soap in a day, simply 
with apparatus (pans, etc.) obtainable in 
any household. 

By adding a few drops of essential oil 
just when the mixing is completed a toi- 
let soap is produced. Oil of mirbane (ar- 
tificial almond oil) is the cheapest, but 
the perfume is not nearly so pleasant as 
real almond oil, citronella or oil of cloves. 
If made with clean grease or tallow, or 
light-colored oil, the soap produced is 
quite white. Sometimes a little coloring 
matter will make the soap sell better, al- 
though of no better quality. Half an 
ounce of bichromate of potash dissolved 
in the lye will give a green : 1 lb. of 
palm oil melted with the tallow or oil, a 
yellow color ; or a good brown can be got 
by burning % lb. of sugar in a saucepan 
until black, then dissolving it in a pint 
of water, and adding it to the melted tal- 
low before mixing. 

A very cheap and good jelly soft soap 
can be made with above soap. Take 5 lb. 
of the hard soap, crush it down or cut it 
up into as small pieces as possible ; put 
this into a pan or boiler with 10 gal. of 
water, if a strong, hard tallow soap; if 



[808] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Lye) 



an oil soap, only half the quantity of wa- 
ter (5 gal.) ; just bring it to a boil, and 
stir well to thoroughly dissolve all the 
pieces of hard soap ; pour or ladle it into 
nny can, tub or barrel that is tight, and 
leave it to cool for 2 or 3 days. This will 
give about 80 lb. of jelly soft soap at an 
exceedingly small cost. Of course, if made 
from colored and scented hard soap, it 
will be a colored and scented jelly soap. 
This is a good way of working up the 
scraps and bits of soap after cutting up. 
It can be sold with a good profit at a very 
low figure, and often as a substitute for 
regular soft soap. It is a very different 
article, however, to a real potash soft 
soap, which should invariably be used for 
washing woolens. It is possible to pro- 
duce this real potash soft soap in the cold 
by a somewhat similar process to the 
above. 

2. — According to credible authority, 
these soaps can only be obtained by treat- 
ing hard soaps with a base of pure olive 
oil, which are dissolved in alcohol with 
the final addition of a certain quantity 
of potassium carbonate. Grate the soap 
fine and put it into a receptacle over a 
water bath, together with the alcohol and 
the carbonate, stirring constantly, and let- 
ting the temperature rise little by little. 
At the end of at least an hour the solu- 
tion is complete, and perfectly transpar- 
ent, if white soap has been used. Per- 
fume may be added to suit the taste, but 
it must be done at the moment when the 
decoction is removed from the bath. The 
alcohol used ought to be 80° proof. 

3. — Clark's Soap Solution. — Dissolve 5 
grams of Oastile soap in % 1. of dilute 
36% alcohol. Used to test the hardness 
of water. (See also Naples Soap.) 

Lye. — Hickory ashes are the best for 
making common washing soft soap (when 
it is not desirable to use the potash lye), 
but those from sound beech, maple, or 
almost any kind of hard wood, except oak, 
will answer well. A common barrel set 
upon an inclined platform makes a very 
good leach, but one made of boards set 
in a trough in V-shape is to be preferred, 
for the strength of the ashes is better 
obtained, and it may be taken to piece? 
when not in use, and laid up. First, in 
the bottom of the leach put a few sticks ; 
over them spread a piece of carpet or 
woolen cloth, which is much better than 
straw ; put on a few inches of ashes and 
from 4 to 8 qt. of lime ; fill with moistened 
ashes, and tamp down well, tamping firm- 
est in the cen.ter. It is difficult to obtain 
the full strength of ashes in a barrel with- 
out removing them after a day's leaching. 



(Medicinal Soaps) 



[809] 



and mixing them up and replacing. The 
top should first be thrown off and new 
ashes added to make up the proper quan- 
tity. Use boiling water for second leach- 
ing. This lye should be sufficiently strong 
to float a potato. 

Marshmallow Soap. — White curd soap 
and palm-oil soap, of each 40 lb. Color 
with yellow ocher, 4 oz. ; orange mineral, 
4^ oz. ; gamboge, 1% oz. Perfume with 
oil of lavender, 10 oz. ; oil of lemon, 2 
oz. ; oil of neroli, 2 oz. ; oil of verbena, 10 
oz. ; oil of mint, 3 oz. 

Medicinal Soaps. — 1. — In medicine and 
pharmacy, soaps are used for various pur- 
poses with a base of alkali or alkaline 
earths ; the first are soluble, the others 
insoluble. Among the soluble soaps — 
that is to say, those with a base of potash, 
soda or ammonia — there are three descrip- 
tions : First, those which contain sub- 
stances capable of giving them new prop- 
erties without taking away those which 
are proper to them ; second, medicaments 
made by adding extracts to soap powder; 
third, alcoholic preparations containing 
enough soap to make a sort of jelly. The 
insoluble soaps have generally oxide of 
lead as a base, and are known as plas- 
ters, salves, or ointments. They are pre- 
pared with or without water, and in cer- 
tain cases at a temperature far beyond 
the boiling point. They then take a brown 
color by reason of the alteration of a 
part of the fatty body. 

2. — Base. — ^The base for medicated 
soaps is constructed upon the following 
formula, which is termed "basic soap" 
(basis scife) : Mutton suet, best quality, 
593 parts ; olive oil, 74 parts ; caustic 
soda, 222 parts ; caustic potash, 111 parts. 
Mix, and make a soap. 

3. — Essential Oils. — ^A series of medici- 
nal soaps is made containing such essen- 
tial oils as are possessed of antiseptic 
virtues. Among these may be mentioned 
wintergreen, pine and eucalyptus oils, 
while also thymol and terebene might be 
placed in fhft same class. The first three 
may, perhaps, be considered more as hy- 
gienic toilet than medicinal soaps ; they 
are particularly suitable as preventives 
of freckles, pimples, tan, chaps, etc., and 
for improving the complexion. The thy- 
mol soap (2 to 5%) has been employed 
to sweeten suppurating wounds and ul- 
cers, and to treat herpes and other allied 
diseases ; it is a mild and agreeable anti- 
septic applications. 

4. — Oil of sweet almonds, by weight, 21 
parts ; soapmakers' lye, by weight, 10 
parts. The oil is put into a porcelain or 
glass vessel ; the lye is added, little bv 



Soaps and Candles 



(Medicinal Soaps) 



little, and slowly, taking care to stir it 
until a complete mixture is obtained. The 
whole is then kept for several days at 
a temperature of from 18 to 20° C, and 
the mixture is stirred from time to time 
with a glass rod until it has acquired 
the consistency of a soft paste. It is 
then run into porcelain molds, from which 
it is taken out when it is entirely solidi- 
fied. This soap should not be used in 
medicine until it has lost the excess of 
alkali which it retains after its prepara- 
tion, and this will occur after it has been 
exposed to the air for 1 or 2 months. 

5. — Arsenic Soap. — Parts by weight : 
White soap, 625 ; arsenic, 500 ; quicklime, 
10 ; camphor, 60 ; water, 625. The soap 
is dissolved in the water, warmed, and 
the other substances are added, mixing 
the whole with care. 

6. — Camphor Soap. — Parts by w^eight : 
White soap, 500 ; camphor, 8 ; blanched 
bitter almonds, 60 ; tincture of benzoin, 
40. The almonds are reduced to a paste, 
the camphor is added, then the mixture 
of benzoin and the soap ; and the mixture 
is molded in the water bath. 

7. — Carbolic Soap. — Cocoanut oil, 20 
lb. ; tallow, 4 lb. ; soda lye, 38 to 40° B., 
12 lb. ; phenol, 1 lb. Prepare the soap 
by stirring the liquefied fat into the lye 
at 113° F., and when combination has 
set in, incorporate the phenol, and quickly 
pour into molds. Cover the latter well. 
Instead of the phenol, 2 lb. of sulphur 
may be used, and a sulphur soap made. 

8. — Creolin Soap. — For treatment of 
contagious impetigo, itch, intertrigo and 
hyperidrosis : Basic soap, 95 parts ; creo- 
lin, 5 parts. Mix. 

9. — Ergotin Soap. — Used in cases of 
arterial hypersemia of the skin (such as 
acne rosacea, congelations, varicose ecze- 
ma, cicatrices marked by vascular dilata- 
tion, etc. ) : Basic soap, 95 parts ; ergo- 
tin, 5 parts. Mix. 

10. — Grease Soap. — Parts by weight : 
Veal suet, 50 ; soapmakers' lye, 25 ; dis- 
tilled water, 100 ; sea salt, 10. The suet 
and the water are heated together in a 
porcelain capsule. After fusion the lye 
is added, little by 'little, stirring constant- 
ly. The heat and the stirring are main- 
tained until complete saponification. The 
sea salt is then added, the solution being 
assisted by a very slight agitation. The 
soap which forms on the surface is taken 
off and drained. It is then melted at a 
gentle heat, and run into molds, where it 
solidifies on cooling. 

11. — Ichthyol. — Another preparation 
which has also been largely used as soap, 
containing 5% of the sodium sulphichthy- 



( Medicinal Soaps) 



olate. In this form ichthyol displays ef- 
fectively its great power over affections 
due to or associated with a dilated condi- 
tion of the vascular system. The soap is 
particularly prescribed in the treatment of 
eczema and rosacea. It has been found 
to exert a marked beneficial influence 
upon redness of the skin, and particularly 
the condition known as red nose. The lat- 
ter property is also ascribed to a soap 
containing camphor (about 5%), which 
is a mild stimulant to the skin. 

12. — Iodine Soap. — a. — Make a solution 
of 1 part of iodine of potassium in 3 
parts of water; to this add of pounded 
Castile soap, 16 parts ; melt in a porce- 
lain vessel by the aid of a water bath. 

b. — Sliced Castile soap, 1 lb. ; potassium 
iodide, 1 oz. ; dissolved in water, 3 fl.oz. ; 
melt them together in a porcelain vessel, 
over a water bath. 

c— Cocoanut oil, 10 kgm. ; lye, 38° B., 
5 kgm. ; potassium iodide, 1^^ kgm. ; dis- 
solved in water, % kgm. 

13. — Mercurial Soaps. — a. — These are 
made ^y saponifying mercurial ointment. 
Thus, 10 oz. of mercury are gradually in- 
corporated with 2 oz. of mercurial oint- 
ment, so globules are no longer visible 
with a lens ; then 1 lb. 2 oz. of powdered 
soap are added, and 2 oz. of lard. A 
soap can also be made to contain, say, 5 
per mille of sublimate, which is useful in 
the treatment of secondary syphilitic erup- 
tions, of scabies, and of parasitical affec- 
tions. Being free from unpleasant odor, 
it is preferable to some other antiseptic 
soaps. A preparation of this Mnd would 
also seem to be useful for cleansing the 
coats of domestic animals. 

b. — Sapo Hydrargyri. — Dissolve 4 oz. 
of mercury «n the same weight of nitric 
acid, without heat ; melt in a porcelain 
basin, over a water bath, 18 oz. of veal 
suet, and add the solution, stirring the 
mixture till the union is complete. To 5 
oz. of this ointment add 2 oz. of solution 
of caustic soda (sp. gr. 1.33) till a soap 
is formed which is completely soluble in 
water. 

c. — Sapo Hydrargyri Precipitati Albi 
(Sir H. Marsh).— Beat 12 oz. of white 
Windsor soap in a mortar, add 1 dr. of 
rectified spirit, 2 dr. of white precipitate 
and 10 drops of otto of roses ; beat the 
whole to a uniform paste. 

d. — Sapo Hydrargyri Precipitati Rubri 
(Sir H. Marsh). — White Windsor soap, 
2 oz. ; nitrate of mercury (levigated), 1 
dr. ; otto of roses, 6 or 8 drops, in recti- 
fied spirit, 1 to 2 dr. ; bea^ to a paste. 

14. — Phenic Acid Soap, Transparent. — 
Parts by weight : Cocoanut oil, 400 ; 



[810] 



Soaps and Candlei 



(Medicinal Soaps) 



suet, 300 ; castor oil, 300 ; soapmakers' 
lye, 550; alcohol, 300; glycerine, 200; 
sugar syrup, 400 ; crystallized phenic acid, 
80 ; palm oil, 5. The cocdanut oil and the 
suet are melted, and the castor oil is 
added, followed by the lye, mixed with 
the alcohol. To the paste thus made the 
phenic acid, liquefied beforehand, is add- 
ed, and finally the palm oil. The whole 
is then run into molds. 

15. — Plaster. — Brown soap plaster, or 
Mfere Thecle's ointment, is prepared with 
the following ingredients, parts by weight : 
Olive oil, 10; lard, 5; butter, 5; yellow 
wax, 5 ; litharge, 5 ; mutton suet, 5 ; puri- 
fied pitch, 1. The fatty materials are put 
into a big copper kettle, and warmed un- 
til they give off vapors indicating the al- 
teration of the fatty bodies. The litharge 
is then added by passing it through a 
sieve, the whole being constantly stirred 
with a wooden rod. The mixture is left 
on the fire, continuing the stirring, until 
it has taken a dark brown color, and the 
pitch is then added. When the ointment 
is suflBciently cool it is run into pots or 
into paper molds. 

16. — Quinine Soap. — Found to be val- 
uable in pityriasis versicolor, in the treat- 
ment of which it is made into a lather, 
and the latter allowed to dry on the af- 
fected parts. Basic soap, 97 parts ; qui- 
nine sulphate, 3 parts. Mix. 

17. — Resorcin and Salicylic Acid Soap. 
— For the treatment of parasitic and seb- 
borrhoeic eczema ; also of great service in 
psoriasis, acne and ichthyosis. Basic 
soap, 94 parts ; salicylic acid, 3 parts ; 
resorcin, 3 parts. Mix. 

18. — Resorcin, Salicylic Acid and Sul- 
phur Soap. — For use in acne vulgaris and 
acne rosacea, and in seborrhoeic eczema, 
marked by deep infiltration of the skin. 
Basic soap, 84 parts ; resorcin, 3 parts ; 
salicylic acid, 3 parts ; sulphur, precipi- 
tated. Mix. 

19. — Resorcin, Salicylic Acid, Sulphur 
and Tar Soap. — For use in squamous ec- 
zema and psoriasis vulgaris. Basic soap, 
79 parts ; .resorcin, 3 parts ; salicylic acid, 
3 parts ; precipitated sulphur, 10 parts ; 
liquid tar, 5 parts. Mix. 

20. — Salicylic Acid and Creosote Soap. 
— Salicylic acid, 5 parts ; creosote, 2 
parts ; basic soap, 93 parts. Mix. This 
soap has been found of great service in 
the treatment of lupus, psoriasis, sebor- 
rhoeic eczema, parasitic sycosis, favus and 
tinea tonsurans. 

21. — Soft Soap, Medicinal.— Made from 
pure olive oil, saponified with a caustic 
lye made from pure potash. The lye is 
added gradually and cautiously to the oil 



(Metallic Soaps) 



during the boiling, and the greatest care 
taken to avoid an excess of alkali. When 
the mass assumes a transparent gelat- 
inous appearance, the addition of lye is 
stopped. The boiling is continued until 
the soap has acquired the proper consist- 
ency. 

22. — Sulphur Soap. — The best contains 
about 10% of very finely divided sulphur, 
and is perfumed, as the element gives a 
rather unpleasant smell to soap when 
used alone. Various combinations of tar, 
of naphthol or of iodides, etc., with sul- 
phur, are also made, which are commend- 
ed for various cutaneous disorders, pim- 
ples, comedones, freckles, etc. ; sulphur, 
when continuously applied, tends to pro- 
duce a clear and healthy complexion. 

Metallic Soaps. — Metallic soaps are ob- 
tained by means of double decomposition. 
First, a soap solution is produced, which 
is brought to a boil. On the other hand, 
an equally strong solution of the metallic 
salt of which the combination is to be 
made (chlorides and sulphides are em- 
ployed with preference) is prepared, the 
boiling solutions are mixed together, and 
the metallic soap obtained is gathered on 
a linen cloth. The same is then put on 
enameled plates and dried, first at 40, 
later at 60° C. 

1. — Aluminum Soap is the most impor- 
tant of all. Dissolved in benzine or oil 
of turpentine, it furnishes an excellent 
varnish. It has been proposed to use 
these solutions for the varnishing of leath- 
er; they furthermore serve for the pro- 
duction of waterproof linen and cloths. 
paper, etc. Jarry recommended this com- 
pound for impregnating railroad ties to 
render them weatherproof. 
. 2. — Copper soap enters into the compo- 
sition of gilding wax. The same is also 
employed for bronzing plaster-of-paris 
articles. For the same purpose, a mix- 
ture is made use of consisting of copper 
soap and iron soap melted in white-lead 
varnish and wax. 

3. — Iron soap is used with aluminum 
soap for waterproofing purposes and for 
the production of a waterproof varnish. 
^ 4. — Manganese soap is used as a sicca- 
tive in the preparation of linseed-oil var- 
nish, as well as for a drier to be added 
to paints. 

5. — Metallic rosin soaps may be pro- 
duced by double decomposition of potash- 
rosin soaps and a soluble metal salt. From 
these good varnishes are obtained to ren- 
der paper carriage covers, etc., water- 
proof; they may also be employed for 
floor wax or lacquers. 

6. — By using wax instead of a soap. 



[811] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Mottled Soaps) 



insoluble metallic soaps are obtained, 
which, melted in oils or wax, impart bril- 
liant colorings to them ; but colored wa- 
terproof and weather-resisting varnishes 
may also be produced with them. 

Milk of Lilies Soap. — This is of ex- 
traordinary cleansing power, and is free 
from escharotic or color-destroying prop- 
erties. Its preparation is easy, and very 
simple, and consists in the saponification 
of the juice of the bulb of any lily, but 
more especially of the Lilium candidum. 
In its preparation the bulbs are grated 
up to a fine, creamy broth, or they may 
be mashed, according to pleasure or con- 
venience. To the product add, under act- 
ive and constant stirring, little by little, 
potassium or sodium lye, of 35° B., un- 
til a thick, foamy liquid is obtained. Ex- 
perience demonstrates that to every 100 
parts of the grated lily mass, from 50 to 
60 parts of lye are necessary, and the time 
required for the rubbing up to be any- 
where from 10 to 15 minutes. The solu- 
tion can be solidified, and poured into 
molds by the addition of a warm solu- 
tion of gelatine. This should be done 
gradually, or slowly. On cooling, the 
gelatine sets, and the soap can be re- 
moved from the molds in the usual way. 
As a matter of course, perfumes may be 
added to suit the taste of the individual. 

Mottled Soaps. — 1. — If, instead of a 
white soap, the object is to produce a 
mottled soap, impure soda, containing sul- 
phides, is preferred for the lye, and a 
quantity of ferrous sulphate (green vit- 
riol), about 8 oz. for each cwt. of oil, is 
added at the end of the preliminary boil- 
ing. This is at once precipitated, partly 
as iron oxide and sulphide, and partly as 
an insoluble iron soap. In consequence 
of this addition, and also from the pres- 
ence of iron and sulphur in the lye, and 
of ferruginous matters from the pan, the 
curd obtained at the end of stage 3° has 
a uniform slate color. If this were al- 
lowed to remain the effect would not be 
pleasing ; but instead of directing his en- 
deavors to exclude these impurities, as in 
the case of the white soap, the soapmaker 
conducts the operation in such a way as 
to preserve and arrange them by diffusing 
the color in veins, in order to give a mar- 
bled or mottled appearance. When the 
proper consistency of the soap has been 
attained the mass is worked about with 
rakes, so as to bring the lower and dark- 
er colored parts of the curd to the top. 
When this has been sufficiently done the 
viscid soap is transferred to the frames, 
where, in about a week or more, accord- 
ing to the quantity, it cools down to 



(Mottled Soaps) 



mottled soap. By varying the proportion 
of iron sulphate added, a tint is produced 
of a lighter or darker hue. By exposure 
to the air the iron gets oxidized to the 
state of sesquioxide, and a reddish tint, 
called manteau Isabelle, is diffused over 
the bluish mottled mass. It is thus ap- 
parent that in mottled soap the veins and 
patches of heavy, insoluble, colored com- 
pounds are present because, by special 
manipulation, they have been intention- 
ally prevented from subsiding, and by the 
conveyance of the soap to the frames in 
so viscid a condition that the downward 
trickling of the 'colored impurities should 
proceed so slowly as only to intensify the 
desired appearance, and not subside alto- 
gether. It is evident also -that if a soap 
so prepared were thinned by admixture 
with water, the impurities would more 
readily subside, and that the veining or 
mottling would be greatly diminished, or 
entirely prevented. Hence, a genuine mot- 
tled soap cannot contain more than 33 
or 34, or at most 36%, of water. Hence, 
also, as a mottled appearance was for- 
merly a special characteristic of Castile 
soap, and as this was essentially a good 
soap, a mottled or marbled character came 
to be regarded as a sign of excellence. 
So far was this belief carried, that it used 
to be said there was no need to analyze 
a marbled soap, as it must necessarily be 
genuine. This, however, is now by no 
means the case. 

2. — Tallow, 30 kgm. ; palm-kernel oil. 
270 kgm.; lye, 20°, 3471/2 kgm.; potas- 
sium chloride solution, 20°, 37i/^ kgm. 
After everything has been boiled into a 
soap, crutch the following dye solution 
into it : Water, 5% kgm. ; blue, red or 
black, 315 grams ; water glass, 38°, 10 
kgm. ; lye. 38°, 1% kgm. 

3. — Artificial Mottled Soaps, Blue, 
Gray and Red. — Blake & Maxwell's proc- 
ess may be used to produce these soaps. 
Two soap pans are required. In one of 
these a known quantity of tallow or 
bleached palm oil, or a mixture of 80% 
of cocoanut oil, 14% of tallow and 6% 
of lard, is boiled with a quantity of soda 
lyes, carefully calculated with reference 
to the fats, and the hydrated soap thus 
formed is transferred to the other pan, 
in which a soft curd soap has been pre- 
pared from fatty matters and lyes, as 
calculated by the strength of the alkali. 
The mottle is produced by adding to this 
soap, when in a finished state, coloring 
matter to impart the desired color, and in 
about half an hour after the soaps and 
coloring matter have been thoroughly in- 
corporated the soap may be transferred 



[812] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Musk Soap) 



to the frames. For the best descriptions 
of mottled soaps the weight of fatty mat- 
ters used to produce the hydrated soap 
amounts to from i/4 to % the fat used 
to produce the soft curd. For cheaper 
descriptions, the hydrated soap may be 
increased till the proportion of fat in the 
hydrated soap amounts to from 2-3 to 
1% times the weight of fat in the curd 
soap. Another way is to prepare a fitted 
soap from the fatty mixture containing 
cocoanut or palm-kernel oil in one pan, 
and to remove it from the niger to the 
second pan. Here, for every 1,000 lb. of 
soap, are added 250 lb. of sodium sili- 
cate, and the whole is thoroughly incor- 
porated by boiling, until the experienced 
workman judges that the proper condi- 
tion for mottling has been attained. The 
coloring matters, mixed with water, are 
then sprinkled into the pan, and after 
boiling for a few minutes the mixture is 
transferred to the frames. The coloring 
matters are : For blue, artificial ultra- 
marine, 5 to 10 lb. per ton ; for gray, 
manganese oxide, 1 to 3 lb. per ton ; and 
for red, vermilion. 

4.— Mottled Balls.— Cut the soap (re- 
cently prepared, and not too dry) into 
dice, or small square pieces, roll them 
in colored powder (see below), and then 
mold them into balls by powerful press- 
ure, observing to mix the colors as lit- 
tle as possible. The colors usually em- 
ployed, and which should be in very fine 
powder, are : 

a. — Blue. — Indigo, powder blue, or 
smalts. 

b. — Green. — Powder blue and bright 
yellow ocher. 

c. — Orange. — Yellow, deepened with a 
little red. 

d. — Red. — Red bole, sesquioxide of iron, 
or jewelers' rouge. 

e. — Yellow. — Bright yellow ocher or 
Dutch pink. 

By varying the color, by diluting it 
with a little farina or chalk, and by 
using soap dice separately coated with 
two or more colors, mottled savonnettes 
of any color, or mixture of colors, may be 
produced at will. 

f. — Savonnettes of neroli : Melted curd 
soap, 12 lb. ; orris powder, 1 lb. ; orange 
powder, 3 oz. ; oil of neroli. 12 dr. ; es- 
sence of musk, 4 oz. ; essence of amber- 
gris, 4 oz. 

Blusk Soap. — 1. — White curd soap, 60 
lb. ; palm-oil soap, 40 lb. Color with 
brown ocher or Spanish brown, 8 oz. Per- 
fume with oils of musk and bergamot, of 
each 7 oz. ; powder of cloves, pale roses 
and gilliflower, of each 9 oz. 



(Naples Soap) 



2. — White tallow soap, 5 kgm. ; pure 
palm soap, 5 kgm. Perfume with oil of 
bergamot, 50 grams ; oil of roses, 5 
grams ; oil of cloves, 5 grams ; oil of 
musk, 10 grams. The musk is prepared 
thus : Pound 10 grams of musk in a 
mortar, with an equal weight of sugar 
and 5 grams of pure potash ; then add 
160 grams of alcohol, gradually triturate 
for % hour, pour the mixture into a flask, 
and leave from 2 to 4 weeks, shaking it 
from time to time. Then filter, add the 
wliole of the filtrate to the 10 kgm. of 
soap, and afterward the other perfume. 
Color with 80 grams of brown ocher. 

3. — Best tallow soap, 30 lb. ; palm-oil 
soap, 20 lb. ; powdered cloves, pale roses 
and gilliflowers, of each 4i/^ oz. ; essences 
of bergamot and musk, of each 3% oz. ; 
Spanish brown, 4 oz. Mix as soap a la 
rose. Very fine. 

Naphtha Soap. — 1. — A New Disinfec- 
tant. — In a work by Chlopin, respecting 
the action of naphtha products, and espe- 
cially of the naphtha acids, on micro- 
organisms, it is stated, on the authority 
of A. P. Lidow, that virulent disease 
germs can be easily destroyed by diluted 
emulsions of the naphtha acids. The lat- 
ter can be readily saponified by soda or 
caustic soda, but will not yield solid soap. 
Fat or cocoanut oil is therefore added to 
it. The author recommends the addition 
of from 1 to 5% of the naphtha acids to 
the finished soap. By this process the 
soap retains its special character, and the 
acids, emulsified with the soap, their act- 
ive properties. 

2. — Liquid Naphthol Soap. — Sapon. do- 
mestic alb., sapon. kalini, ol. olivar. ve- 
nal, aa, 1 ; aquae, 50 ; naphtholi, 0.25 ; 
ol. citri", q. s. Dissolve the soap in wa- 
ter, add the oil, shake frequently until 
the latter has also saponified, which is 
generally the case within 48 hours, and 
then dissolve the naphthol and lemon oil 
in the mixture. Finally, filter. 

Naples Soap. — 1. — The following mix- 
ture, which is perfumed with a little es- 
sence of thyme, sassafras, neroli or gil- 
liflower, parts by weight : Amygdalin 
soap, 15 ; grease soap, 15 ; nutmeg butter, 
8 ; cacao butter, 8 ; laurel water, 15. 

2. — Liquid,- — Take 12 lb. of shavings of 
good white soap and melt in 2 or 3 qt. of 
rose and orange-flower waters ; add. to 
retain its liquidity, 2 lb. of oil aux fleurs. 
slightly boil the mixture, put in 4 oz. of 
powdered bergamot, peel for coloring, then 
strain, and perfume as for the soaps in 
tablets. In default of oil, when the soap 
is melted, add 2 qt. of good essence of 
soap; leave it for 15 minutes to thor- 



[813] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Naturalists' Soap) 



oughly incorporate, and then strain and 
perfume. If by age it becomes dry, mois- 
ten with a little rose or orange-flower 
water. The liquid soaps are susceptible 
of every variety of perfume. 

Naturalists^ Soaps. — Arsenical Soap. — • 
1. — Arsenical soap is used by bird 
and animal stuffers to preserve the 
skins from the attacks of insects. It is 
prepared by the following formula : White 
soap, arsenious acid, and lime slaked by 
air, of each 4 oz. ; carbonate of soda, 12 
oz. ; powdered camphor, % oz. The whole 
of these ingredients are worked up into 
a paste with pestle and mortar, a small 
quantity of water being added during the 
mixing. 

2. — Arsenical Soap, Cosmetic. — Arsen- 
icated soap : Arsenite of soda, % dr. ; 
soft water, hot, 1% oz. Dissolve, and add 
the solution to white Windsor soap, melt- 
ed, 1 lb. Mix thoroughly, and form the 
mass into small cakes. The whole process 
should be performed in glass, porcelain 
or stoneware. Used by some ladies in 
fashionable life, under the idea that it 
promotes the softness, clearness and gen- 
eral beauty of the skin. Sometimes the 
solution is beaten up with the soap (in 
shavings), instead of being added to it 
in the melted state, with or without the 
addition of 1 to 2 dr. of powdered cam- 
phor. Arsenical soap is not recommended 
for toilet purposes. 

3. — Powdered camphor, I14 <3i'. ; ar- 
senic, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 1 oz. ; pre- 
cipitated chalk, 1 oz. ; soft soap, 2 oz. ; 
carbonate of potash, 6 oz. Make the soap 
and water warm over a water bath, and 
then incorporate the chalk, arsenic and 
potassium carbonate. Add the camphor 
when cold. 

4. — White soap, % lb. ; pearlash, 3 oz. ; 
powdered chalk, 1 oz. ; camphor, 14 oz. ; 
arsenic, i/^ oz. ; water, a suflSciency. Re- 
duce the soap to fine shreds, and place in 
a water bath with a small quantity of 
water, stirring occasionally until dis- 
solved. When quite liquid add the pearl- 
ash and chalk. Then remove the source 
of heat and add the arsenic gradually ; 
rub in the camphor, in fine powder, when 
nearly cold. The product is of the con- 
sistency of soft soap. 

5. — Curd soap, 4 lb. ; carbonate of pot- 
ash, % lb.; arsenic, 1 lb.: camphor, % 
lb. Dissolve the soap with a very little 
water, and add the other ingredients, pow- 
dered, and mixed together. 

6. — ^Laurent's. — Put in a bottle, pow- 
dered soap, 1 oz. ; arsenite of potassa, 4 
dr. ; sulphate of alumina. 4 dr. ; pulver- I 
ized camphor, 4 dr. ; alcohol, 12 oz. Let 



(Oxgall Soap) 



[814] 



the mixture stand 24 hours, then add 6 
drops of oil of thyme, and cork the bot- 
tle carefully. 

7. — Parts by weight: Pulverized ar- 
senious acid, 32 ; dried carbonate of pot- 
ash, 12; distilled water, 32; Marseilles 
mottled soap, 32 ; powdered quicklime, 
40 ; refined camphor, 10. The arsenious 
acid and the carbonate are dissolved in 
the distilled water, and the mixture is 
brought to the boil ; the soap is added, 
cut into as fine shreds as possible, and 
the mass is taken off the fire. After com- 
plete solution the quicklime and the cam- 
phor are added, the latter being pulver- 
ized with the aid of alcohol. Finally, the 
mixture is ground up thoroughly. 

Oatmeal Soap. — White soap, 25 lb.; 
half palm soap, 10 lb. ; cocoanut-oil soap, 
6^ lb.; oatmeal (coarse ground), 6 lb. 

Olein Soaps. — 1. — Saponified oleic acid, 
150 lb. ; tallow, 40 lb. ; crude palm oil, 
10 lb. 

2. — Saponified oleic acid, 155 lb. ; crude 
palm oil, 10 lb. ; cotton-seed oil, 20 lb. ; 
linseed oil, 15 lb. 

Orange-Flotver Soap. — White curd 
soap, 60 lb. ; palm-oil soap, 40 lb. Color 
with yellow-green pigment, 16 oz. ; min- 
ium (red lead), 2i^ oz. Perfume with 
oij of Portugal, 15 oz. ; oil of ambergris, 
15 oz. Mix as soap k la rose. Very 
fine. 

Oxgall Soap.— 1.— To wash fine silk 
stuffs, such as piece goods, ribbons, etc., 
one cannot do better than employ a soap 
containing a certain amount of oxgall. 
Heat 1 lb. of cocoanut oil to 30° R. (100° 
F.) in a copper kettle. While stirring 
vigorously add % lb. of caustic soda lye 
?c ^ • ^^ ^ separate vessel heat ^^ 
Ib.^ of white Venice turpentine, and stir 
this m the soap in the copper kettle. 
Oover the kettle well, and let it stand, 
mildly warmed, for 4 hours, when the 
temperature can be again raised until the 
inass IS right hot and flows clear : then 
add 1 lb. of oxgall to it. Now pulverize 
some good, perfectly dry grain soap, and 
stir m as much of it as will make the 
contents of the copper kettle so hard 
that It will give little to the pressure of 
the fingers. From 1 to 2 lb. is all the 
gram soap required for the above quan- 
tity of gall soap. When cooled, cut out 
the soap and shape into bars. This is an 
indispensable adjunct to the dyer and 
cleaner, as it will not injure the most del- 
icate color. 

2. — Purified oxgall, 1 part; white curd 
soap, 2 parts. The soap is cut into shav- 
ings, and melted in the oxgall at a mod- 
erate heat, evaporating until of the proper 



Soaps and Candles 



(Soap Paste) 



consistency. The oxgall is prepared by 
boiling it with 10 to 12 parts of wood 
spirit, and straining. 

3. — Extract of quillaja bark, 50 parts ; 
borax, 50 parts ; fresh oxgall, 20 parts ; 
soap, 75 parts. 

4. — ^Parts by weight : Cocoanut oil, 
50 ; ultramarine, 0.1 ; caustic soda lye, 
40° B., 20 ; solution of carbonate of pot- 
ash, 10° B., 4 ; oxgall, 3 ; bichromate of 
potash, 0.05; sea salt solution, 15° B., 
2.5 ; ammonia liquid, 2.5 ; turpentine, 2.5. 
After having saponified the oil, colored 
with the ultramarine, the carbonate of 
potash is added with the oxgall, then the 
bichromate with the sea salt. The whole 
is stirred, then the two last substances 
are added. 

Palm Soap.— 1.— White tallow, 900 lb. ; 
palm oil, 400 lb. ; cocoanut oil, 200 lb. ; 
yellow rosin, 100 lb. ; total, 1,600 lb. 

2.— Tallow, 700 lb. ; palm oil, 300 lb. ; 
cocoanut oil, 200 lb. ; cotton-seed oil, 400 
lb.; total, 1,600 lb. 

3.— Lard, 550 lb. ; tallow, 400 lb. ; cot- 
ton-seed oil, 450 lb. ; rosin, 200 lb. ; total, 
1,600 lb. 

4.— Palm oil, 300 lb. ; tallow, 200 lb. ; 
rosin, 20 lb. ; total, 520 lb. 

5.— Tallow, 500 lb. ; palm oil, 300 lb. ; 
rosin, 200 lb. ; total, 1,000 lb. 

6. — Palm oil, 450 lb. ; cocoanut oil, 50 
lb. ; total, 500 lb. 

7.~Lard, 550 lb.; palm oil, 150 lb.; 
cocoanut oil, 50 lb. ; clarified rosin, 50 
lb. ; total, 800 lb. 

Paste. — 1. — Alcoholic Pumice Soap. — 
Castile soap, 60 grams ; pumice, in fine 
powder, 300 grams; alcohol, enough. Re- 
duce the soap to fine shavings, and dis- 
solve in 300 c.c. of alcohol on a water 
bath ; then add enough alcohol, previously 
heated, to bring the measure up to 1,000 
c.c. The pumice, which should be dried 
and sterilized, is then added, and the mix- 
ture is shaken energetically in a flask un- 
til it cools and acquires a thick consist- 
ency. It may then be transferred to suit- 
able vessels, capable of being well closed, 
in which it eventually congeals so as to 
form a creamy soap. It is important that 
the mixture be so manipulated that the 
pumice shall not separate ; this may be 
done by continually shaking the mixture 
until the paste is thick, but not too thick 
to pour from the flask in which it is 
made. 

2. — Marble-dust Soap. — ^Mix common 
washing soap with three times its vol- 
ume of marble dust, and knead until a 
homogeneous mass is obtained. 

3.— Oxgall Soap. — Rub together 30 
parts each of borax and quillaja extract 



(Petroleum Soap) 



(made by exhausting 150 parts of ground 
bark with boiling water and evaporating 
to a syrupy consistency), and add 120 
parts of fresh oxgall ; finely incorporate 
this mixture with 450 parts of melted 
soap. 

Patchouly Soap. — Curd soap, 41/^ lb. ; 
otto of patchouly, 1 oz. ; otto of santal, 
%: oz. ; otto of vitivert, ^ oz. 

Petroleum Soap. — The saponification of 
petroleum is easily effected through the 
agency of carnauba wax, or of beeswax, 
and we believe that soaps carrying as 
high as 25% of petroleum are now com- 
mercially manufactured by processes in 
which carnauba, beeswax or Japan 
(myrtle) wax play a prominent part. 
Petroleum, 5 parts ; refined beeswax, 4 
parts ; 90% alcohol, 5 parts ; Castile soap, 
10 parts. Put the petroleum in a suit- 
able vessel, along with the wax and alco- 
hol, and cautiously heat in the water 
bath, with occasional shakings, until com- 
plete solution is effected. Add the soap, 
finely shaved or powdered, and continue 
the heat until it is dissolved. Remove 
from the bath, agitate the vessel until 
the contents begin to "set," then pour 
into molds. 

Powdered Soaps. — 1. — All hard soaps 
may be reduced to a fine powder, when 
perfectly dry, by trituration with a pes- 
tle and mortar, but the operation is gen- 
erally confined to cosmetic soaps for shav- 
ing or other toilet purposes. The soap, 
being previously perfumed in the usual 
way, is cut into thin shavings, and these 
are laid upon sheets of paper and placed 
in the drying-room, or dried in any con- 
venient way. As soon as the shavings 
become brittle they are in a condition for 
powdering. Small quantities at a time 
should be carefully reduced to a powder 
in a mortar, and the powder afterward 
passed through a fine sieve, the fine pow- 
der being placed in a jar and kept well 
covered. All coarser particles retained 
by the sieve should then be pulverized 
and sifted as before, until the entire 
quantity is reduced to a powder fine 
enough to pass through the sieve. 

2. — Powdered Marseilles soap, 10 kgm. ; 
bran of almonds, 500 grams ; lavender oil, 
50 grams; thyme oil, 30 grams; spike 
oil, 20 grams ;"citronella oil, 20 grams. 

3. — Almond paste, and other like cos- 
metic powders, often receive this name. 
The product of the following formula is 
also much esteemed among the nigher 
classes : Almond powder, 1 lb. ; powdered 
cuttlefish bone. 5 oz. ; curd soap, air-dned, 
and powdered, 21/^ oz. ; white Castile so&p, 
air-dried, and powdered, 2% oz.; orris 



[815] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Rice Soap) 



root, in fine powder, l^^ oz. Mix, and 
pass the whole through a fine sieve. Used 
to clean, soften and .whiten the hands, and 
to prevent chaps and chilblains. 

4. — Yellow soap, 6 parts ; soda crys- 
tals, 3 parts ; pearlash, ll^ parts ; sodium 
sulphate, 1^ parts; bleached palm oil, 1 
part. These ingredients are mixed as well 
as possible without any water, spread out 
to dry, and then ground into coarse pow- 
der. The palm oil imparts an agreeable 
odor. 

5. — Powdered curd soap, 4 parts ; sal 
soda (crude sodium carbonate), 3 parts; 
sodium silicate, 2 parts. Dried as much 
as possible, and intimately mixed. 

Pumice-Stone Soaps. — These soaps are 
always produced by the cold process, 
either from cocoanut oil alone, or in con- 
junction with tallow, cotton oil, bleached 
palm oil, etc. The oil is melted and the 
lye stirred in at 32 to 35° C. ; next, the 
powdered pumice stone is sifted into the 
soap, and the latter is scented. 

1. — The following process is for making 
a hard soap, carrying pumice and alcohol, 
and to be used in cleaning and disinfec- 
tion of the hands, etc. : Almond-oil soap, 
shaved thin, 60 to 70 parts ; 96% alcohol, 
300 parts. Heat together in the water 
bath until the soap is dissolved (a back- 
flow cooling apparatus should be used in 
this operation). As soon as dissolved, 
add sufficient hot alcohol, of the same 
strength, to make 1,000 parts. Now add 
300 parts of sterilized dry pumice-stone 
powder, stirring energetically all the time. 
The whole may now be left to cool off 
slowly, but it is better to keep -up an agi- 
tation of the mass until solidification sets 
in. Too much agitation, however, causes 
the preparation to take the shape of a 
"cream." It should be kept in airtight 
containers. 

2. — Pumice-stone soap is got by dissolv- 
ing cocoanut-oil soap in a small quantity 
of water and running it into molds. Half 
its weight of powdered pumice stone is 
added, and the whole is stirred until it 
sets. 

3. — Ceylon cocoanut oil, 2 lb. ; soda lye 
of 40° B., 1 lb. ; pulverized pumice stone, 
1% lb. Perfume with oil of thyme, i/4 
oz. ; oil of bergamot, 1 dr. 

4. — Cocoanut oil, 40 kgm. ; cotton oil, 
10 kgm.; caustic soda lye, 38° B., 24 
kgm. ; caustic potash lye, 30° B., 1 kgm. ; 
powdered pumice stone, 25 kgm. ; cassia 
oil, 150 grams ; rosemary oil, 100 grams ; 
lavender oil, 50 grams ; safrol, 50 grams ; 
clove oil, 10 grams. 

Rice Soap. — Wax soap, 1,350 parts; 
starch, 200 parts ; oil of geranium, IVa 



(Salol Soap) 



parts; essence of Portugal, 2i/^ parts; 
oil of bergamot, 2^/^ parts ; essence of 
mirbane, IVz parts ; tincture of benzoin, 
colored white or red, % part ; cinnabar, 
4 parts. 

Rose Soap. — 1. — White soap, 25 lb, ; 
cocoanut oil, 25 lb. ; French vermilion, 6 
oz. Perfume with oil of bergamot, 2 oz. ; 
oil of cinnamon, 14 oz. ; oil of rose, 1^ 
oz. ; oil of cloves, 1^ oz. ; oil of neroli, % 
oz, 

2. — New olive-oil soap, 30 lb. ; new tal- 
low soap, 20 lb. ; reduce them to shav- 
ings by sliding the bars along the face 
of an inverted plane, melt in an untinned 
copper pan by the heat of steam or a 
water bath, add 1% oz, of finely ground 
vermilion, mix well, remove the heat, and 
when the mass has cooled a little add es- 
sence of roses (otto?), 3 oz. ; do. of cloves 
and cinnamon, of each 1 oz. ; bergamot, 
2^ oz. ; mix well, run the liquid mass 
through a tammy cloth, and put it into 
the frames. If the soaps employed are 
not new, 1 or 2 qt, of water must be 
added to make them melt easily. Very 
fine. 

Rosin Soap (AUenhurge) . — Rosin, 225 
lb.; cocoanut oil, 225 lb.; soda lye, 28°, 
371% lb. Use the cold process, and be- 
fore putting in the frames cut with a 
salt lye of 24° B. 

Salol. — ^The soap is prepared in two 
stages, the first being the manufacture 
of the base. This is carried out as fol- 
lows : One pound of beef suet is melted 
with % lb. of cocoanut oil, and allowed 
to cool to 120° F. ; then 14 oz., by weight, 
of 18% caustic soda solution and 2^^ oz, 
of 24% caustic potash solution are added 
and stirred together at a gentle heat for 
half an hour, or until a homogeneous mix- 
ture is formed. Perfume is now added, 
consisting of oil of caraway, 40 minims ; 
oil of bergamot, 50 minims ; oil of laven- 
der, 30 minims ; oil of thyme, 20 minims ; 
essence of mirbane, 6 drops. While the 
mass is still warm, 1 oz. of finely pow- 
dered salol is added, the whole heated suf- 
ficiently to melt the antiseptic (to 113° 
F.), and well stirred. It is then allowed 
to cool, cut into pieces of the desired size, 
dried partially in the air, and wrapped 
in tinfoil. The salol soap powder is made 
by mixing 35 oz. of finely powdered stear- 
ine soap with 1 gr. of coumarin, 5 drops 
of oil of bergamot and 2 drops of oil of 
wintergreen ; 2 lb. of this base are mixed 
with 1 oz. of finely powdered salol. 

Sand Soap. — 1. — Coco oil, 24 kgm. ; 
soda lye, 38°, 12 kgm. ; finely sifted sand, 
28 kgm. ; cassia oil, 100 grams ; sassafras 
oil, 100 grams. 



[816] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Soft Soap) 



2. — Sand Balls. — These are prepared 
by adding to the melted soap about half 
its weight of fine siliceous sand. Sifted 
Calais sand is usually employed. Some 
persons prefer the shelly sea sand (sifted 
from the shells, and well washed) for the 
purpose. For the finer qualities, finely 
powdered pumice stone is now usually 
employed. Used to prevent roughness and 
thickening of the skin in cold weather ; 
also to clean the hands when dirty. The 
best yellow soap, with or without the ad- 
dition of one-third of its weight of white 
soft soap, and a little sweet oil, is the 
best for these balls. 

Sapolio. — Sapolio contains, besides or- 
ganic matter, soda, iron, alumina, lime 
and hydrochloric, sulphuric, carbonic and 
silicic acids. 

Scouring Balls. — ^White curd soap, 35 
lb. 2 oz. ; pearlash, 6 lb. 6 oz. ; oil of 
juniper, 3 lb. 3 oz. Mix together, having 
previously added a little water to the soap 
and pearlash to dissolve them by a mod- 
erate heat ; add the oil of juniper, and 
mold into balls. 

Scouring Soap. — 1. — Dissolve in alco- 
hol 91/^ oz. of Castile soap ; add the yolks 
of 8 eggs and 8 fl.dr. of oil of turpentine. 

2. — Wine and Vinegar Stains. — White 
soap, 5 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 2 fl.dr. ; 
ammonium chloride, 50 gr. Mix. 

Shaving Soaps and Creams. — The for- 
mulas for shaving soaps and creams have 
been more appropriately classified under 
Toilet Preparations. See that chap- 
ter. Reference to the Index will give 
page number. 

Soft Soap. — 1. — Domestic. — Potash, 
7% lb. ; grease, 10 lb. ; water, 37^^ gal. 
Dissolve the potash in part of the water, 
add one-third of the grease, and heat. Mix 
in the remainder of the grease, put in a 
barrel, and add the remainder of the wa- 
ter, a little at a time, for several days. 
Stir often. Ready for use in about 2 
weeks. 

2. — Hardening. — Put into a kettle 4 
pailfuls of soft soap, and stir in it, by de- 
grees, about 1 qt. of common salt. Boil 
until all the water is separated from the 
curd, remove the fire from the kettle and 
draw off the water with a siphon (a yard 
or so of india-rubber hose will answer). 
Then pour the soap into a wooden form 
in which muslin has been placed. For 
this purpose a wooden box, suflBciently 
large, and tight, may be employed. When 
the soap is firm turn it out to dry, cut 
into bars with a brass wire, and let it 
harden. A little powdered rosin will as- 
sist the soap to harden and give it a yel- 

[ 



(Tannin Soap) 



low color. If the soft soap is very thin, 
more salt must be used. 

3.— Soft Soap with Potash.— To 20 lb. 
of clear grease take 17 lb. of pure white 
potash. Buy the potash in as fine lumps 
as it can be procured, and place it in the 
bottom of the soap barrel, which must be 
watertight, and strongly hooped. Boil the 
grease, and pour it, boiling hot, upon the 
potash ; then add 2 Shaker pailfuls of 
boiling hot water ; dissolve 1 lb. of borax 
in 2 qt. of boiling hot water, and stir all 
together thoroughly. Next morning add 
2 pailfuls of cold water, and stir for l^ 
hour; continue this process until a bar- 
rel containing 36 gal. is filled up. In a 
week, and even less, it will be fit for use. 
The borax can be turned into the grease 
while boiling, and also 1 lb. of 
rosin. Soap made in this manner al- 
ways comes, and is a first-rate article, 
and will last twice as long as that bought 
at the soap chandler's. The grease must 
be tried out, free from scraps, ham rinds, 
bones, or any other debris ; then the soap 
will be as thick as jelly, and almost as 
clear. 

4. — Shaker Soft Soap. — Grease, 4% 
qt. ; strong lye, made from wood ashes, 
18 gal. ; water, q. s. to make up to 45 
gal. 

Spermaceti Soap. — Curd soap, 14 lb. ; 
otto of bergamot, 2^/^ lb. ; otto of lemon, 
1/2 lb. 

Surgical Soap Solution. — 1. — Terrier 
employs the following liquid soap for gen- 
eral washing of patients : White Castile 
soap, 1 kgm. ; soft soap, 1 kgm. ; olive oil, 
1 kgm. ; water, 50 1. ; naphthol, 25 grams ; 
lemon oil, q. s. to perfume. Heat the soap 
and oils together in the water for 24 
hours at least, then add the naphthol, 
and filter. 

2. — Richaud recommends the following 
liquid soap for the use of surgeons in 
washing their hands, as yielding a prod- 
uct more foamy, and penetrating the pores 
of the skin more readily, than the soaps 
ordinarily used : White soap, 1,000 grams : 
soft soap, 1,000 grams ; poppy oil, 500 
grams ; water, 3 1. The white soap, pre- 
viously rasped, is added to the other con- 
stituents, and the whole is warmed until 
a homogeneous mass is obtained. There 
is now added a mixture of the following 
composition : Glycerine, 50 grams ; beta- 
naphthol, 50 grams ; alcohol, 500 grams ; 
oil of lemon, 50 grams ; water enough to 
make 15 1. of finished product. 

Tannin Soap. — 1. — Dissolve 30 lb. of 
tallow^ soap ; add 2 lb. of tannic acid, and 
enough starch to form the mass into 
cakes. 
817] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Transparent Soap) 



2. — Cocoanut oil, 9 kgm., saponified 
with 4% kgm. of soda lye ; then 250 grams 
of tannin, previously dissolved in alcohol, 
are put in, and the whole mixed. The 
soap is perfumed with 30 grams of Peru 
balsam, 10 grams of cassia oil and 10 
grams of oil of cloves. 

Tar Soap, Liquid. — 1. — Parts by 
weight : Cocoanut oil, 100 ; beech-tree 
tar, 15 ; soapmakers' lye, 60. 

2. — Tar, 1 part ; liquor potassse, 2 
parts ; soap, in shavings, 2 parts. Beat 
them together till they unite. Action 
stimulant, in psoriasis, lepra, etc. 

3. — Soft soap, 30 grams ; glycerine, 20 
grams ; liquor carbon, deterg., 5 grams. 
Digest these on the water bath until the 
alcohol is entirely evaporated. When 
cold, mix with oil of melissa, 6 drops ; oil 
of geranium, 3 drops. Set aside, and fil- 
ter in a hot-water funnel. 

4. — Medicated Tar Soap. — Cocoanut 
oil, 20 lb. ; tallow, 10 lb. ; juniper tar, 5 
lb. ; soda lye, 40° B., 15 lb. 

5. — Wood-Tar Soap. — Wood tar, 40 
parts ; ivory soap, 60 parts ; alcohol, 60 
parts; water, 40 parts. Shave the soap 
fine and put it with the water, over the 
fire. When melted thoroughly add the 
tar, and stir till it is evenly distributed 
throughout the mass. Remove from the 
fire, and let cool down, stirring all the 
time. When at about 140° F. add the 
alcohol, and stir in. Pour into tin boxes, 
and let cool and solidify. 

Terebene Soap. — Mr. Cleaver combines 
with soap, while in a melted state, the 
substance known as terebene, whereby a 
disinfectant and antiseptic soap is pro- 
duced. This substance is also combined 
with toilet creams, cosmetics, etc. The 
following proportions, which may, how- 
ever, be varied at will, are said to give 
good results : For toilet soap, 4% pt. of 
terebene are added to 112 lb. of soap. For 
household or laundry soap, he adds 6 pt. 
of terebene to 112 lb. of soap. The tere- 
bene is introduced into the soap in its 
liquid state, and thoroughly incorporated 
by stirring. The soap may be perfumed, 
if desirable. The soap is known as tere- 
bene soap. 

Transparent Toilet Soaps. — ^The best 
grades, as a rule, are made by what is 
called the "alcohol process," which con- 
sists in dissolving ordinary good, opaque 
soap, made from tallow, lard, and other 
fats and oils, in boiling alcohol, and sub- 
sequently evaporating the solvent, leaving 
the soap in a more or less transparent 
condition. By this process, any carbo- 
nate of the alkali, sulphate of sodium, 
and other impurities present in the origi- 



( Transparent Soap) 



nal soap, are entirely eliminated in the 
finished product, as these substances are 
insoluble in strong alcohol. In manufac- 
turing transparent soaps, the solution of 
soap, which is first reduced to shavings, 
and dried as completely as possible, is 
effected in a closed vessel resembling a 
still, and when all of the soap has dis- 
solved the solution is placed in another 
still, from which the alcohol is distilled 
off and condensed, ready for further use, 
after which the residue of hot soap is 
withdrawn and placed in suitable frames 
to set. After cutting the soap, which is 
usually muddy looking, and far from 
clear, it is exposed for some time to warm 
air, to evaporate remaining traces of al- 
cohol and of alcohol and water, during 
which time it becomes clear and trans- 
parent. By long keeping, and exposure 
to air, the soap darkens in color, acquir- 
ing a rich amber tint. The addition of 
glycerine materially improves the soap, 
by giving a more transparent product, be- 
sides imparting a pleasant emollient feel 
in use. Sugar and rosin also have the 
property of increasing the transparency 
of soap. Various qualities of transpar- 
ent soap are made by the alcohol proc- 
ess, resulting from the presence or ab- 
sence of the above and other substances, 
and also from the substitution of methyl- 
ated spirit for alcohol. A large amount 
of low-priced transparent soap is made 
by the so-called "cold process," from cas- 
tor oil, tallow, cocoanut, palm and other 
oils. To make the soap, the fats and 
oils are melted at a low temperature (180 
to 190° F.), in a jacketed pan, provided 
with revolving crutching arms or mixers, 
and the exact quantity of caustic soda 
solution of about 1.30 sp. gr., required 
to completely saponify the oils, is vigor- 
ously mixed in. The pan is then covered 
and left at rest for some time, during 
which the temperature rises considerably, 
and the saponification is supposed to be 
completed. A quantity of sugar, dissolved 
in hot water, is then stirred into the 
soap, and some crystals of sodium car- 
bonate also added. Alcohol is then put 
in to clear the liquid and cause the "fob" 
to rise to the surface, while the pan again 
remains covered and at rest for some 
time, after which the fob is skimmed, and 
the clear, thin soap ladled into the frames, 
where the perfumes are added, and it is 
allowed to set. After 2 days it is cut 
into bars and tablet pieces, and the cakes 
stamped, packed, etc. It is a question 
whether these soaps can be advantageous- 
ly made upon the small scale or not. 
Special apparatus and technical knowl- 



[818] 



Soaps and Candles 



(Transparent Soap) 



edge and experience are absolutely neces- 
sary in tlie production of a desirable ar- 
ticle. We append several formulas which 
may be of service, the first one of which 
contains no glycerine, and is made by 
the "cold process." 

1. — Cocoanut oil, 35 parts ; talc, 10 
parts : castor oil, 5 parts ; caustic soda 
lye, 37° B., 25 parts ; caustic soda lye, 
20° B., 15 parts ; potash, 96%, 50 parts ; 
sodium chloride, 8 parts; calcium* chloride, 
7 parts ; boiling water, 150 parts. Dis- 
solve the potash, salt and calcium chlo- 
ride in the hot water, and dilute the solu- 
tion until it shows a dilution of 10° B. 
Mix the oils, talc and lyes, and saponify 
by agitation. As soon as this occurs, mix 
the solution first made, with constant 
stirring, and add perfume to taste. Pour 
the soap into forms, and let it stand un- 
covered for 1 hour, then cover closely. 
For perfume, use 120 parts of oil of cit- 
ronella, 80 parts of oil of bergamot, and 
10 parts of tincture of musk. 

2. — A process which contains glycerine, 
but uses no alcohol : Cocoanut oil, 26 
oz. ; suet, 30 oz. ; castor oil, 37l^ oz. ; 
heated together, and allowed to reach 
finally a temperature of 156° F. ; to this 
mixture is then added 56 oz. of a 30% 
caustic soda solution at a temperature of 
66° F. "V\nien the mass has become quite 
stiff it is heated in a water bath at a 
temperature of 180 to 190° F., until com- 
pletely saponified, and a clear, transpar- 
ent product results ; 25 oz. of sugar and 
3 oz. of glycerine, dissolved in 26 oz. of 
water, strained, and warmed to 190° F., 
is gradually stirred into the mixture ; 10 
oz. of freshly powdered sodium carbonate 
is then stirred into the mixture until it 
is thoroughly dissolved, when a sample 
of the resultant compound spread upon 
glass should become hard. The rest of 
the mixture is allowed to remain in the 
water bath for about 2 hours, when a 
sample cupful should remain firm, clear 
and transparent. This last can be in- 
sured, if necessary, by adding 1 to 2 oz. 
of , sodium carbonate and warming the 
mixture to 145° F. ; when cooled, to 135° 
F. Several precautions are necessary in 
order to avoid the flocculent or turbid 
appearance of the product, namely, to use 
purified fats of the best quality, pure 
glycerine, and water free from lime. 

8. — Best tallow, 10 kgm. ; best olive 
oil. 2 kgm. ; best cocoanut oil, 4 kgm. ; 
solution caustic soda, 38° B., 6% kgm. ; 
solution caustic potash, 38° B., 6^^ kgm. ; 
distilled water, 1 kgm.; glycerine (C. P.), 
28° B., 8 kgm. : alcohol, 6% kgm. ; water, 
11/4 kgm. Perfume with oil of bergamot. 



(Vaseline Soap) 



300 grams ; oil of geranium, 50 grams ; 
oil of sandalwood, 10 grams ; oil of Cey- 
lon cinnamon, 20 grams ; oil of cloves, 20 
grams; oil of petit-grain (French), 50 
grams ; oil of lavender, 50 grams ; 94% 
alcohol, 600 grams. Melt the fats, and 
strain ; heat to 75° C, add the glycerine 
and the aqueous solution of the alkalies 
in a thin stream. Heat and stir until 
saponification takes place. Cool the mix- 
ture to 80° C, then add the alcohol, pre- 
viously mixed with the water; this will 
redissolve the mass. Finally, add the per- 
fume, pour into molds, and let cool. 

4. — Animal fat, 450 parts ; cocoanut oil, 
50 parts ; caustic soda, 36° B., 250 parts ; 
common salt, 100 parts ; vaseline, 15() 
parts ; distilled water, 1,000 parts. Dis- 
solve in the water bath, the fat and oil 
in the soda lye, add the salt and vaseline, 
and finally the water. Color and perfume 
to taste. 

Turpentine Soap. — As a rule, the soap 
is boiled from palm-kernel oil and some 
tallow, with 20% of rosin, saponified with 
lye of 25% and run to clear paste. To 
100 parts of the charge use 5 to 6% 
of black tar, such as may be obtained 
in stearine factories, from the distilla- 
tion, and boil it with it. After it has 
been boiled for a time salt it out with 
strong lye or salt. The lye is then re- 
moved, the grain washed out with hot 
water so that the soap will be transpar- 
ent and run into the mold. To each 100 
parts, 2 to 3 parts of oil of turpentine 
are added, and stirred cold, and finally 
filled with water glass, or the charge is 
boiled as in the Eschweg (mottled soap) 
process and the soap run into the mold. 
Then the oil of turpentine is added, the 
soap crutched cold, and, if desired, filled 
with water glass. The soap thus pro- 
duced has an agreeable tar odor or a 
turpentine smell, is usually pressed, and 
is of dark color, approaching black. 

Vanilla Soap. — 1. — White tallow soap, 
10 kgm. ; perfume with tincture of va- 
nilla, 500 grams ; oil of roses, 5 grams. 
Color with 1(X) grams of burnt sienna. 

2. — Lard, with vanilla, 30 lb. ; cocoa 
butter, 10 lb. ; palm oil, 10 lb. ; caustic 
lye, 36° B., 26 lb.; wax, 2 lb.; starch, 
2 lb. Perfume with tincture of vanilla, 
4 oz. ; tincture of musk, 2 oz. ; tincture 
of ambergris, 2 oz. ; oil of rose, % oz. 
Lard with vanilla is prepared by adding 
the vanilla to the lard, 1 oz. to the lb., 
keeping it at a moderate heat for some 
days, then straining, etc. 

Vaseline Soap. — 1. — Cocoanut oil, 160 
parts ; vaseline, 20 parts ; lye of 40" B,. 
76 parts; water, 4 parts. 



[819] 



Soaps and Candles 



(White Soap) 



2. — Melt slowly, cocoanut oil, by weight, 
10 parts ; vaseline, by Aveight, 2 parts ; 
add 50 grams of soapmakers' lye. When 
the mass is quite clear, run into molds 
and perfume. 

3. — Vaseline Tar Soap. — ^Saponify 40 
lb. of cocoanut oil and 6 lb. of tar with 
22 lb. of lye, 40° B. Dissolve 4 lb. of 
yellow vaseline, and stir in tbe soap, with 

1 lb. of lukewarm water. 

Vegetable Soap, hy Delteil, Paris. — ■ 
Farina of pistachio nuts, 3 parts ; beech 
nuts, 1 part ; buckwheat meal, orris and 
patchouli, 1 part. The perfume of the 
product can be varied. It may be either 
essence of rose, almonds, bergamot, or 
musk. 

Violet Soap. — Yellow. — Yellow cocoa- 
nut oil, 20 lb. ; palm oil, 20 lb. ; tallow, 
10 lb. ; soda lye at 36° B., 26 lb. ; pow- 
dered orris root, 4 lb. To which are add- 
ed the following perfumes : Oil of lemon, 
4 oz. ; oil of rhodium, 2 oz. ; oil of thyme, 

2 oz. ; tincture of musk, 4 oz. Color with 
cadmium yellow. 

Washhalls or Savonettes. — These may 
be made of any of the milder toilet soaps 
or from the subjoined formulae. The 
spherical form is given by pressing the 
soap in molds, or by first forming them 
into balls with the hand, and, when quite 
dry and hard, turning them in a lathe. 
The paste may be formed into balls by 
hand, and, when quite dry, finished by 
turning them on a lathe. They may be 
polished by rubbing with a cloth wet with 
a little spirit. 

1. — Curd soap, in shavings, 3 lb. ; fin- 
est yellow soap, in shavings, 2 lb. ; soft 
water, % pt. Melt by gentle heat, and 
stir in powdered starch, 1% lb. When, 
the mass has considerably cooled, add es- 
sence of lemon or bergamot, 1% oz., and 
make into balls. 

2. — ^^Savonnettes of Camphor. — White 
curd soap, 3 lb. Melt, with the addition 
of a little water, and then add sperma- 
ceti, 4 oz. ; camphor, cut small, 2 oz. 
These are first to be melted together, and 
then added to the liquid soap. 

3. — ^Camphor. — Melt spermaceti, 2 oz. ; 
add camphor, cut small, 1 oz. ; dissolve, 
and add the mixture to white curd soap, 
11/2 lb., previously melted by the aid of a 
little water and gentle heat, and allowed 
to cool considerably. These balls should 
be covered with tinfoil. 

White Soap. — Put into a pan capable 
of holding about 100 gal., tallow, lard or 
bleached palm oil, 120 lb. ; cocoanut oil, 
40 lb. ; apply gentle heat, with occasional 
stirring, until all the fatty matter is melt- 
ed. When the liquid grease has attained I 



(Wool- Washing Compound) 

the heat of about 120° F., add, gradually, 
80 lb. of lye at 86° B., and stir well un- 
til a complete union of the fatty matters 
and alkali is effected. The temperature 
of the ingredients at the time of adding 
the alkali must not be higher than 122° 
F. ; otherwise there will be a separation 
of the lye from the fatty materials. If 
the stirring has been diligently pursued, 
the saponification will be complete in 
about 2 hours, and the soap is then ready 
for the frame. If it is desired to per- 
fume the soap, this should be done while 
it is in the pan, and before it has had 
time to cool. It is not a good plan, when 
making small quantities of soap, to add 
the perfume after the soap is in the frame, 
since it is then more diflBcult to effect 
a perfect incorporation of the respective 
materials. 

Windsor Soap. — The best Windsor soap 
is made of a mixture of olive oil, 1 part, 
and ox tallow or suet, 9 parts, saponified 
by caustic soda ; but most of the Windsor 
soaps of the shops is merely ordinary curd 
soap, scented. On the large scale, the 
perfume is added while the soap is in the 
soft state, just before it is put into the 
frames, but on the small scale it may be 
prepared in the same way as soap a la 
rose. 

1. — Best beef tallow and oil soap, as 
above, 3 cwt. ; essence of caraway, 2 lb. ; 
English oil of lavender, ^^ lb. ; oil of rose- 
mary, 1/^ lb. ; mix as soap a la rose. 

2. — Hard curd soap, 1 cwt. ; oil of 
caraway, l^^ lb. ; tincture of musk, 12 
oz. ; English oil of lavender, 2 oz. ; oil 
of origanum, ^4 oz, ; as last. 

3. — Curd soap, melted, and scented with 
the oils of caraway and bergamot. Brown 
Windsor soap is the same, colored. 

4. — This famous toilet .soap, as pre- 
pared in London, is generally made from 
tallow, 9 parts, and olive oil, 1 part, and 
is perfumed, for every 1,000 lb. of the 
paste, with oil of caraway, 6 lb. ; oil of 
lavender, ll^ lb.; oil of rosemary, li/^ lb. 

Witch Hazel Soap. — The juice of the 
plant, Hamamelis virginica, or common 
witch hazel, is mixed with soap, and the 
various compounds for toilet purposes 
which contain soap, and it is said that 
such compounds are beneficial in cases of 
bruises and lacerations of the skin. 

Wool-Washi7ig Compound. — 1. — This is 
a mixture composed of dried soda, 3.5 
parts ; powdered soap, 10 parts ; sal am- 
moniac, 10 parts. 

2. — A good soap for freeing wool of 
grease can best be prepared from olive 
and Cochin cocoanut oils. Olive oil, 1,760 



[820 1 



Soaps and Candles 



(Wool- Washing Compound) 

lb., are boiled to a grain with caustic 
soda lye. After the soap has separated, 
and the lye has been drawn off, 1,960 lb. 
of potash solution of 20° B. are added, 
and allowed to boil a little. Now 440 
lb. of Cochin oil are added, and, when 
well taken up, the same quantity of pot- 
ash solution of 20° B. is gradually added 
as the soap can take it up. Then place 
in tinned forms of about 220 lb. capacity. 
3. — A cheap and less valuable article, 
such as is frequently used for cleaning or- 
dinary wool, is also easy to prepare. 
Elaine, 1,760 lb., and tallow, 440 lb., are 
boiled to a grain, the precise method of 
boiling being immaterial, provided one ob- 
tains a good firm grain. In another ket- 
tle a soda solution is prepared of 30° 
B. Now take 220 lb. of this soda solu- 



( Yellow Soap) 



tion, place it in a shallow kettle with 
440 lb. of the grain soap, stir well, and 
then add, with constant stirring, 220 lb. 
of dry soda. In this way a thick paste is 
obtained, which is allowed to cool in the 
pan, and is removed, after 48 hours, with 
a chisel. This is broken up into small 
pieces of the size of an egg, and packed 
in barrels for shipment. 

Yellow Soap.— TaWow, I1/2 lb.; sal 
soda, 1^ lb. ; rosin, 56 lb, ; stone lime, 28 
lb, ; palm oil, 8 oz. ; soft water, 28 gal. 
Put soda, lime and water into a kettle, 
and boil, stirring well ; then let it settle, 
and pour off the lye. In another kettle 
melt the tallow, rosin and palm oil, hav- 
ing it hot, the lye being also boiling hot. 
Mix all together, stirring well, and the 
work is done. 



[821] 



CHAPTEK XXIV 



soLDEES a:n^d soldeeij^g 



GENERAL SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 



SOLDERING FLUIDS, FATS, 

PASTES AND POWDERS 
HINTS ON SOLDERING 
TABLE OF SOLDERS 
DETAILED FORMULAS FOR SOL- 
DERS 
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLDERS 
SOFT SOLDERS 
HARD SOLDERS 



DETAILED FORMULAS FOR SOL- 
DERS (Continued) 
GERMAN SILVER SOLDERS 
SILVER SOLDERS 
GOLD SOLDERS 
ALUMINUM SOLDERS 
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS FOR 
SOLDERS FOR SPECIAL PUR- 
POSES 



SOLDERING FLUIDS, FATS, 
PASTES AND POWDERS 

The Soldering of Metals and the Prepa- 
ration of Solders and Soldering Agents. — 
The object of soldering is to unite two 
portions of the same metal or of different 
metals by means of a more fusible metal 
or metallic alloy, applied when melted, 
and known by the name of solder. As 
the strength of the soldering depends on 
the nature of the solder used, the degree 
of strength required for the joint must be 
kept in view in choosing a solder. The 
parts to be joined must be free from oxide 
and thoroughly clean ; this can be secured 
by filing, scouring, scraping, or pickling 
with acids. The edges must exactly fit, 
and be heated to the melting-point of the 
solder. The latter must have a lower 
melting-point than either of the portions 
of metal that require to be joined, and if 
possible only those metals should be 
chosen for solder which form alloys with 
them. The solder should also as far as 
possible have the same color and approxi- 
mately the same^ strength as the article 
whose edges are to be united. 

To remove the layers of oxide which 
form during the process of soldering, vari- 
ous so-called "fluxes" are employed. These 
fluxes are melted and applied to the joint, 
and act partly to keep off the air, thus 
preventing oxidation, and partly reduce 
and dissolve the oxides themselves. The 
choice of a flux depends on the quantity of 
heat required for soldering. 

Solders are classed as soft and hard 
solders. Soft solders, also called tin sol- 
ders, or white solders, consist of soft, 
readily fusible metals or alloys, and do not 
possess much strength ; they are easy to 



handle on account of their great fusibility. 
Tin, lead-tin and alloys of tin, lead, and 
bismuth are used for soft solder, pure 
tin being employed only for articles made 
of the same metal (pure tin). 




Carbon Soldering Block and Holder 

The addition of some lead makes the 
solder less fusible but cheaper, while that 
of bismuth lowers the melting-point. Soft 
solders are used for soldering easily fusible 
metals such as Britannia metal, etc., also 




Asbestos Soldering Block 

for soldering tin-plate. To prepare solder, 
the metals are melted together in a graph- 
ite crucible at as low a temperature as 
possible, well stirred with an iron rod, 
and cast into ingots in an iron mold. 
To melt the solder when required for sol- 
dering, the soldering iron is used ; the lat- 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[823] 



Solders and Soldering 



(Soldering Fluids) 



ter should be kept as free from oxidation 
as possible, and the part applied should" be 
tinned over. 

The fluxes generally used in the soft- 
soldering of metals are powdered rosin or 
a solution of chloride of zinc, alone or 
combined with sal ammoniac. 

Soldering Fluids, Antacid. — 1. — A neu- 
tral soldering liquid can be prepared by 
mixing 27 parts neutral zinc chloride, 11 
parts sal ammoniac and 62 parts water, or 
1 part sugar of milk, 1 part glycerine, and 
8 parts water. 

2. — Into an earthenware cup pour some 
commercial muriatic acid, into which put 
small pieces of scrap zinc. Let one piece 
dissolve or nearly so before another is 
put in, as otherwise the acid gets very hot, 
and is liable to break the jar. Always 
put more in than the acid will dissolve. 
Then let it stand for twenty-four hours. 
Now pour half of this into a small bottle 
with a wide mouth, and dilute with an 
equal volume of water, and filter. Add 
liquid ammonia by the drop until the 
precipitate formed in the beginning dis- 




Asbestos Soldering Cone 



solves again. Apply with a stick or small 
brush. Use what remains in the jar to 
clean the iron after each heating, by dip- 
ping the whole pointed end thereof into 
the liquid. This flux may be used on al- 
most any metal except aluminum, zinc or 
galvanized iron. For the two last named 
the commercial acid should be used, for 
galvanized iron wire use 3 parts lead and 
1 part zinc. 

.^^^'^the shape of the article to be soldered 
does not admit of the use of liquid solder- 
ing water, mix the solution of ammonia- 
zinc chloride with starch until a syrupy 
liquid is obtained. 

3. — "Miiller soldering liquid," so-called, 
is prepared by mixing 1 part of a solu- 
tion of phosphoric acid with 1 to 1^ parts 
of 80% alcohol. 

4. — If the above are not within the 
reach of the user, a serviceable soldering 
liquid may be formed by mixing together 1 
part of lactic acid, 1 part glycerine, and 8 
parts water. 

5. — Jewelers' Soldering Fluid. — Add to 
alcohol as much chloride of zinc as it will 
dissolve. A good soft solder for repairing 



(Soldering Powders) 



is prepared from equal Tiuantities of tin 
and lead from tea boxes. 

6. — Silver, Anti-oxidizer for. — A wash 
of a paste of whiting and water dried on 
the bright parts of jewelry or silverware 
will save it from oxidation while solder- 
ing, but must not interfere with the bo- 
raxed joint to be soldered. 

Fats. — Soldering fat or grease is com- 
monly a mixture of rosin and tallow with 
the addition of a small quantity of sal 
ammoniac. It is particularly adapted to 
the soldering of tinned ware, because it is 
easily wiped off the surface after the joint 
is made, whereas if rosin were used alone, 
the scraping away might remove some of 
the tin and spoil the object. 

1. — In a pot of sufficient size and over 
a slow fire melt together 500 grams of 
olive oil and 400 grams of tallow ; stir 
in slowly 250 grams of rosin in powder, 
and let the whole boil up once ; let it cool 
down, and add 125 grams of saturated 
solution of sal ammoniac, stirring the 
while. When cold, this preparation will 
be ready for use. 

2. — A soldering fat for tin-plate, pref- 
erable to ordinary rosin, as it can be 
more easily removed after soldering, is 
prepared as follows : 150 parts beef-tal- 
low, 250 parts rosin, and 150 parts olive 
oil are melted together in a crucible and 
well stirred, 50 parts powdered sal am- 
moniac dissolved in as little water as pos- 
sible being added. 

3. — Soldering fat for iron is composed 
of 50 parts of olive oil and 50 parts pow- 
dered sal ammoniac. 

4. — Soldering fat for aluminum is made 
by melting together equal parts of rosin 
and tallow, half the quantity of zinc chlo- 
ride being added to the mixture. 

Paste. — Mix starch paste with a solu- 
tion of tin chloride to produce a liquid 
about the consistency of syrup. This is 
more readily applied than ordinary solder- 
ing liquid. 

Powders. — 1. — Borax is the flux most 
frequently used for hard soldering. It 
should be applied to the soldering seam 
either dry or stirred to a paste with water. 
When used direct the process is somewhat 
difficult. The parts must be carefully 
cleaned each time prior to applying the 
salt. The salt in contact with the solder- 
ing iron forms great bubbles, and easily 
scales away from the surface of the parts 
to be soldered. It is advisable to use cal- 
cined borax ; i.e., borax from which the 
water of crystallization has been driven 
out by heat, as it does not become so in- 
flated as ordinary borax. Borax dissolves 
the metallic oxides forming on the joint. 



[824] 



J 



Solders and Soldering 



(Table of Solders) 



'-'o avoid the difficulty mentioned, in- 
ste d of borax use its component parts, 
boric acid and sodium carbonate. The heat 
of the soldering iron acting upon them 
produces an excellent flux. 

2. — Mix equal parts of neutral zinc 
chloride, free from iron, and powdered sal 
ammoniac. To use, dissolve 1 part of the 
salt in 3 or 4 parts of water. 

3. — For hard soldering aluminum 
bronze use a mixture of equal parts of 
cryolite and barium chloride as a flux. 

4. — For hard-soldering copper and cop- 
per alloys use finely powdered cryolite, 
or a mixture of 2 parts powdered cryolite 
and 1 part phosphoric acid. 



(Table of Solders) 



"S. — For soldering iron with cast iron 
use a flux composed of equal parts of cast- 
iron filings and calcined borax. Pulverize 
this black, glassy mixture, and spread the 
powder on the seam. 

6. — For soldering steel, melt in an 
earthen vessel 3 parts of borax, 2 parts of 
colophony, 1 part of carbonate of potash, 
1 part powdered hard soap to which 3 
parts of pulverized glass and 2 parts of 
steel filings have been added. Run the 
melted mass on cold sheet iron. When 
completely cooled, break in pieces and 
grind fine. Apply to the surfaces to be 
joined a few minutes before uniting them. 



TABLE OF SOLDERS 



Name. Composition. 

Soft, coarse Tin, 1 ; lead, 2 

Soft, fine Tin, 2 ; lead, 1 

Soft, fusible Tin, 2 ; lead, 1 ; bis., 1 

Pewtcrer's Tin, 3 ; lead, 4 ; bis., 2 

Spelter, soft Copper, 1 ; zinc, 1 

Spelter, hard Copper, 2 ; zinc, 1 

Silver, fine Silver, 66.6 ; copper, 23.4 ; zinc, 10 

Silver, common Silver, 66.6 ; copper, 30 ; zinc, 3.4 

Silver, for brass and iron Silver, 1 ; brass, 1 

Silver, more fusible Silver, 1 ; brass, 1 ; zinc, 1 

n^^A f^^ io «„«„4. ^^^A S Cold, 18 carats fine, 66.6 

Gold, for 18 carat gold j gjl^^'r, 16.7 ; copper, 16.7 

Gold, more fusible Same as above with a trace of zinc 

Platinum Fine gold 

Material to be Soldered. Solder. Flux. 

Tin Soft, coarse or fine Rosin or zinc, chl. 

Lead Soft, coarse Rosin 

Brass, copper, iron and zinc Soft, coarse • Zinc, chl. 

Pewter Pewterer's or fusible Rosin or zinc, chl. 

Brass Spelter, soft Borax 

Copper and iron Spelter, soft or hard Borax 

Brass, copper, iron, steel Any silver, S. Borax 

Gold Gold, S. Borax 

Platinum Fine gold Borax 



No. 



Name. 



Composition. 



Flux. 



Fluxing 
point. 



1. Plumbers' coarse solder Tin, 1 ; lead, 3 R 

2. Plumbers' sealed solder Tin, 1 ; lead, 2 R 

3. Plumbers' fine solder Tin, 1 ; lead, 2 R 

4. Tinners' solder Tin, IV2 ; lead, 1 R or Z 

5. Tinners' fine solder Tin, 2 ; lead, 1 R or Z 

6. Hard solder for copper, brass, iron.. Copper, 2 ; zinc, 1 B 

7. Hard solder for copper, brass, iron.. Good tough brass, 5 ; zinc, 1. . . B 

8. Hard solder for copper, brass, iron, 

more fusible than 6 or 7 Copper, 1 ; zinc, '1 B 

9. Hard solder for copper, brass, iron.. Good tough plate brass B 

10. Silver solder for jewelers Silver, 19 ; copper, 1 ; brass, 1. . B 

[825] 



800° F. 
441° F. 
370° F. 
334° F. 
340° F. 



Solders and Soldering 



(Table of Solders) 



(Table of Solders) 



TABLE OF ^OIjD^U^— {Continued) 



No. 



Name. 



Composition. 



Flux. 



Fluxing 
point. 



11. Silver solder for plating 

12. Silver solder for silver, brass, iron. , 

13. Silver solder for steel joints 

14. Silver solder, more fusible 

15. Gold solder 

16. Bismuth solder 

17. Bismuth solder 

18. Bismuth solder 

19. Bismuth solder 

20. Bismuth solder 

21. Pewterers' solder 



Silver, 2 ; brass, 1 , 

Silver, 1 ; brass, 1 

Silver, 19 ; copper, 1 ; brass, 1 . 
Silver, 5 ; brass, 5 ; zinc, 5. . . , 
Gold, 12 ; silver, 2 ; copper, 4. , 
Lead, 4 ; tin, 4 ; bismuth, 1 . . . 
Lead, 3 ; tin, 3 ; bismuth, 1 . . , 
Lead, 2; tin, 2; bismuth, 1. . 
Lead, 2; tin, 1; bismuth, 2. ., 
Lead, 3 ; tin, 5 ; bismuth, 3. . , 
Lead, 4; tin, 3; bismuth, 2. ., 



B 

B 

B 

B 

B 
R or Z 320° F. 
R or Z 310° F. 
R or Z 292° F. 
R or Z 236° F. 
R or Z 202° F. 
RorZ 



Abbreviations: R, rosin; B, borax; Z, chloride of zinc. 



BRASS SOLDERS 



Copper. Zinc. 



Tin. 



Lead. 



Very strong 58 

Strong 53 

Medium 50 

Medium 54l^ 

Easily fusible 34 

Easily fusible 44 

White solder 57 



42 




47 


. 


50 




431/2 


1 


66 


. 


50 


4 


28 


15 



Color. 



Reddish yellow- 
Reddish yellow 
Reddish yellow 
Reddish yellow 

White 
Gray 

White 



The best solder for platinum is fine 
gold. The joint is not only very infusible, 
but it is not easily acted upon by common 
agents. For German silver joints an ex- 



cellent solder is composed of equal parts 
of silver, brass and zinc. The proper flux 
is borax. 



SOLDERS FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES 



Solders. 



Gold. 



Sil- 
ver. Copper. Tin. 



Bis- Melting 

Zinc. Lead. muth. Brass, point. 



Pewterer's 

Pewterer's, soft. . 
Pewterer's, soft. . 

Tinman's 

Coarse 

Plumber's 

Hard spelter 

Gold 

For brazing steel. 
Hardest silver. . . . 

Hard silver 

Soft silver 

For aluminum. . . 



1 
19 
4 
3 
o 



360° 



393° 
500° 
475° 



WHITE SOLDERS FOR GOLD WORK 



No. 



Name. 



Fine silver. 
Parts. 



Copper. 
Parts. 



Spelter. 
Parts. 



Fusing 
point. 



Hard solder. . , 

Medium 

Easy 

Common hard. 
Common easy. 



16 
15 
14 
121/2 
111/2 
[826] 



31/2 


1/2 


4 


1 


41/2 




6 


v/2 


eVa 


2 



1.866° F. 
1,843° F. 
1.818° F. 
1,826° F. 
1,802° F. 



Solders and Soldering 



(Soft Solders) 



(Soft. Solders) 



COLORED SOLDERS FOR GOLD WORK 

Fine gold. Fine silver. 

No. Name. Parts. Parts. 

1. Best gold solder 12i^ 4i/^ 

2. Medium gold solder 10 6 

3. Common gold solder 8l^ 6^ 



Shot copper. 
Parts. 



SILVER SOLDERS 



No. 



Name. 



Fine Shot Arse- 

silver, copper. Brass. Zinc. nic. Compo. 
oz. dwt. dwt. gr. dwt. gr. dwt. gr. dwt. dwt. gr. 



8. 

*9. 
*10. 

IL 
*12 

IS. 
*14. 

15. 

16. 



Hardest — Silver, solder 1 

Hard 1 

Easy 1 

Best hard 1 

Medium 1 

Easy 1 

Common 1 

Enameling 1 

Enameling 1 

Filigree 16 

Quick running 1 

Chain 1 

Easy chain 1 

Common 1 

Common easy 1 

Very common 1 






5 















. . 







4 


9 





5 


s 





6 


12 





9 


15 





5 








10 





L6 





12 



.. 

10 

.. 

12 

.. 

.. 



6 16 
10 



15 



.. 3 12 

2 10 



10 



..12 
1 oz. 1 cz. 



*Silver solders recommended for special work. 



DETAILED FORMULAS FOR 
SOLDERS 

Soft Solders. 

Soft solder, or tin solder, can be used 
to solder many different metals, gold, sil- 
ver, lead, copper, and steel, as well as 
brass, wrought iron and zinc. Its prin- 
cipal use, however, is in ordinary tin- 
smith's work, for which tin plate, zinc 
and sheet brass are the materials most 
frequently employed. Soft solder can be 
used for any purpose where the soldered 
articles need not be heated much above 
the boiling point of water, so that there 
is no danger of its melting. 

For ordinary tinsmith's work, where 
the resistance of the solder to acids, etc., 
is of less importance, it is customary to 
use mixtures of tin and lead, in varying 
proportions according to different pur- 
poses and according to the required melt- 
ing point of the solder. Experts have 
taken much pains to make accurate deter- 
minations in this important matter, and 
the following table gives the fusing point 
(Centigrade) of a solder containing a 
given amount of lead to 100 parts of tin : 



Lead. 

16.5 

30 

33.3 

40 

45 

50 , 

60 . 

66.6 , 
100 , 
119 . 
125 . 
179 . 
200 . 
233 . 
250 . 
268 . 
300 . 
358 . 
536 . 
715 . 
880 . 
1072 . 



Fusing Point, 

Deg. C. 

. . . 194* 

... 194 

... 194 

... 194 

... 187 

... 187 

... 181 

... 181 

... 197 

. . . 197 

... 210 

. . . 210 

. . . 235 

. . . 235 

. . . 235 

... 243 

... 246 

. . . 246 

. . . 270 

. . . 283 

. . . 292 

. . . 292 



Density of 
the Alloy. 
7.927 
7.994 
8.109 
8.234 
8.267 
8.408 
8.447 
8.726 
8.864 
9.038 
9.270 
9.433 
9.554 
9.640 
9.770 
9.797 
9.939 

10.052 

10.331 

10.595 

10.751 

10.815 



It will be seen that the alloys of tin and 
lead become denser and less readily fusi- 
ble as the contents of lead are increased. 



[827] 



Solders and Soldering 



(Soft Solders) 



According to other experiments, tlie fusing 

points of the alloys are as given below : 

Fusing Point. 

Lead. Tin. Deg. C. 

207 118 189 

207 354 180 

207 708 190 

621 236 211 

1242 118 270 

Before the solders really melt, they 
soften considerably, and the following 
table gives the softening point of some 
alloys : 

Softening Melting 
Point, Point. 

Lead. Tin. Deg. C. Deg. C. 
1035 236 185 189 

1242 236 189 194 to 195 

1449 236 192 198 

1656 236 202 208 to 210 

Alloys Used Specially for Solders: 







Fusing Point 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Deg. G. 


1180 


4140 


240 


1180 


3105 


223 


1180 


2070 


200 


1180 


1242 


181 


1180 


1035 


185 


1180 


828 


190 



Composition of Ordinary Soft Solder, — 
Lead, 207 ; tin, 118. 

Weak Soft Solder.— head, 207; tin, 
236. 

Strong Soft Solder. — Lead, 414 ; tin, 
118. 

Fluid Solder.— head, 621; tin, 590. 

Fluid solder is prepared by making the 
given mixture and letting it stand until 
partially hardened, when the part which 
is still fluid is poured off. In using this, 
it is poured into large seams, and works 
extremely well. The stiffened part can be 
used as ordinary solder. 

If the alloys are to be made in small 
quantities, it requires very sensitive scales 
to weigh the metals accurately. The 
composition of some varieties of tin sol- 
der is given below, in round numbers, 
with the fusing point of each. They are 
numbered according to their fluidity, No. 
1 being the hardest. 

1. — Lead, 2; tin, 1. Fusing point, 
240* C. 

2. — Lead, 1 ; tin, 1. Fusing point, 
200° C. 

3.— Tin, 2 to 21/2; lead, 1. Fusing 
point, 185 to 190° C. 

4. — Lead, 10 ; tin, 177» Fusing point, 
abpvit 180° Q, 



(Hard Solders) 



Bismuth Solder. — For some purposes 
even the soft^ solders of tin and lead are 
too difficult of fusion, and in this case 
alloys of tin, lead, and bismuth are em- 
ployed. This is a most excellent solder, 
but its use is limited to very special pur- 
poses, on account of the expensiveness 
of bismuth. For ordinary work, also, 
there is no need of such an extremely 
low fusing point. (See Fusible Metals 
in chapter on Alloys.) 

Hard Solders. 

In treating of soft solders, it was shown 
that the fusing point of these composi- 
tions varies considerably. The variations 
are still greater in the case of hard sol- 
ders, whose composition is such that they 
melt only on being brought to strong 
red heat. Some of them can be melted 
in the ordinary way, with the aid of a 
soldering iron, while in the case of others, 
a special apparatus, such as a bellows, 
must be employed, or the whole object 
to be soldered must be strongly heated. 
The numerous kinds of hard solders, 
with different fusing points, are made 
necessary by the difference in the nature 
of the various metals and metallic com- 
positions which may require soldering. 

Yellow Hard Solders. — 1. — Very Hard. 
— a. — Appelbaum's Compositions. — 1. — 
Copper, 58; zinc, 42. 

b.— Sheet brass, 85.42; zinc, 13.58. 

c. — Karmarsch's Composition. — Brass, 
7 ; zinc, 1. 

d. — Prechtl's Composition. — Copper, 
53.30; zinc, 43.10; tin, 1.30; lead, 0.30. 

2. — The foregoing compositions have 
the yellow color of brass, are very strong, 
and require very high temperatures for 
melting, so that they can be used for 
copper, steel, and all kinds of iron. The 
ones next given melt more easily than 
the first, and are suitable for all kinds 
of work with brass. 

a.— Sheet brass, 81.12; zinc, 18.88. 

b.— Copper, 54.08 ; zinc, 45.29. 

c. — Brass, 3 to 4 ; zinc, 1. 

d. — Brass, 78.26; zinc, 17.41; silver, 
4.33. This is somewhat expensive on ac- 
count of the silver, but has the valuable 
property of being at once tenacious and 
ductile, and can be worked into wire with 
hammer or rollers. 

3. — Still softer are : a. — Brass, 5 ; 
zinc. 2.5. 

b. — Brass, 5 ; zinc, 5. 

Half White.— l.—Goi^pev, 53.3; zinc, 
46.7. 

2.— Brass, 12; zinc, 4 to 7 ; tin, 1. 

3.— Brass, 22; zinc, 10; tin, 1. 



[828] 



1 



Solders and Soldering 



(German Silver Solders) 



4.— Copper, 44; zinc, 49; tin, 3.20; 
lead, 1.20. 

1 (Volk's liard solder) and 4 (Prechtl's 
half white) are quite readily fusible. 

White. — 1. — Brass, 20 ; zinc, 1 ; tin, 4. 

2. — Brass, 11 ; zinc, 1 ; tin, 2. 

3. — Brass, 6 ; zinc, 4 ; tin, 10. 

4.— Copper, 57.44; zinc, 27.98; tin, 
14.58. 



als 



Solders Prepared from the Pure 
Tin. 



Met- 
Lead. 

' i'.26 
Tin. 



Copper. Zinc. 

Very hard 57.94 42.06 

Very hard 58.33 41.67 

Hard 50.00 50.00 

Soft 33.34 66.66 

Soft, half white 44.00 49.90 3.30 

Soft, white 57.44 27.98 14.58 

Soft 72.00 18.00 4.00 

Soft, Volk's. . . . 53.30 46.70 

Solders of Brass and Zinc. 

Brass. Zinc. 

Very hard 85.42 12.58 

Very hard 7.00 1.00 

Hard 3.00 1.00 

Hard 4.00 1.00 

Soft 5.00 2.00 

Soft 5.00 4.00 

Half white 12.00 5.00 1.00 

Half white 44.00 20.00 2.00 

White 40.00 2.00 8.00 

White 22.00 2.00 4.00 

White 18.00 12.00 30.00 

Very ductile 78.25 17.25 

For brazier's work... 81.12 18.88 

Brass Solders. 

Yellow, hard... 53.30 43.10 1.30 0.30 

Half white, soft 44.00 49.90 3.30 1.20 

White 57.44 27.98 14.58 

German Silver Solders. 

The solders thus classified, as their 
name implies, are used principally for sol- 
dering German silver. This alloy contains 
nickel and is very hard and white, and it 
requires solders which have corresponding 
qualities. German silver belongs among 
the alloys which are very difficult of fu- 
sion, and the solders used for it are those 
which have very high fusing points, and 
belong therefore to the general class of 
hard solders. They have great strength, 
and are used for other purposes, in cases 
where the object to be soldered is exposed 
to heavy strain. Grerman silver solder can 
be given a color very much like that of 
steel, and is much used in steel work. 

In regard to its composition, it bears 
this relation to ordinary hard solders, that 
while these may be considered to be brass 
with an admixture of zinc, German silver 



(Silver Solders) 



[829] 



solder may be called a mixture of zinc and 
German silver solder. It is softer or hard- 
er according to the greater or less amount 
of zinc contained in it; but if this ex- 
ceeds a certain limit, the solder becomes 
very brittle. 

There are two principal varieties of 
German silver solder, called, relatively, 
hard and soft. The former is exceedingly 
strong, on account of the large amount of 
nickel it contains, and is sometimes called 
"steel solder," being generally used for 
soldering steel. 

Soft German Silver Solders. — 1. — Cop- 
per, 4.5 ; zinc, 7.0 ; nickel, 1.0. 

2.— Copper, 35.0 ; zinc, 56.5 ; nickel, 8.5. 

3. — German silver, 5 ; zinc, 4. 

1 and 2 are quite similar in composition, 
and have correspondingly similar proper- 
ties ; in 3, German silver, that is, a com- 
pound of copper, zinc, and nickel, is used 
directly, and in preparing this solder it is 
necessary to know the exact composition 
of the alloy, or to try the solder in small 
quantities, in order to judge of the cor- 
rect amount of zinc to be added. It may 
be assumed that the proportions are cor- 
rect, when the metallic mixture is lus- 
trous, and brittle enough to allow of pul- 
verizing when hot, and when it will be- 
come fluid in contact with a red-hot sol- 
dering iron. 

Hard German Silver Solders (Steel 
Solders). — 1. — Copper, 35; zinc, 56.5; 
nickel, 9.5. 

2.— Copper, 38 ; zinc, 50 ; nickel, 12. 

1 requires a very hot flame for melt- 
ing, and 2 can usually be melted only by 
applying bellows to the flame. 

Silver Solders. 

The solders which contain silver are 
very strong and tenacious, and are used 
not only to solder silver, but also for 
other metals, in cases where the objects 
to be soldered require great power of re- 
sistance. Two principal kinds of silver 
solder are distinguished, hard and soft, the 
former consisting of silver and copper, 
with sometimes a little zinc, and the latter 
containing, besides the metals just men- 
tioned, a small amount of tin. 

Hard Silver Solder. — According to the 
purpose for which this is intended, differ- 
ent compositions are used varying in fusi- 
bility. Silver workers use different solders 
for alloys of varying degrees of fineness, 
and the same ones are not always em- 
ployed for resoldering as for the first 
soldering. 

Very Hard (for Fine Silver Articles). 
— Copper, 1; silver, 4. 



Solders and Soldermg 



(Gold Solders) 



Hard. — 1.— Copper, 1 ; silver, 20 ; brass, 
9. 

2. — Copper, 2 ; silver, 28 ; brass, 10. 

«o/#.—l.— Silver, 2; brass, 1. 

2. — Silver, 3 ; copper, 2 ; zinc, 1. 

3.— Silver, 10 ; brass, 10 ; tin, 1. 

4. — These solders serve principally for 
completing the soldering of silver articles 
done with hard solder, by retouching im- 
perfect places. Some silver workers use 
for this purpose copper and silver alloys 
mixed with zinc, as for example, the fol- 
lowing : Copper, 4 ; silver, 12 ; zinc, 1 ; or : 

5. — Silver, 5 ; brass, 6 ; zinc, 2. The lat- 
ter is readily fusible, but also rather 
brittle, and is frequently used for solder- 
ing ordinary silverware. 

Solders for Iron, Steel, Cast Iron, and 
Copper. — 1. — Silver, 10; brass, 10. 

2.— Silver, 20; copper, 30; zinc, 10. 

3.— Silver, 30 ; copper, 10 ; tin, 0.5. 

Soft Silver Solder. — Silver, 60; brass, 
60 ; zinc, 5. 

In the case of solders which are pre- 
pared with brass, care should be taken 
that neither of the metals in the composi- 
tion contains iron, as it has been found 
by experience that the presence of a very 
trifling amount of this is sufficient to 
change the character of the alloy material- 
ly, making it brittle. 

Silver solders are used in the form of 
fine filings or wire, the latter method of 
preparing it being especially adapted to 
the tenacious and ductile nature of the 
alloy. 

In the large manufactories for silver 
ware it has become the custom in re- 
cent years to use the same alloy for solder- 
ing as that of which the silver article is 
made. It is used in the form of filings, 
and melted into the seams so that the ob- 
ject and the solder are really homogeneous. 

Gold Solders. 

Gold, both pure and variously alloyed, 
is used to a considerable extent in solder- 
ing, but on account of its expensiveness it 
is limited to articles made of gold or 
platinum, or the most delicate small steel 
objects. 

Gold alloys are of different colors, ac- 
cording to the kind and proportion of the 
other metals used. There are yellow, red, 
white, and green gold alloys. The color of 
the special alloy should of course be in 
harmony with the color of the object to 
be soldered, in order that the seams may 
be as inconspicuous as possible. 

The fusibility of gold alloys varies as 
much as their color, and is lowered as the 
amount of gold in the alloy increases. 
Harder solders should therefore be used 



(Gold Solders) 



for objects of fine gold than for a poorer 
quality. 

Gold solders are made from gold and sil- 
ver, gold and copper, and still more fre- 
quently from a mixture of all three of 
these metals ; in some cases zinc is added, 
to make the solder softer. But this must 
not be done if the soldered articles are to 
be colored, as the zinc alloy will turn 
black in coloring. For objects which are 
to be wholly or partially enameled, the 
solders made of gold and silver, or of 
gold, silver, and copper, are the only ones 
used, and these are called "enamel 
solders." 

Pure Gold Solder. — Before soldering ap- 
paratus had been devised by means of 
which platinum could be melted, pure gold 
was used for soldering articles made of 
this metal, such as are employed by chem- 
ists and in the manufacture of sulphuric 
acid. For this purpose, the gold is laid 
upon the seams in the form of fine rolled 
wire, or in thin strips, and melted with 
the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe. But experi- 
ence has shown that platinum articles 
soldered with gold are far less dura- 
ble than those made by direct melting to- 
gether of the pieces of platinum with the 
blowpipe, especially in the case of the ves- 
sel used in distilling the English sulphuric 
acid. Of late years this process has be- 
come universal in the manufacture of 
platinum ware, and the gold is only used 
for repairing small platinum articles, such 
as the small crucibles and dishes for chem- 
ical laboratories. It requires a fierce 
white heat to melt it properly, and it is 
even then rather hard, so that the process 
of soldering demands great skill on the 
part of the workman. 

Hard Gold Solder.— Gold 750-1000 fine 
(18 carat), 9; silver, 2; copper, 1. 

This is used for the finest gold articles. 

Soft Gold Solder.— Gold, 750-1000 fine 
(18 carat), 12; silver, 7; copper, 3. 

This is likewise used for fine gold, but is 
much more fusible than the one first 
given. 

Gold Solder for Articles 583-1000 Fine 
(14 Cara*).— 1.— Gold, 583-1000 fine (14 
carat), 3; silver, 2; copper, 1. 

2.— Gold, 583-1000 fine (14 carat), 4; 
silver, 1 ; copper, 1. 

Gold Solder for Ordinary Gold Ware 
Less Than 583-1000 (14 Carat) Fine.—l. 
— Fine gold, 1 ; silver, 2 ; copper, 1. 

2. — Fine gold, 1 ; copper or silver, 1. 

Soft Gold Solder.— 1.— Fine gold. 
11.94; silver, 54.74; copper, 28.17; zinc, 
5.01. 

2.— Gold, 583-1000 fine (14 carat), 10; 
silver, 5 ; zinc, 1. 



[830] 



Solders and Soldering 



(Aluminum Solders) 



Enamel-Solder, Hard.— Gold, 750-1000 
fine (18 carat), 37; silver, 9. 

Enamel-Solder, Soft.— Gold, 750-1000 
fine (18 carat), 16: silver, 3; copper, 1, 

The degree of fusibility of the enamel 
must decide the question as to which one 
of these compositions to use. If it is very 
hard, the first solder is the proper one, as 
otherwise the seams would become so hot 
during the process of melting the enamel 
that the solder itself would melt. For 
ordinary gold ware soft enamels are gen- 
erally used, and in this case the softer 
solder can be employed. It is easily melt- 
ed with the common soldering pipe ; the 
harder can also be melted in the same 
way, but the use of a special apparatus 
makes the process much easier and 
quicker. 

To Remove Tarnish from Gold After 
Hard Polishing. — Paint the gold over be- 
fore soldering with a mixture of yellow 
ocher, ground up with water and a small 
quantity of borax. After soldering throw 
it into a pickle of water, 9 parts, and sul- 
phuric acid, ll^ parts. If the gold is 
whitish looking and shows the silver alloy 
after being removed from this pickle, dip 
a moment in a hot solution of sulphuric 
acid and saltpeter. Wash, polish first 
with rotten stone and oil ; then after 
washing, again polish with rouge. 

Aluminum Solders. 

Since the discovery of aluminum and 
its production in considerable quantities, 
it has become a common material in the 
manufacture of various artistic objects. 
One of the greatest diflBculties, however, 
in the past has been that there was no 
perfect solder for aluminum, and various 
alloys were used which gave unsatisfac- 
tory results. This diflaculty has now been 
overcome, and it is possible to solder the 
metal so perfectly that in tests which 
have been made the metal itself broke be- 
fore the solder gave way. 

The French manufacturers use five 
kinds of solders for aluminum, all con- 
sisting of zinc, copper and aluminum in 
different proportions. These are given be- 
low. Parts by weight. 

1. — Zinc, 80; copper, 8; aluminum, 12. 
2. — Zinc, 85 ; copper, 6 ; aluminum, 9. 
3. — Zinc, 88 ; copper, 5 ; aluminum, 7. 
4. — Zinc, 90 ; copper, 4 ; aluminum, 6. 
5. — Zinc, 94 ; copper, 2 ; aluminum, 4. 

There are also other compositions besides 
these. Bourbouze recommends, for ob- 
jects which are to be further manipulated 
or worked on after soldering, a mixture 
of 45 parts of tin and 10 of aluminum. 



(Aluminum Solders) 



r m 1 



6. — Frischmuth gives the following al- 
loys for solders : 

a. — Silver, 10 ; copper, 10 ; aluminum, 
20 ; tin, 60 ; zinc, 30. 

b.— Tin, 95 to 99; bismuth, 5 to 8. 

The composition b (an ordinary soft 
solder) is adapted for soldering alumi- 
num by means of the common soldering 
iron. 

lu preparing aluminum solders, the al- 
loy of copper and aluminum is always 
made first and the zinc added. First of 
all the copper is melted, and the alumi- 
num put in gradually, usually in three or 
four portions. The two metals are of 
very different density, and the mixture 
should be stirred with an iron rod, to 
unite them as far as possible. Imme- 
diately after adding the last portion of the 
aluminum, the zinc is put in, and at the 
same time some fat or rosin is thrown into 
the kettle, the whole is quickly stirred, the 
kettle removed from the fire, and the alloy 
poured into iron molds which have been 
rubbed with coal oil or benzine. The 
whole work must be done as quickly as 
possible after the addition of the zinc or 
the solder will not remain in a suitable 
condition. 

The zinc used should contain no iron, 
as a very small amount of the latter 
would materially affect the fusibility and 
durability of the solder. The purpose of 
the fat or rosin is to prevent the oxida- 
tion of the zinc, and, as before observed, 
the work must proceed as rapidly as pos- 
sible from this moment, as the tempera- 
ture of the mass is so high that if it were 
left long in fusion much of the zinc would 
evaporate. 

On account of its resistance to chemical 
influences, aluminum solder is frequently 
used by dentists to unite the metallic 
parts of artificial teeth, but alloys for 
this purpose must not contain copper ex- 
cept in very small quantities, as this metal 
is easily attacked by acids. 

Platinum and Aluminum Solder. — Gold, 
30 : platinum, 1 ; silver, 20 ; aluminum, 
100. 

Aluminum and Gold Solder. — Gold, 50 ; 
silver, 10; copper, 10; aluminum, 20. 

Solder for Aluminum Bronze. — Alumi- 
num and copper make a very beautiful 
alloy, and one of valuable properties, 
much used for soldering artistic objects. 
Aluminum bronze demands a special com- 
position, and for this purpose a common 
soft (white) solder is generally used, 
mixed with zinc amalgam in different pro- 
portions, either 2, 4 or 8 parts of the 
solder to 1 of the amalgam. Zinc amal- 
gam is an alloy of zinc and mercury, as 



Solders and Soldering 



(Aluminum Solders) 



evident from its name (amalgam), being 
the general designation for alloys of mer- 
cury with other metals. To prepare it 2 
parts of zinc and 1 of mercury are united 
with heat. The zinc is melted, the mer- 
cury quickly stirred in and the mixture 
quickly cooled. It is a somewhat brittle 
alloy, silver white in color. To make the 
solder for aluminum bronze, the soft 
solder is melted, the zinc amalgam, finely 
powdered, added, and the mass at once 
poured out into molds. 

The soldering must be done with a 
soldering tool made of pure aluminum ; 
the solder would easily enough adhere, to 
be sure, to other metals, but would alloy 
itself with them, and its composition 
would be changed. 

In using the five aluminum solders 
given above, the kind of soldering to be 
done must be taken into consideration. 
For small ornamental objects, for in- 
stance. No. 1 may be used ; for larger ar- 
ticles, such as teapots, coffee pots, etc., 
No. 4 is most frequently employed. 

Originally the solders composed of 
aluminum and zinc were the only ones 
used for aluminum articles. Large ob- 
jects were first put together with an 
easily fusible solder and the soldering 
finished with a harder one. The alloys 
of aluminum and zinc have the disadvan- 
tage that they oxidize easily in melting, 
and the work is made much more difiicult 
thereby. This can be remedied by dip- 
ping the fine grains of the solder (in 
which form it is used) in copaiva balsam, 
which acts as a reducing agent, besides 
excluding the air. But this is not neces- 
sary if the compositions containing cop- 
per are employed. 

How to Solder Aluminum. — There is no 
solder which operates with aluminum in 
the same way that ordinary solders oper- 
ate with copper, tin, etc. There are two 
reasons for this. 

First — Aluminum does not alloy readi- 
ly with solders at temperatures as low 
as the other metals require, and it is con- 
sequently necessary, in soldering alumi- 
num, to use a much higher temperature. 
Furthermore, aluminum alloys with lead 
only with great difficulty and with but a 
small proportion of lead at that, conse- 
quently lead solders are useless with 
aluminum. 

Second. — The surface of all aluminum 
is covered with a thin invisible coating of 
aluminum oxide. This coating forms in- 
stantly on the surface of aluminum and 
is very refractory, and its presence is re- 
sponsible for the high resistance of alumi- 
num to corroding agents, since, although 

[ 



(Aluminum Solders) 



aluminum itself is soluble in a great many 
chemical compounds, this protective coat- 
ing of oxide is insoluble in almost every- 
thing excepting hydrofluoric acid. While 
in general this coating of oxide is bene- 
ficial, in that it forms a perfect protec- 
tion to the aluminum underneath, it is, 
by reason of its efficiency in this particu- 
lar, responsible for the principal portion 
of the difficulty which occurs in soldering 
aluminum, as naturally no solder will al- 
loy with aluminum oxide. 

In soldering aluminum, therefore, it is 
necessary that this oxide be removed be- 
fore the soldering can take place, and as 
it forms again instantly after removal, it 
is necessary that the removal of the oxide 
and the covering with solder shall be 
simultaneous. In soldering other metals, 
the oxide can be removed chemically. 
With aluminum this is not possible, and 
it must be removed mechanically by abra- 
sion. 

Bearing these facts in mind, it will be 
readily understood how aluminum solder- 
ing must be done. All the surface to 
which it is intended that the solder shall 
adhere must first be tinned. This is ac- 
complished by heating the metal to a tem- 
perature above the fusion point of the 
solder used, and then rubbing the surface 
with a stick of the solder, thus rubbing 
.the oxide off the surface with the solder 
itself and covering the exposed points 
with melted solder, all in the same mo- 
tion. In order to make sure that the 
tinning is thorough, it is better to rub 
the surface with a steel or brass scratch 
brush while the solder on this surface is 
still molten. This insures a thorough job 
of tinning. After the edges to be united 
are thus tinned they may be sweated to- 
gether with pure block tin, with the aid 
either of a soldering iron or blast lamp. 

With regard to the composition of 
aluminum solders, zinc appears to alloy 
with aluminum more readily than any 
other metal available for the constituent 
part of the solder, consequently all solders 
which will readily tin aluminum contain 
zinc in varying proportions. The solders 
which we have found to be most satisfac- 
tory are composed usually of tin, zinc and 
a very small proportion of aluminum. 
These solders do not run very freely nor 
fuse as readily as ordinary solders, and 
it is necessary, as stated above, to use a 
higher temperature — so high in fact that 
extreme difficulty is found in using these 
solders with a soldering iron, and it is 
generally necessary to use a blast lamp..^ 

Another thing which must be borne in 
mind is that solder will not flow into an 
832] 



Solders and Soldering 



(Cold Soldering) 



aluminum joint, even when tinned, by 
capillary action as it does into copper or 
tin joints, and it is therefore necessary 
to place on the surface to be united all 
of the material necessary to sweat them 
together before the edges are brought into 
contact. In soldering aluminum joints it 
is necessary that both the tinning and 
sweating shall be most thoroughly done, 
otherwise the joint will not be durable. 

On account of the presence of zinc in 
the tinning solders, the solder is decom- 
posed by moisture, and unless the work 
is so well done that the joint is absolutely 
waterproof, it will not be durable. The 
quality of the workmanship has more in- 
fluence than anything else on the perma- 
nence of the work. 

SOLDERS FOR SPECIAL PUR- 
POSES 



For soldering with sheet brass with a 
copper, use a solder made of 2 parts tin, 
1 part lead, by weight ; melt, mix and 
pour in small bars. For flux dissolve 
zinc in muriatic acid until no more will 
dissolve, add about one-tenth its bulk of 
sal ammoniac and dilute with quarter its 
bulk of water. Wet the surfaces to be 
soldered with this solution, using a piece 
of wood or copper wire for this purpose. 
Then, by rubbing the surfaces with the 
tinned point of the copper, a coating of 
tin will be imparted. Put both surfaces 
thus prepared together and heat by ap- 
plying the copper and a little solder to the 
outside of the seam. The copper should 
be well tinned on the point, which may 
be done by heating the copper hot enough 
to freely melt pure tin. Rub a piece of 
sal ammoniac on a brick, then rub the 
copper point on the brick, with tin or 
solder in contact with the point. The 
tinning of the copper point is essential for 
soldering. 

Britannia Ware, White Solder. 

Tin, 50 lb.; copper, 4 lb.; tin, 2 lb.; 
antimony, 4 lb. 

Can Tops, Sealing Solder. 

For sealing tops of canned goods : Lead, 
11/4 lb.; tin, 2 lb.: bismuth. 2 oz. Melt 
the lead first, add the tin, stir the bismuth 
in well just before pouring. This makes 
a soft solder and the cans do not take 
much heat to open them. 

Cold or Chemical Soldering. 

1. — A neat mode of soldering for small 
articles : Cut a piece of tinfoil the size 
of the surfaces to be soldered ; dip a 



(Cold Soldering) 



[833] 



feather in a solution of sal ammoniac and 
paint over the surfaces of the metal ; then 
place them in their proper position, with 
the tinfoil between ; put it so arranged 
on a piece of iron hot enough to melt the 
foil ; when cold they will be found firmly 
fastened together. For soldering without 
the use of an iron the parts to be joined 
are made to fit accurately, either by 
filing or on a lathe. The surfaces are 
moistened with soldering fluid, a smooth 
piece of tinfoil is laid on, and the pieces 
are pressed together and tightly wired. 
The article is then heated over the fire 
by means of a lamp until the tinfoil melts. 
In this way two pieces of brass can be 
soldered together so nicely that the joint 
can scarcely be found. Flux. — Hydro- 
chloric acid with zinc dissolved in it till 
it will take no more. 

' 2. — Various nostrums have been pro- 
posed from time to time which profess to 
be reliable methods of soldering without 
heat, but when tried, they have generally 
proved useless. The following recipe, 
which is due to Fletcher, of Warrington, 
will be found to be more trustworthy. It 
must be borne in mind that, though the 
first preparation is tedious, a large quan- 
tity of the materials can be made at once, 
and the actual soldering process is as sim- 
ple and quick as it well can be. 

Flux. — -1 part metallic sodium to 50 or 
60 parts of mercury. These combine on 
being well shaken in a bottle. If this is 
too much trouble, the sodium amalgam 
can be bought, ready made, from any 
chemist or dealer in reagents. This so- 
dium amalgam must be kept in a stop- 
pered bottle closed from the air. It has 
the property of amalgamating (equivalent 
to tinning by heat) any metallic surface, 
cast iron included. 

Solder. — Make a weak solution of cop- 
per sulphate, about 1 oz. to 1 qt. of water. 
Precipitate the copper by rods of zinc ; 
wash the precipitate 2 or 3 times with 
hot water ; drain the water off and add 
for every 3 oz. of precipitate 6 or 7 oz. 
mercury ; add also a little sulphuric acid 
to assist the combination from the two 
metals. When combined, they form a 
paste which sets intensely hard in a few 
hours, and this paste should be made, 
while soft, into small pellets. When 
wanted for use, heat one or more of the 
pellets until the mercury oozes out from 
the surface in small beads ; shake or wipe 
them off and rub the pellet into a soft 
paste with a small mortar and pestle or 
by any other convenient means until it is 
as smooth and soft as painter's white 
lead. This, when put on a surface pre- 



Solders and Soldering 



I 



(Glass Soldering) 



viously amalgamated by the sodium and 
mercury, adheres firmly and sets perfect- 
ly hard in about 3 hours. The joint can 
be parted, if necessary, either by a ham- 
mer and cold 'chisel or by a heat about 
suflScient to melt plumbers' solder. 

Enamel Solder. 

Copper, 25 parts ; silver, 7.07 parts ; 
gold, 67.93 parts. 

Refractory Enamel Solders. — Silver, 18 
parts ; gold, 74 parts. 

Glass and Porcelain Soldered with 
Metals. 

Mr. Cailletet has recently made known 
to the Societe de Physique a process of 
soldering glass and porcelain with metals. 
Mechanics, physicists and chemists will 
appreciate the practical importance of 
this process, which permits of adapting 
any metallic object whatever (cock, tube, 
conducting wire, etc.) to experimental ap- 
paratus in such a way as to prevent any 
leakage, even under high pressures. The 
process is very simple. The portion of the 
tube that is to be soldered is first covered 
with a thin layer of platinum. This de- 
posit is obtained by covering the slightly 
heated glass by means of a brush with 
very neutral chloride of platinum, mixed 
with essential oil of chamomile. The oil 
is slowly evaporated, and, when the white 
and odoriferous vapors cease to be given 
off, the temperature is raised to a red 
heat. The platinum is then reduced and 
covers the glass tube with a bright layer 
of metal. On fixing the tube thus metal- 
ized, and placed in a bath of sulphate of 
copper, to the negative pole of a battery 
of suitable energy, there is deposited upon 
the platinum a ring of copper, which 
should be malleable and very adhesive if 
the operation has been properly per- 
formed. In this state the glass tube cov- 
ered with copper can be treated like a 
genuine metallic tube and be soldered by 
means of tin to iron, copper, bronze, plati- 
num and all metals that can be united 
with tin solder. The resistance and 
strength of such soldering are very great. 
Mr. Cailletet has found that a tube of 
his apparatus for liquefying gases, the 
upper extremity of which had been closed 
by means of an adjutage thus soldered, 
resists pressures of more than 300 atmos- 
pheres. The tube, instead of being plati- 
nized, may be silverized by raising the 
glass covered with nitrate of silver up to 
a heat bordering on red. The silver thus 
reduced adheres perfectly to the glass, but 
numerous experiments have caused plati- 

[ 



(Platinum to Gold.) 



nizing to be preferred to silverizing in the 
majority of cases. 

Glass Soldered Together. 

This is effected with the aid of a metal 
alloy consisting of 95 parts of tin and 5 
parts of zinc. The melting point of this 
alloy is about 425° F. The glass to be 
soldered is first carefully heated to the 
above temperature and the alloy is then 
spread on the glass with the aid of a 
soldering iron and on cooling it will be 
firmly attached to the glass. An alloy of 
90 parts of tin and 10 parts of aluminum 
can also be used for the same purpose, 
but not so conveniently, as it does not 
melt until it reaches 830° F. 

Glaziers* Solder. 

Lead, 5 parts ; tin, 1 2-3 parts. This 
melts at 500° F. 

Iron. 

To solder cast iron, clean the place to 
be soldered well, then brush it with a 
brass wire brush until the iron becomes 
yellow. It will be found that the solder 
can now be applied without any trouble. 

Nickel, Solders for. 

For fine or high-grade nickel : 3 parts 
of yellow brass, 1 part of sterling silver. 
For low-grade nickel : 15 parts of yellow 
brass, 5 parts of sterling silver, 4 parts of 
zinc (pure or plate zinc). Melt the brass 
and silver with borax for a flux and add 
the zinc in small pieces, stir with an iron 
rod, pour into a slab mold and cool slowly, 
when it can be rolled thin for cutting. 

Pewter and Britannia Metal. 

1. — Tin, 10 parts ; lead, 5 parts ; bis- 
muth, 1 to 3 parts. 

2. — Take tin, 3 parts ; lead, l^/^ parts ; 
bismuth, li/^ parts. 

3.— Solder for Tin or Pewter.— Tin, 2 
parts ; lead, 1 part ; bismuth, 1 part. 

4. — Soldering Pewters and Compo. 
Pipes. — These require powdered rosin as 
a flux, with very thin strips of the more 
fusible solders, care being taken that the 
soldering iron is not too hot. 

Platinum Soldered to Gold. 

To make platinum adhere firmly to 
gold by soldering it is necessary that a 
small quantity of fine or 18-carat gold 
shall be sweated into the surface of the 
platinum at nearly a white heat, so that 
the gold shall soak into the face of the 
platinum ; ordinary solder will then ad- 
here firmly to the face obtained in this 
manner. Hard solder acts by partially 
834 .] 



Solders and Soldering 



(Steel Soldering) 



fusing and combining with the surfaces to 
be joined, and platinum alone will not 
fuse or combine with any solder at a tem- 
perature anything, like the fusing point of 
ordinary gold solder. 

Steel. 

Steel Soldering. — This recipe, according 
to the Werkmeister Zeitung, is useful for 
cases when the steel is not to be soldered 
at an elevation of temperature to the 
bright red. Dissolve scraps of cast steel 
in as small a quantity as possible of nitric 
acid, add finely pulverized borax and stir 
vigorously until a fluid paste is formed, 
then dilute by means of sal ammoniac and 
put in a bottle. When soldering is to be 
done, apply a thin layer of the solution to 
the two parts to be soldered, and when 
these have been carried to ordinary red- 
ness, and the mass is consequently plastic, 
beat lightly on the anvil with a flat 
hammer. 

Steel Wire, To Solder.— Mix 1 lb. lac- 
tic acid, 1 lb. glycerine and 8 lb. water, 
so as to have a clear solution. This is 
non-corrosive, but does not work as quick- 
ly as the ordinary soldering acid. 

Steel Joints, Solder for. — Brass, 3 
parts; copper, 1^ parts; silver. 28^ 
parts. 



(Useful Solder) 



Steel, Hard Soldering. — Solder will not 
run on iron quite so well as on silver or 
brass. See that the steel is clean and 
bright, use the borax as a thick paste and 
the operation must be concluded quickly. 

A Useful Kind of Solder. 

A soft alloy which attaches itself so 
firmly to the surface of metals, glass and 
porcelain that it can be employed to 
solder articles that will not bear a very 
high temperature can be made as follows : 
Put copper dust obtained by precipitation 
from a solution of the sulphate by means 
of zinc into a cast-iron or porcelain-lined 
mortar and mix with strong sulphuric 
acid, sp. gr. 1.85. Take from 20 to 30 or 
36 parts of the copper, according to the 
hardness desired. To the cake formed of 
acid and copper add, under constant stir- 
ring, 70 parts of mercury. When well 
mixed carefully rinse the amalgam with 
warm water to remove all the acid and 
then set aside to cool. In 10 or 12 hours 
it is hard enough to scratch tin. When 
used heat it so hot that when worked 
over and brayed in an iron mortar it 
becomes as soft as wax. In this ductile 
form spread it out on any surface ; it 
will adhere with great tenacity when it 
gets cold and hard. 



[835] 



CHAPTER XXV 



TOILET PREPARATIOJS^S AIS^B PERFUMES 



BRIEF SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 



BATH PREPARATIONS 

BLEACHING THE SKIN 

CHAPS 

CORNS 

COSMETICS AND CREAMS 

CREAMS 

COURT PLASTER 

DEPILATORIES 

FOOT POWDERS ^ 

FRECKLES AND TAN 

HAIR PREPARATIONS ^ 

LIP SALVES 

MANICURE PREPARATIONS 

MOUTH WASHES, ETC. 



PERFUMES 

BAY RUM 

COLOGNE 

ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS 

FUMIGATING PREPARATIONS \ 

POTPOURRI 

SACHET POWDERS 

SMELLING SALTS 

TOILET WATERS 
POWDERS 
ROUGES 

SHAVING PREPARATIONS 
SUNBURN 

THEATRICAL PAINTS 
TOOTH PREPARATIONS 



Bath Preparations. 

Acid Bath. — Diluted nitro-hydrochloric 
acid, l^ fl.oz. ; water, 1 gal. Make 25 to 
30 gal. for a full-size bath. 

Alcohol. — Castile soap, shavings, 2 
av.oz. ; potassium carbonate, 1 av.oz. ; 
glycerine, 2 fl.oz. ; oil of lavender flowers, 
1 fl.dr. ; oil of bergamot, i/^ fl.dr. ; oil of 
rosemary, % fl.dr. ; alcohol, 10 fl.oz. ; wa- 
ter, enough to make 16 fl.oz. Digest the 
soap in 4 fl.oz. of water, with gentle 
heat ; when solution is effected add the 
potassium carbonate and glycerine ; dis- 
solve the oils in the alcohol, and add to 
the soap solution, and when a perfect 
solution has taken place filter through 
paper. 

Alkaline Bath. — ^1. — Sodium carbonate, 
in crystals, 60 to 120 gr. ; water, 1 ga/1. 
Make 25 to 30 gal. for full-size bath. 

2. — ^Sodium carbonate, in crystals, 5 
oz. ; water, 50 gal. Dissolve. 

3. — Sodium carbonate, 6 oz. ; borax, 1 
oz. Dissolve in 1 qt. of hot water and 
add to an ordinary tub of water, say 30 
gal. Of course, the powder may be per- 
fumed with essential oils to suit. 

Boric Acid. — Boric acid, 2 to 5 oz. ; 
water, 1 gal. Make 25 to 30 gal. for a 
full-size bath. 

Creosote Vapor Bath. — Coal-tar creo- 
sote, 1 to 4 fl.oz. Heat the creosote in 
a porcelain or metal dish, over a lamp, 
in a well closed apartment, continuing 
the application of heat until the creosote 



vapor in the atmosphere has reached the 
desired concentration. 

Effervescent Bath. — 1. — Sodium bicar- 
bonate, ^ oz. ; sodium acid sulphate, ^ 
oz. ; water, 1 gal. Dissolve the sodium 
bicarbonate in the water, and add the 
sodium acid sulphate, in lumps or cakes, 
to the solution. Make 25 to 30 gal. for a 
full-size bath. Contact between the pa- 
tient's skin and the acid sulphate should 
be prevented by placing sheets of lead foil 
over the latter. 

2. — Sodium bicarbonate, % oz. ; sodium 
acid sulphate, ^ oz. ; sodium chloride, 
lYz oz. ; calcium chloride, % oz. ; water, 
1 gal. Dissolve the sodium bicarbonate 
and the chlorides in the water, then add 
the sodium and acid sulphate. Make 25 
to 30 gal. 

Emollient Bath. — Barley meal, 1 lb. ; 
wheat bran, 2 lb. ; borax, 1 oz. Dissolve, 
as far as possible, in 2 qt. of warm water, 
and strain into an ordinary bath. 

Medicated Bath Powders. — 1. — Simple 
Basis. — 'Coarse oatmeal, % oz. ; powdered 
borax, 1 dr. ; powdered soap, 1 dr. Mix, 
and stitch in a muslin bag. 

2.— Beta Naphthol.— Beta naphthol, 60 
gr. ; simple basis No. 1, for 1 bag. 

3. — Birch Tar. — Oil of birch tar (ol. 
rusci), 3 fl.dr.; simple basis No. 1, for 
1 bag. Put each in parchment envelope. 

4. — Creolin. — Creolin, 90 minims ; sim- 
ple basis No. 1, for 1 bag. 

5. — Juniper. — Juniper tar oil (ol, ca- 



^ 



Always consult the index when using this boolc. 

[837] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Bath Preparations) 



dinum), 3 fl.dr. ; simple basis No. 1, for 
1 bag. 

6. — Pine extract. — Extract of Pinus 
sylvestris, 90 gr. ; simple basis No. 1, for 
1 bag. 

7. — Resorcin. — Resorcin, 60 gr. ; simple 
basis No. 1, for 1 bag. 

8. — Resorcin and Ichtyol. — Resorcin, 
60 gr. ; ichtyol, 60 gr. ; simple basis No. 
1, for 1 bag. Put each in a parchment 
envelope. 

9. — Sulphur, Camphor and Balsam of 
Peru. — Sulphur, 1 dr. ; camphor, 30 gr. ; 
balsam of Peru, 10 minims ; simple basis 
No. 1, for 1 bag. Put each in a parch- 
ment envelope. 

10. — Sulphur, Camphor and Carbolic. 
— Sulphur, 1 dr. ; camphor, 30 gr. ; car- 
bolic acid, 30 gr. ; simple basis No. 1, for 
1 bag. Put each in parchment envelope. 

11. — Thymol and Wintergreen. — Thy- 
mol, 2 gr. ; oil of wintergreen, 60 minims ; 
simple basis No. 1, for 1 bag. 

Milk Bath. — Marshmallow flowers, 8 
oz. ; hyssop herb, 4 oz. ; wheat bran, 4 lb. 

Mustard Bath. — Mustard, % to 1 oz. ; 
water, 1 gal. Rub the mustard to a 
smooth paste with cold water before add- 
ing it to the hot water. If used for a 
child, give the bath until the arms of 
the person holding the child begin to tin- 
gle. 

Pasta Mack. — It is said that a prepara- 
tion for use in the bath which somewhat 
resembles this may be made by the fol- 
lowing formula : Sodium bicarbonate, 15 
dr. ; tartaric acid, 12% dr. ; starch flour, 
21 dr. ; sweet almond oil, 9 dr. ; oil of 
rose, 3 drops ; oil of neroli, 1 drop. Mix 
the acid and the bicarbonate separately 
with portions of the starch flour, then 
mix together and add the oils. Of this 
paste, 1 teaspoonful is sufficient to per- 
fume 12 gal. of water. 

Paste. — Soft soap, 8 oz. ; glycerine, 1 
oz. ; 94% alcohol, 4 dr. ; oil of lavender, 
4 drops. Mix the oil, alcohol and glycer- 
ine, and carefully mix with the soap to 
form a paste. 

Perfumed Water Softener. — 1. — Borax, 
1 oz. ; sodium bicarbonate, % oz. ; oil of 
f lavender, 1 oz. ; oil of bergamot, 1 oz. ; 
^ oil of lemon, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ; 
oil of cinnamon, 1 dr. ; alcohol, 2 qt. ; 
distilled water, to make 6 qt. Dissolve 
the oils in the alcohol and the salts in 
the water, and mix the two solutions. Let 
stand for 24 hours, and filter. 

2. — Borax, 1.5 grams ; dissolved in 
glycerine, 30 grams ; rose water, 100 
grams ; then mix with cologne water, 20 
grams ; tincture of quillaja, 50 grams. 
Stand aside several days, and filter. The 



(Bath Preparations) 



quantity of borax or of borax and sodium 
bicarbonate may be increased or decreased 
as desired. 

3. — A heaping teaspoonful of the fol- 
lowing paste will perfume 12 to 15 gal. 
of bath water : Sodium bicarbonate, 150 
parts ; tartaric acid, 125 parts ; powdered 
starch, 210 parts ; oil of sweet almond, 
90 parts ; attar of rose or ylang-ylang. 
q. s. Mix the soda, acid and starch, and 
make into a paste with the almond oil, 
working in the perfume. As to the lat- 
ter, 20 drops of attar of rose and 8 to 
10 drops of clove oil to each pound of 
paste will be sufficient. It is claimed 
that the paste also softens the bath water. 

Powder. — 1. — Tartaric acid, 10 oz. ; so- 
dium bicarbonate, 9 oz. ; rice flour, 6 oz. 
Perfume with a mixture of the following 
oils : Oil of neroli, 2 dr. ; oil of rose- 
mary, 1 dr. ; oil of bergamot, 1 dr. ; oil 
of cedrat, 2% dr. ; oil of orange, 2% dr. 
A fluid dram of this mixture is sufficient 
to perfume 1 lb. of the above bath pow- 
der. 

2. — Sodium bicarbonate, 4 oz. ; sodium 
biborate, 4 oz. ; eosin, a sufficient quan- 
tity ; oil of bergamot, 1 dr. ; oil of neroli, 
20 minims ; oil of rosemary, 20 minims. 

3. — Powdered borax, 4 oz. ; salicylic 
acid, 60 gr. ; essence of cassie, 1 dr. ; es- 
sence of jasmine, 1 dr. ; oil of lavender 
flowers, 20 drops. Rub the oil and ex- 
tract with the borax and salicylic acid 
until the alcohol is evaporated. Use a 
heaping teaspoonful to the body bath. 

Salt. — Acid Bath Salt.-^Tartaric acid, 
1 av.oz. ; potassium bitartrate, 2 av.oz. ; 
potassium bicarbonate, 1 av.oz. ; sodium 
chloride, 12 av.oz. Have all the salts in 
a coarse granular condition, and mix. 

Alkaline Bath Salt. — Sodium bicarbo- 
nate, 6 av.oz. ; sodium sulphate, 2 av.oz. ; 
sodium chloride, 8 av.oz. Have all the salts 
in a coarse granular condition and mix. 

lodo-Bromide Bathing Salt. — Rock salt, 
300 gr. ; potassium chlorate, 40 gr. ; cal- 
cium chloride, crystals, 600 gr. ; magne- 
sium chloride, 50 gr. ; lithium chloride, 2 
gr. ; potassium iodide, 1 gr. ; potassium 
bromide, 20 gr. Mix. 

Iron Bath Salt. — Iron sulphate, 1 
av.oz. ; sodium sulphate, 2 av.ljz. ; mag- 
nesium sulphate, 1 av.oz. ; sodium chlo- . 
ride, 12 av.oz. Mix. 

Sea Bath Salt. — Potassium iodide, 10 
gr. ; potassium bromide, 20 gr. ; magne- 
sium sulphate, 2 av.oz. ; sodium bicar- 
bonate, 1 av.oz. ; sodium chloride, q. s. ad 
16 av.oz. Have all the salts in a coarse 
granular condition and mix. 

Tahlets. — 1. — Sodium carbonate, 4 oz. ; 
tartaric acid, 1% oz. ; orris root, i^ oz. ; 



[838] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Chapped Skin) 



oil of lemon, i/^ dr. ; oil of orris (or 
ionone), 5 minims; oil of ylang-ylang, 5 
minims. Mix the oils with the orris root, 
add the other ingredients, and make into 
a stiff paste with alcohol. Divide into 
imitable sized tablets and dry. 

2. — Powdered borax, 4 oz-. ; salicylic 
acid, 1 dr. ; essence of cassie, 1 dr. ; es- 
sence of jasmine, 1 dr. ; oil of lavender 
flowers, 20 drops. Rub the oil and ex- 
tracts with the borax and salicylic acid, 
and form into tablets with a little alco- 
hol. 

Bleaching the Skin. 

Face Bleach or Beautifier. — 'Syrupy 
lactic acid, 40 oz. ; glycerine, 80 oz. ; dis- 
tilled water, to 5 gal. (U. S.) ; mix, and 
gradually add tincture of benzoin, 3 oz. 
Color by adding carmine No. 40, 40 gr. ; 
glycerine, 1 oz, ; ammonia solution, % 
oz. ; water, to make 3 oz. Heat this to 
drive off the ammonia, and mix all. Shake, 
set aside, then filter, and add solution of 
ionone, 1 dr. Add a few drams of kaolin 
and filter until bright. 

Hands, To Whiten. — Lanoline, 30 ; 
glycerine, 20 ; borax, 10 ; eucalyptol, 2 ; 
essential oil of almonds, 1. A mixture of 
these ingredients is to be rubbed on the 
hands, which are then covered with gloves 
during the night. 

Skin Salves. — A skin-bleaching action, 
owing to the presence of hydrogen perox- 
ide, is possessed by the following mix- 
ture : Lanoline, 30 grams ; bitter almond 
oil, 10 grams. Mix, and stir with this 
salve base a solution of borax, 1 gram ; 
glycerine, 15 grams ; hydrogen peroxide, 
15 grams. 

Chapped Skin. 

The effect of cold is to diminish the 
caliber of the cutaneous blood vessels by 
producing contraction of their coats. 
Hence there is a lessened supply of blood 
to the skin and a lessened nutrition, ac- 
companied by a secretion of the cutane- 
ous glands. The deficient secretions must 
be replaced by an outward application. 
The following formula will be of service : 

1. — White wax, 1 part ; borax, 3 parts ; 
juice of bitter almonds, 1 part ; oatmeal 
water, 3 parts. 

2.— Milk, 1 part; chalk, 2 parts; glyc- 
erine, 1 part. 

3. — Spermaceti, 2 parts ; white wax, 1 
part ; glycerine, 1 part ; chalk, 3 parts ; 
oatmeal water, 2 parts. 

4. — Chaptal's Water for Chapped 
Breasts, — Sulphate of alumina, 1 dr. ; sul- 
phate of zinc, % oz, ; borate of soda, 4 
gr. ; rose water, 6 oz. 

[ 



(Corn Cures) 



5. — Cacao butter, 3 oz. ; oil of sweet 
almond, 3 oz. ; white wax, 3 oz. ; oil of 
lavender, 1 dr. ; oil of rosemary, 1 dr. 
Melt the first three ingredients together, 
stir until nearly cold, and then add the 
perfume. 

6, — Glycerine, 6 oz. ; quince seed, 60 
gr. ; hot water, 21 oz. ; deodorized alcohol, 
5 oz. Perfume as desired. Place the 
quince seed in a bottle, pour the hot 
water on them, and agitate occasionally 
until a mucilage is formed ; then strain 
through muslin. To this add the glycer- 
ine, and shake thoroughly. Dissolve the 
desired perfume in the alcohol, and add 
the solution to the mucilage, agitating 
briskly until of a uniform consistency. 
An agreeable way of perfuming this mix- 
ture is by substituting a portion of the 
alcohol with cologne water; and by the 
latter is meant one of the original orange- 
flower type. If the preparation should 
prove either too thin or too solid to meet 
the views of the operator, a variation in 
the quantity of quince seed will, of 
course, yield the desired result. A simi- 
lar preparation may be made by the use 
of tragacanth. 

7. — If a liquid preparation is desired, 
use glycerine, 1 part ; rose or other scent- 
ed water, 9 parts. When glycerine is 
used alone as an emollient, it is apt to 
prove objectionable on account of its 
"stickiness" ; by dilution as above, this 
objection is largely overcome, and the 
preparation is quite agreeable and efii- 
cient. 

8, — Cracked Hands. — Various receipts 
are given for this, as follow : 

a. — Camphor, 60 gr. ; boric acid, 30 
gr. ; lanoline and white vaseline, of each 
% oz. ; to make an ointment. 

b. — Anoint your hands with glycerine 
after washing, and while they are still 
damp. If used without some' water it 
has a drying tendency. Vaseline is no 
good. 

c, — ^Mix a powdered ball of sal prunel 
with 2 oz. of vaseline, and rub well in. 

9. — Pomatum for Chapped Lips. — Lard, 
16 parts ; cacao oil, 24 parts ; spermaceti, 
8 parts ; yellow wax, 3 parts ; alcanna 
root, 1 part. The substances are fused 
for a quarter of an hour at a gentle heat, 
then strained through a cloth and mixed 
with oil of lemon, oil of bergamot, of each 
1-6 part ; oil of bitter almonds, 1-15 part ; 
when the mass is poured into suitable ves- 
sels to cool. 

Corn Cures. 

Liquids. — 1. — Salicylic acid, 11 parts ; 
extract of cannabis indica, 2 parts ; al- 
839] 



Toilet Preparations 






(Corns) 



cohol, 10 parts ; flexible collodion, to make 
100 parts. Dissolve the extract in the 
alcohol and the salicylic acid in about 
50 parts of the collodion contained in a 
tared bottle; then add the former solu- 
tion to the latter, and add enough collo- 
dion to make 100 parts. 

2. — Extract of cannabis indica, 1 part ; 
salicylic acid, 10 parts ; oil of turpentine, 
5 parts ; collodion, 82 parts. Dissolve, 
and add acetic acid, 2 parts. 

3. — Cocaine hydrochlorate, 2 parts ; 
salicylic acid, 30 parts ; alcohol, 120 
parts ; extract of cannabis indica, 8 parts ; 
collodion, 120 parts. 

4. — Extract o? cannabis indica, 1 
part ; salicylic acid, 10 parts ; larch tur- 
pentine, 10 parts ; collodion, 77 parts. 
Dissolve by agitation, and add glacial 
acetic acid, 2 parts. 

5. — Salicylic acid, 1 part ; lactic acid, 1 
part ; collodion, 8 parts. 

Plasters. — ^The advertised corn plas- 
ters commonly consist of rosin plaster, 
galbanum plaster, or pitch plaster, with 
or without the addition of verdigris or 
sal ammoniac, or both of them, spread on 
linen, leather or paper ; the spread plas- 
ter being afterward cut into pieces of ap- 
propriate size, and "put up" in small flat 
boxes. The following are a few exam- 
ples : 

1. — Rosin plaster, 5 parts ; melt it by 
a gentle heat, stir in sal ammoniac, in 
very fine powder, 1 part, and at once 
spread it on linen or white sheepskin. 

2. — Galbanum plaster, 1 oz. ; verdigris, 
in fine powder, 1 dr. ; as the last. 

3. — Rosin plaster, 2 oz. ; black pitch, 
1 oz. ; verdigris, 1 dr. ; sal ammoniac, 1 
dr. 

4. — Argentine Corn Plaster. — Rosin 
plaster, 7 parts ; fused nitrate of silver, 
in fine powder, 1 part, as before. In- 
tended as a substitute for the direct ap- 
plication of lunar caustic, and to be ap- 
plied to the corn only. 

5. — Anodyne Corn Plaster. — Galbanum 
plaster or rosin plaster, or the product of 
either Nos. 6 or 7, to each ounce of which 
1 dr. of opium, in fine powder, has been 
added. Recommended for painful corns 
and bunions. 

Salves. — 1. — Powdered lead acetate, 
powdered myrrh, powdered camphor, lith- 
arge, equal parts ; sweet oil and petrola- 
tum, of each sufficient. Mix the powders 
into a stiff paste with sweet oil, and add 
enough petrolatum to bring up to the con- 
sistency of an ointment. 

2, — Powdered verdigris, 6 parts ; savine 
ointment, 42 parts ; extract of cannabis 
indica, 1 part. 



(Cosmetics) 



3. — Salicylic acid, 2 parts; balsam of 
Peru, 2 parts ; rosin, 2 parts ; Venice tur- 
pentine, 3 parts ; petrolatum, 4 parts ; 
beeswax, 24 parts. 

Cosmetics and Creams. 

Almond Balls. — 1. — Spermaceti, 2 oz. ; 
pure white wax, 4 oz. ; oil of almonds, i^ 
pt. Melt them together in an earthen- 
ware pot by the heat of a water bath, 
and when the mixture has cooled a little 
add essential oil of almonds, 1 dr. ; ex- 
pressed oil of mace, 1^^ dr. Stir the mix- 
ture constantly until it begins to cool, 
then pour it into slightly warmed molds, 
which may be ounce gallipots or egg cups 
with smooth bottoms. This will form 
hemispherical cakes. 

2. — Hard clarified suet, 14 oz. ; white 
wax, 2 oz, ; melt, and add essential oil of 
almonds, 1 dr.; oil of cloves (or pimen- 
to), Yz dr. Proceed as in No. 1. Cheaper 
and inferior to the first. Rub it into the 
skin. They may be colored by adding 
the coloring material while the whole is 
in a fluid state. 

3. — Almond Cream (Creme d'Aman- 
des). — Lard, perfectly pure and fresh, 220 
parts ; solution of potassa, containing 
26% of caustic potash, 120 parts; 60% 
alcohol, 10 parts ; oil of bitter almonds, 
q. s. Triturate in a porcelain or Wedg- 
wood mortar the lard and potassa solu- 
tion, and let it stand a few. hours. Then 
add the alcohol and sufficient oil of bitter 
almonds to give it the proper flavor. Fi- 
nally, triturate until the mass is uniform 
and resembles mother of pearl. This 
cream has a handsome look, but is not so 
bland as other varieties mentioned below. 

Amandine. — This is an article used to 
whiten and soften the skin, and in the 
winter to prevent chaps. The recipe be- 
low gives an amandine that is transpar- 
ent : Fine pale honey, or strong syrup, 
4 oz. ; white soft soap (made from lard 
and potassa), 2 oz. Mix them thoroughly 
in a Wedgwood mortar, adding, if neces- 
sary, of liquor of potassa, 2 or 3 teaspoon- 
fuls, so as to produce a thoroughly homo- 
geneous paste. To this add, and rub in 
by degrees and very gradually, oil of alm- 
onds, Sy2 lb., previously mixed and 
scented with essential oil of almonds, es- 
sence of bergamot, of each 3 dr ; oil of 
cloves, balsam of Peru, of each 1% dr. ; 
and continue the trituration until the 
whole assumes the anpearance of a rich 
transparent jelly. Finally, put the paste 
into pots or wide-mouthed bottles. The 
balsam ought to be triturated with a lit- 
tle of the almond oil, warm, before adding 
it to the rest, and after all the scents are 



[840] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Cosmetics) 



added the oil should be allowed to settle 
for 2 or 3 days, and the clear portioa 
only used. In using, a lump of amandine 
the size of a large pea is rubbed with a 
few drops of warm water, and the rich 
white lather applied to the hands, face, 
neck, etc. In a short time the skin may 
be wiped with a soft napkin. Amandine 
may be glycerinated by adding 1 oz. of 
the best glycerine for every pound of oil 
to be used. 

Beauty Cream. — It is claimed the fol- 
lowing gives the skin a beautiful, smooth 
and fresh appearance, and at the same 
time serves to protect and preserve it: 
Powdered alum, 10 grams ; whites of 2 
eggs ; boric acid, 3 grams ; tincture of 
benzoin, 40 drops ; oiive oil, 40 drops ; 
mucilage of acacia, 5 drops ; rice flour, 
q. s. ; perfume, q. s. Mix the alum and 
the white of eggs, without any addition 
of water whatever, in an earthen vessel, 
and dissolve the alum by the aid of very 
gentle heat (derived from a lamp, or gas- 
light, regulated to a very small flame), 
and constant, even stirring. This must 
continue until the aqueous content of the 
albumen is completely driven off. Care 
must be taken to avoid coagulation of the 
albumen, which occurs very easily, as all 
know. Let the mass obtained in this man- 
ner get completely cold, then throw into 
a Wedgwood mortar, add the boric acid, 
tincture of benzoin, oil, mucilage (instead 
of which a solution of fine gelatine may 
be used), etc., and rub up together, thick- 
ening it with the addition of suflScient 
rice flour to give the desired consistency, 
and perfuming at will. Instead of olive 
oil, any pure fat or fatty oil may be used, 
even vaseline or glycerine. 

Bensoinated Cream. — Benzoinated lard, 
8 dr. ; wool fat, 3 dr. ; spermaceti, 18 dr. ; 
camphor, 4 dr. ; oil of sweet almonds, 13 
dr. ; benzoic acid, 5 gr. Melt the fat to- 
gether, and add the oil, in which the 
camphor has previously been dissolved by 
the aid of a gentle heat. Add the benzoic 
acid, keeping the mixture at all times as 
cool as practicable to prevent volatiliza- 
tion, and perfume with 6 or 8 drops of 
oil of cajuput, or other oil, according to 
fancy. 

Cacao Buttermilk. — Powdered borax, 5 
dr. ; powdered Castile soap, 1 oz. ; cacao 
butter, 3 oz. ; cocoanut oil, 1 oz. ; water, 
4 oz. Rub together in a warm mortar 
for 10 minutes, then dilute very gradu- 
ally with rose water, at 40° C, 42 oz. 
Shake the mixture well, and perfume with 
oil of bergamot, 40 gtt. ; oil of neroli, 10 
gtt. ; oil of orris, 2 gtt. ; vanilla sugar, 5 
dr. ; previously 4*ubbed together. 



(Cold Cream) 



Camphor Cerate. — Olive oil, i/^ lb. ; 
pure white wax, ^4 lb. ; spermaceti, 2 oz. ; 
camphor, i^ oz. Mix as directed under 
"camphor balls." Used as an application 
to chaps, chilblains, abrasions, excoria- 
tions, etc. ; aiso_ as lip salve in cold weath- 
er, as a hair cosmetic, and as a mild stim- 
ulating and anodyne friction. 

Camphor Ice. — 1. — Oil of sweet alm- 
onds, 2 oz. ; spermaceti, 4 oz. ; white 
wax, 2 oz. ; camphor, % oz. Melt them 
over a water bath, run in molds of proper 
size and form. 

2. — Expressed oil of almonds and rose 
water, each 1 lb. ; white wax and sper- 
maceti, of each 1 oz. ; camphor, 2 oz. ; oil 
of rosemary, 1 dr. Melt together. Glyc- 
erine may be substituted in part for the 
oil and rose water. 

3. — Benzoated Camphor Ice. — Pure 
lard, iy2 oz. ; spermaceti, 2^^ oz. ; cam- 
phor, 1 oz. ; expressed oil of almonds, 2 
oz. ; benzoic acid, 6 gr. ; oi4 of cajuput, 
10 drops. Melt the lard and spermaceti ; 
dissolve the camphor in the almond oil 
with gentle heat, and add to the melted 
fats. When nearly cold, stir in the ben- 
zoic acid and oil of cajuput, and pour into 
molds. 

Camphor Paste. — Almond oil, i/^ lb. ; 
purified lard, % lb. ; wax, spermaceti and 
camphor, of each 1 oz. Beat up the in- 
gredients as ithey cool, before pouring out. 

Circassian Cream. — Fresh mutton suet, 
4 oz. ; good olive oil, 6 oz. ; powdered gum 
benzoin, 2 oz. ; alkanet root, % oz. Put 
these ingredients in a jar with a cover, 
and place the jar in a saucepan of boil- 
ing water at the side of the fire. Let 
it digest for 24 hours. Strain away the 
fluid p'art through fine muslin, and stir 
till about cold. Perfume with 2 dr. of 
essence of roses, aJmonds, or any perfume 
desired. 

Cold Creams. — 1. — White wax, 40 
grams ; spermaceti, 50 grams ; bleached 
expressed oil of mustard, 280 grams ; rose 
water, 160 grams ; bleached expressed oil 
of mustard, 40 grams ; borax, 2 grams ; 
rose oil, 12 drops. The wax and sperma- 
ceti are dissolved in tEe expressed oil of 
mustard by gently warming on a water 
bath ; the mixture is then rubbed down 
to a fine salve. The borax is next dis- 
solved in the rose water, which has been 
previously warmed, and is then incorpo- 
rated with the mass. Finally, the bal- 
ance of the mustard oil and the rose oil 
is rubbed up with the above mixture ; a 
remarkably smooth and supple ointment 
results. 

2. — White parafiine oil, 600 grams : 
white wax, 150 grams ; rose water, 240 



[841] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Cold Cream) 



grams ; borax, 9 grams ; oil of rose ger- 
anium, 1 gram ; rose oil, 15 drops. The 
wax is melted in the paraffine oil at about 
60° C. The borax is dissolved in the 
rose water, which has been warmed to 
about the same temperature. The latter 
is then poured, in a thin stream, into 
the former, stirring assiduously, when a 
white, creamy emulsion results. Finally, 
incorporate tlie rose oil and the oil of 
rose geranium witTi the cream. The re- 
sulting cold cream is white in color, very 
smooth, and possesses a more fragrant 
odor, and, in fact, excels the ordinary 
cream in all respects. 

3. — White wax and spermaceti, of each 

1 oz. ; oil of almonds, ^ pt. Melt ; pour 
the mixture into a Wedgwood mortar, 
which has been heated by being immersed 
in hot water, and add gradually 4 fl.oz. 
of rose water, stirring until an emulsion 
is formed, and afterward until the whole 
is nearly cold. Put in pots. It may be 
perfumed with bergamot or lavender. 

4. — Paraffine, 4 dr. ; liquid petrolatum, 
1% oz. ; wool fat, 1 oz. ; borax, 7 gr. ; 
rose water, 1 oz. Mix. Melt the paraffine, 
add the liquid petrolatum, then add the 
other ingredients. 

5. — Wool fat, 20 oz. ; white petrolatum, 
8 oz. ; distilled witch hazel, 6 oz. ; tinc- 
ture of benzoin, 2 oz. ; rose water, 1 oz. ; 
orange-flower water, 1 oz. Mix the lano- 
lin, witch hazel and waters together, 
then add the benzoin, and finally the 
white petrolatum. 

6. — Spermaceti, 3 oz. ; white wax, 1 
oz. ; oil of sweet almonds, 8 fl.oz. ; borax, 
% oz. ; glycerine, 2 fl.oz. ; rose water, 

2 fl.oz. ; oil of rose, 10 drops ; extract of 
jasmine, i/^ fl.oz. Melt^ the wax, oil and 
spermaceti together ; dissolve the borax 
in the glycerine and rose water, previ- 
ously mixed ; pour this solution gradu- 
ally, and with constant stirring, into the 
melted mixture until the product assumes 
a snowy whiteness ; then add the per- 
fumes. Dispense in porcelain or glass jars. 
Pure paraffine wax may be substituted 
for spermaceti, but it must be in smaller 
quantity (2 oz. in this formula) and 
worked very carefully to prevent "granu- 
lation." 

7. — Oil of almond, 425 parts ; lanolin, 
185 parts ; white wax, 62 parts ; sperma- 
ceti, 62 parts ; borax, 4.5 parts ; rose wa- 
ter, 300 parts. Melt together the first 
four ingredients, then incorporate the so- 
lution of borax in the rose water. 

8. — Tragacanth, 125 grams ; boric acid, 
100 grams ; glycerine, 140 grams ; ex- 
pressed oil of almonds, 50 grams ; gly- 
conine, 50 grams ; oil of lavender, 0.5 



(Cold Cream) 



gram ; water, enough to make 1,000 
grams. Mix the tragacanth and the boric 
acid with the glycerine ; add the almond 
oil, lavender oil and egg glycerite, which 
have been previously well incorporated, 
and lastly add the water, in divided por- 
tions, until a clear jelly of the desired 
consistency is obtained. 

9. — Oil of almonds, 26 ozi ; odorless 
castor oil, 6 oz. ; benzoated lard, 8 oz. ; 
white wax, 8 oz. ; rose water (in winter 
less, in summer more, than quantity 
named), 12 oz. ; orange-flower water, 8 
oz. ; oil of rose, 15 minims ; extract of 
jasmine, 6 dr. ; extract of cassia, 4 dr. ; 
borax, 2 oz. ; glycerine, 4 oz. Melt the 
oil of sweet almond, wax and lard to- 
gether, and stir in the castor oil ; make 
a solution of the borax in the glycerine 
and rose and orange-flower waters ; add 
this solution, a little at a time, to the 
melted fat, stirring constantly, to insure 
thorough incorporation ; finally, add the 
oil of rose, dissolved in the extracts, and 
beat the ointment until cold. 

10. — Borax. — White wax, 1 oz. ; oil of 
almonds, 4 oz. ; rose water, 2 oz. ; borax, 
% dr. ; otto of rose, 5 drops. Dissolve 
the borax in the rose water, and (by the 
aid of heat) the wax in the oil. While 
still warm, mix gradually in a mortar, 
previously warmed. Add the otto, stir- 
ring constantly. 

11. — Camphorated Cold Cream. — Oil of ->(_ 
sweet almonds, 8 fl.oz. ; white wax, 1 oz. ; 
spermaceti, 1 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. ; rose 
water, 5 fl.oz. ; borax, in fine powder, 4 
dr. ; oil of rose, 10 drops. Melt the wax 
and spermaceti, add the oil of sweet alm- 
onds, in which the camphor has been 
dissolved with very gentle heat ; then 
gradually add the rose water, in which 
the borax has previously been dissolved, 
beating or agitating constantly with a 
wooden spatula until cold. Lastly, add 
the oil of rose. 

12. — Cucumber Cold Cream. — Almond 
oil, 1 lb, ; green oil, 1 oz. ; juice of cucum- 
bers, 1 lb. ; wax and sperm, of each 1 oz. ; 
essence of cucumber, 2 oz. 

13. — Dixon's Cold Cream. — White wax, 
4 oz. ; spermaceti, 4 oz. ; white petrola- 
tum, 12 oz. ; rose water, 14 oz. ; borax, 
80 gr. Melt the wax, spermaceti and pet- 
rolatum together, over a water bath, dis- 
solve the borax in the rose water and 
add to the melted mass at one time. Agi- 
tate violently. Presumably the borax so- 
lution should be of the same temperature 
as the melted mass. It is important that 
the direction to add the solution all at 
once be followed. 

14. — Glycerine Cold Cream. — Sperma- 



[842] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Cold Cream) 



ceti, 3 av.oz. ; white wax, 1 av.oz. ; sweet 
almond oil, 8 fl.oz. ; powdered borax, 240 
gr. ; glycerine, 3 fl.oz. ; orange-flower wa- 
ter, 1 fl.oz. ; oil of neroli, 5 drops ; oil of 
rose, 3 drops. Mix as above. 

15. — Greaseless Cold Cream. — ^The fol- 
lowing is a greaseless cold cream which 
is highly recommended : Take stearine, 
2 oz. ; sodium carbonate, % oz. ; borax 
powder, % oz. With this is mixed 4 
fl.oz. of glycerine and about 2 pt. of wa- 
ter ; heat over a water bath until there 
is no further effervescence, then remove, 
and stir, adding perfumes dissolved in al- 
cohol ; almost any perfume may be used. 
Many like preparations of this kind with- 
out any perfume. Oil of rose, ylang-ylang, 
heliotropine, or oil of bergamot may be 
used. Some persons, again, do not care 
for the preparations which contain glyc- 
erine, therefore glycerite of starch may 
be substituted for the glycerine. Quince 
seed, agar-agar, or tragacanth mucilage, 
may be added, if desired, decreasing the 
amount of water. Cocoa butter may, of 
course, be added, but it is apt to make 
the formula rather greasy. Witch hazel 
extract may also be added, if desired, de- 
creasing the quantity of water. This for- 
mula will stand a number of modifications 
for special uses. 

16. — Lanolin Cold Creams and Cool- 
ing Ointments. — The following are two 
formulae suggested by Dr. Unna, the fig- 
ures in the first column being for oint- 
ment and in the second for cream : 

Parts. 

Anhydrous lanolin 10 10 

Benzoated lard 20 20 

Rose water 30 60 

Cooling with lime water, use the same 
as above, but lime water instead of rose 
water. 

17.— Oriental Cold Cream.— Oil of alm- 
onds, 6 oz. ; white wax and spermaceti, 
of each 3 dr. ; melt, and add 6 oz. of rose 
water; 1% oz. of orange-flower water. 
This cream will soften the skin. It should 
be applied with a cotton or linen cloth. 

18.— Paraffine-oil Cold Cream.— White 
wax, melted, 9 lb. ; add white paraffine oil, 
4 gal. Continue heating until the liquid 
clarifies, and pour into a solution of bo- 
rax, % lb., in distilled water, 11^^ pt. 
Reapply heat, and stir until snow white ; 
add oil of rose geranium, 3 oz. ; stir, and 
pour into jars. 

19.— Petrolatum Cold Cream.— White 
petrolatum, 7 oz. ; parafiine, % oz. ; lano- 
lin, 2 oz. ; water, 3 oz. ; rose oil, 3 drops ; 
alcohol, 1 dr. A small quantity of the 



(Cucumber Cream) 



borax may be added, if desirable, and the 
perfume may be varied to suit the taste. 

20. — Pomade. — Anhydrous lanolin, 10 
parts ; pomade, 20 parts ; distilled wa- 
ter, 30 parts. Any suitable perfume 
pomade may be used, and lime water may 
take the place of distilled water. 

Cosmetics. — 1. — Simple. — White soft 
soap, ^ lb. ; olive oil, 3 oz. ; melt them 
together, add of fine sand a small teacup- 
ful, and mold or form the mixture into 
cakes or balls. Shelly sea sand, sifted 
from the shells, washed, and dried, is the 
best for this purpose. Used to soften aifid 
blanch the hands and to remove roughness 
and coarseness occasioned by exposure to 
the weather, or by gardening or other 
dirty work. 

2. — White petrolatum, 100 parts ; hard 
paraffine, 12 parts ; borax, in fine pow- 
der, 4 parts ; tincture of benzoin, 4 parts ; 
zinc oxide, 5 parts ; glycerine, 5 parts ; 
perfume, enough. Melt the petrolatum 
and paraffine on a water bath, and add 
the borax and the tincture. Stir well 
for 10 minutes, strain through fine mus- 
lin, and allow to cool without further 
stirring. Rub the zinc oxide with the 
glycerine, and add to the cooled basis, 
and beat in a mortar to a uniform con- 
sistency, adding the desired perfume. 

Cosmetic Gloves. — Mock kid or lamb- 
skin gloves rubbed over, on the inside, 
with a composition of the following kind : 
Spermaceti cerate (hardest, melted), 5 
oz. ; balsam of Peru, 1 dr. ; stir for 5 
minutes, pour off the clear portion, add 
of oil of nutmeg, i/^ dr. ,' oil of cassia, 
12 to 15 drops ; essence of ambergris, 12 
to 15 drops ; and stir the whole until 
cold. Worn by ladies in bed at night, to 
soften and blanch the hands and to pre- 
vent and cure chaps and chilblains. 

Cosmoline Cream. — Cosmoline, 24 troy 
oz. ; white wax, 12 troy oz. ; spermaceti, 
12 troy oz. ; glycerine, 3 fl.oz. ; oil of rose 
geranium, 1 fl.dr. Melt the wax and sper- 
maceti, add the cosmoline, then stir un- 
til nearly cold ; add the glycerine and oil, 
and stir until cold. 

Cucumher Cream. — Cucumbers are oc- 
casionally used in the making of cosmetic 
"creams," the juice being expressed and 
used, instead of water, in the "cold cream" 
formula, or the vegetable is digested with 
grease until the latter is perfumed, when 
the product is a pomade. Benzoinated 
lard, 6 lb. ; spermaceti, 2 lb. ; spirit of 
cucumber, 1 lb. Melt the spermaceti with 
the lard, and keep it constantly in mo- 
tion while it cools ; then heat the grease 
in a mortar, gradually adding the spirit 
of cucumber: continue to heat until the 



[843] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Glycerine Cream) 



spirit is evaporated and the pomade is 
beautifully white. 

Cucumher Milk.- — Sweet almonds, 80 
parts; fresh cucumber juice, previously 
boiled, 200 parts ; Castile soap, 5 parts ; 
cucumber essence, 60 parts ; tincture of 
benzoin, 1 part. 

Elder-Flotver Cream. — White wax, 2 
oz. ; spermaceti, 2 oz. ; oil of sweet alm- 
ond, 14 fl.oz. ; lanolin, 6 oz. Melt to- 
gether on a water bath, and stir until 
nearly cold, gradually adding borax, 75 
gr., dissolved in elder-flower water, 9 
fl.oz. Perfume with oil of bergamot, 15 
minims ; oil of rose, 15 minims ; oil of 
neroli bigarade, 10 minims ; oil of ylang- 
ylang, 2 minims ; oil of orris, 1 minim ; 
tincture of musk, 5 minims ; coumarine, 
% gr. ; vanillin, 3 gr. Mix the oils and 
add to the melted waxes and oil. Dis- 
solve the coumarine and vanillin in a 
portion of the oil of almond, and treat 
likewise. Put in fancy glass or porce- 
lain jars, with handsome label, and tie 
with ribbon. 

Emollient Tablet. — An emollient tablet 
may be made by the appended formula : 
Mutton suet, 18 oz. ; spermaceti, 12 oz. ; 
white wax, 12 oz. Melt together by a 
gentle heat, remove from the fire, stir 
well as the mixture begins to cool, con- 
tinuing until ready to set, when pour into 
molds. The quantities given above will 
make from 24 to 26 tablets, if cast in 
molds of 1% to 2% in. square and % in. 
deep ; a convenient and desirable size. 
The best material for the molds is block 
tin. Their form should be a pan, as in- 
dicated in the statement for measurement, 
the top side entirely open, and they should 
taper very slightly on the sides from bot- 
tom to top. A desirable arrangement is 
to have them so placed in a tray that 
they may be surrounded with cold water. 
The chief use of the tray is to enable 
the molds to be chilled before casting, 
which renders adhesion of the tablets 
much less likely. Much cheaper, though 
less elegant, molds may be made of tinned 
iron, and the tray may be dispensed with. 
The usual way of putting up such a tab- 
let for sale is to wrap it first in thin, 
smooth paper, then in an outer covering 
of tinfoil, and lastly to enclose it in a 
paper box. 

Olycerine. — 1. — Balsam. — This is de- 
signed to whiten and soften the skin, re- 
move roughness, chaps, chilblains, and ir- 
ritations from common causes. Pure 
white wax, 1 oz. ; spermaceti, 2 oz. ; oil 
of almonds, 9 oz. Melt together by a 
moderate heat in a glazed earthenware 
vessel, and add best glycerine, 3 oz. ; bal- 



( Honey and Almond Cream) 

sam of Peru, % oz. The mixture is to 
be stirred until nearly cold, and then 
poured into pots. Instead of balsam of 
Peru, 12 or 15 drops of attar of rose 
may be employed. 

2. — Cream. — ^This recipe is excellent. 
Spermaceti, 4 dr. ; white wax, 1 dr. ; oil 
of almonds, 2 troy oz. ; glycerine, 1 troy 
oz. Melt the spermaceti, wax and oil to- 
gether, and when cooling put in the glyc- 
erine and perfume. 

3. — Heliotrope Glycerine Lotion. — Glyc- 
erine, 16 fl.oz. ; distilled water, 16 fl.oz. ; 
borax, 2 dr. ; extract of white heliotrope, 
q. s. Mix, and filter. Put up in 3-oz. 
Blakes, label to cover sides and front, 
cap with goldbeaters' skin, but pasted on, 
not tied. In pasting the skin, spread it 
wet, as for tying, but first apply the brush 
to the under side of the tip of the bot- 
tle, spread, and tie until it dries, and 
then with a sharp knife trim evenly all 
around. 

4, — Rose Glycerine Cream. — Sperma- 
ceti, 1/^ oz. ; oil of sweet almonds, 2 oz. ; 
white wax, 1 oz. ; glycerine, 4 oz. Melt 
the spermaceti, white wax and oil of alm- 
onds together first ; then add the glyc- 
erine, and stir the mixture until cool. 
Perfume with attar of rose. 

5. — Solidified. — Transparent soap, 1% 
oz. ; water, 6 oz. ; inodorous glycerine, 36 
oz. Dissolve the soap in th3 water, by 
heat ; add an equal weight of glycerine. 
\^nien dissolved, add the rest of the glyc- 
erine ; water, q. s. to make up the weight. 
When nearly cold, add any perfume de- 
sired. Put in glass jars. It is of a pale 
amber color, and is transparent. 

Honey and Almond Cream. — 1. — Bitter 
almonds, 1 oz. ; yolk of egg, 1 oz. ; honey, 
1 oz. ; oil of sweet almonds, 2 oz. ; oil of 
bergamot, 15 minims ; oil of lemon, 12 
minims ; oil of cloves, 12 minims. Bruise 
the almonds, previously macerated in cold 
water, and decorticated, and rub through 
a fine sieve ; then add the essential oils 
and the mixture of the yolk of egg, honey 
and sweet almond oil, and beat the whole 
well until the ingredients have been thor- 
oughly incorporated. 

2. — Cold cream, 5 parts ; oil of sweet 
almonds, 5 parts ; glycerine, 5 parts ; bo- 
ric acid, 5 parts ; solution of soda, 12 
parts; mucilage, quince seed (1:8), 25 
parts ; water, 143 parts ; oil of bitter alm- 
onds and oil of rose, of each q. s. to 
perfume. Heat the cold cream, oil and 
soda solution together, stirring constant- 
ly, until an emulsion is formed ; then 
heat together the glycerine, boric acid, 
mucilage and water, mix with the emul- 
sion, stir until cold, and add enough wa- 



[844] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Cosmetic Jelly) 



ter to make 200 parts; finally add the 
perfume. 

3. — Sweet almonds, blanched, 8 av.oz. ; 
rose water, 32 fl.oz. ; alcohol, 4 fl.oz. ; oil 
of rose, 1 fl.dr. ; white wax, 240 gr. ; 
spermaceti, 240 gr. ; white Castile soap, 
240 gr. Shave the soap, place it in a 
vessel, add several ounces of rose water, 
and heat on a water bath until dissolved. 
When the soap is dissolved, add the wax 
and spermaceti, continue the heat, and 
stir occasionally. While this is going on 
blanch the almonds, carefully excluding 
every damaged particle. Then beat them 
up in a scrupulously clean mortar, and 
allow the rose water to trickle into the 
mass by degrees. When the emulsion of 
almonds is finished, strain it, without 
pressure, through clean, washed muslin. 
The previously prepared saponaceous mix- 
ture is now put in the mortar, and the 
emulsion carefully and gradually blended 
with it. As the last of the emulsion is 
run into the mortar the alcohol, in which 
the oil of rose has been dissolved, is made 
to follow it, and mixed very gradually 
with the other ingredients. A too sudden 
addition of the alcohol frequently coagu- 
lates the milk and causes it to be curdled. 
As it is, the temperature of the mixture 
rises, and every means must be taken to 
keep it down. Finally, strain the prod- 
uct. The almond residue may be washed 
with a few ounces of fresh rose water 
to prevent any loss in bulk in the whole 
quantity. The newly formed milk should 
be allowed to stand at rest for 24 hours, 
when the clear portion may be drawn off 
the sediment, and is ready for bottling. 

4. — Balsam of Honey. — 'Take fine pale 
honey, 4 oz. ; glycerine, 1 oz. Mix by a 
gentle heat ; when cold, add alcohol, 1 oz. ; 
essence of ambergris, 6 drops ; citric acid, 
3 dr. This is intended to remove dis- 
colorations and freckles, as well as to 
improve the general appearance of the 
skin. 

Jelly.— 1.— Cosmetic. — Gelatine, 240 
gr. ; white of egg, 1 av.oz. ; salicylic acid, 
25 gr. ; rose water, 12 fl.oz. ; glycerine, 
enough to make 25 fl.oz. Dissolve the 
gelatine in the rose water by the aid of 
the water bath, using a gentle heat. Al- 
low to cool, and before it jellifies add the 
albumen, and stir together. Mix the sali- 
cylic acid with the glycerine, and after 
again applying heat to the gelatine solu- 
tion add it to the latter, stirring con- 
stantly. When the mixture is quite ho- 
mogeneous, remove from the fire, and fil- 
ter, by means of a hot filtration appara- 
tus, directly into receptacles in which it 
solidifies. Instead of rose water any oth- 



( Witch Hazel Jelly) 



[ 84F: } 



er distilled perfumed water, such as 
orange-flower water, may be used. 

2. — Glycerine Jelly for Collapsible 
Tubes. — Pure transparent soap, 2 dr. ; 
distilled water, 1 fl.oz. ; glycerine, 6 fl.oz. ; 
oil of rose, 3 drops. Cut the soap into 
fine shavings, and dissolve, by a water 
bath, in the water and 1 oz. of glycerine. 
When dissolved, add the rest of the glyc- 
erine and the oil of rose, and pour into 
the tubes. A little piece of the jelly 
should be well rubbed into the hands at 
bed time, and 2 or 3 times during the 
day, if they are badly chapped. It may 
also be used for cracked lips. 

3. — GljLcerine and Cucumber Jelly. — 
Gelatine, 160 to 240 gr. ; boric acid, 240 
gr. ; glycerine, 6 fl.oz. ; water, 10 fl.oz. 
Perfume to suit. The perfume must be 
one that mixes without opalescence, oth- 
erwise it mars the beauty of the prepa- 
ration. Orange-flower water or rose wa- 
ter could be substituted for the water, 
if desired, or another perfume, consisting 
of spirit of vanillin (15 gr. per oz.), 2 
fl.dr.; spirit of coumarine (15 gr. per 
oz.), 2 fl.dr.; spirit of bitter almonds 
(Vs), 8 minims; to the quantities given 
above would prove agreeable. 

4. — Glycerine and Honey Jelly. — Glyc- 
erine, 4 fl.oz. ; clarified honey, 4 fl.dr. ; 
distilled water, 8 fl.oz. ; gelatine, 2 dr. ; 
oil of lavender, 12 drops. Soak the gela- 
tine in the water and honey until it 
softens and swells up ; then melt by the 
aid of heat, and add the glycerine, pre- 
viously warmed ; strain through fine mus- 
lin, and when nearly cool add the per- 
fume, and pour into the tubes. Should 
the preparations be too stiff, they may 
be thinned down with sufficient glycerine 
to a suitable consistency. 

5. — Glycerine and Starch Jelly.— Starch 
powder, 4 dr. ; glycerine, 2 fl.oz. ; distilled 
water, 2 fl.oz. ; solution of cochineal, 5 
drops; oil of lavender, 3 drops. Mix the 
starch, glycerine and water, and heat un- 
til a jelly is formed, stirring constantly. 
Remove from the source of heat, mix in 
the color, perfume well, and pour into 
the tubes. 

6.— For the Hands.— Tragacanth, white 
ribbon, 60 gr. ; rose water, 14 oz. Macer- 
ate for 2 days, and strain forcibly 
through coarse muslin or cheese cloth ; 
add glycerine and alcohol, of each 1 oz. 
Perfume to suit. Use immediately after 
bathing, rubbing in well until dry. 

7.— Witch Hazel Jelly. — Powdered 
tragacanth, 160 gr. ; glycerine, 5 oz. ; dis- 
tilled extract of witch hazel, 10 oz. ; otto 
of rose, sufficient quantity. Triturate the 
tragacanth with the glycerine, add the 



Toilet Preparations 



(Massage Cream) 



otto, and then the distilled extract of 
witeli hazel. 

Lanolin Milk. — Melt anhydrous lano- 
lin, 100 grams ; and add glycerine, 100 
grams ; water, 750 grams. Put in a wide- 
necked bottle vessel and add, with contin- 
ued violent shaking : Tincture of ben- 
zoin, 50 grams ; mucilage, 30 grams ; and 
perfume like the creme. Preparations 
which have been introduced years ago for 
the care of the skin and complexion are 
the glycerine gelees, which have the ad- 
vantage over lanolin tha-t they go farther, 
but present the drawback of not being 
so quickly absorbed by the skin. These 
products are filled eJ'ther into glasses or 
into tubes. The latter way is preferable, 
and is more and more adopted owing to 
the convenience of handling. A good 
recipe for such a gelee is the following : 
Moisten white tragacanth powder, 50 
grams, with glycerine, 200 grams, and 
spirit of wine, 100 grams, and shake with 
a suitable amount of perfume ; then quick- 
ly mix, and shake with warm distilled 
water, 650 grams. A transparent slime 
will form immediately, which can be 
drawn off at once. 

Lanolin Toilet Creme. — Anhydrous 
lanolin, 650 ; peach-kernel oil, 200 ; wa- 
ter, 150. Perfume with about 15 drops 
of ionone or 20 drops of synthetic ylang- 
ylang. 

Massage Cream. — Preparations for mas- 
saging the skin usually depend upon a 
fatty base, and any bland ointment of the 
"cold cream" series will answer the pur- 
pose. These massage creams are also 
known as "skin foods," and the formulas 
for these are numerous. Lanolin is a 
popular addition, as it aids in holding a 
large percentage of water incorporated in 
the product. The addition of an alkali 
or alkaline salt, previously dissolved in 
the water, adds to the softening effect on 
the skin, which seems to be the object 
desired ; almond or rose are the popular 
perfumes, while the color is that of pink. 
The anhydrous lanolin is known as oleum 
lance, or lanum. When the ordinary lan- 
olin is employed, the amount of water 
must be reduced in the formulas. 

1. — Lanolin, anhydrous, 3 av.oz. ; 
benzoated lard, 6 av.oz. ; water, 9 fl.oz. ; 
borax, 60 gr. Melt the lard and lanolin 
together ; dissolve the borax in the water, 
warming the same slightly, and add to 
the melted fats, with stirring, until cool ; 
perfume and color. 

2. — Petrolatum oil, 8 av.oz. ; lanolin, 
anhydrous, 4 av.oz. ; white wax. 1 av.oz. ; 
spermaceti, 1 av.oz. ; borax, 60 gr. ; wa- 
ter, 6 fl.oz. Melt together the first four 



(Massage Cream) 



ingredients, then incorporate the water, 
after which perfume and color. 

3. — White wax, 1 av.oz. ; spermaceti, 1 
av.oz. ; sweet almond oil, 7 av.oz. ; lano- 
lin, anhydrous, SVz av.oz. ; borax, 5 fl.oz. ; 
water. Melt the wax and spermaceti, 
add the lanolin and oil, and, when melt- 
ed, add the water containing the borax in 
solution ; stir together until cold, and add 
suitable perfume and color. 

4. — White petrolatum, 14 av.oz. ; par- 
affine wax, 1 av.oz. ; lanolin, anhydrous, 
4 av.oz. ; water, 6 fl.oz. ; powdered borax, 
60 gr. Melt the petrolatum and paraffine 
on a water bath, pour into a warm mor- 
tar, add the lanolin, and, with constant 
stirring, incorporate the water ; when of 
the consistency of a thick cream add tTie 
perfume and color. 

5. — White petrolatum, 10 av.oz. ; lano- 
lin, anhydrous, 5 av.oz. ; white powdered 
soap, 140 gr, ; water, 5 fl.oz. Mix the 
petrolatum, lanolin and soap, incorpo- 
rate the water with this mixture, and 
then perfume and color. 

6. — Lanolin, anhydrous, 8 av.oz. ; white 
petrolatum oil, 2 av.oz. ; powdered borax, 
60 gr. ; powdered starch, 2 av.oz. ; water, 
4 fl.oz. Melt the lanolin, and add the 
petrolatum ; place the borax and water 
in a bottle of double capacity, add the 
starch, and after thoroughly shaking to- 
gether, add to the liquefied fats, with stir- 
ring, until cold ; then add perfume and 
color. 

7. — Milk, skimmed free from _ fat, ^ 2 
gal. ; powdered borax, 1 oz. ; boric acid, 
1% oz, ; pulverized alum, 4 oz. ; carmine 
coloring, q. s, ; perfume, q. s. Dissolve 
the borax, acid, alum, coloring and per- 
fume in some water, add to the milk, and 
set on a fire, being careful not to burn 
or scald the milk. After the casein is 
precipitated, or the whey shows clear, 
strain through cheese cloth. Do not let 
it get too dry. Then put in the ario- 
emulsifier and beat up. This fluffs it 
up, breaks up all the granular particles 
of casein, and makes a beautifully smooth 
cream. If too thick, a small quantity of 
boiled water can be added, and the whole 
can then be beaten again in machine. 

8. — Skimmed milk, 2 pt, : powdered 
alum, 6 dr. ; boric acid, 4 dr. ; borax, 6 
dr. ; 95% phenol, 6 drops ; oil of rose 
geranium, q. s. ; oil of bitter almond, 
q. s. ; solution of carmine, q. s. ; water, 
q. s. Heat the milk to 130° F. ; add the 
alum to 1 oz. of water, and heat to the 
same temperature ; add the boric acid to 
2^ oz. of water a^id apnly the same de- 
gree of heat : mix the milk a^d the boric 
solution, while warm, and add the alum 



[846] 



Toilet Preparatio7is 



(Skin Foods) 



solution, also warm. After the milk has 
curdled strain it, and if not clear add 
more alum solution ; when all the casein 
has been gathered add the phenol and 
q. s. of oils to perfume and a little car- 
mine to tint. • 

9. — ^White potash soap, shaved, 20 
parts ; glycerine, 30 parts ; water, 30 
parts ; 90% alcohol, 10 parts. Dissolve 
the soap by heating it with the glycerine 
and water, mixed. Add the alcohol, and 
for every 3 oz. of the solution add 5 or 
6 drops of the Mistura oleoso-halsamica, 
German Pharmacopoeia (which you will 
find in the dispensatories). Filter while 
hot. 

10. — Special Massage Base (Skin 
Food). — Snow-white cold cream, 4 oz. ; 
lanolin, 4 oz. ; oil of theobroma, 4 oz. ; 
white petrolatum oil, 4 oz. ; distilled wa- 
ter, 4 oz. In hot weather, add sperma- 
ceti, 1% dr. ; white wax, 2i/^ dr. In 
winter the two latter are left out, and 
the proportion of cocoa butter is modi- 
fied. Prepared and perfumed in propor- 
tion same as cold cream. This is pre- 
scribed and recommended by Dr. Sands, 
the great New York skin and scalp spe- 
cialist. 

SMn Foods. — Owing to the belief that 
lanolin is more readily absorbed by the 
skin than are some other ointment bases, 
many prefer it as the base for skin foods ; 
the other ingredients generally being sim- 
ply to perfume the base, and perhaps to 
give it a more attractive color. A report 
of a physician says that he has given 
small vials of cod liver oil, suitably per- 
fumed, to patients who ask him for some- 
thing to remove wrinkles from their faces 
and restore the plumpness and bloom, and 
that the results were satisfactory. Per- 
haps the massage has something to do 
with the case, independent of any direct 
action of the "food." To prepare casein 
extemporaneously, for use as a skin food, 
place the skimmed milk in a shallow dish, 
set aside in a warm place until it coagu- 
lates, then heat to 120°, and strain the 
whey, wash with cold water, and press 
as dry as possible. To prepare it even 
more quickly, precipitate it from milk 
with acetic acid or vinegar, and, after 
heating, proceed as just outlined. 

1. — Pure lard, 8 oz. ; veal suet, 8 oz. ; 
olive oil, 1% oz. : compound tincture of 
benzoin, 4 dr. Melt together the lard, 
suet and oil, and as they cool stir in the 
tincture. 

2. — Rough skin is to be washed con- 
stantly in vichy water. Besides this, 
rough places are to have the following 



(Toilet Cream) 



applications, twice daily, either a few 
drops of — 

a. — Rose water, 100 parts ; glycerine, 
25 parts ; tannin, % part. Mix. 

b. — Orange-flower water, 100 parts ; 
glycerine, 10 parts ; borax, 2 parts. Mix. 
Sig. : Apply twice daily. 

3. — White petrolatum, 7 oz. ; paraflSne 
wax, % oz. ; lanolin, 2 oz, ; borax, 30 
gr. ; rose water, 3 oz. Melt the wax, add 
the petrolatum and lanolin, pour into a 
warm mortar, and, with constant stir- 
ring, incorporate the rose water, in which 
the borax previously has been dissolved. 
This preparation may be tinted red by 
means of alkanet root suspended in the 
melted mixture, ere the water is added. 

4. — Castor oil, 6 oz. ; alcohol, 10 oz. ; 
oil of lavender, 2 dr. ; oil of bergamot, 1 
dr. Mix. This can be tinted by car- 
mine. 

Snow Cream. — Spermaceti, 4l^ oz. ; 
white wax, 3 oz. ; fresh oil of almonds, 
18 oz. ; melt over a water bath ; pour in 
a marble mortar, and stir briskly to pre- 
vent granulation. When the mixture be- 
comes of the consistency of butter, tritu- 
rate until it has a white, creamy appear- 
ance ; add gradually a mixture of double 
water of roses, 1% oz. ; odorless glycer- 
ine, 1% oz. ; mix for 20 minutes, then 
add 15 drops of essence of roses ; beat 
for about half an hour. 

Toilet Cream (Marshall). — Quince 
seed, 180 gr. ; boric acid, 20 gr. ; glycer- 
ine, 5 fl.oz. ; alcohol, 5 fl.oz. ; carbolic 
acid, 1 fl.dr. ; oil of bitter almond, 15 
drops ; glycerite starch, 5 av.oz, ; tincture 
of benzoin, % fl.dr. ; almonds, 3 oz. ; aq. 
dist, q. s. to make 48 oz. Blanch the 
almonds, and beat to a pulp, with about 
IS to 20 oz. of water ; macerate the quince 
seed in water for several hours, strain, 
and mix with the glycerite starch and 
glycerine, in which the boracic and car- 
bolic acids have been dissolved ; add the 
tincture of benzoin, drop by drop, to 
about 1 pt. of water, and add to above ; 
dissolve the oil of almond in the alcohol, 
and mix all thoroughly ; strain through 
muslin, and add enough water to make 
48 oz. 

Witch Easel Snow. — Stearic acid, 60 
grams ; sodium carbonate, 9 grams ; glyc- 
erine, 7 grams ; hamamelis water, 300 
grams ; water, enough. Melt the stearic 
acid in a tared vessel of about 2,000 c.c. 
capacity, over a water bath, and add the 
sodium carbonate, dissolved in a mini- 
mum amount of hot water ; then add the 
glycerine. Keep the mixture on the wa- 
ter bath for one hour, stirring constantly, 
but not vigorously ; add sufllcient water 



[847] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Court Plaster) 



to bring the preparation up to 300 grams, 
and then the hamamelis water. Return 
the container to the water bath for a 
minute or two, stirring the mixture until 
perfectly smooth. Pour into a warm 
mortar, and beat to a foam. Let it stand 
12 hours, stir with a spatula, and fill 
into wide-mouthed bottles. 

Court Plaster. 

1. — Goldbeaters' skin, without any 
preparation, forms the very best court 
plaster that can be employed. A piece 
of it applied dry to the slightly mois- 
tened skin, and held there for a few sec- 
onds with the hand, will adhere firmly 
for several days, or until the part be 
wetted ; and, from being transparent, and 
almost colorless, will, when of the finest 
quality, and skilfully applied, be scarcely 
visible. 

2. — Best genuine isinglass, 1 oz. ; water, 
% pt. Dissolve by heating them together 
in a covered vessel ; strain the solution, 
and when only lukewarm add to it, grad- 
ually, but quickly, a mixture formed of 
rectified spirit, 2 fl.oz. ; tincture of ben- 
zoin, 2 fl.oz. Apply this composition (still 
warm) by means of a flat camel's-hair 
brush, or any appropriate "spreader," to 
the surface of silk, or sarsenet, stretched 
in a frame, repeating the application as 
soon as the preceding coating is dry, and 
again as often as necessary (6 to 12 
times). Lastly, when quite dry and hard, 
give the prepared surface a "finishing 
coat" with a solution of Chio turpentine, 

1 oz., dissolved in tincture of benzoin, 

2 fl.oz. Tincture of balsam of Peru, or 
of styrax, may be substituted for the 
tincture of benzoin ; and a few drops of 
essence of ambergris, or of musk, may be 
added to increase the fragrance of the 
compound. Some parties simply employ 
one or other of the above tinctures for 
the finishing coat, and others apply it to 
the unprepared side of the silk, by which 
the plaster is rendered partially water- 
proof, but the appearance of its exposed 
surface injured. Care should be taken 
that the first 2 or 3 applications of the 
gelatine composition do not sink into the 
silk, so as to appear on the right side, 
which will not be the case if it be only 
sufiiciently warm to remain liquid, and be 
applied very thinly and rapidly, and with 
a light stroke of the brush or spreader. 

3. — Deschamp's. — Apply to stretched 
silk a very thin coating of smooth, 
strained flour paste ; and over this, when 
dry, 2 or 3 coats of warm size, made 
with colorless gelatine and water, to 
wliich some odorous tincture or essence 



(Court Plaster) 



has been added. Said to be superior to 
the ordinary court plaster, and much of 
the court plaster of commerce is so pre- 
pared. 

4. — Liston's. — ^Isinglass, 1 oz. ; water, 
2^ oz. Keep them in a covered vessel, 
in a hot place, until the isinglass has 
swollen, and absorbed all the water and 
become quite soft ; then beat it to a uni- 
form semi-fluid mass, strain it by squeez- 
ing it through muslin, and add of proof 
spirit, 3% fl.oz. Next expose the mix- 
ture, with frequent stirring, in a covered 
bottle or other vessel, until the union be 
complete. Lastly, with a brush apply 4 
coats of the solution to the surface of 
oiled silk, stretched out and nailed on 
a board. A little of the tinctures or es- 
sences before noticed may be added to 
impart a slight odor to the plaster. 

5, — Soak isinglass in a little warm wa- 
ter for 74 hours, then evaporate nearly 
all the water by gentle heat, dissolve the 
residue in a little proof alcohol, and strain 
the whole through a piece of open linen. 
The strained mass should be a stiff jelly 
when cool. Now stretch a piece of silk 
^r sarsenet on a wooden frame, and fix 
it tight with tacks or pack thread. Melt 
the jelly, and apply it to the silk thinly 
and evenly with a badger-hair brush. A 
second coating must be applied when the 
first has dried. When both are dry, ap- 
ply over the whole surface 2 or 3 coat- 
ings of balsam of Peru. Plaster thus 
made is said to be very pliable, and never 
breaks. 

6. — Ck)urt plaster should be thoroughly 
soaked on both sides before it is applied, 
and should be pressed on with a soft, dry 
cloth. Then it will adhere so firmly that 
washing with soap and water will hardly 
remove it. 

7. — a. — Black silk or sarsenet is 
strained, and brushed over 10 or 12 times 
with the following composition. Balsam 
(gum) of benzoin, i^ oz. ; 90% alcohol, 6 
oz. ; dissolve. In a separate vessel dis- 
solve 1 oz. of isinglass in as little water 
as possible ; strain each solution, mix, and 
decant the clear. It is applied warm. 
When the last coat is quite dry, a finish- 
ing coat must be given with a solution of 
4 oz. of Chio turpentine in 6 oz. of tinc- 
ture of benzoin. 

b.— Isinglass, 1 oz. ; dissolve in proof 
spirit, 12 oz. ; add tincture of benzoin. 
2 oz. ; give 5 or 6 coats, and finish off 
as last. 

c. — Isinglass, 1 oz. ; water, 3 oz. ; dis- 
solve ; add tincture of benzoin, 1 oz. ; ap- 
ply as above, and finish off with a coat 
of tincture of benzoin or tincture of bal- 



[848] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Foot Powders) 



sam of Peru, Goldbeaters' skin is now 
frequently substituted for sarsenet. 

8.— Liquid Court Plaster. — Pyroxylin, 
1 oz. ; amyl acetate, 5 oz. ; acetone, 15 
oz. ; balsam of fir, 2 dr.; castor oil, 2 
dr. ; oil of cloves, 15 minims. Dissolve 
the pyroxylin in the amyl acetate and 
the acetone, and add the other ingredi- 
ents, avoiding fire or light. 

Depilatories. 

l.-^iquid Depilatory.— Here is a for- 
mula from Monatschr. fiir Dermatologie, 
and recommended by Dr. Butte: Alco- 
hol, 12 grams; iodine, 0.75 giram ; collo- 
dion, 35 grams; oil of turpentine, 1.50 
grams ; castor oil, 2 grams. Apply to the 
part from which the hair is to be removed 
one or twice daily for 3 or 4 successive 
days, increasing from day to day the 
thickness of the layer. 

2. — Sodium sulphide, crystallized, 3 
parts ; powdered quicklime, 10 parts ; 
powdered starch, 10 parts. 

3. — Powdered quicklime, 1 part; so- 
dium carbonate, 2 parts ; ' lard, 8 ■ parts. 
Apply, and remove after 2 or 3 minutes. 

4. — Barium sulphide, powdered -quick- 
lime, powdered starch, equal parts. 

5. — Powdered quicklime, 8 parts; po- 
tassium carbonate, 1 part ; potassium sul- 
phide, 1 part. This is known as "Chinese 
Depilatory," and, when finely powdered, 
should be kept in a well closed bottle. 

6.— Quicklime, 120 gr. ; sodium sul- 
phide, 240 gr. ; starch, 80 gr. ; powdered 
orris root, 40 gr. Rub the necessary por- 
tion of this powder into a thin paste with 
water, and apply as directed for No. 1. 

Foot Powders. 

All the most prominent brands were 
found to contain talcum in the propor- 
tion of 75 to 90%. The starch is mostly 
in the form of corn, wheat or potato 
starch, only one sample containing pow- 
dered orris root. Salicylic acid is used 
in the proportion of 3 to 7.5%, as a rule, 
and boric acid varied from 1 to 757o. 
The purpose of borax in these powders 
is to control germ action, and one of the 
most popular brands contains it in con- 
siderable proportion. Following is the 
composition of some of the leading 

1.— Talcum, 75% ; boric acid, 25%. 
2.— Talcum, 12.5%; starch, 50%; bo- 
rax, 37.5%. ^ . .^ „^r^ 

3 — ^Talcum, 25% ; boric acid, 75%. 
4._jralcum, 65%; alum, 20%; mag- 
nesia, 15%. _,^ - 
5.— Talcum, 90%; borax, 10%. 

[ 



(Freckles and Tan) 



6.— Talcum, 95%; alum, 4%; boric 
acid, 1%. „^^ 

7. — Starch, 65% ; zinc oxide, 35%. 

8. — Talcum, 60% ; boric acid, 40%. 

9.— Talcum, 75% ; starch, 15% ; sali- 
cylic acid, 7.5%; alum, 2.5%. _^ 

10.— Zinc oxide, 25% ; borax, 75%. 

11.— Starch, 75% ; salicylic acid, 25%. 

12. — Boric acid, in fine powder, 4 oz. ; 
powdered alum, 4 oz. ; powdered French 
chalk, 24 oz. Perfume may be added, if 
desired. _ , , . . _ „ 

13. — Salicylic acid, 7 dr. ; boric acid, 2 
oz. 440 gr. ; talcum, 38 oz. ; slippery-elm 
bark, 1 oz. ; orris root, 1 oz. 

14. — Salicylic acid, 1 av.oz. ; alum, 2 
av.oz. ; starch, 8 av.oz. ; talcum, 28 av.oz. ; 
alcohol, 2 fl.oz. ; oil of bergamot, 1 fl.dr. 

15. — Zinc oxide, 8 av.oz. ; starch, 11 
av.oz.; talcum, 60 av.oz.; salicylic acid, 
1 av.oz. ; oil of wintergreen, 30 minims. 

16. — Sodium salicylate, 1 oz. ; potas- 
sium permanganate, 3 oz. ; talcum, 40 oz. ; 
bismuth subnitrate, 45 oz. 

17. — ^Tannoform, 1 part; powdered or- 
ris root, 1 part; powdered talcum, 8 
parts. ^ ^ 1' i- 

18._Powdered borax, 1 part; salicylic 
acid, 1 part ; powdered boric acid, 1 part ; 
powdered talcum, 12 parts. 

19._Formaldehyde, 0.13 gr. ; thymol, 
0.10 gr. ; zinc oxide, 34.44 gr. ; starch, 
65.27 gr. It seems that the formalde- 
hyde must be in chemical union with 
some one of the ingredients in order not 
to become dissipated. 

20. — For severe cases of bromidrosis 
of the feet it is well to soak the stock- 
ings in a concentrated solution of boric 
acid, and drying, putting on a fresh pair 
every morning. The feet should ^ be 
bathed every evening, in hot water,, quick- 
ly dried, alcohol applied, and this also 
quickly dried off. -r. -, j 

21. — Antifieptic Powder. — a. — Powdered 
boric acid, 1 oz. ; powdered orris root, 1 
oz. ; powdered starch, 1 oz. ; powdered 
zinc oxide, 1 oz. ; oil of eucalyptus, 1 
fl.dr. Mix. . ^ ^ , 

b — Boric acid, 10 oz. ; exsiccated alum. 
10 oz.; fuller's earth, 21/2 lb.; powdered 
starch, 1^4 lb. ; powdered talc, 20 oz. : 
zinc oxide, 10 oz. ; oil of eucalyptus, 2 
fl.oz. Mix. 

Freckles and Tan. 

Lanoderma. — For moth, tan and freck- 
les.— Precipitated sulphur, 10 parts; zinc 
oxide, 5 parts; sweet almond oil, 10 
parts ; hydrated wool fat, 10 parts. Melt 
the wool fat and oil together, and add 
the sulphur and zinc oxide. Remove from 
the fire, and let cool under constant stir- 
849] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Hair Preparations) 



ring. Just before it begins to set add 
any desired perfume. 

Lotion. — Borax, 2 av.oz. ; potassium 
chlorate, 1 av. oz. ; glycerine, 4 fl.oz. ; al- 
cohol, 2 fl.oz. ; rose water, 10 fl.oz. Mix 
the borax and chlorate of potassium with 
the glycerine and rose water ; when as 
much as possible is dissolved of the salts 
add the alcohol, and filter. Apply with 
a soft sponge several times a day. 

Removal of Tan, Freckles, etc. — 1. — A 
preparation described as "Jour d'Ete," is 
made with the following formula: Pre- 
cipitate sulphur, 2 parts ; zinc oxide, 1 
part ; lanolin, 2 parts ; oil of amygd., 2 
parts. This is perfumed according to 
taste. 

2. — Hydrogen peroxide has been recom- 
mended as a face bleach, and is perhaps 
as harmless as any. An experiment 
would soon demonstrate its virtue or 
harmfulness, as the case might be. If 
the skin became sore or irritated under 
treatment, a little warm boric acid and 
water and glycerine should be applied. 

3. — ^Buttermilk, or sour milk, 2 oz. ; 
grated horseradish, 2 dr. ; corn meal, 6 
dr. Spread this mixture between thin 
muslin and allow it to lie on the affected 
parts as long as possible at night, care 
being used to keep it away from the eyes. 

4. — Bismuth subnitrate, 4 dr. ; glycer- 
ine, 4 dr. ; hydrous wool fat, 3 oz. 

5. — Ammonium chloride, 1 oz. ; hydro- 
chloric acid, c. p., 1 oz. ; glycerine, 4 oz. ; 
elder-flower water, to make 4 pt. 

6. — Solution of chlorinated soda, 2 oz. ; 
hydrochloric acid, c. p., 4 dr. ; ammonium 
chloride, 4 dr. ; glycerine, 2 oz. ; elder- 
flower water, 4 oz. ; perfume, enough. 

7. — Zinc sulphocarbonate, 2 dr. ; glyc- 
erine, 5 oz. 

Hair. 

Bandoline. — ^1. — Quince seed, 2 dr. ; 
water, 1 pt. ; alcohol, 1 oz. ; cologne wa- 
ter, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 6 drops. Gently 
boil the quince seed in the water until 
it is evaporated to 12 oz. ; strain through 
muslin, and when the mucilage is nearly 
cold, add the alcohol, cologne and oil. 

2. — Gum tragacanth, 2 dr. ; water, 8 
oz. ; glycerine, 1 oz. ; oil of rose, 5 min- 
ims ; ammoniacal carmine solution, a suf- 
ficient quantity. Add the water to the 
tragacanth, and when it has become soft 
add the glycerine and rose oil, previously 
mixed, and color to suit. The perfume 
can be varied, or the color omitted, ac- 
cording to fancy. Rose, almond and or- 
ange are the odors usually preferred for 
bandolines. 

Bleaching Hair ivith Hydrogen Perox- 



(Hair Preparations) 



ide. — 1. — For- bleaching hair upon the 
head, the hair is previously washed, to 
remove all grease, and the peroxide of 
hydrogen applied rapidly, care being taken 
not_ to touch the skin more than is un- 
avoidable. By this operation, yellowish 
tints are produced, which, if carried too 
far, are likely to turn the hair gray. Ap- 
plications of this nature may be expected 
to be injurious to the hair. 

2. — ^For bleaching human hair not upon 
the head : Mix 1 lb. of hydrogen peroxide 
with 1 oz. of water of ammonia ; mix 4 
oz. of hydrogen peroxide with 1 oz. of 
cream of tartar, dissolved in 1 oz. of soda. 
Blend the two solutions, and steep 1 lb. 
of the hair in it for 3 hours. Then wash 
in clean water, with soap, in a bath of 
clay, and thoroughly dry. Repeat the 
process 15 or 16 times, but thoroughly 
mix and shake up the hair after the 12th 
and every succeeding time. 

Brilliantines. — ^1. — Suet, 40 oz. ; wax, 
40 oz. ; sesame oil, 40 oz. Melt in a 
water bath, and under assiduous stirring, 
so as to make a foamy mixture ; add cas- 
tor oil, 21 oz. ; tragacanth mucilage, 20 
oz. The last ingredient must be a thick 
preparation, made with rose water. 

2.— Alcohol, 60%, 4 oz. ; castor oil, 2 
oz. ; neroli oil, 20 minims ; oil of rose ger- 
anium, 5 minims ; oil of verbena, 5 min- 
ims ; oil of lemon, 50 minims. Color yel- 
low with saffron. 

3.— Alcohol, 90%, 3 oz. ; castor oil, 2 
dr. ; almond oil, 1% oz. ; glycerine, 4 dr. ; 
extract of jockey club, 1 dr. Mix. 

4. — Lard, 3% oz. ; spermaceti, 3^ oz. ; 
almond oil, 3% oz. ; wax, 1 oz. Mix. 

Curling Fluid, or Curlique. — 1. — Borax, 

3 oz. ; gum arable, 1 dr. ; hot water, 2 
pt. ; spirit of camphor, 2% fl.oz. Dis- 
solve the borax and the gum in hot wa- 
ter, and when nearly cool add the spirit 
of camphor. On retiring at night wet 
the hair with the above liquid. 

2. — Gum arable, 1 dr. ; sugar, 1 dr. ; 
rose water, 2 oz. Mix, and dissolve. 
Moisten the hair with the solution at bed- 
time ; roll in twists or paper, so as to 
make papillotes. 

Dandruff. — 1. — Salicylic acid, 25 gr. : 
glycerine, 1 fl.dr. ; dilute alcohol, 2 fl.oz. : 
oil of wintergreen, 3 minims ; oil of rose, 
1 minim ; oil of neroli, 1 minim ; water, 

4 fl.oz. Mix the acid and oils with the 
alcohol and glycerine, add the water, and 
filter. 

2. — Betanaphthol, 6 dr. ; glycerine, 2 
fl.dr. ; oil of wintergreen, ^^ fl.dr. ; oil 
of rose, 10 minims ; oil of neroli, 10 min- 
ims ; terpineol, 10 minims ; oil of orris, 5 
minims; heliotropine, li/j gr. ; tincture of 



[850] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Hair Preparations) 



quillaja, 30 fl.oz. Wash the hair, dry it, 
apply the above lightly, with a sponge, 
tie a cloth over the head, and allow it to 
remain for half an hour. 

3. — Lotion. — Resorcin, 1 dr. ; castor 
oil, 2 dr. ; balsam of Peru, % dr. ; oil of 
geranium, 10 minims ; oil of lavender, 10 
minims ; alcohol, 45%, enough to make 
8 oz. 

4. — Pomade. — Benzoated lard, 120 
parts ; precipitated sulphur, 4 parts ; lan- 
olin, 20 parts; 90% alcohol, 20 parts; 
salicylic acid, 1 part ; oil of geranium, 1 
part ; rose v/ater, 60 parts. Melt the fats 
together, add the sulphur, and stir in. 
Remove from the fire, and add the alco- 
hol, in which the salicylic acid and oil 
have been previously dissolved. Finally, 
add, a little at a time, and under con- 
stant stirring, the rose water. Continue 
stirring until cold. 

Dye. — Nitrate of silver dyes should be 
avoided, and the use of any dye for a 
prolonged time is detrimental to the hair. 
,1. — Aureol, a Harmless Hair Dye. — < 
The dye consists of two liquids, used in 
equal "parts. The first is a 3% solution 
of hydrogen peroxide. The second con- 
sists of metol, 10 parts ;• amidophenol hy- 
drochlorate, 3 parts ; monamidophenyla- 
min, 6 parts ; sodium sulphite, 5 parts ; 
alcohol, 500 parts. Dissolve the sodium 
sulphite in the alcohol, and add the rest 
of the chemicals. In use, equal parts of 
the two liquids are taken, and only as 
much as is necessary at the time should 
be mixed. The hair is first freed from 
grease, etc., by washing with plenty of 
soap, and thoroughly rinsing; and, after 
drying, the dye is applied with a comb 
having fine teeth. 

2. — Black. — (a) Sulphate of iron, 10 
gr. ; glycerine, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pt. The 
hair must be thoroughly washed with 
this, dried, and brushed once daily for 
3 days; then the following should be ap- 
plied, on a small-toothed comb, but it 
should not be allowed to touch the skin if 
the other preparation has done so, as a 
temporary stain would result: (b) Gal- 
lic acid, 4 gr. ; tannic acid, 4 gr. ; water, 
11/^ oz. After the first application of 
formula (a) the hair should be allowed 
to dry, and then be brushed. Subse- 
quently, both formulas may be used once 
daily, at an interval of an hour or so, 
until a black color is produced. All prep- 
arations of lead and mercury are injuri- 
ous, if used for any length of time ; they 
may, however, be legitimately used where 
some small portion of hair has, from 
personal idiosyncrasy, lost its color, which 
cannot be restored. Non-injurious. 

[ 



(Hair Preparations) 



3. — Brown. — a. — Walnut skins, beaten 
to a pulp, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 16 oz. 
The above is perfectly innocent in its 
character. 

b. — Bismuth subnitrate, 200 gr. ; wa- 
ter, 2 fl.oz. ; nitric acid, sufficient to dis- 
solve, or abont 420 gr. Use heat to effect 
solution. Also tartaric acid, 150 gr. ; so- 
dium bicarbonate, 168 gr. ; water, 32 
fl.oz. When effervescence has ceased, mix 
the cold liquids by pouring the latter into 
the former, with constant stirring. Allow 
the precipitate to subside ; transfer it to 
a filter or strainer, and wash with water 
until free from the sodium nitrate formed. 
4. — Hair and Whisker Dye. — The fol- 
lowing formula has frequently been pub- 
lished, for instantaneously dyeing the hair 
black with one treatment: (a) Pyrogal- 
lic acid, 1 dr. ; alcohol, 4 dr. ; distilled 
water, 4 fl.oz. (b) Silver nitrate, 1 dr.; 
ammonia water, enough ; distilled water, 
enough to make 1 fl.oz. After dissolving 
the silver nitrate in 4 fl.oz. of distilled 
water, gradually add water of ammonia, 
stirring constantly, until the brown tur- 
bidity produced has vanished and the li- 
quid is colorless. Then add enough dis- 
tilled water to make 1 fl.oz. Excess of 
ammonia must be avoided, as that tends 
to produce a brownish dye. The hair 
must have been cleaned with sodium car- 
bonate and hot water, and dried. Solu- 
tion (a) is first applied, and then, while 
yet moist, solution (b), being careful not 
to stain the skin. 

5. — Chestnut. — Bismuth nitrate, 230 
gr. ; tartaric acid, 75 gr. ; water, 100 min- 
ims. Dissolve the acid in the water, and 
to the solution add the bismuth nitrate, 
and stir until dissolved. Pour the re- 
sulting solution into 1 pt. of water, and 
collect the magma on a filter. Remove all 
traces of acid from the magma by repeat- 
ed washings with water, then dissolve it 
in ammonia water, 2 fl.dr. ; and add glyc- 
erine, 20 minims ; sodium hyposulphite, 
75 gr. ; water, enough to make 4 fl.oz. 

6. — Vegetable Hair Dye. — a. — An infu- 
sion of henna leaves (Lawsonia inermis) 
is made, then strained, and the liquor 
evaporated so as to represent 1 in 8, to 
which 2 fl.oz. of alcohol are added, and 
filtered through paper. This is said to 
produce an auburn brown color ; if it is 
to be a darker shade, add ammonia. 

b. — A formula for a walnut hair oil 
or dye is the following : Green walnut 
shells, 2 av.oz. ; alum, i/4 av.oz. ; cotton- 
seed oil, 4 av.oz. Heat together in a 
water bath until the water has been ex- 
pelled ; then express, filter through paper, 
and perfume. 
851] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Hair Preparations) 



Falling of the Hair. — 1. — Tincture of 
cincliona, 1 part ; tincture of rosemary, 
1 part ; tincture of jaborandi, 1 part ; 
castor oil, 2 parts ; rum, 10 parts. 

2. — Deodorized petroleum, perfumed by 
adding 2 drops of perfume to each ounce. 
A little should be rubbed into the scalp 
night and morning. 

Mustache Fixing Fluid. — 1. — Balsam 
of tolu, 1 part ; rect. spirit, 3 fluid parts ; 
perfume. Dissolve the balsam in the mix- 
ture. Put up in small bottles, with a 
brush attached to cork. Apply a few 
drops to the mustache with the brush, 
then twist into the desired shape. 

2. — Hungarian Mustache Wax. — Sper- 
maceti, 5 parts ; wax, 20 parts ; water, 
50 parts ; gum arable, 15 parts ; soap, 
10 parts ; glycerine, 5 parts. The soap 
is finely shaved, and the gum arable pul- 
verized ; both are then stirred up with 
20 parts of water to a homogeneous paste. 
The spermaceti and wax are heated with 
the remainder of the water, on a water 
bath, and stirred carefully into the gum 
and soap paste. Lastly, the glycerine is 
added, drop by drop. Perfumery is add- 
ed to suit the taste, and if a brown color 
is desired, umber is mixed with the glyc- 
erine ; for black, lampblack. 

Oils. — 1. — Cocoanut oil, 4 fl.oz. ; cas- 
tor oil, 3 fl.oz. ; alcohol, 7 fl.oz. ; oil of 
lavender flowers, 1 fl.dr. ; oil of bergamot, 
30 drops ; oil of rose geranium, 10 drops. 
Melt the cocoanut oil, and add to the' 
castor oil, dissolved in the alcohol. Shake 
well together, and add the essential oils. 
T^^len cool, this acquires a crystalline ap- 
pearance. 

2. — Castor oil, 15 fl.oz. ; alcohol, 3 fl.oz. ; 
oil of nutmeg, 30 drops ; oil of rosemary, 
10 drops ; oil of sweet marjoram, 10 
drops ; oil of neroli, 10 drops ; oil of rose, 
20 drops ; tincture of musk, 1 fl.dr. ; al- 
kanet, q. s. to color. 

3. — Nursery Hair Oil. — a. — Phenol, 1 
oz. ; alkanet root, a sufficient quantity to 
color suitably, 19 oz. ; olive oil. Macerate 
and strain. 

b. — Oil of stavesacre, 1 fl.dr. ; olive oil, 
7 fl.dr. Mix. 

Philocome, Friend to the Hair. — 1. — 
White wax, 10 oz. ; fresh rose oil, 1 lb. ; 
acacia oil, V2 lb. ; jasmine oil, ^^ lb. ; 
fleur d'orange oil, 1 lb. ; tuberose oil, 1 
lb. Melt the wax in the oils by a water 
bath at the lowest possible temperature. 
Stir the mixture as it cools ; do not pour 
out until it is nearly cool enough to set. 
Let the jars be slightly warmed. 

2. — Philocome, second quality. — White 
wax, 5 oz. ; almond oil, 2 lb. ; otto of ber- 



(Hair Preparations) 



gamot, 1 oz. ; otto of lemon, ^ oz. ; otto 
of lavender, 2 dr. ; otto of cloves, 1 dr. 
Resorcin Hair Restorer. — 1. — Resorcin, 

1 dr. ; spirit of rosemary, 3 oz. ; tincture 
of nux vomica, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 2 oz. Ap- 
ply to the scalp. 

2. — Resorcin, 1% dr. ; tincture of cap- 
sicum, ^ oz. ; tincture of quillaya, 1 oz. ; 
glycerine, 2 dr. ; tincture of cantharides, 
3 dr. ; spirit of rosemary, ll^ oz. ; rose 
water, to make 8 oz. Use on hair night 
and morning. 

Shampoos. — 1. — Almond oil, 4 dr. ; am- 
monia water, 10%, 6 dr. ; spirit of rose- 
mary, iy2 oz. ; eau de cologne, iy2 oz. ; 
tincture of saffron, 2 dr. Mix the oil 
and ammonia, shaking well, and then add 
the other ingredients. To be shaken be- 
fore use. 

2. — 'Ammonia water, 14 oz. ; tincture of 
cantharides, % oz. ; cologne water, 1 oz. ; 
water, enough to make 8 oz. Apply to 
the scalp with a sponge, morning and 
evening. 

3. — Tincture of capsicum, ^ oz. ; tinc- 
ture of soap-tree bark, 1 oz. ; glycerine, 

2 dr. ; tincture of cantharides, 3 dr. ; 
spirit of rosemary, 1% oz. ; rose water, 
enough to make 8 oz. 

4. — Borated Shampoo. — Potassium car- 
bonate, 1 oz. ; borax, 1 oz. ; water, 2 pt. 

5. — Egg Shampoo. — a. — Spirit soap, 
100 grams ; ammonia water, 10 grams ; 
oil of lemon, 3 grams ; oil of rose ger- 
anium, 1 gram ; water, 810 grams ; yolks 
of 4 eggs. Intimately mix, by beating, 
the egg yolks with the ammonia water ; 
add the water and perfume ; shake the 
mixture, and strain. 

b. — Eggs, 3 ; spirit soap, 4 fl.dr. ; potas- 
sium carbonate, 160 gr. ; ammonia water, 
160 gr. ; cumarin, 1-10 gr. ; oil of rose, 

2 drops ; oil of bergamot, 2 drops ; oil of 
geranium, 1 drop ; essential oil of alm- 
onds, 1 drop ; rose water, 27 fl.oz. Thor- 
oughly beat the eggs, and dilute with the 
rose water ; then add the other ingredi- 
ents. If it is desired to have the sham- 
poo in paste form, use less water. 

6. — Eucalyptic Shampoo. — Glycerine of 
borax, 2 oz. ; esprit menthol, 2 oz. ; solu- 
tion of ammonia, 3 oz. ; extract of roses, 

3 oz. ; fluid extract of quillaja, 5 oz. ; 
esprit eucalyptus, 10 oz. ; French rose 
water, 15 oz. Mix. Allow to stand 24 
hours, then filter. 

7. — Green Soap. — A liquid shampoo 
containing green soap may be prepared 
according to the following formula : Green 
soap, 24 grams ; potassium carbonate, 5 
grams ; alcohol, 48 grams ; water, q. s. to 
make 400 grams. The liquid is to be per- 
fumed as the compounder may desire. It 



[ 852 ] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Hair Preparations) 



is advisable to tint the liquid a pale green 
with a very small quantity of aniline 
green. The hair is to be thoroughly 
moistened with warm water, and a small 
quantity of the shampoo is then rubbed 
in. The abundant foam which forms is 
washed out with plenty of water. 

8. — Lanolin Hair Wash.— For a hair 
wash, which constitutes a substitute for 
the well-known "Javol" preparation, and 
excels the latter in appearance as well as 
by the use of a more suitable fat, which 
does not turn rancid. The following re- 
ceipt is given: Extract 4 parts of quil- 
laya bark with 36 parts of water for sev- 
eral days, mix the percolate with 4 parts 
of alcohol, and filter after having settled. 
Agitate 40 parts of the filtrate at a tem- 
perature at which wool grease becomes 
liquid, with 12 parts of anhydrous lanolin, 
and fill up with water to which 15% of 
spirit of wine has been added, to 300 
parts. Admixture, such as cinchona ex- 
tract, Peru balsam, quinine, tincture of 
cantharides, bay oil, ammonium carbo- 
nate, menthol, etc., may be made. The 
result is a yellowish-white, milky liquid, 
with a creamlike fat layer floating on 
the top, which is finely distributed by agi- 
tating. ^ ., 

9.— Paste.— a. — White Castile soap, 4 
oz. ; curd soap, powder, 2 oz. ; potassium 
carbonate. 1 oz. ; honey, 1 oz. Perfume 
to suit. Make a homogeneous paste by 
heating with a sufficient quantity of wa- 
ter. , . 

b.— White Castile soap, m shavmgs, 2 
oz. ; ammonia water, 2 fl.oz. ; bay rum, 
or cologne water, 1 fl.oz.; glycerine, 1 
fl.oz.; water, 12 fl.oz. Dissolve the soap 
in the water, by means of heat ; when 
nearly cold, stir in the other ingredients. 

10.— Powder. — a. — ( Son prepare et 
perfume.) — For cleaning the hair. Pow- 
der very finely and carefully the bran 
of wheat, perfectly and absolutely diT, 
and to every pound add 2 oz. of powdered 
orris, and pass through a sieve. 

b.— Hair Wash Powder. — Powdered bo- 
rax, 1 lb. ; camphor, 1 dr. ; oil of berga- 
mot, 20 minims. Mix. 

c._Poudre Blonde (for the hair). — 
Add yellow ocher to the best pearl starch, 
finely powdered, until the desired shade 
is obtained. 

d.— Starch, finely powdered, IV2 lb.; 
orris root, V2 oz. ; oil of rhodium, 5 drops. 

e. — Plain or Unscented Hair Powder. — 
Pure wheat starch. 

f. — Starch reduced to very fine powder, 
and then scented according to the fancy ; 
it is lastly passed through a gauze sieve. 
In its simple form, without any addition, 



(Hair Preparations) 



it constitutes plain hair powder. In other 
cases, it is distinguished by the name of 
the substance added to perfume it. Thus 
we have rose hair powder, violet hair 
powder, etc. Potato farina, well tritu- 
rated, is now commonly used for hair 
powder. 

g. — Poudre de Gomme (for false tou- 
pets). — Powder equal parts of gum ara- 
ble and tragacanth, and add i/4 of pow- 
der of orris, or white perfumed powder, 
with 1-3 of pulverized sugar candy. When 
used, this composition is to be made into 
a pasty consistency with a sufficient quan- 
tity of water. 

h. — Powdered borax, 24 oz. ; camphor, 
3 oz. ; potassium carbonate, in powder, 6 
oz. ; oil of eucalyptus, 4% fl.dr. ; oil of 
rosemary, 4i^ fl.dr. Mix. 

i. — Borax, 6 oz. ; camphor, 60 gr. ; oil 
of rosemary, 45 minims. Mix. 

j. — Salts of tartar, 1 oz. ; powdered bo- 
rax, 1 oz. ; powdered Castile soap, 3^ oz. ; 
oil of rose geranium, 20 drops. Mix, and 
put up above amount in a wide-mouthed 
bottle. Dissolve contents of bottle in IVu 
pt. of soft water, and use as a shampoo. 

k. — Powdered borax, 1 oz. ; soda car- 
bonate, dry, 1 oz. ; powdered camphor, 20 
gr. ; oil of rosemary, 10 drops. Mix. This 
is for 1 qt. of water. 

1. — Powdered borax, 3 oz. ; potassium 
carbonate, 3 oz. ; quillaja powder, 2 oz. ; 
perfume, q. s. Mix. This is for 1 qt. 
of water. 

11. — Sea Foam. — Sea foam and sham- 
poo are both preparations to be applied 
to the head to remove dirt, dandruff, etc., 
from the scalp and hair. Barbers make 
the following distinction : "Dry sham- 
poo" and "wet shampoo." If the first is 
desired, they employ "sea foam," which 
is a water-clear liquid preparation, con- 
taining a volatile alkali, glycerine, spirit 
and water, applied to the scalp and hair 
in just sufficient quantity to moisten the 
same, and by vigorous rubbing produces 
but a slight foam, which is removed by 
rubbing with a wet towel. When the 
second is asked for, a preparation is em- 
ployed that contains soap, salts of tartar, 
borax and water — alcohol and glycerine 
being excluded, as the object is to pro- 
duce a thick and firm lather, which is 
removed by means of a large quantity of 
water. 

a. — Ammonia water, 1 fl.oz.; glycerine. 
1 fl.oz.; alcohol, 6 fl.oz.; water, 8 fl.oz. 
Mix, and perfume if desired. ^ 

b.— For Barbers. — Dissolve m 8 oz. ot 
alcohol 2 oz. of castor oil and 1 oz. of 
ammonia. Add this mixture to 1 qt. of 
water. 
853] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Hair Preparations) 



c. — Witliout Ammonia, for Barber's 
Use. — To get a profuse lather in using 
a shampoo, soap should be present in the 
liquid or powder, or preferably soap bark. 
Grease will not be as readily removed as 
by alkali alone. Potassium carbonate, 4 
dr. ; white soap, 2 oz. ; tincture of quil- 
laja, 2 oz. ; oil of lavender, 20 minims ; 
alcohol, 8 oz. ; water, 8 oz. 

d. — Tropical Sea Foam. — Bay rum, 3 
oz. ; ammonia water, 3 oz. ; water, 10 oz. 
Mix. 

e. — Quillaja Sea Foam. — Fluid extract 
of quillaja, 4 oz. ; ^glycerine, 2 oz. ; co- 
logne or bay rum, 4 oz. ; alcohol, 8 oz. ; 
rose water, 12 oz. Mix them. This does 
away with the odor of ammonia, which 
is disagreeable to many. Another very 
good one is : 

f. — Dry Shampoo Sea Foam. — Pow- 
dered white soap (ivory, Castile or cocoa- 
nut-oil soap), % oz. ; salts of tartar, ^2 
oz. ; water, 8 oz. ; tincture of soap bark, 
1 oz. ; bay rum, 8 oz. ; distilled extract 
of witch hazel, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 4 oz. Mix, 
dissolve, and filter if necessary. Apply 
to the hair, and rub dry with a towel. 

g. — Borax, 2 parts ; ammonium carbo- 
nate, 1 part ; glycerine, 4 parts ; Jamaica 
rum, 192 parts ; bay rum, 64 parts ; wa- 
ter, 64 parts. Dissolve the borax and 
ammonium carbonate in the water, and 
add the remaining ingredients in the or- 
der named. 

h. — Ammonium carbonate, 6 parts ; po- 
tassium carbonate, 32 parts ; borax, 32 
parts ; soap spirit, 32 parts ; bay rum, 128 
parts ; water, rain or distilled, q. s. to 
make 1,268 parts. Dissolve the salts^ in 
a portion of the water, add the soap spirit 
and bay rum, and finally the rest of the 
water. 

12. — Rosemary Hair Wash. — Powdered 
borax, 30 gr. ; tincture of cantharides, 1 
dr. ; spirit of rosemary, 4 dr. ; camphor 
water, 5 oz. ; rose water, 2i/^ oz. Dis- 
solve the borax in the water, and add the 
other ingredients. 

13. — Tar Shampoos. — a. — Tar, 1 dr. ; 
linseed oil, 10 dr. ; potassium hydroxide, 
2% dr. ; alcohol, 75 minims ; oil of rose- 
mary, 1/^ dr. ; water, q. s. Mix the tar 
with the linseed oil, and heat on a water 
bath to 140° F. Dissolve the potassium 
hydroxide in the alcohol and 1% oz. of 
water ; add the solution to the heated oil, 
with constant stirring. Continue the heat 
until saponification is complete, and make 
up to 4 oz. with water. Stir gently until 
cool, and add the oil of rosemary. 

b. — Cocoanut oil, 5 dr. ; tar, 45 gr. ; 
potash lye, 40° B., 6 dr. Melt together 



(Hair Preparations) 



the oil and tar, and saponify at a gentle 
heat, with the potash lye. 

14. — Without Ammonia. — The follow- 
ing yields a preparation that gives a good 
lather and that is cheap : Castile soap, 
white, 2 oz. ; potassium carbonate, 2 dr. ; 
borax, 2 dr. ; alcohol, 2 oz. ; essential oil, 
sufficient to perfume ; water, soft, suffi- 
cient to make 32 oz. Dissolve the soap, 
in the form of thin shavings, in 1% pt. 
of water, by the aid of heat ; then add 
the potassium carbonate and borax, both 
in powder, and dissolve. Dissolve the 
perfumed oil in the alcohol, and add to 
the other liquid. Finally, add enough soft 
water to make 32 oz. 

Tonics. — 1. — Ammonium carbona-te, 30 
gr. ; distilled water, 10 dr. ; tincture of 
cantharides, 2% dr. ; eau de cologne, 10 
dr. ; rum, 7i/^ oz. ; oil of lavender, 2 drops. 
Dissolve the carbonate of ammonia in 
the water, mix the other ingredients to- 
gether, and add. 

2. — Balsam. — ^a. — Alcohol, 9 oz. ; spirit 
of soap, 3l^ oz. ; tincture of cinchona, 2 
oz. ; tincture of cantharides, 1 dr. ; balsam 
of Peru, 5 dr. ; oil of bergamot, 2 dr. ; 
oil of orange, 2 dr. ; oil of rose geranium, 
1 dr. 

b. — Castor oil, 10 dr. ; balsam of Peru, 

3 dr. ; Jamaica rum, 12l^ oz. ; distilled 
water, 6 oz. ; tincture of cinchona, 1% 
oz. ; cologne water, 1^^ oz. 

3. — Cinchona Capillary. — Alcohol, 90%, 
18 pt. 12 oz. ; glycerine, 1 pt. ; tincture of 
cinchona, 1 pt. ; eau de cologne, 2% pt. ; 
extract of reseda, 7 oz. ; extract of helio- 
trope, 7 oz. ; orange-flower water, 1 pt. 
9 oz. ; tincture of gambir, 4:^2 oz. Mix. 

4. — French Hair Tonic (Esprit de Che- 
veux). — Oleo-balsamic mixture, 4 fl.oz. ; 
glycerine, 5 fl.oz. ; rose water, 20 fl.oz. ; 
tincture of cantharides, % fl.oz. ; ammo- 
nium carbonate, 1 oz. Mix, shake thor- 
oughly, let the mixture stand for 1 hour, 
and filter. 

5. — Quinine Hair Wash. — ^a. — Sulphate 
of quinine, 8 gr. ; eau de cologne, 2 oz. ; 
bay rum, 2 oz. ; glycerine, 2 dr. ; rose 
water, 3l^ oz. ; alcohol, 4 dr. Dissolve 
the quinine in the eau de cologne, alco- 
hol and bay rum, and add the glycerine 
and rose water gradually. 

b. — Quinine sulphate, 1 part ; tincture 
of cantharides, 10 parts ; glycerine, 75 
parts ; alcohol, 500 parts ; tincture of 
rhatany, 20 parts ; spirit of lavender, 50 
parts. 

c. — Quinine sulphate, 20 gr. ; bay rum, 

4 fl.dr. ; glycerine, 4 fl.dr. ; tincture of 
cantharides, 2 fl.dr. ; tincture of capsi- 
cum, 2 fl.dr. ; water, enough to make 16 
fl.oz. Mix, and dissolve. 



[854 J 



Toilet Preparations 



(Lip Salves) 



d. — Quinine sulphate, 20 gr. ; glycerine, 

1 fl.oz. ; cologne water, 2 fl.oz. ; bay rum, 

2 fl.oz. ; rose water, 11 fl.oz. Rub the 
quinine with the glycerine, and add the 
other ingredients in the order named. 
The addition of fluid extract of jaborandi 
is recommended to stimulate the growth. 

e. — Quinine sulphate, 30 gr. ; acetic 
acid, 2 fl.dr. ; resorcin, 120 gr. ; water, 4 
fl.oz. ; oil of eucalyptus, 2 fl.dr. ; tincture 
of cantharides, 3 fl.dr. ; alcohol, 12 fl.oz. 
Mix all, dissolve by agitation, and filter. 

f. — Quinine sulphate, 20 gr. ; tincture 
of canthari-des, 2 fl.dr. ; fluid extract of 
jaborandi, 2 fl.dr. ; alcohol, 2 fl.oz. ; glyc- 
erine, 2 fl.oz. ; bay rum, 6 fl.oz. ; rose wa- 
ter, enough to make 16 fl.oz. Tlie qui- 
nine should be dissolved in the alcoholic 
liquids by warming slightly, then the oth- 
er ingredients added, and -the whole fil- 
tered. 

g. — -Tincture of cinchona, 500 parts ; 
spirits of wine, 2,500 parts ; eau de co- 
logne, 250 parts ; Jamaica rum, 100 parts ; 
pure alcohol, 150 parts ; spirits of soap, 
100 parts ; quillaja bark, 20 parts ; bal- 
sam of Peru, 10 parts ; oil of bergamot, 
10 parts ; oil of geranium, 3 parts ; oil 
of neroli, 5 parts ; tincture of Canthari- 
des, 25 parts ; castor oil, 15 parts ; an- 
chusa, 10 parts ; turmeric, 1 part. The 
whole should be digested for 6 days and 
then filtered. 

Hair Brush Powder. 

Dried sodium carbonate, 12 oz. ; pow- 
dered Castile soap, 4 oz. ; oil of lavender, 
10 minims ; oil of verbena, 2 minims. 

Lip Salve. 

1.-— Spermaceti, 40 parts ; lard, per- 
fectly pure and fresh, 80 parts ; white 
wax, 20 parts ; oil of sweet almonds, 5 to 
10 parts. According to the season of 
the year, are melted together, the mix- 
ture colored with a sufiicient quantity of 
alkanet, by digesting the root with the 
melted mass, and the latter then suitably 
perfumed, for instance, with oil of ber- 
gamot, 2 parts ; oil of orange, 3 parts. 
The mass is then poured out into molds. 
It is customary to pour it into tin tubes, 
from which it is removed when cold, and 
then covered with tinfoil. 

2. — Spermaceti, 1 oz. ; yellow wax, % 
oz. ; oil of almonds, 2 oz. ; oil of rose, 12 
drops. Melt with gentle heat, add alka- 
net root, q. s. to color, then strain; and 
lastly, add the oil of rose. 

3. — ParaflBne, 49 grams ; vaseline, 49 
grams ; oil of lemon, oil of violet, of each 
0.75 gram ; carmine, q. s. 

4. — Glycerine cream, 4 oz. ; boracic acid. 



(Listerine) 



% oz. ; carmine, 4 gr. Mix thoroughly, 
and dispense in screw-top porcelain jars 
or in specially made metal boxes. 

5. — Coral Lip Salves. — White wax, 70 
grams ; vaseline, 100 grams ; alkannin, 
0.25 gram ; essential oil of lemon, 1 gram ; 
essential oil of bergamot, 1 gram ; essen- 
tial oil of roses, 0.5 gram. 

6. — Olive oil, benzoated, 500 grams ; 
white wax, 300 grams ; cetacei, 30 grams ; 
alkannin, 1 gram ; essential oil of jasmine, 
5 grams ; essential oil of roses, 3 drops. 

7. — Camphor Cerate. — Olive oil, l^ lb. ; 
pure white wax, % lb. ; spermaceti, 2 oz. ; 
camphor, % oz. Mix, as directed under 
camphor balls. Used as an application 
to chaps, chilblains, abrasions, excoria- 
tions, etc. ; also as lip salve in cold weath- 
er, as a hair cosmetic, and as a mild, 
stimulating and anodyne friction. 

8. — Lip Salve in Sticks. — Precipitated 
chalk, 1 oz. ; carmine, 10 gr. ; ammonia 
water, enough ; spermaceti, 1 oz. ; white 
wax, 1^ oz. ; expressed almond oil, 4 oz. ; 
perfume, enough. Dissolve the carmine 
in a sufficient quantity of ammonia wa- 
ter, and triturate with the chalk. Melt 
the waxes with the oil, and when ready 
to set, stir in the tinted chalk and the 
perfume ; stir well, and pour into suit- 
able molds or containers. 

Listerine. 

Tlie following formulas give prepara- 
tions said to resemble listerine ; the true 
formula is kept secret by the manufac- 
turer. 

1.— Boric acid, 128 gr. ; thymol, 16 gr. ; 
menthol, 16 gr. ; oil of eucalyptus, 4 
drops ; oil of wintergreen, 4 drops ; oil of 
horsemint, 4 drops ; water, 12 oz. ; alco- 
hol, 4 oz. ; caramel, 1 or 2 drops. Dis- 
solve the boric acid in the water and the 
other ingredients in the alcohol, and mix 
the solutions. Let stand for a day or 
two, with frequent shaking, and filter. As 
an improvement on this formula, it has 
been suggested that only half the quan- 
tity of the menthol and oil of horsemint 
be used ; in the proportions prescribed 
they dominate the solution so far as odor 
and taste are concerned. 

2. — Acid benzoic, 2 dr. ; borax, 2 dr. ; 
boric acid, 4 dr. ; thymol, % dr. ; eucalyp- 
tol, 10 drops ; oil of wintergreen, 10 drops ; 
oil of peppermi»t, 6 drops ; oil of thyme, 
2 drops ; rectified spirits, 5% oz. ; water, 
enough to make 31 fl.oz. This still lacks 
baptisia. It is claimed by the makers 
that this is one of the ingredients used. 

3. — Oil of eucalyptus, 10 gr. ; oil of 
wintergreen, 10 gr. ; menthol, 10 gr. ; thy- 
mol, 10 gr. ; boric acid, % oz. ; alcohol. 



[855] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Manicure Preparations) 



41-^ fl.oz. ; water, sufficient to make 16 
fl.oz. 

4. — Benzoic acid, 64 gr. ; boracic acid, 
128 gr. ; thymol, 30 gr. ; menthol, 30 gr. ; 
borax, 64 gr. ; oil of eucalyptus, 4 drops ; 
oil of wintergreen, 4 drops ; oil of horse- 
mint, 5 drops ; alcohol, 4 oz. Water, 
enough to make 1 pt. 



Manicure Preparations. 

1. — Cleaning Liquid for the Nails. — • 
Tartaric acid, 1 dr. ; tincture of myrrh, 

1 dr. ; cologne water, 2 dr. ; water, 3 oz. 
Dissolve the acid in the water ; mix the 
tincture of myrrh and cologne, and add 
to the acid solution. Dip the nails in 
this solution, wipe, and polish with cham- 
ois skin. 

2. — Coloring for Finger Tips. — Alkanet 
root, Yq oz. ; alcohol, 12 oz. ; rose water, 
4 oz. Macerate for a week, add 10 drops 
of otto of rose, shake, and filter. 

3. — Enamels. — a. — From a not very 
thorough examination of one of the "en- 
amels" on the market, we conclude that 
it can be practically duplicated by this 
formula : Tin oxide, 1 dr. ; white wax, 

2 dr. ; paraffine, 6 dr. ; oil-soluble aniline 
dye, enough to color. 

b. — Japan wax, 1,000 parts ; petrola- 
tum, 6,200 parts ; spermaceti, 200 parts ; 
alkannin, 25 parts ; turpentine, 150 parts ; 
acetic acid, 30 parts. The fatty sub- 
stances are melted together, the alkannin 
dissolved in the hot liquid, and the acetic 
acid, mixed with any suitable perfume, 
finally added. 

4. — Polishing and Bleaching. — a. — A so- 
lution of oxalic or tartaric acid may be 
used as a "bleach." Tartaric acid, 30 
gr. ; rose water, 1 oz. 

b. — ^White Castile soap, 1 part ; hot wa- 
ter, 16 parts ; 10% zinc chloride solution, 
q. s. Dissolve the soap in the water, and 
to the solution add the zinc chloride so- 
lution until no further precipitation oc- 
curs. Let stand overnight, pour off_ the 
supernatant fluid, wash the precipitate 
well with water, and dry at the ordinary 
temperature. Carmine may be added if 
desired. 

c. — Tin oxide, 30 grams ; carmine, 0.9 
gram ; rose oil, 6 drops ; neroli oil, 5 
drops. 

d. — Cinnabar, 3.75 grams ; infusorial 
earth, 30 grams. 

e. — Fine putty powder, 4 dr. ; carmine, 
2 gr. ; oil of rose, 1 drop. 

f. — Tin peroxide, 6 oz. ; tragacanth, 6 
gr. ; glycerine, 4 drops ; rose water, suffi- 
cient. 

g. — Fine tin oxide, 8 oz. ; carmine, 35 

[856] 



(Manicure Preparations) 



I 

■1 



gr. ; oil of bergamot, 20 gr. ; oil of laven- 
der, 20 gr. 

After the use of any one of the above 
polishes the following mixture is to be 
applied, either by friction with a soft 
leather or as an enamel with a camel's- 
hair pencil : Paraffine wax, 1 dr. ; chlo- 
roform, 2 dr. ; rose oil, 3 drops. 

h. — Non-attritive Nail Polishes. — (1) 
White wax, 1 oz. ; cotton-seed oil, 2 oz. ; 
carmine, 5 gr. ; oil of rose, 5 drops. Melt 
the wax, add the oil, triturate the car- 
mine to fine powder, mix intimately with 
the melted fats, and then incorporate the 
oil of rose. 

(2) Eosin, 10 gr. ; white wax, % dr.; 
spermaceti, % dr. ; soft paraffine, 1 oz. ; 
alcohol, enough. Dissolve the eosin in 
as little alcohol as will suffice ; melt the 
other ingredients together; add the solu 
tion, and stir until cool. 

(3) White wax, 1 dr.; spermaceti, 1 
dr. ; soft paraffine, 2 oz. Melt together, 
and stir until cold. 

i. — Rotten stone, 1 oz. ; magnesium car- 
bonate, heavy, 4 oz. ; phosphate of lime o: 
precipitated silica, 1 lb. 

j. — Rouge, % oz. ; magnesium carbo- 
nate, heavy, 8 oz. ; precipitated chalk, 1 
lb. Triturate the rouge with 2 oz. of 
the chalk for 5 minutes, and gradually 
add the rest of the powders. Sift 3 times. 

k. — Magnesium carbonate, 2 oz. ; pow 
dered rouge, 2 oz. ; white bole, 10 oz. 
lead carbonate, 12 1^ oz. ; prepared chalk, 
25 oz. Mix thoroughly. This powder 
may be used with a little water, or made 
into a paste with oleic acid and used as 
a polishing "pomade." 

1. — Polish, in Cake Form. — A "nail- 
polishing stick" is made as follows, al- 
though the preparation may be worked up 
in "cake" form if desired : Putty pow- 
der, 8 oz. ; carmine, 20 gr. ; perfume, suf- 
ficient ; mucilage of tragacanth, sufficient. 
The powders and perfume are well mixed, 
then massed with the mucilage, and piped 
on a pill machine. 

m. — Precipitated silica, 1 oz. ; prepared 
chalk, % oz. ; stannic oxide, i^ oz. ; otto 
of rose, 1 drop. Tint with a solution of 
carmine. 

n. — Precipitated silica, 1 oz. ; tin oleate,' 
% oz. ; essence of eau de cologne, 2 drops. 
Tint as in the preceding. j 

o. — Polishing the Nails. — If the nailS' 
are stained, apply a little lemon juice. 
A little pumice stone, in a very fine pow- 
der, or a little putty powder, may be 
used to polish the nails. This is fre- 
quently colored with a decoction of cochi- 
neal. Apply with a piece of chamois 
skin. 



Toilet Preparations 



(Mouth Washes) 



5. — Preparations for the "NaVs. — The 
i best substance that can be found for 
keeping the finger nails in a healthy con- 
dition, says an authority, is citric acid. 
It is best applied in the form of solU' 
tion, of which the following is an ex- 
ample : Orange-flower water, 1,200 parts ; 
glycerine, 125 parts ; citric acid, 85 parts. 
Frequent washing with this solution is 
apt to harden the nails and cause them 
to crack. It is, therefore, advisable to 
employ in conjunction with it a paste of 
the following composition : Almond meal, 
10 parts ; powdered orris root, 10 parts ; 
honey, about 3 parts ; rose water, about 
4 parts. The quantity of honey and of 
rose water to be employed depends upon 
the consistency it is desired to give the 
paste. 

6. — White Spots on Nails. — ^These are 
caused by opacity of the cells, due to in- 
jury. Do not apply any chemicals, but 
rub the nail with pumice-stone powder, 
moistened. As the nail grows the spots 
will disappear. 

Menthol Preparations. 

1. — Menthollce. — Spermaceti, 10 parts ; 
paraffine oil, 10 parts ; menthol, 10 parts. 
Melt the first two and add the third in- 
gredient. This is to be rubbed on the 
nose for catarrh. 

2. — Smelling Salt. — Menthol, 10 parts ; 
alcohol, 78 parts ; water of ammonia, 12 
parts. Disisolve the menthol in the spirit, 
and add the water of ammonia. 

3. — ■ Toothache Drops. — Menthol, 8 
drops ; chloroform, 8 parts ; alcohol, 84 
parts. 

4. — Vinegar. — Menthol, 3 parts ; vine- 
gar, 97 parts. To be used with water, as 
a gargle. 

Mouth Washes. 

1. — Alkaline Mouth Wash. — Sodium 
boro-benzoate (N. F.), 12 dr.; resorcinol, 
80 gr. ; glycerine, 4 dr. ; alcohol, 2 oz. ; 
oil of peppermint, 4 minims ; oil of cin- 
nam'on, 8 minims ; eucalyptol, 8 minims ; 
purified talc, enough ; distilled water, 
enough to make 1 pt. Use 1 part to 3 or 
4 parts of water. 

2. — Antiseptic Mouth Wash. — a. — ^Thy- 
mol, 4 gr. ; benzoic acid, 14 gr. ; tincture 
of eucalyptus, 225 gr. ; essence of pepper- 
mint, 9 gr. ; chloroform, 15 gr. ; alcohol, 
3 gr. Mix. Twenty drops of this solu- 
tion in a glass of water may be used at 
a time. 

b. — Salol, 40 parts ; boric acid, 5 parts ; 
oil of eucalyptus, 3 parts ; tincture of 
benzoin, 40 parts ; oil of peppermint, 40 
parts ; oil of star anise, 8 parts ; oil of 



(Mouth Washes) 



clove, 3 parts ; oil of cinnamon, 1 part ; 
spirit of wine, rectified, 2,000 parts ; dis- 
tilled water, 500 parts. Mix. All of 
these are to be used in the same manner, 
a few drops to half a tumblerful of water. 

3. — Cachous, or Mouth Pastils. — Large- 
ly nsed by smokers and persons with im- 
pure breaths. The gilding or silvering is 
effected in the way usually adopted for 
pills, viz. : A leaf or two of gold or silver 
is placed in a gallipot ; on this an appro- 
priate number of pills or pastils, and then 
another leaf of the metal. The mouth 
of the gallipot is next covered with a 
piece of smooth writing paper, and on 
this the palm of the hand is placed, when 
a sudden and rapid circular motion is 
given to the whole for a second or two. 
Another method is to shake them, in a 
similar manner, with a little gold dust or 
silver dust. When pills are gilded or 
silvered immediately after being prepared, 
they are usually sufficiently moist or 
sticky to cause the leaf or dust to adhere ; 
but should they be otherwise, they should 
be previously placed in damp air for a 
few minutes, or rubbed between the fin- 
gers or the palms of the hands, very 
slightly moistened with thin mucilage, so 
as to render them somewhat sticky, but 
not wet. Mouth pastils are preferably 
not coated until they are dry and hard, 
and hence generally require one or other 
of these modes of treatment. The prod- 
ucts of the following formulae are among 
those most highly esteemed : 

a. — Take of soft extract of licorice, 3 
oz. ; catechu, in fine powder, 1 oz. ; white 
sugar, 1 oz. ; gum tragacanth, l^ oz. ; 
oil of cloves, 1 fl.dr. ; oil of cassia, % 
fl.dr. ; oil of nutmeg, essence of ambergris 
(royale), of each 12 drops. Mix as be- 
fore explained ; beat the mixture to a firm, 
uniform mass with eau de rose, or eau 
de fleurs d'oranges, q. s., and form it into 
1-gr. or 2-gr. pills. Lastly, when dry, 
silver them. The stock of them should 
be kept in bottles or tin canisters, and 
only a sufficient number of boxes for 
present sale filled at once. 

b.— M. Chevallier.— Take of fresh 
roasted coffee, in fine powder, 1^ oz. ; 
chocolate, in fine powder, 1^^ oz. j white 
sugar, in fine powder, 1^/^ oz. ; vanillin, in 
fine powder, 1 oz. ; charcoal (recent), in 
fine powder, 1 oz. ; mucilage of trag- 
acanth, to mix, q. s. The preceding, 
sucked ad libitum, are used to sweeten 
and perfume the breath ; the last also 
acts by chemically deodorizing it. They 
are great favorites in the fashionable 
world among smokers. 

c. — Take of chloride of lime, good dry, 



[857] 



Toilet Preparations — Ferf wines 



(Perfumery and Toilet Waters) 

1 dr. ; TV'hite sugar, powdered, 3 6z. ; gum 
tragacanth, powdered, 1 oz. Mix ; add of 
oil of cloves or peppermint, i/^ fl.dr. ; mix 
thoroughly, and beat up the mass with 
rose water. This acts chemically as a 
disinfectant, deodorizer and bleacher, but 
should be only occasionally and sparingly 
used, as the chloride in them attacks the 
enamel of the teeth. One at a time is 
sufficient. The saliva should not be swal- 
lowed, and the mouth should be rinsed 
with water soon afterward. 

d. — Extract of licorice, 1 oz. ; oil of 
cloves, % dr. ; oil of cinnamon, 5 drops ; 
moisten l-gr. pills with this solution, and 
silver. 

e. — Ground coffee, % oz. ; finely pow- 
dered charcoal, % oz. ; sugar, l^ oz. ; va^ 
nilla, % oz. ; mucilage, q. s. Make into 
lozenges. 

4, — Eucalyptus Mouth Wash. — ^Thy- 
mol, 0.25 gram ; tincture of eucalyptus, 
15 grams ; absolute alcohol, 100 grams ; 
oil of peppermint, 1 gram. 

5. — Peroxide Mouth Wash. — Thymol, 
0.5 gram ; menthol, 0.5 gram ; alcohol, 50 
grams ; tincture of krameria, 30 grams ; 
hydrogen peroxide (12%), 120 grams. A 
few drops to be used with a tumblerful 
of water. 

6. — Salol Astringent. — ^Salol, 30 gr. ; 
tannin, 30 gr. ; saccharine, 4 gr. ; safra- 
nine hydrochloride, % gr. ; spirit of laven- 
der, 225 minims ; spirit of melissa, 225 
minims; spirit of peppermint, 12 drops; 
cologne water, 2% oz. 

7. —Tablets. —For 100 tablets: Helio- 
tropine, 1 cgm. ; saccharine, 1 cgm. ; sali- 
cylic acid, 10 cgm. ; menthol, 1 gram ; 
milk sugar, 5 grams ; spirit of rose, q.^ s. 
May be colored red with eosin, green with 
chlorophyll, or blue with indigo carmine. 

8. — Thymohenzoform. — Thymol, 4 gr. ; 
benzoic acid, 14 gr. ; tincture of eucalyp- 
tus, 225 minims ; oil of peppermint, 9 
minims ; chloroform, 15 minims ; alcohol, 
3 oz. Twenty drops in a glass of water, 
as a mouth wash. 

9. — Thymol Mouth Wash. — Thymol, 15 
parts ; oil of peppermint, 25 parts ; tinc- 
ture of myrrh, 30 parts ; oil of eucalyp- 
tus, 6 parts ; rectified spirit of wine, 2,000 
parts ; distilled water, 400 parts. Mix. 

10. — Witch Hazel. — Hamamelis water, 
18 oz. ; tincture of myrrh, 9 oz. ; honey 
of roses, 4 oz. ; tannic acid, Vn oz. ; sodium 
salicylate, ^4 oz. 

PERFUMERY AND TOILET 
WATERS 
Perfumes. 

The perfumes for the toilet are either 
simple or compound ; the former are called 



I 



(Perfumery and Toilet Waters) 

extracts or essences, and the latter bou- 
quets. Unfortunately, the language of 
the perfumer is French, and this has led 
to many mistakes in classification, and the 
terms, extraits, esprits, eaux and par- 
fumes are very loosely applied. Some, 
works call essential oils ottos or essences, 
and the confusion is so great that the 
different terms will be properly defined ; 
but in the receipts no attempt has been 
made to separate them into classes, and 
they are arranged alphabetically accord- 
ing to the flowers or name. By far the 
larger number of the materials used by 
the perfumer come from the vegetable 
kingdom, but there are some exceptions, 
as ambergris, musk and civet. The num- 
ber of flowers used by the perfumer is 
very limited, but, by a judicious com-; 
bination, or rather blending, almost any 
odor may be obtained. The odors of 
plants reside in different parts of them,, 
sometimes in the roots, as in the iris' 
and vitivert ; the stem or wood, in cedar 
and santal ; the leaves, in mint, patchouly 
and thyme ; the flower, in the roses and 
violets ; the seeds, in the Tonquin bean 
and caraway ; the bark, in cinnamon, etc. 
Some plants yield more than one odor, 
which are quite distinct and characteris- 
tic. The orange tree, for instance, gives 
three ; from the leaves, one called petit 
grain; from the flowers we procure neroli, 
and from the rind of the fruit, essential 
oil of orange, named Portugal. On this 
account, perhaps, this tree is the most 
valuable of all to the operative perfumer. 
The fragrance or odor of plants is owing, 
in nearly all cases, to a perfectly volatile 
oil, either contained in small vessels, or 
sacs, within them, or generated from time 
to time during their life, as when in blos- 
som. Some few exude, by incision, odor- 
iferous gums, as benzoin, olibanum, 
myrrh, etc. ; others give, by the same act, 
what are called balsams, which appear to 
be mixtures of an odorous oil and an in- 
odorous gum. Some of these balsams are 
procured in the country to which the 
plant is indigenous, by boiling it in wa- 
ter for a time, straining, and then boil- 
ing again, or evaporating it down till it 
assumes the consistency of treacle. In 
this latter way is balsam of Peru pro- 
cured from the Myroxydon peruifermn, 
and the balsam of Tolu from the Myroxy- 
don toluiferum. Though these odors are 
agreeable, they are not much applied in 
perfumery for handkerchief use, but by 
some they are mixed with soap, and in 
England they are valued more for their 
medicinal properties than for their fra- 
grance. The odors of flowers are more 



I 



[858] 



■ 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



(Ottos) 



generally secreted during the sunshine, or 
at least in the daytime, but there are 
some which yield no odor in the day but 
are very fragrant in the evening, such 
as the Cestrum nocturnum, the Lychinis 
vespertina, some of the Catasetum, and 
the Cymhidium. 

Ottos from Plants. — Quantities of ottos, 
otherwise essential oils, yielded by various 
plants : 

Otto, 
lb. oz. 

Orange peel 10 yield about 1 

Dry marjoram herb. . 20 " 3 

Fresh marjoram herb 100 " 3 

Fresh peppermint. . . . 100 " 3 to 4 

Dry peppermint 25 " 3 to 4 

Dry origanum 25 

Dry thyme 20 

Dry calamus 25 

Anise seed 25 

Caraway 25 

Cloves 1 

Cinnamon 25 

Cassia 25 

Cedar wood. 28 

Mace 2 

Nutmegs 2 

Fresh balm herb 60 

Cake of bitter almond 14 

Sweet flag root 112 

Geranium leaves 112 

Lavender flowers. . . . 112 

Myrtle leaves 112 

Patchouly herb 112 

Pix>vence rose blossom 112 

Rhodium wood 112 

Santal wood 112 

Vitivertor kuskusroot 112 
Violets ....112 



2 to 3 
1% 
4 



3 to 
Ito 



Ito 

3 to 

9 to 12 

16 

21/2 

3 
3 
4 
3 
4 

11/2 

1 

16 

2 

" 30 to 32 

5 

28 

"1 1/2 to 2 

" 3 to 4 

30 

15 

1/2 dr 



Boiling and Congealing Temperatures 
of Various Ottos, etc. — 

Deg. 
Fah. 

Almond oil will not boil 660 

Otto of patchouly boils 515 

" vitivert boils 548 

" santal wood boils 550 

" cedar wood boils 507 

" English lavender boils 475 

'* lemon grass boils 440 

" rose (pure Turkish) boils. 432 

" geranium (Spanish) boils. 430 

" geranium (Indian) boils.. 420 

" gaultheria boils 400 

" almonds boils 356 

" bergamot (pure) boils.... 370 

" caraway boils 348 

*' lemon peel boils 345 

" orange peel boils 345 

" French lavender (spike) . . 180 

" white wax melts 150 



(Preparation of Perfumes) 

Deg. 
Fah. 

Otto of camphor sublimes 145 

'• spermaceti melts 112 

" paraffine A 102 

" paraflJne B 90 

" otto rose (Italian) congeals 62 
" otto rose (Turkish) congeals 58 
" geranium, neroli, cloves, de- 
posit crystals 2 

" santal, cedar, lemon grass, 

congeal to a jelly — 5 

" bergamot congeals — 12 

" cinnamon still fluid — 13 

Perfumes are extracted from plants as 
follows : From the flowers by enfleurage, 
absorption or maceration ; from the roots 
by trituration ; and by distillation from 
the seeds. The processes are divided into 
four distinct operations, viz. : 1, expres- 
sion ; 2, distillation ; 3, maceration ; 4, 
absorption. 

Processes. — 1. — Expression is only 
adopted where the plant is very prolific 
in its volatile or essential oil ; i.e., its 
odor, such, for instance, as is found in 
the pellicle or outer peel of the orange, 
lemon and citron, and a few others. In 
these cases the parts of the plant con- 
taining the odoriferous principle are put 
sometimes in a cloth bag and at others 
by themselves into a press, and by mere 
mechanical force it is squeezed out. The 
press is an iron vessel of immense 
strength, varying in size from 6 in. in di- 
ameter and 12 in. deep, and upward, to 
contain one hundredweight or more ; it 
has a small aperture at the bottom to 
allow the expressed material to run for 
collection ; in the interior is placed a 
perforated false bottom, and on this the 



\^ FvR 




Macerating Over Water Baths 



[859] 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



I 



(Preparation of Perfumes) 

substance to be squeezed is placed, cov- 
ered with an iron plate jBtting the inte- 
rior. This is connected with a powerful 
screw, which, being turned, forces the 
substance so closely together that the lit- 
tle vessels containing the essential oils 
are burst, and it thus escapes. The com- 
mon tincture press is indeed a model of 
such an instrument. The oils which are 
thus collected are contaminated with wa- 
tery extract, which exudes at the same 
time, and from which it has to be sep- 
arated ; this it does by itself to a certain 
extent, by standing in a quiet place, and 
it is then poured off and filtered when 
requisite. 

2. — Distillation. — ^The plant, or part of 
it which contains the odoriferous princi- 
ple, is placed in an iron, copper or glass 
pan, varying in size from that capable 
of holding from 1 to 20 gal., and covered 
with water ; to the pan a dome-shaped 
lid is fitted, terminating with a pipe, 
which is twisted, corkscrew fashion, and 
fixed in a bucket, with the end peeping 
out like a tap in a barrel. The water 
in the still — for such is the name of the 
apparatus — is made to boil ; and having 
no other exit, the steam must pass through 
the coiled pipe, which, being surrounded 
with cold water in the bucket, condenses 
the vapor before it can arrive at the tap. 
With the steam the volatile oil — i.e., per- 
fume — rises, and is liquefied at the same 
time. The liquids which thus run over, 
on standing for a time, separate into 
two portions, and are finally divided with 
a funnel having a stopcock in the nar- 
row part of it. By this process the ma- 
jority of the volatile ottos are procured. 
In some few instances alcohol is placed 
upon the odorous materials in lieu of wa- 
ter, which, on being distilled, comes away 
with the perfuming substance dissolved 
in it. But this process is now nearly 
obsolete, as it is found more beneficial 
to draw the oil or essence, first with wa- 
ter, and afterward to dissolve it in the 
spirit. The low temperature at which 
spirits boils, compared with water, causes 
a great loss of otto, the heat not being 
sufficient to disengage it from the plant, 
especially where seeds, such as cloves or 
caraway, are employed. 

3. — Maceration. — This operation is con- 
ducted thus : For what is called a po- 
made, a certain quantity of purified beef 
or deer suet, mixed with purified lard, 
is put into a clean metal or porcelain 
pan ; this being melted by steam heat 
or bath, the kind of flowers required for 
the odor wanted are carefully picked and 
put to the liquid fat, and allowed to re- 



( Preparation of Perfumes) ' 

main from 12 to 48 hours; the fat has 
a particular affinity or attraction for the 
otto of flowers, and thus, as it were, 
draws it out of them, and becomes itself, 
by their aid, highly perfumed ; the fat is 
strained from the spent flowers, and fresh 




Section of a Perfume Macerator and 
Water Bath 

are added 10 or 15 times over, till the 
pomade is of the required strength ; these 
various strengths of pomatums are noted 
by the French makers as Nos. 6, 12, 18 
and 24, the higher numerals indicating 
the amount of fragrance in them. For 
perfumed oils, the same operation is fol- 
lowed ; but, in lieu of suet, fine olive 
oil, and the same results are obtained. 
These oils are called huile antique of such 
and such a flower. The orange, rose and 
cassie compounds are principally pre- 
pared by this process. The violet and 
r6z6da pomades and oils are prepared 
first by the maceration process, apd then 
finished by enfteurage. When neither of 
the three foregoing processes gives sat- 
isfactory results, the method of procedure 
adopted is by — 

4. — Absorption or Enfleurage. — Of all 
the processes for procuring the perfumes 
of flowers, this is the most important to 
the perfumer, and is the least understood 
in England ; as this operation yields not 
only the most exquisite essence indirectly, 
but also nearly all those fine pomades 
known here as "French pomatums," much 
admired for their strength of fragrance, 
together with "French oils," equally per- 
fumed. The odors of some flowers are so 
delicate and volatile that the heat re- 



[860] 



J'oilet Prepara tions — Perfumes 



(Preparation of Perfumes) 

quired in the previously named processes 
would greatly modify, if not entirely spoil 
them ; this process is, therefore, conduct- 
ed cold, thus : Square frames, called a 
chassis, about 3 in. deep, with a glass 
bottom, say 2 ft. wide and 3 ft. long, are 
procured ; over the glass a layer of fat is 
spread, about % in. thick, with a kind 
of plaster knife or spatula ; on this the 
flower buds are sprinkled, completely 
over it, and there left from 12 to 72 
hours. For oils of the same plants, coarse 
cotton cloths are imbued with the finest 
olive oil, and laid upon a frame contain- 
ing wire gauze in lieu of glass ; on these 
the flowers are laid, and suffered to re- 
main till fresh flowers are procured. This 
operation is repeated several times, after 
which the cloths are subject to a great 
pressure to remove the now perfumed oil. 
But for the pharmacist and the amateur, 
who desire to make only small quantities, 
the better, and, in fact, the only way, is 
to buy the essential oils and prepare the 
perfume with their aid, as this requires 
no large plant or expenditure of capital. 
Care should be used to get deodorized al- 
cohol, and all materials should be pur- 
chased of large drug houses who make a 
specialty of the expensive essential oils. 
The prices which are given in some re- 
ceipts are only approximate, and were 
taken with the original receipt. 




Wire Frame for Enfleurage 

Definitions of Terms. 

Bouquets. — Perfumes where the odor 
of no one flower can be discovered as pre- 
dominating over another. 

Esprits. — The name esprits is common- 
ly given by the perfumers to alcoholic so- 
lutions of the fragrant essential oils and 
other odorous and aromatic substances. 
As a rule, esprits are less highly charged 
v/ith odorous principles, and have less al- 
coholic strength than essences and ex- 
traits, as well as having little color, if 
any ; but the term is often very loosely 
and capriciously applied in the trade, just 
as its synonym or analogue, spirit, is in 
English. 

[ 



(Preparation of Perfumes) 

Essences. — The term essence is com- 
monly very loosely applied to prepara- 
tions that differ greatly from each other, 
and which are presumed or pretended to 
contain the essential principles or quali- 
ties of anything disencumbered of grosser 
matter. Thus, the essential or volatile 
oils obtained from vegetable substances, 
by distillation, are frequently called es- 
sences, as well as a strong solution of 
them in rectified spirit — ^a system of no- 
menclature which continually leads to 
confusion and mistakes. In pharmacy, 
the concentrated infusions, decoctions, li- 
quors, solutions and tinctures are also fre- 
quently called essences by those who vend 
them. In perfumery, a similar loose ap- 
plication of the term prevails ; but it is 
more particularly appropriated to concen- 
trated, or somewhat concentrated, alco- 
holic solutions of the essential oils and 
other fragrant substances, whether ob- 
tained by simple admixture, by distilla- 
tion, or by digestion, as in making tinc- 
tures. Indeed, the fragrant essences of 
the perfumers differ from their eaux, 
esprits, tinctures and other forms of per- 
fumed spirits, merely in their greater rich- 
ness in the odorous principles that char- 
acterize them, and the greater strength 
of the spirit that holds these principles 
in solution. 




Frames Ready for the Press 

Extraits, Extracts. — In French perfum- 
ery, these are, appropriately, strong spir- 
ituous solutions, either simple or com- 
pound, of the essential oils and odorous 
principles of plants, and other substances 
obtained by infusion or digestion, as dis- 
tinguished from those that are obtained 
by distillation and direct solution. Un- 
der the term, however, are often classed 
many perfumes prepared with rectified 
861] " 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



1 



(Baj' Rum) 



spirit by the latter methods, and which 
are highly charged with the fragrant mat- 
ter, or matters, which they represent. The 
preparation of most of the extraits is 
simple enough, the chief care necessary 
being that the spirit be absolutely scent- 
less, and of sufficient strength, and that 
the oils and other materials be recent and 
perfectly pure. With some flowers of ex- 
tremely delicate perfume, highly perfumed 
spirit of the finest quality cannot well be 
obtained either by infusion or distilla- 
tion, or by simple solution of the respec- 
tive essential oils ; or, at least, they are 
not usually so prepared by the Continen- 
tal perfumers, who are undoubtedly the 
best judges in such matters. For these, 
an entirely different and a rather tedious 
and indirect method is pursued. Pure 
rectified spirit is digested, for 3 or 4 days, 
on half its weight of the oils or pomades 
obtained by infusion or contact from the 
respective flowers. The operation is per- 
formed in a securely closed vessel or di- 
gester of porcelain or tinned copper, set 
in a water bath, frequent agitation be- 
ing employed during the whole time. Aft- 
er the whole has become quite cold the 
vessel is opened, and the perfumed spirit 
carefully decanted into a second similar 
vessel or digester, containing a like quan- 
tity of oil to the first one. The whole 
process is then repeated a second time ; 
and again a third time, with fresh oil or 
pomade. Finally, the cold spirit, after 
sufficient repose, is very carefully decant- 
ed through a glass or porcelain funnel, 
stopped with a small wad of cotton wool, 
into the receiver or store bottle. 

Alcohol. 

One of the first requisites in the manu- 
facture of good perfumes is pure alcohol, 
free from fusel oil or other foreign flavor. 
The purer grade of spirit is known _ in 
commerce as pure spirits, silent spirits, 
or deodorized alcohol, and may readily be 
distinguished from ordinary alcohol by the 
absence of that peculiar pungency of odor 
which is present to a greater or less ex- 
tent in most commercial samples. 

Bay Rum. 

1. — Alcohol, 8 fl.oz. ; oil of bay,. 40 
drops ; oil of mace, 1 gr. ; oil of orange, 
20 drops ; Jamaica rum, 1 fl.oz. ; water, 
enough to make 16 fl.oz. Digest 2 or 3 
weeks, and filter through magnesia. 

2.— Alcohol, 8 fl.oz. ; oil of bay, 2 dr. ; 
oil of cloves, 1 drop ; mace, 20 gr. ; water, 
warmed to 80° F., enough to make 12 
fl.oz. Dissolve the oils in the alcohol ; 
digest the mace in the solution for a few 
days ; filter, and add the water. The 



(Bay Rum) 



whole is allowed to stand, with occasional 
agitation, for several days, and filtered 
through magnesia. 

3. — Jamaica rum, 36 fl.oz. ; 95% alco- 
hol, 36 fl.oz. ; oil of bay, i/^ fl.oz. ; oil of 
pimento, 1 drop ; acetic ether, 4 drops. 
Allow to stand at least 3 weeks before 
using. 

4. — Oil of bay, 33 c.c. ; oil of orange, 
2.5 c.c. ; oil of pimento, 2 c.c. ; alcohol, 
2,000 c.c. After dissolving the oils in the 
alcohol, mixed in a suitable bottle, the 
mixture is allowed to stand for 24 hours, 
occasionally shaking; Then add water, 
1,500 c.c. ; calcined magnesia, 25 grams. 
Shake occasionally, and allow to stand for 
another 24 hours. Filter. A perfectly 
clear and sparkling product is much more 
readily obtained than with the U. S. P. 
process. 

5. — Oil of myrcia acris, 33 ; sweet or- 
ange oil, 2.5 ; pimento oil, 2 ; 96% alcohol, 
2,000. Mix, and allow to stand for 24 
hours, with frequent shaking. Then add 
water, 1,500, and magnesia, 25. Shake 
together at intervals, for 12 hours, and 
filter. 

6. — Bay rum, or, more properly, bay 
spirit, may be made from the oil, with 
weak alcohol, as here directed : Oil of 
bay leaves, 3 dr. ; oil of orange peel, % 
dr. ; tincture of orange peel, 2 oz. ; mag- 
nesium carbonate, % oz. ; alcohol, 4 pt. ; 
water, 4 pt. Triturate the oils with the 
magnesium carbonate, gradually adding 
the other ingredients, previously mixed, 
and filter. The tincture of orange peel 
is used chiefly as a coloring for the mix- 
ture. Oil of bay leaves, as found in the 
market, varies in quality.' The most cost- 
ly will presumably be found the best, and 
its use will not make the product ex- 
pensive. It can be made from the best 
oil and deodorized alcohol, and still be 
sold at a moderate price with a good 
profit. Especial care should be taken to 
use only perfectly fresh oil of orange peel. 
As is well known, this oil deteriorates 
rapidly on exposure to the air, acquiring 
an odor similar to that of turpentine. 
The oil should be kept in bottles of such 
size that when opened the contents can 
be all used in a short time. 

7. — For Barbers' Use. — a. — Oil of bay, 
iy2 fl.dr. ; oil of pimento, % fl.dr. ; acetic 
ether, l^^ fl.dr.; alcohol, 2 pt. ; water, 2 
pt. Mix the oils and acetic ether with 
the alcohol, add the water, and filter. 

b. — Oil of bay, 2 fl.dr.; Jamaica rum, 
4 fl.oz.; alcohol, l^/^ pt. ; water, 2i/4 Pt. 
This preparation may be made clear and 
bright by filtering through magnesia and 
charcoal. 



[862] 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



(Colognes) 



Foaming Bay Rum. — (1) Oil of pimen- 
to, 16 grams ; oil of lemon, 1 gram ; oil 
of mace, 1 gram ; oil of cloves, 1 gram ; 
oil of sweet orange, 1 gram ; essence of 
rum, 75 grams ; alcohol, 2,650 grams. 
(2) Ammonium carbonate, 1%, 90 
grams ; or 2%, 45 grams ; distilled water, 
sufficient to make 4,500 grams. The am- 
monium carbonate is dissolved in the dis- 
tilled water, without heating, and the so- 
lution added to mixture (1). The whole 
is allowed to stand 1 week, and finally 
filtered through asbestos. 

Colognes. 

1. — Oil of bergamot, 1 gram ; oil of 
lemon, 2.5 grams ; oil of neroli, 1.5 grams ; 
oil of rosemary, 1 gram ; 96% alcohol, 
300 grams ; orange-flower water, 75 
grams. 

2. — Oil of bergamot, 8 grams ; oil of 
lemon, 4 grams ; oil of neroli, 1 gram ; oil 
of origanum, 6 drops ; oil of rosemary, 1 
gram ; 96% alcohol, 600 grams ; orange- 
flower water, 50 grams. 

Cologne water improves with age, ac- 
quiring, on keeping, a characteristically 
delicate odor. This is supposed to be the 
result of a special etherification of the 
alcohol with the oils, and resulting inter- 
molecular changes. The manufacturers of 
cologne water accelerate this change either 
by exposing the water, in glass-stoppered 
bottles, to the action of the sun's rays, 
or by warming it gently in a water bath 
for a period of 48 hours. 

3. — Oil of neroli, 1 gram ; oil of lemon, 
4 grams ; oil of bergamot, 5 grams ; oil 
of cedar, 1.5 grams ; oil of lavender, 2 
grams ; oil of rosemary, 2 grams ; melissa 
water (P. G.), 160 grams; alcohol, 1,000 
grams. 

4. — Oil of orange, 2.5 grams ; oil of 
lemon, 3.5 grams ; oil of bergamot, 1.5 
grams ; oil of neroli, 1.5 grams ; oil of 
rosemary, 1.5 grams; alcohol, 370 grams. 

5. — Oil of lemon, 350 grams ; oil of 
bergamot, 270 grams ; oil of lavender, 20 
grams ; oil of mint, 12 grams ; oil of ne- 
roli, 6 grams ; oil of white thyme, 5 
grams ; oil of rosemary, 5 grams ; oil of 
rose, 1 gram ; acetic ether, 12 grams ; or- 
ange-flower water, 1,110 grams ; rose wa- 
ter, 200 grams. Allow to macerate for 
1 to 2 months, and then dilute with 6 to 
8 kgm. of alcohol, and distil. 

6. — Oil of berg-amot, 12 grams ; oil of 
neroli, 6 grams ; oil of lemon, 6 grams ; 
oil of mace, 1 gram ; oil of rosemary, l" 
gram ; alcohol, 960 grams. 

7. — Oil of orange, 24 grams ; oil of 
lemon, 24 grams; oil of bergamot, 1.5 
grams ; oil of neroli, 0.5 gram ; oil of petit 



(Colognes) 



grain, 0.5 gram ; oil of rosemary, 0.5 
gram ; alcohol, 770 grams. 

Antiseptic Cologne. — Bau de cologne, 8 
fl.oz. ; chloral hydrate, 2 dr. ; alkaloid qui- 
nine, 10 gr. ; pure carbolic acid, 30 gr. ; 
oil of lavender, 20 drops. The Medical 
Record says 'this may be used on the 
handkerchief, the doctor holding it gently 
to the mouth while in the sick-room. War- 
ranted to keep out bacillus tuberculosis ; 
also, b. termo, b. elephantiasis A., and b. 
gonococci. 

Farina Cologne. — 1. — Oil of lemon, 2i/^ 
oz. ; oil of bergamot, 2i/4 oz. ; fine oil of 
lavender, % oz. ; oil of neroli, 2 dr. ; ex- 
tract of orange flower, 4 oz. ; extract of 
musk, best, 4 oz. ; extract of civet, % oz. ; 
alcohol, 2 gal. ; water, 3 pt. ; extract of 
benzoin, 1 oz. 

2. — Golden Farina Cologne. — ^Tincture 
of Canada snake root, 4 oz. ; tincture of 
orris root, 12 oz. ; oil of bergamot, 6 dr. ; 
oil of lavender, 6 dr. ; oil of lemon, 6 dr. ; 
essence of musk, 1 dr. ; oil of neroli, 1 
dr. ; oil of cinnamon, 1 dr. ; oil of cloves, 
1 dr. : orange-flower water, 8 oz. ; cologne 
spirits, sufiicient to complete 6 pt. 

Fragrant Cologne. — Oil of bergamot, 3 
oz. ; oil of lemon, 1 oz. ; fine oil of lav- 
ender, 1^ oz. ; oil of cloves, ^4 oz. ; oil of 
sandalwood, i/^ oz. ; alcohol, 2 gal. ; wa- 
ter, 3 pt. 

German Cologne, Imitation. — Deodor- 
ized alcohol, 800 parts ; water, 120 parts ; 
tincture of musk, 40 parts ; extract of 
tuberose, 20 parts ; oil of Canadian snake 
root, 9 parts ; oil of rose geranium, 3 
parts ; oil of lavender, 3 parts ; oil of 
sandal, 2 parts ; oil of patchouly, 2 parts ; 
oil of neroli, 1 part. 

Jockey Cluh Cologne. — Farina cologne, 
800 parts ; extract of jockey club, 150 
parts ; tincture of musk, 25 parts ; tinc- 
ture of ambergris, 25 parts. 

Piesse-Luhin^s Cologne, Imitation. — 
Deodorized alcohol, 900 parts ; extract of 
orange flowers, 50 parts ; oil of citron, 15 
parts; oil of sweet orange, 15 parts; oil 
of neroli petale, 9 parts ; oil of bergamou 
5 parts; oil of neroli bigarade, 3 parts; 
oil of rosemary, 3 parts. 

Solid Perfume. — Essence of bergamot, 
1 oz. ; essence of lemon, 1 oz. ; oil of 
citronella, V^ oz. ; oil of neroli, ^j oz. ; 
oil of rosemary, 80 minims ; oil of ger- 
anium, 10 minims. Mix. 

Ylang-Ylang Cologne. — Farina cologne, 
800 parts ; extract of rose, 100 parts ; 
tincture of ambergris, 40 parts ; tincture 
of musk, 40 parts ; tincture of vanilla, 10 
parts ; oil of ylang-ylang, 8 parts ; oil of 
neroli petale, 2 parts. 

n 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



=1 



(Coloring Materials) 



Coloring for Colognes and Toilet Waters. 

1. — Chlorophyll may be employed for 
coloring alcoholic solutions of a green 
tint. This substance may be purchased, 
or it may be prepared as follows : Digest 
leaves of grass, nettles, spinach, or other 
green herb, in warm water until soft ; 
pour off the water and crush the herb to 
a pulp. Boil the pulp for a short time 
with %% solution of caustic soda, and 
afterward precipitate the chlorophyll by 
means of dilute hydrochloric acid ; wash 
the precipitate thoroughly with water, 
press and dry it, and use as much for the 
solution as may be necessary. 

2. — A tincture made from grass, as fol- 
lows, may be employed : Lawn grass, cut 
fine, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 16 oz. Put the grass 
in a wide-mouthed bottle, and pour the 
alcohol upon it. After standing a few 
days, agitating occasionally, pour off the 
liquid. The tincture can be used with 
both alcoholic and aqueous preparations. 

3. — Among the anilines, spirit-soluble 
malachite green has been recommended. 

4. — A purple or violet tint may be pro- 
duced by using tincture of litmus, or am- 
moniated cochineal coloring. The former 
is made as follows : Litmus^ 2^^ oz. ; 
boiling water, 16 oz. ; alcohol, 3 oz. Pour 
the water upon the litmus, stir well, allow 
to stand for about an hour, stirring oc- 
casionally, filter, and to the filtrate add 
the alcohol. 

5. — The aniline colors, *Taris violet," 
or methyl violet B, may be similarly em- 
ployed. The amount necessary to pro- 
duce a desired tint must be worked out 
by experiment. Yellow tints may best be 
imparted by the use of tincture of tur- 
meric or saffron, fustic, quercitron, etc. 

6. — Green. — Chlorophyll is a suitable 
agent for coloring liquid perfumes green. 
Care must be taken to procure an article 
freely soluble in the menstruum. As 
found in the market, it is prepared (in 
form of solutions) for use in liquids 
strongly alcoholic ; in water or weak al- 
cohol ; and in oils. Aniline greens of va- 
rious kinds will answer the same purpose, 
but in a trial of any one of these it must 
be noted that very small quantities should 
be used, as their tinctural power is so 
great that liquids in which they are in- 
cautiously used may stain the handker- 
chief. Color imparted by chlorophyll will 
be found fairly permanent, we think ; this 
term is a relative one, and not too much 
must be expected. Colors which may suf- 
fer but little change by long exposure to 
diffused light may fade perceptibly by short 
exposure to the direct light of the sun. 



(Essences and Extracts) 



Aniline colors vary in their permanence, 
of course, being of varying composition. 

Essences and Extracts. 

1. — Alcohol, 90%, 1 pt. ; essence of ber- 
gamot, 1 oz. 

2.— Alcohol, 90%, 1 pt. ; otto of santal, | 
1 oz. 

3.— Alcohol, 90%, 1 pt. ; otto of French 
lavender, i/^ oz, ; otto of bergamot, % oz. ; 
otto of cloves, 1 dr. 

4.— Alcohol, 90%, 1 pt. ; otto of lemon 
grass, % oz. ; essence of lemon, % oz. 

5. — Alcohol, 2 pt. ; otto of petit grain, 
% oz. ; otto of orange peel, % oz. Nearly 
all these perfumes will require to be fil- 
tered through blotting paper, with the 
addition of a little magnesia to make them 
bright. 

Acacia. — 1. — Esprit de fleurs d'aca- 
cia, simple, 7 fl.oz. ; esprit de fleurs 
jasmin, 1% fl.oz.; esprit de tuberose, 1% 
fl.oz. ; essence of ambergris, finest pale, 
1 fl.dr. ; eau de fleurs d'oranges, 3 fl.oz. ; 
rectified spirit, 7^2 A-oz. Mix. A favor- 
ite Italian perfume. 

2. — Extract of acacia, 750 parts ; ex- 
tract of orange flowers, 120 parts ; ex- 
tract of jasmine, 60 parts ; extract of 
tuberose, 60 parts ; tincture of ambergris, 
10 parts. 

Almond (Amygdala Amara). — 1. — Is a 
native of Persia, Syria and Barbary, and 
is cultivated in southern France and 
Italy. Almond spirit : Essential oil of 
almonds, 2% fl.dr. ; oil of bergamot, % 
fl.dr. ; oil of cassia, % fl.dr. ; essence roy- 
ale, 1/^ fl.dr. ; rectified spirit, 1 pt. Mix. 

2. — Almond spirit : Oil of bitter alm- 
onds, 80 drops ; deodorized alcohol, 16 oz. 
Procure the best cologne spirits or de- 
odorized alcohol obtainable. Do not use 
common alcohol, as its odor is too strong 
and pungent for perfumers' use. 

Ambergris. — 1. — This substance, which 
is found floating in the sea, or is thrown 
up by the waves upon the shores of va- 
rious countries, is now generally believed 
to be produced in the intestines of the 
sperm whale. The best gray ambergris 
is quite expensive, but is the only one 
worth buying. 

2. — Essence. — Ambergris, 5 dr. ; grain 
musk (Tonquin or Chinese, pure), IMi 
dr.; essence d'ambrette (or purple sweet 
sultan), 1 qt. This produces the finest 
quality of the London West End and 
Paris houses. 

3. — Extract. — Spirit of rose, 3 oz. ; 
tincture of ambergris, 8 oz. ; tincture of 
musk, 4 oz. ; tincture of vanilla, 1 oz. 
Cost, about $6 per pt. Where permanence 
is desired, this can be recommended. 



[864] 



Toilet Freparations — Perfumes 



(Essences and Extracts) 



4. — Tincture. — Ambergris, 2 dr. ; pow- 
dered orris root, 2 dr. ; deodorized alcohol, 
16 oz. Grind the ambergris and orris in 
a mortar until reduced to a fine powder ; 
transfer to a bottle, and add the alcohol. 
Macerate for 30 days, and filter through 
paper. 

Benzoin, Tincture of. — Gum benzoin, in 
fine powder, 2 oz. ; deodorized alcohol, 16 
oz. Macerate for 30 days, and filter. 

Bergamot (Citrus Bergamia). — 1. — 
The oil is obtained in Italy, by expres- 
sion, from the peel of the fruit. It should 
be kept in a dark place, and in a tightly 
corked bottle. If not well taken care of, 
it soon loses its green color, becomes 
cloudy from a deposit of rosin, and ac- 
quires^a turpentine smell. Care should be 
taken to preserve all oils as above di- 
rected. 

2, — Essence of Bergamot. — The popu- 
lar name of oil of bergamot. A spiritu- 
ous essence may be made in a similar way 
to that of almonds. 

Bouquets. — Essence Bouquet. — 1. — 
Rose spirit, 4 oz. ; ambergris tincture, 1 
oz. ; orris, 2 oz. ; bergamot oil, ^ oz. ; 
lemon oil, Ys oz. 

2. — Rose spirit, 2 oz. ; ambergris tinc- 
ture, 2 dr. ; orris tincture, 1 oz. ; berga- 
mot otto, 1 dr. ; lemon otto, 15 minims. 

3. — Oil of leaf geranium, 1 oz. ; oil of 
Turkish geranium, % oz. ; otto of rose, 

1 dr. ; extract of musk, 6 oz. ; extract of 
tonka, 6 oz. ; extract of orange flower, 
5 oz. ; extract of vanilla, 2 oz. ; extract 
of civet, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 1 gal. ; water, 4 
oz. 

4. — Extract of musk, 2 oz. ; extract of 
tuberose, 2 oz. ; otto of rose, virgin, 1 
dr. ; otto of bergamot, 1% dr. ; otto of 
neroli, super, % dr. ; otto of verbena, true, 
8 minims ; otto of pimento, 10 minims ; 
otto of patchouly, 3 minims ; otto of red 
cedar wood, true, % dr. ; otto of lavender, 
English, 12 minims ; pure spirit, suflScient 
to make 4 pt. 

5. — Bouquet d' Amour. — Esprits de rose, 

2 oz. ; jasmin, 2 oz. ; violette, 2 oz. ; cas- 
sie, 2 oz. ; essences of musk, 1 oz. ; am- 
bergris, 1 oz. Mix, and if the liquid be 
not quite clear, add of strong alcohol, 
drop by drop, the least quantity sufiicient 
to render it so. It may be filtered, but 
this should be avoided, as it occasions 
loss. A very agreeable perfume. 

Bouquet de Caroline. — Add to recipe for 
Essence Bouquet 1 pt. of extract of ne- 
roli, costing same sum. 

Carnation Pink. — Oil of cloves, 5 min- 
ims ; essence of cassie, 4 oz. ; essence of 
jasmine, 2 oz. ; essence of orange flowers. 



(Essences and Extracts) 



4 oz. ; essence of rose, 8 oz. ; tincture of 
vanilla, 2 oz. ; tincture of storax, 1 oz. 

Cassie (Acacia Farnesiana) . — 1. — Cas- 
sie is cultivated in southern France and 
Italy, and produces a very valuable per- 
fume, resembling violets, but stronger. 

2. — Essence of Cassie. — Cassie pomade, 
16 oz. ; deodorized alcohol, q. s., or 16 
oz. Introduce the pomade and alcohol 
into a Mason fruit jar of ^ gal. capac- 
ity. Digest by means of a water bath 
until the pomade is barely melted ; shake 
well together, and repeat the shaking fre- 
quently until cold. Allow this to stand 
30 days, then drain off the essence. If 
this falls short of 1 pt., repeat with a 
sufficient quantity of alcohol to make up 
that measure. The washing can be con- 
tinued, and a second pint of essence ob- 
tained, which, although much weaker, 
may be found useful in a cheaper grade 
of perfumes. 

Cedar Wood, Lehanon. — For the hand- 
kerchief. Otto of cedar, 1 oz. ; rectified 
spirit, 1 pt. ; esprit rose triple, % pt. 

Cherry Blossom. — 1. — Essence of peach 
blossom, 840 parts ; essence of violet, 140 
parts; essence of bitter almond (1 part 
of oil to 9 of ale), 20 parts. 

2. — Essence. — Extract of orange flow- 
ers (from pomade), 400 parts; extract of 
jasmine, 100 parts ; essence of bitter alm- 
ond (as above), 30 parts; tincture of 
balsam of Peru (1 to 9), 20 parts; oil 
of lemon, 20 parts ; alcohol, 430 parts. 

Cliypre. — 1. — English. — Extraccs of jas- 
mine, rose and tuberose, of each 2 kgm. ; 
tinctures of ambrette, 2 kgm. ; orris, 
1 kgm.; musk, 500; civet, 200; 
tonka, 300; benzoin, 500; vanilla, 100; 
oils of bergamot, 20 ; otto of rose, 50 ; 
patchouli, 10 ; sandalwood, 5 ; rose ger- 
anium, 15 grams. 

2. — German. — ^First extracts of jas- 
mine, 2 ; rose, 2 ; tuberose, 4 ; tinctures of 
Abel musk, 1 ; orris, 2 kgm. ; musk, 500 ; 
civet, 200 ; coumarin, 5 ; heliotropine, 10 ; 
vanillin, 5 ; oils of bergamot, 20 ; roses, 
20 ; patchouli, 10 ; sandalwood, 5 ; ger- 
anium de rose, 40 grams. 

Citronella (Andropogon Mardus). — Oil 
of citronella is obtained by distillation 
from citronella grass, a native of Ceylon 
and India. 

Civet, Tincture of. — Civet, 1 dr. ; pow- 
dered orris root, 1 dr. ; deodorized alcohol, 
16 oz. Proceed as with the tincture of 
ambergris. 

Clover, White. — Vanillin, 20 gr. ; helio- 
tropine, 20 gr. ; coumarin, 20 gr. ; tinc- 
ture of storax, % oz. ; tincture of civet, 
^2 OZ. ; tincture of orris, 1 oz. ; otto of 
rose, 60 minims ; oil of bergamot, 60 min- 



[865] 



Toilet Prepara t'lons — Perfumer 



(Essences and Extracts) 



ims ; oil of neroli, 90 minims ; extract of 
tuberose, 4 oz. ; extract of jasmine, 8 
oz. ; oil of cloves, 5 minims ; oil of bitter 
almonds, 5 minims ; terpineol, 60 minims ; 
rectified spirit, 8 fl.oz. ; glycerine, 1 fl.dr. 

Cloves, Spirit of. — 1. — Oil of cloves, 4 
dr. ; deodorized alcohol, 16 oz. 

2. — Mix clove otto, 20 minims ; alco- 
hol, 4 oz. 

Cral) Apple Essence. — Hyacinthiue, 5 
minfims ; cratsegine, 10 gr. ; oil of ylang- 
ylang, 30 minims ; volatile oil of nutmeg, 
10 minims ; oil of lignaloe, 20 minims ; 
oil of wintergreen. 2 minims ; muse Baur, 
10 gr, ; extract of eassie, 2 fl.oz. ; extract 
of violet, 4 fl.oz. ; tincture of orris, 1 
fl.oz. ; glycerine, 30 minims ; extract of 
jasmine, 4 fl.oz. 

Elder Flowers, Extract. — 1. — Elder- 
flower water, 1 qt. ; tincture of benzoin, 
1 oz. 

2.— Elder Blossom.— Spirit, 8,000 ; dis- 
tilled water, 2,000 ; oil of ylang-ylang, 70 ; 
coumarin, 45 ; tei-pineol-muguet, 250 ; 
muse Baur, 5 grams. 

Flowers, Essences of. — The essences of 
those flowers which are not separately 
given in this work may be made by one or 
other of the following general formulae : 
Essential oil of the respective flowers, 1 
oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pt. 

Forest Flowers. — Extract of orange 
flower, 320 parts ; extract of tonquil, 160 
parts ; extract of acacia, 160 parts ; ex- 
tract of tuberose, 160 parts ; extract of 
Spanish elder flower, 160 parts ; tincture 
of benzoin, 30 parts ; essence of amber- 
gris, 5 parts ; essence of musk, 5 parts. 

Frangipanni. — 1. — Oil of fine lavender, 
% oz. ; oil of geranium leaf, % oz, ; oil 
of Turkish geranium, % oz. ; otto of rose, 
1 dr. ; extract of musk, 6 oz. ; extract of 
tonka, 6 oz. ; extract of sandalwood, 1 
pt. ; extract of vanilla, 2 oz. ; extract of 
civet, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 1 gal, ; water, 8 oz. ; 
extract of orange flower, 5 oz, 

2, — Tuberose essence, 1 oz, ; vitivert 
spirit, % oz, ; sandal otto, 15 minims ; 
rose otto, 15 minims ; orange-flower otto, 
15 minims ; alcohol, % oz. ; musk tinc- 
ture, 2 oz. ; orris tincture, 1 oz, ; orange- 
flower essence, 1 oz. 

Geranium. — Oil of geranium leaf, 2 oz. ; 
oil of Turkish rose, 2 oz. ; oil of berga- 
mot, 1 oz. ; extract of orange flower, 5 
oz. ; extract of civet, 1 oz, ; alcohol, 1 
gal. ; water, 8 oz. 

2. — Rose Geranium Extract. — Oil of 
rose geranium, 1 oz. ; deodorized alcohol, 
15 oz. 

Heliotrope. — 1. — Extract orange flower, 
1 oz, ; extract of white rose, 1 qt, ; extract 
of vanilla, % pt. ; extract of benzoin, 1 

[866] 



(Essences and Extracts) 



oz. ; extract of civet, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 1 pt. ; 
oil of bitter almonds, 3 minims ; water, 
2 oz. If you will get the flower helio- 
trope, you will notice a slight odor of 
bitter* almonds. Put into the extract only 
the amount required to imitate that. 

2, — Tincture of vanilla, 600 parts ; 
triple extract of rose, 250 parts ; extract 
of orange flower, 100 parts ; tincture of 
ambergris, 40 parts ; concentrated essence 
of bitter almond, 10 parts. 

3. — Heliotropine, 2.30 grams ; vanillin, 
0.40 gram ; coumarin, 0.25 gram ; tincture 
of musk, 2.50 grams ; oil of ylang-ylang, 
20 drops ; geraniol, 10 drops ; benzalde- 
hyde, 2 drops. 

HonetjsucJcle Extract. — Mix patchouly 
extract, 3 dr. ; benzoin tincture, ^ oz."; 
rose essence, ^ oz. ; clove spirit, % oz. ; 
civet tincture, 1 oz. ; orange-flower spirit, 
1 oz. ; jasmine essence, 4 oz. ; vanilla tinc- 
ture, 1 oz. 

Hyacinth. — Geranyl acetate, 3 minims ; 
essence of jasmine, 10 oz. ; vanillin, 10 
gr. ; oil of neroli, 20 minims ; hyacinthiue, 
25 minims ; essence of ambrette, 1 oz. ; 
coumarin, 20 gr. ; essence of rose, 3 fl.oz. ; 
glycerine, 4 dr. ; rectified spirit to 25 
fl.oz. 

Iridia Perfume. — Coumarin, 10 gr. ; 
concentrated rose water, 1 to 40, 2 oz. ; 
neroli oil, 5 minims ; vanilla bean, 1 dr. ; 
bitter-almond oil, 5 minims ; orris root, 1 
dr. ; alcohol, 10 oz. Macerate for a 
month. 

Iris, White, Essence. — lonone, 3 min- 
ims ; oil of orris, 10 minims ; heliotropine, 
30 gr. ; terpineol, 60 minims ; oil of ylang- 
ylang, 20 minims ; oil of lignaloe, 5 min- 
ims ; solution of amyl acetate, 10%, 5 
minims; glycerine, 20 minims; essence of 
jasmine, to make 10 fl.oz. 

Japanese Perfume. — ^Triple extract of 
rose, 1/^ pt, ; extract of vitivert, V2 pt. ; 
extract of patchouly, y2 pt. ; extract of 
cedar, ^2 pt, ; extract of santal, i/^ pt, : 
extract of verveine, i/4 pt. 

Jasmine, Essence. — 1. — Jasmine po- 
made, 16 oz. ; deodorized alcohol, q. s., or 
16 oz. Proceed as with eassie, 

2. — Extract. — Mix jasmine essence, 4 
oz. ; vanilla tincture, M> oz. ; ambergris 
tincture, 2 dr. Cost, $2.24 per pt. 

Jessamine. — Extract of jessamine from 
pomade, 8 pt. ; oil of lemon, 14 oz. ; oil 
of bergamot, ^^ oz. 

Jockey Glul. — 1. — Extract of jasmine, 
5 oz. ; extract of orris, 20 oz. ; extract of 
musk, 7 oz. ; extract of vanilla, 1% o: 
otto of rose, virgin, 1% dr. ; otto of san- 
tal flav., 1% dr. ; otto of bergamot, 2i/4 
dr. ; otto of neroli, super., 40 minims ; 
benzoic acid, 2 dr. ; pure spirit, sufficient 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



(Essences and Extracts) 



to make 4 pt. In this, as well as the fol- 
lowing extracts, before adding the last 
portion of the spirit, replace as much of 
It v^ith water as the perfume will bear 
without becoming milky, which will vary 
from 2 to 8 oz., or more. This addition 
will make the perfume softer. 

2. — Extract. — Mix tuberose essence, 2 
oz. ; rose spirit, 2 oz. ; rose essence, 2 oz. ; 
ambergris tincture, 1% oz. ; civet tincture, 
2 dr. ; musk tincture, 2 dr. ; bergamot 
otto, 30 minims ; clove otto, 10 minims. 

Jonquil, True Extract of. — 1. — Jonquil 
pomade, 8 lb. ; spirit, 60 overproof , 1 
gal. Let it stand one month. 

2. — Imitation Extract. — Spirituous ex- 
tract of jasmine pomade, 1 pt. ; spiritu- 
ous extract of tuberose, 1 pt. ; spirituous 
extract of fleur d'orange, % pt. ; extract 
of vanilla, 2 fl.oz. 

Lavender. — 1. — Essence. — Oil of laven- 
der, Mitcham, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 
strongest, % pt. Mix, with agitation, a 
few drops of the essences of musk and 
ambergris being added at will. Very fine. 

2. — Extract. — Oil of lavender, Mitch- 
am, 4 dr. ; essence of rose, 2 oz. ; de- 
odorized alcohol, 14 oz. 

3. — For Barbers. — ^a. — English oil of 
lavender, 3 oz. ; oil of bergamot, 1% oz. ; 
essence of tonka beans (1 in 10), 1 oz. ; 
rose water, 12 oz. ; alcohol, 80 oz. 

b. — Oil of lavender, 10 dr. ; oil of ber- 
gamot, 1% dr.; essence of musk (1 in 
16), 2 dr.; oil of neroli, 4 drops ; oil of 
rose geranium, 6 drops; oil of sandal- 
wood, 7 drops ; alcohol, 30 oz. ; water, 30 
oz. 

Lemon, Essence of. — Oil of lemon, 4 
dr. ; carbonate of magnesia, 4 dr. ; sugar, 
4 dr. ; deodorized alcohol, 8 oz. ; water, 
8 oz. Dissolve the oil in 2 oz. of alco- 
hol : triturate in a mortar with the mag- 
nesia and sugar. Gradually add the re- 
mainder of the alcohol and water, and 
filter. This is also used for dispensing. 

Lilac. — 1. — Essence of jasmine and es- 
sence of rose, of each 5 fl.oz. ; oil of ylang- 
ylang, 60 minims ; heliotropine, 20 gr. ; 
essence of tuberose, 10 fl.oz. ; essence of 
civet, 1 dr. ; terpineol, 6 fl.dr. ; essence 
of ambrette, 1 fl.oz. ; glycerine, 4 dr. ; 
rectified spirit, to 25 fl.oz. 

2.— White Lilac. — Extract of tuberose, 
730 parts ; extract of orange flower, 200 
parts ; essence of ylang-ylang, 35 parts ; 
tincture of civet, 33 parts ; essence of bit- 
ter almond, 2 parts. 

Lily of the Valley. — 1. — Extract of 
tuberose, 400 parts ; extract of rose, 200 
parts ; extract of acacia, 200 parts ; ex- 
tract of orange flower, 100 parts ; extract 



(Essences and Extracts) 



of jasmine, 98 parts ; concentrated essence 
of bitter almond, 2 parts. 

2, — Oil of lignaloe (synthetic), 6 
grams ; oil of neroli, 2 grams ; oil of jas- 
mine (synthetic), 1 gram ; amyl butyrate, 
20 drops ; tincture of musk, 30 drops. 

Magnolia. — ^Triple extract of rose, 500 
parts ; extract "of orange flower, 250 
parts ; extract of tuberose, 125 parts ; ex- 
tract qf violets, 122 parts ; concentrated 
essence of bitter almond, 2 parts ; con- 
centrated essence of citron, 1 part. 

May Blossom. — Essence of orris, 500 
parts ; triple extract of rose, 250 parts ; 
extract of jasmine, 100 parts ; essence of 
ylang-ylan^, 100 parts ; essence of am- 
bergris, 25 parts ; oil of orange, 10 parts ; 
oil of citron, 20 parts ; oil of neroli, 5 
parts. 

Meadow Flowers. — ^Tincture of tonka, 
300 parts ; essence of rose geranium, 300 
parts ; extract of rose, 200 parts ; extract 
of orange flower, 100 parts ; tincture of 
orris, 40 parts ; extract of jasmine, 20 
parts ; extract of acacia, 20 parts ; tinc- 
ture of musk, 20 parts. 

Mignonette. — Extrait cassia, 200 grams ; 
extrait jasmin, 200 grams ; extrait tube- 
rose, 200 grams ; extrait violet, 900 
grams ; extrait rose, 400 grams ; extrait 
rose oil, 2 grams ; "rosemary oil, 6 grams ; 
musk tincture, 120 grams ; geranium oil, 
5 grams. 

Millefteurs (lliousand Flowers). — 
Spirit of rose, 3 oz. ; essence of rose, 1 
oz. ; essence of jasmine, 4 oz. ; essence of 
orange flowers, 2 oz. ; essence of cassie, 
2 oz. ; tincture of orris, 2 oz. ; tincture of 
tonka, 4 dr. ; tincture of ambergris, 4 dr. ; 
tincture of musk, 4 dr. ; oil of JDitter alm- 
onds, 3 drops ; oil of neroli petale, 3 
drops ; oil of cloves, 3 drops ; oil of ber- 
gamot, 120 drops. 

Musk, Tincture of. — Grain musk, 2 dr. ; 
hot water, 1 oz. ; deodorized alcohol, 15 
oz. Rub the musk to a fine paste with 
the hot water. Digest in a covered mor- 
tar for 2 hours ; add the alcohol, and 
transfer to a tightly corked bottle. Digest 
for 30 days, and filter. 

Myrtle, Imitation Essence of. — Extract 
of vanilla, % pt. ; extract of roses, 1 pt. ; 
extract of fleur d'orange, % pt. ; extract 
of tuberose, % pt. ; extract of jasmine, 
2 oz. 

Narcissus, Essence of. — Oaryophyllin, 
10 minims ; extract of tuberose, 16 fl.oz. ; 
extract of jasmine, 4 fl.oz. ; oil of neroli, 
20 minims; oil of ylang-ylang, 20 min- 
ims ; oil of cloves, 5 minims ; glycerine, 
?0 minims ; solution of amyl acetate, 10%, 
20 minims. 



[867] 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



(Essences and Extracts) 



Neroli Spirit. — Oil of neroli petale, 4 
dr. ; deodorized alcohol, 16 oz. 

New Mown Hay. — Tonka tincture, 4 
oz. ; musk tincture, 1 oz. ; benzoin tinc- 
ture, 1 oz. ; rose spirit, 1 oz. ; rose ger- 
anium oil, 40 minims ; bergamot oil, 40 
minims ; rectified alcohol, 1 oz. 

Night-Blooming Cereus. — Triple extract 
of rose, 250 parts ; extract of jasmine, 
250 parts ; tincture of benzoin, 200 parts ; 
extract of tuberose, 100 parts ; tincture 
of tonka, 100 parts ; tincture of amber- 
gris, 100 parts. 

Opoponax. — Extract of acacia, 270 
parts ; extract of tuberose, 270 parts ; ex- 
tract of jasmine, 200 parts ; extract of 
violets, 80 parts ; extract of rose, _ 60 
parts ; tincture of benzoin, 60 parts ; tinc- 
ture of musk, 60 parts. 

Orange. — 1. — Orange extract, 1,000 
grams ; jasmine extract, 120 grams ; or- 
ange-flower water, 30 grams ; bergamot 
oil, 8 grams ; neroli oil, 15 grams ; musk 
tincture, 10 grams. 

2. — Orange Blossom. — Alcohol, 80°, 900 
parts ; tincture of musk, 60 parts ; extract 
of jasmine, 20 parts ; oil of neroli, 15 
parts ; oil of bergamot, 4 parts ; oil of 
sweet orange, 1 part. 

3. — Essence of Orange Flowers. — Or- 
ange-flower pomade, 16 oz. ; deodorized al- 
cohol, q. s., or 16 oz. Proceed as with 
cassie. 

4. — Essence of Neroli, Essence of Or- 
ange Blossoms. — Pure neroli, % oz. ; rec- 
tified spirit, 1 pt. Dissolve. An ounce of 
the essence of jasmine, jonquil or vio- 
lets is often added. A delicate and de- 
licious perfume. 

5. — Orange-flower Extract. — Essence of 
orange flowers, 12 oz. ; essence of cassie, 
2 oz. ; tincture of musk, 2 oz. 

6. — Orange-flower Spirit. — Orange-flow- 
er otto, 40 minims ; alcohol, 8 oz. 

Orris Tincture. — 1. — Powdered orris 
root, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 4 oz. Macerate the 
orris root for 7 days, and filter ; then per- 
colate the orris root with alcohol sufficient 
to make the measure up to 4 fl.oz. 

2. — Extract. — Seven pounds of finely 
ground orris root of good quality is treat- 
ed by percolation with pure alcohol until 
1 gal. of extract is obtained. 

Patchouly (Pogostemon Patchouli, 
Lindley) . — 1. — 'Patchouly is a native of 
Selhet, a district of Bengal. It is also 
found in Java, Ceylon and portions of 
China. The oil is distilled from the fresh 
herb. It has a very peculiar, musty, 
mossy odor, but when properly blended 
forms a very fashionable perfume. 

2. — Oil of patchouly, 75 drops; oil of 
rose, 15 drops ; deodorized alcohol, 16 oz. 



(Essences and Extracts) 



3. — Otto of patchouly, 2 dr. ; otto of 
santal flav., 40 minims ; rose, virgin, 40 
minims ; extract of musk, 8 oz. ; extract 
of orris, 8 oz. ; extract of vanilla, 4 oz. ; 
extract of styrax, 2 dr.; pure spirit, suf- 
ficient to make 4 pt. 

4. — Mix patchouly otto, 2 dr. ; rose otto, 
20 minims ; alcohol, 15 oz. 

Peach Blossoms, Essence of; Extract of 
Peach Blossoms. — This name is fancifully 
given to the following preparation : Oil 
of lemon, recent, 1 fl.dr. ; balsam of Peru, 
15 gr. ; essential oil of almonds, 8 gr. : 
spirit of orange flowers, 2^^ fl.oz. ; spirit 
of jasmine, 5 fl.dr. ; rectified spirit, 7 
fl.oz. Agitate them together for a few 
days, and after another week pour off the 
clear portion. A refreshing and powerful 
perfume, much esteemed for personal use. 
A second quality is made with spirit only 
35% overproof. 

Pine Forest Perfume. — Oil of pinus 
picea, 4 oz. ; oil of lavender, i/^ oz. ; oil 
of bergamot, % oz. ; oil of lemon, y^ oz. 

Pinks.— 1.— Clove Pink.— Extract of 
jasmine, 12 oz. ; extract of orris, 12 oz. ; 
extract of musk, 8 oz. ; otto of rose, vir- 
gin, 1 dr. ; otto of cloves, 2 dr. ; otto of 
neroli, super, 1 dr. ; otto of pimento, 10 
minims ; otto of patchouly, 20 minims ; 
otto of santal flav., 2 dr. ; benzoic acid, 1 
dr. ; pure spirit, sufficient to make 4 pt. 

2. — Sweet Pink. — Oil of ylang-ylang, 1 
dr. ; oil of bergamot, 2 dr. ; extract of 
benzoin, 2 dr. ; civet, 2 dr. ; extract of 
rose from pomade, 8 oz. ; alcohol, 1^/^ qt. 

Pond Lily. — Extract of tuberose, 400 
parts ; extract of acacia, 280 parts ; ex- 
tract of jasmine, 160 parts ; extract of 
violets, 80 parts ; tincture of vanilla, 78 
parts ; concentrated essence of bitter alm- 
ond, 2 parts. 

Primrose. — Extract of jasmine, 910 
parts ; oil of bergamot, 48 parts ; oil of 
lemon, 16 parts ; oil of petit grain, 16 
parts ; oil of cloves, 4 parts ; tincture of 
ambergris, 6 parts. 

7^056 (Rosa Centifolia). — 1. — This is 
truly the queen of flowers ; and although 
roses are found growing wild in nearly 
every part of the world, it is only in 
France, Turkey and India that they are 
cultivated for their perfume. The Turk- 
ish oil is the one commonly found in the 
market. Oil of rose should congeal at 
80° F. When slowly cooled to 50° F. 
the oil becomes a transparent solid, inter- 
spersed with numerous slender, shining, 
iridescent scale-like crystals (U. S. P.). 
The oil is obtained by distilling the flow- 
ers with water. 

2. — Essence of Rose. — a. — Rose X)o- 



[868] 



l^oilet Preparations — Perfumes 



(Essences and Extracts) 



made, 16 oz. ; deodorized alcohol, q. s., or 
16 oz. Proceed as with cassia essence. 

b. — Pure otto of roses, 1% dr. troy ; 
alcohol (0.806), 1 pt. Mix. Place the 
bottle in a vessel of warm water until its 
contents acquire the temperature of about 
85° F., then cork it close, and agitate it 
smartly until the whole is quite cold. Very 
fine. 

c. — Red. — Concentrated tincture of 
roses : Red rose petale or leaves, dried 
6 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 qt. Digest for 14 
days, press, strain, add of acetic acid (sp. 
gr. 1.044), 2 fl.dr., and the next day fil- 
ter. Used chiefly to color and flavor cos- 
metics that do not contain alkalies or 
earths, particularly liquid ones made with 
spirit. 

3. — Empress Augusta Victoria Rose. — 
Esprit de rose triple, 4 pt. ; extract of 
rose No. 1, 2^^ pt. ; tincture of amber- 
gris, 1/^ pt. ; tincture of musk, % pt. ; 
spirit of rose geranium oil (1 to 30), i^ 
pt. ; oil of neroli, % fl.oz, ; oil of rho- 
dium, 1/4 fl.oz. Mix, and filter. This odor 
is most remarkably fragrant. 

4. — Esprit de Rose. — The compound 
perfume sold under this name is common- 
ly made as follows: Esprit de rose (sim- 
ple, finest), 1 pt. ; essence of ambergris, 
% fl.dr. ; -oil of rose geranium, ^^ fl.dr. 
Mix. Delicately fragrant. 

5. — Japan Rose Extract. — Extract of 
rose (_2d), 64 oz. ; tincture of orris, 80 
oz. ; oil of rose, % oz. ; oil of rose ger- 
anium, % oz, ; oil of sandalwood, 2 dr. ; 
oil of neroli, 1 dr. ; glycerine, 5 oz. ; alco- 
hol, 64 oz. 

6. — Marechal Nip]. — Tn the genus of 
roses, outside of the hundred-leaved or 
cabbage rose, the Marechal Niel rose 
(Rosa Noisetteana Red), also called Noi- 
sette rose, and often, erroneously, tea 
rose, is especiallv conspicuous. Its fine, 
piquant odor delights all lovers of precious 
perfumes. In order to renroduce the fine 
scent of this flower artificiaHv. at peri- 
ods when it cannot be had without much 
expenditure, the following receipt will be 
found useful: Infusion rose I (from 
pomades), 1,000 grams; genuine rose oil, 
10 grams ; infusion of tolu balsam. 150 
grams ; infusion of genuine musk I, 40 
grams ; neroli oil, 30 grams ; clove oil, 
2 grams; infusion of tuberose I (from 
pomades), 1,000 grams; vanillin, 1 gram; 
conmarin, 0.5 gram. 

7. — Moss Rose, — Triple extract of ro«5e, 
630 parts ; extract of orange flower, 200 
parts ; tincture of ambergris, 100 parts ; 
tincture of musk, 70 parts. 

8.— Spirit of Rose.— Oil of rose, 2 dr. ; 
oil of rose geranium, 1 dr. ; deodorized al- 

[ 



(Essences and Extracts) 



cohol, 16 oz. The oil of rose geranium is 
added to give permanence to the spirit, 

9. — Tea Rose. — Essence of rose, 4 oz. ; 
spirit of rose, 8 oz, ; spirit of santal, 2 
oz. ; essence of orange flowers, 1 oz. ; tinc- 
ture of orris, 1 oz, ; oil of rose geranium, 
20 drops. 

10. — Wild Rose, — Extract of rose, 550 
parts ; extract of acacia, 150 parts ; ex- 
tract of orange flower, 150 parts ; triple 
extract of rose, 146 parts ; oil of neroli 
pet,, 2 parts ; oil of verbena, 2 parts. 

Sandalwood Extract. — Otto of sandal- 
wood, 3 dr. ; otto of rose, 20 minims ; al- 
cohol, 8 oz. 

Santal (Santalum Album). — 1. — The 
oil is distilled from the wood, which is a 
native of Australia and the South Sea 
Islands. 

2.— Spirit of Santal. — Oil of santal- 
wood, 2 dr. ; deodorized alcohol, 16 oz. 

Solid or Frozen Perfumes. — In the first 
place, the solid perfume is merely per- 
fumed hard paraffine. The hard paraffine 
is melted and perfumed at as low a tem- 
perature as possible, and for a mold use 
the lids of 2-dr. chip boxes. 

1. — Bouquet Solid Perfume. — Oil of co- 
riander, 18 minims ; oil of cloves, 2 dr. ; 
oil of nutmeg, 1 dr. ; oil of lavender, 3 
dr. ; oil of sandal, 1 dr. ; oil of bergamot, 
1 oz. ; otto of rose, ^^ dr. ; oil of ger- 
anium, y2 dr. ; oil of orange, 10 minims. 
Mix. 

2. — Cologne Solid Perfume, — Essence 
of bergamot, 1 oz, ; essence of lemon, 1 
oz. ; oil of citronella, ^^ oz. ; oil of neroli, 
% oz. ; oil of rosemary, 80 minims ; oil 
of geranium, 10 minims. Mix. 

3, — Lavender Solid Perfume, — Oil of 
lavender, 2 oz, ; essence of bergamot, 1 
oz, ; oil of cassia, 5 minims ; oil of ger- 
anium, 40 minims ; oil of orange, 5 min- 
ims. Mix, and perfume the wax as be- 
fore. 

4.— -White Rose Solid Perfume.— Oil of 
geranium, % dr. ; oil of bergamot, ^^ dr. ; 
oil of patchouli, 5 minims. 

Spring Flowers. — Rose extract, 500 
grams ; violet extract, 500 grams ; rose 
oil, 5 grams ; cassia extract, 70 grams ; 
bergamot oil, 8 grams ; amber essence, 25 
grams. 

Stephanotis. — Extracts of orange, 1 
kgm. ; rose, 1 kgm, ; jasmine, 1/2 kgm. ; 
cassia, ^ kgm. ; tinctures of orris, 1^ 
kgm. ; musk, 20 grams ; oils of roses, 5 
grams ; lemon, 1 gram, 

Styrax, Extract. — Styrax balsam, 8 
dr., dissolved in alcohol, 1 pt. 

Sweet Brier. — ^Triple extract of rose, 
670 parts; extract of acacia, 160 parts; 
extract of orange flower, 160 parts ; oil 



869 1 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



I 



(Essences and Extracts) 



of neroli petale, 5 parts ; oil of verbena, 
5 parts. 

Sweet Pea. — Extract of tuberose, 320 
parts ; extract of rose, 320 parts ; extract 
of orange flower, 320 parts ; tincture of 
vanilla, 40 parts. 

Tropical Flowers. — Extract of jasmine, 
300 parts ; extract of orange flower, 150 
parts ; extract of acacia, 100 parts ; ex- 
tract of jonquil, 100 parts ; extract of va- 
nilla, 100 parts ; extract of tuberose, 100 
parts ; extract of Spanish elder flower, 
100 parts ; extract of reseda, 30 parts ; 
oil of bergamot, 10 parts. 

Tuberose (Paleanthes Tuberosa) . — The 
tuberose is a native of the East Indies. 
It is cultivated for its perfume in south- 
em France. Its odor is very fine, and is 
a general favorite. 

1. — Essence of Tuberose. — Tuberose po- 
made, 16 oz. ; deodorized alcohol, q. s., 
or 16 oz. 

2. — Essence of Tuberose. — The extrait 
triple^ of the flowers, or a still stronger 
ecctrait, prepared with rectified spirit, or 
a spirit of much greater strength than 
that usually employed for extraits. It is 
nearly colorless, but when required white, 
or of still greater strength, the extrait 
triple is submitted to distillation by the 
heat of a water bath, the process being 
conducted as rapidly as possible, and the 
first half, or two-thirds, that comes over, 
being separately collected as the essence. 
In general, however, unless the process be 
very skilfully conducted, the odor of the 
distilled essence, though stronger, is 
scarcely so chaste and delicate as that of 
the extrait from, which it has been pre- 
pared. In a similar way to essence de 
tuberose, the finer qualities of essences of 
honeysuckle, jasmine or jessamine, jon- 
quil. May blossom, May lily, myrtle blos- 
soms, narcissus, orange flowers, roses, vio- 
lets, wallflowers and of other flowers of 
extremely delicate perfume, are usually 
obtained by the Continental manufactur- 
ing perfumers ; as also of essence of cas- 
sia, vanilla, etc., except that the second is 
not distilled. 

Tulip.— I.—Bxtvsict of tuberose, 380 
parts ; extract of violets, 380 parts ; ex- 
tract of rose, 180 parts ; tincture of orris, 
58 parts ; essence of bitter almond, 2 
parts. 

2. — Extract of tuberose, extract of vio- 
let, extract of jasmine, from pomade of 
each, 1 pt. ; extract of rose, % pt. ; ex- 
tract of orris, 3 oz. ; otto of almonds, 3 
drops. 

Verbena. — ^1. — Oil of lemon grass, 50 
drops ; oil of lemon, 320 drops ; oil of 
neroli petale, 20 drops ; oil of orange, 160 



(Essences and Extracts) 



drops ; essence of orange flowers, 3 oz. ; 
essence of tuberose, 3 oz. ; spirit of rose, 
3 oz. ; deodorized alcohol, 6 oz. 

2. — Oil of lemon grass, 3 dr. ; oil of 
lemon, % oz. ; alcohol, 16 oz. 

3.— Alcohol, 80°, 970 parts; oil of 
lemon, 20 parts ; oil of lemon grass, 5 
parts ; oil of orange, 5 parts. 

Verveine, Extract de. — Alcohol, 1 pt. ; 
otto of orange peel, 1 oz. ; otto of lemon 
peel, 2 oz. ; otto of citron zeste, 1 dr. ; 
otto of lemon grass, 2% dr. ; extract de 
fleur d'orange, 7 oz. ; extract de tuberose, 
7 oz. ; esprit de rose, % pt. This mixture 
is exceedingly refreshing, and is one of 
the most elegant perfumes made. Being 
white, it does not stain the handkerchief. 

Victoria. — Otto of rose, virgin, 2 dr. ; 
otto of neroli, super, 2 dr, ; otto of ber- 
gamot, 4 dr. ; otto of coriander, 16 min- 
ims ; otto of pimento, 24 minims ; Bng-. 
lish otto of lavender, 16 minims ; extract 
of jasmine, 2 oz. ; extract of orris, 16 oz. ; 
extract of musk, 2 oz. ; benzoic acid, 2 
oz. ; pure spirit, sufficient to make 4 pt. 

Violets. — 1. — Essence. — a. — Violet po- 
made, 16 oz. ; deodorized alcohol, q. s., or 
16 oz. Proceed as with cassie essence. 

b. — Extract of violet from pomade, 4 
pt. ; extract of orris, 4 pt. ; extract of 
orange flower, 2 oz. ; extract of cassie, 2 
oz. ; extract of ylang-ylang, 1 dr. ; otto 
of rose, Kissanlik, % dr. ; civet, 1 oz. ; 
bergamot, 1 dr. ; water, 4 oz. 

c. — No. 1 ylang-ylang, 1 pt. ; extract of 
cassie, from pomade, 8 oz. ; extract of 
civet, 2 oz, ; extract of vanilla, 4 oz. ; 
extract of orris, 1 pt. ; alcohol, 2 gal. ; 
water, 3 pt. 

2. — Extract. — a. — Violet essence, 4 oz. : 
cassie essence, 1 oz. ; rose essence, 3 dr. ; 
orris tincture, 1 oz. ; ambergris tincture, 
2 dr. ; civet tincture, 2 dr. ; almond spirit, 
20 minims. 

b. — Extract of orris, 2 pt. ; extract of 
tuberose, 4 oz. ; extract of vanilla, 3 oz. ; 
extract of mask, 3 oz. ; extract of tonka, 
2 oz. ; otto i>f rose, virgin, 1 dr. ; otto of 
neroli, super, 40 minims ; otto of pimento, 
12 minims; otto of bergamot, 1 dr.; ben- 
zoic acid, 1 dr. ; pure spirit, sufficient to 
make 4 pt. 

3. — Alpine Violet. — Extract of violets, 
640 parts ; tincture of orris, 160 parts ; 
extract of acacia, 120 parts; extract of 
rose, 40 parts ; tincture of ambergris, 38 
parts ; concentrated essence of bitter alm- 
ond, 2 parts. 

4. — Parma Violet. — lonone solution, 3 
dr. ; tincture of benzoin, 2 dr. ; oil of bit- 
ter almond, 10 minims ; oil of neroli,^ 10 
minims ; essence of jasmine, 1 oz. ; tinc- 



[870] 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



(Essences and Extracts) 



ture of orris, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 60%, 16 oz. ; 
water, 4 oz. 

5. — White Violet, Essence of. — lonone, 
60 minims ; muse Baur, 10 gr. ; essential 
oil of orris, 10 minims ; extract of violet, 
18 fl.oz. ; extract of rose, 2 fl.oz. ; oil of 
sweet orange, 5 minims ; oil of lignaloe, 
5 minims ; solution of amyl acetate, 5 
minims ; heliotropiue, 30 gr. ; terpineol, 5 
minims ; solution of oil of patchouli ( 1 
in 10), 20 minims; glycerine, 30 minims. 

6. — Wood Violet. — a. — Extract of vio- 
lets. No. 2, 16 oz. ; oil of bitter almonds, 
15 drops. 

b. — Extract of orris, 12 oz. ; extract of 
tuberose, 2 oz, ; extract of jasmine, 1 oz. ; 
extract of musk, 4 oz. 

c— Extract of violet, I, 800 gr. ; ex- 
tract of rose, I, 1,100 gr. ; tincture of 
orris (1:50), 100 gr. ; oil of bitter alm- 
ond, 3 gtt. 

Vitivert Spirit. — Mix vitivert otto, 30 
minims ; alcohol, 4 oz. 

Wallflowers. — Triple extract of rose, 
260 parts ; extract of orange flower, 260 
parts ; extract of acacia, 120 parts ; tinc- 
ture of vanilla, 120 parts ; tincture of 
orris, 120 parts ; essence of bitter alm- 
ond, 120 parts. 

Wild Flowers. — Triple extract of rose, 
350 parts ; tincture of tonka, 180 parts ; 
extract of violets, 90 parts ; extract of 
acacia, 90 parts ; extract of orange flower, 
90 parts ; extract of tuberose, 90 parts ; 
tincture of musk, 90 parts ; oil of citron, 
20 parts. 

Wlntergreen. — Triple extract of rose, 
360 parts ; extract of acacia, 160 parts ; 
essence of neroli petale, 160 parts ; tinc- 
ture of vanilla, 80 parts ; tincture of viti- 
vert, 80 parts ; tincture of ambergris, 80 
parts ; essence of lavender, 80 parts. 

Ylang-ylang. — 1. — Ylang-ylang oil, 4 
parts ; rose geranium oil, 2 parts ; musk 
extract, 15 parts ; coumarin, 2 parts ; rose 
oil, 1 part ; sandalwood oil, 1 part ; clove 
oil, 1 part ; glycerine, 50 parts ; paraffine, 
2,000 parts. 

2. — Ylang-ylang otto, 10 minims ; neroli 
otto, 5 minims ; rose otto, 5 minims ; ber- 
gamot otto, 3 minims ; grain musk, 1 gr, ; 
90% alcohol, 10 fl.oz. Mix, and digest 
for a fortnight. More delicate than the 
preceding, but always popular. 

3. — Ylang-ylang Otto. — Obtained from 
the flowers of the canang tree of the Mo- 
luccas, the alanguilan of Chi^a, Mona 
odorata (N. O. Anonaceae). The word 
ylang-ylang, in the Tagal dialect, signifies 
the "flower of flowers." Numerous other 
species of the various genera belonging to 
the Anonads produce powerful and de- 
licious odoriferous seeds and flowers. 

[ 



(Fumigating Paper) 



These are much esteemed by the Ma- 
layan women for making pomade, with 
which they anoint their bodies. They 
also wreathe chaplets with the flowers for 
ornamenting their hair, and with them 
they erect triumphal arches in their mar- 
riage ceremonies. 

Fumigating Paper. 

1. — Oriental. — Clove oil, 30 grams ; cin- 
namon oil, 36 grams ; bergamot oil, 48 
grams ; lavender oil, 48 grams ; tincture 
of benzoin, 420 grams ; or Peru balsam, 
15 grams ; oils of clove and bergamot, of 
each 30 grams ; acetic ether, 30 grams ; 
tincture of musk, 6 grams ; tincture of 
vanilla, 60 grams ; tincture of benzoin, 
160 grams ; oil of cedar, 30 grams. 

2. — Benzoin, 1 av.oz. ; storax, % oz. ; 
fumigating essence, 2 fl.oz. ; ether, 1 fl.oz. ; 
acetic acid, glacial, 20 drops ; alcohol, 2 
fl.oz. Dissolve the benzoin and storax in a 
mixture of the alcohol and ether, filter, and 
add the fumigating and the acetic acid. 
Spread the mixture upon filtering or bibu- 
lous paper, and allow it to dry. To pre- 
vent sticking, dust the surface with tal- 
cum, and preserve in wax paper. When 
used, the paper is simply warmed, or over 
a lamp. 

3. — English. — Benzoin, 150 grams ; san- 
dalwood, 100 grams ; frankincense, 100 
grams ; vitivert, 50 grams ; Raygras, 10 
grams ; alcohol, 1 1. 

4. — Russian. — Tincture of benzoin, 250 
grams ; musk. 10 grams ; oils of clove, 5 
grams ; lavender, 5 grams ; rose, 5 grams ; 
geranium, 10 grams ; and violet, 5 grams. 

Pastiles. — These scent tablets consist 
of a compress mixture of rice starch, mag- 
nesium carbonate and powdered orris root, 
saturated with heliotrope, violet or lilac 
perfume. 

1. — Benzoin, 1 dr. ; cascarilla, V2 dr. ; 
myrrh, 20 gr. ; oil of nutmeg, oil of cloves, 
of" each 10 drops ; saltpeter, 30 gr. ; char- 
coal, 6 dr. Mix with mucilage of trag- 
acanth. 

2. — Benzoin, 2 oz. ; balsam of tolu, yel- 
low sandalwood, of each 4 dr. ; labdanum, 
1 dr. ; saltpeter, 2 dr. ; charcoal, 6 oz. 
Mix with mucilage of acacia. 

3. — Heliotrope. — Heliotrope, 200 parts ; 
vanillin, 50 parts ; tincture of musk, 100 
parts; tincture of benzoin, 200 parts. 

4. — Lilac. — Terpineol, 200 parts; mu- 
guet, 200 parts ; tincture of mnsk, 200 
parts ; tincture of benzoin, 200 parts ; 
sandalwood, 2 dr.; vitivert, 2 dr.; lav- 
ender flowers, 4 dr. ; oil of thyme, V2 dr. ; 
charcoal, 2 oz. ; potassium nitrate, % oz. ; 
mucilage of tragacanth, a sufficient quan- 
tity. 
871] 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



1 



( Potpourri ) 



5. — Violet. — lonone, 50 parts ; ylang- 
ylang oil, 50 parts ; tincture of musk, ex- 
tra strong, 200 parts ; tincture of benzoin, 
200 parts. 

Powder. — Fumigating powder is of sim- 
ilar composition to the pastiles, and is 
employed for tho same purpose. It is in 
the form of coarsb powder, free from any 
fine powder as well as from large, coarse 
pieces, and is of variegated brilliant col- 
ors, which are often produced by the use 
of aniline colors dissolved in alcohol, and 
different portions separately tinctured, or 
sawdust is thus colored and added to the 
aromatics. Benzoin, 240 gr. ; tolu bal- 
sam, 240 gr. ; storax, 60 gr. ; alcohol, 4 
fl.oz. ; Peru balsam, 60 gr. ; oil of cinna- 
mon, 4 drops ; oil of lavender flowers, 4 
drops. Mix the benzoin, tolu and storax 
with the alcohol, agitate occasionally, for 
several days, filter, and add the other in- 
gredients. Moisten clean pine sawdust 
with this liquid. 

Vinegar. — • Fumigating tincture, 3^/4 
fl.oz. ; acetic ether, 1% fl.dr. ; acetic acid, 
3 fl.dr. Mix, and after standing in a cool 
place for a few days filter. In fumigat- 
ing sick-rooms, the vinegar is vaporized, 
either by heating it in a spoon or by pour- 
ing it upon a hot iron. 

Incense. 

1. — Olibanum, in small tears, 1 lb. ; 
benzoin, in coarse powder, 1% oz. ; cas- 
carilla bark, in coarse powder, 1 oz. ; sty- 
rax calamita, % oz. Mix. 

2. — Olibanum, 1% lb. ; benzoin, 6 oz. ; 
cascarilla bark, 5 oz. ; cassia bark, 2 oz. ; 
cloves, 2 oz. Mix. 

Potpourri, How to Make. 

1. — The never-failing delight of a rose 
(or potpourri) jar is known only to its 
fortunate possessor; yet it is so easy to 
prepare one, and, once prepared, so easy 
to keep it at the point of perfection, that 
the wonder is they are not more frequent- 
ly enjoyed. The flowers should be gath- 
ered in the early morning, and tossed 
lightly on a table in a cool, airy place, 
to lie till the dew has evaporated ; then 
put them in a large glass jar, sprinkling 
salt over %-in. layers of the flowers. This 
can be added to from morning to morn- 
ing till enough flowers for the purpose 
have been gathered, letting them stand in 
the jar for 10 days after the last are 
put in, stirring the whole every morning. 
Have ready % oz. of mace and % oz. of 
allspice and cloves, all coarsely ground — • 
or pounded in a mortar — ^half of a grated 
nutmeg, % oz. of cinnamon, broken in 
bits, 1 oz." of powdered orris root, and 



(Sachet Powders) 



% lb. of dried lavender flowers. Mix 
these together in a bowl, and proceed to 
fill the rose jar with alternated layers of 
the "stock" and the mixture of spices, 
etc. A few drops each of several essen- 
tial oils — rose, geranium, bitter almond 
and orange flower are good — should be 
dropped upon the layers as you progress, 
and over the whole pour 1 oz. of your 
favorite toilet water or eau de cologne. 
This is sufficient to fill two quart jars, or 
one very large one, and it will keep for 
years. From time to time various sweet 
things may be added to it, as a few tube- 
roses or a spray of heliotrope. If the 
jar be left open for a half hour every 
day it will fill your rooms with a deli- 
cate, indefinable spicy fragrance, very re- 
freshing, and delightful, and unlike any 
other perfume. The flowers chosen should 
be those having agreeable perfume — roses, 
pinks, violets, verbena, heliotrope, acacia, 
balm, lavender, etc. 

2. — 'This is a mixture of dried flowers 
and spices not ground. Dried lavender, 
1 lb. ; whole rose leaves, 1 lb. ; crushed 
orris, coarse, % lb. ; broken cloves, cin- 
namon, allspice, each 2 oz. : table salt, 
1 lb. 

3. — Lavender flowers, 1 lb. ; rose leaves, 
1 lb. ; cloves, % lb. ; cinnamon, 14 lb. ; 
benzoin, i/4 lb. ; pimento, ^4: lb. ; common 
salt, 2% -lb.; oil of lavender, 60 minims; 
oil of santal, 60 minims ; oil of geranium, 
60 minims ; oil of bergamot, 120 minims ; 
oil of lemon, 60 minims ; vanilla, 3 oz. ; 
musk pods, 1 oz. ; essence of ambergris, 
% oz. Solids all ground. 

4. — Potpourri, for mixing with rose 
leaves. — Tonka bean, % part ; cinnamon, 
pimento, 1 oz. of each ; coriander, 4 oz. ; 
benzoin, 5 oz. ; orris root, 1 lb. Reduce 

add 
bouquet toward end. 

Programs, etc., Perfuming of. 

Coumarin, vanillin, heliotropine, of 
each 10 gr. ; ionone, 10 minims ; hyacin- 
thine, 5 minims ; essence of musk, 30 min- 
ims ; otto of rose, 5 minims ; absolute al- 
cohol, 1 fl.oz. Distribute evenly on blot- 
ting paper. Place this in a closed tin 
box with the programs for 24 hours or so. 
It is almost inexhaustible. 

Sachet Powders. 

The material is either to be ground in 
a mill or powdered in a mortar, and aft- 
erward sifted. 

1. — The following recipe for scent pow- 
der, to be used for wardrobes, boxes, etc., 
gives an article far superior to the mix- 
tures sold in the shops : Coriander, 1 oz. ; 
orris root, 1 oz. ; rose leaves, 1 oz. ; aro- 



[872] 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



(Sachet Powders) 



matic calamus, 1 oz. ; lavender flowers, 2 
oz. ; rhodium wood, i/4 dr. ; musk, 5 gr. 
These are reduced to a coarse powder. 
The scent on the clothes is as if all fra- 
grant flowers had been pressed in their 
folds. 

2. — Take of reindeer moss, in coarse 
powder, any quantity, and very strongly 
scent it with any of the compound fra- 
grant essences, or with the perfumes of 
which they are made, or with mixed essen-, 
tial oils, at will. 

3. — Orris root, in coarse powder, 2 oz. ; 
cassia, in coarse powder, l^^ oz. ; cloves, 
in coarse powder, 1 oz. ; cedar wood, 
rasped, % oz. ; yellow sandalwood, rasped, 
% oz. ; ambergris, in fine powder, 5 or 6 
gr. ; musk, in fine powder, 5 or 6 gr. ; 
mix, and add of oil of lavender (Mitch- 
am), 1 dr.; oil of bergamot, 1 dr.; otto 
of roses, 10 to 15 drops. Blend the whole 
thoroughly together. 

4. — Acacia Sachet. — Cassie flower 
heads, 1 lb. ; orris powder, 1 lb. 

5. — Frangipanni. — Violet roots, pow- 
dered, 3 lb. ; sandalwood, powdered, % 
lb. ; orange oil, 1 dr. ; rose oil, 1 dr. ; oil 
of sandalwood, 1 dr. ; pulverized musk, 1 
oz. ; pulverized civet, 2 dr. 

6. — Heliotrope. — Powdered orris root, 
2,000 parts ; powdered rosa centifolia, 
1,000 parts ; powdered tonka bean, 500 
parts ; cut vanilla bean, 250 parts ; pow- 
dered musk, 10 parts ; essential oil of bit- 
ter almonds, 1 part. Pound the musk and 
vanilla bean together, and add the rest. 
Pass through a not close sieve. This is 
an excellent imitation of heliotrope. 

7. — Lavender, — This and the two fol- 
lowing recipes are from Piesse. Pow- 
dered lavender, 75 parts ; powdered ben- 
zoin, 20 parts ; essential oil of lavender, 
1 part. Mix. 

8. — Linen, Sachet for Perfuming. — Or- 
ris root, 125 parts ; rosa centifolia, 125 
parts ; nutmegs, 8 parts ; grain musk . 
(Hibiscus ahelmoschus) , 15 parts. Pow- 
der coarsely, and mix. 

9. — Marechal. — Sandalwood, 280 parts : 
orris root, 280 parts ; rosa centifolia, 140 
parts ; cloves, 140 parts ; cassia bark 
(Laiiriis cassia), 140 parts ; musk, 1 part. 
Powder coarsely. 

10. — New Mown Hay. — a. — Ground 
rose leaves, 1% lb. ; ground orange flow- 
ers, % lb. ; ground orris root, l^/^ lb. ; 
ground benzoin, ^ lb. ; ground tonka 
bean, % lb. ; ground ambrette, % lb. ; oil 
of verbena, li/^ dr. ; oil of almonds, 3 dr. 

b. — Powdered orris, 4 lb. ; ground 
tonka bean, % lb. ; ground vanilla, % lb. ; 
oil of almond, 10 minims ; oil of French 
geranium, 120 minims ; otto of rose, 30 



(Smelling Salts) 



minims ; oil of bergamot, 60 minims ; ex- 
tract of musk, 1^ minims. 

11. — Patchouly Sachet. — Patchouly 
herb, ground, 16 lb. ; otto of patchouly, 
% dr. 

12. — Rose Powder. — a. — Pulverized rose 
leaves, 1 lb. ; pulverized sandalwood, ^ 
lb. ; rose oil, 2 dr. 

b. — Rose leaves, 1 lb. ; sandalwood, 
ground, % lb. ; otto of roses, % oz. 

13. — Verbena Powder. — Dried and pul- 
verized lemon peels, 1 lb. ; caraway seeds, 
% lb. ; oil of lemon peels, 4 dr. ; oil of 
bergamot, 1 oz. 

14. — Verveine Sachet. — Lemon peel, 
dried and ground, 1 lb. ; lemon thyme, %, 
lb. ; otto of lemon grass, 1 dr. ; otto of 
lemon peel, ^^ oz. ; otto of bergamot, 1 oz. 

15. — Violet Powder. — a. — Powdered 
starch or potato farina, 28 lb. ; orris pow- 
der, 1 lb. This will require about 1 oz. 
of perfume, varying according to fancy. 
A mixture of ambergris and bergamot, 
with a little musk, is a favorite odor, and 
some makers add a few drops of oil of 
rhodium. The powder should be sifted. 

b. — Sachet. — Black currant leaves, 1 
lb. ; cassie-flower heads, 1 lb. ; rose leaves, 
1 lb. ; orris-root powder, 2 lb. ; otto of 
almonds, % dr. ; grain musk, 1 dr. ; gum 
benzoin, in powder, i^ lb. Mix the in- 
gredients well by sifting. Let them stand 
for a week in a glass jar before using. 

c. — Perfume for Violet Powder.— Ber- 
gamot oil, 20 parts ; lemon oil, 20 parts ; 
clove oil, 10 parts ; neroli, 10 parts. Use 
equal parts of powdered orris root and 
starch, and add 1 dr. of this to each 
pound of powder. 

Smelling Salts. (See also Menthol Prep- 
arations. ) 

1. — Water of ammonia, 2 oz. ; oil of 
lemon, 7 drops ; oil of lavender, 2 drops ; 
oil of bergamot, 4 drops. Ammonium 
carbonate, a sufficient quantity. Sift out 
the very fine and the very coarse pieces 
of the ammonium salt, using only those 
which are of nearly uniform size. Use 
as many of these as will go into the bot- 
tle, and. fill with a mixture of the other 
articles. 

2. — Water of ammonia, 4 oz, ; oil of 
rosemary, 15 minims ; oil of lavender, 
English, 15 minims ; oil of bergamot, 8 
minims ; oil of cloves, 8 minims. Pieces 
of sponge are placed in a bottle and satu- 
rated with this mixture. 

3. — Preston salt is a mixture of am- 
monium chloride and freshly slaked lime, 
to which a suitable perfume may be add- 
ed. The mixture develops small amounts 



[873] 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



(Toilet Waters) 



of ammonia continually until decomposi- 
tion is complete, which is sometimes sev- 
eral years. 

4. — Ammonium chloride, 3% oz. ; po- 
tassium carbonate, 4% oz. ; oil of laven- 
der, y2 oz. ; oil of lemon, 3 dr. ; oil of 
cloves, 15 minims ; oil of bergamot, 1 
dr. ; water of ammonia, a sufficient quan- 
tity. Triturate the chloride and carbo- 
nate well together ; then add the oils, and 
finally enough water of ammonia to 
slightly moisten the mass. 

Antiseptic Smelling Salts. — 1. — Lique- 
fied phenol, 1 fl.oz. ; oil of eucalyptus, 1 
fl.oz. ; solution of iodine, 1 fl.oz. ; strong 
solution of ammonia, 2 fl.oz. Mix. 

2. — Ammonium carbonate, 360 gr, ; 
camphor, 120 gr. ; phenol, 480 gr. ; oil of 
eucalyptus, 1 fl.dr. ; oil of lavender, 1 
fl.dr. ; strong solution of ammonia, 2 
fl.oz. ; wood charcoal, a sufficient quantity 
to form a suitable mass. Mix. 

Eucalyptus Anti-Catarrh Smelling 
Salts. — Ammonium carbonate, 1 lb. : 
strong solution of ammonia, 2 fl.oz. ; oil 
of eucalyptus, 4 fl.dr. ; oil of lavender, 1 
fl.dr. ; oil of peppermint, 2 fl.dr. 

Eucalyptus Smelling Bottle. — Phenol, 
120 gr. ; oil of eucalyptus, I1/2 fl.dr. ; 
strong solution of ammonia, 4 fl.oz. Mix. 

White Smelling Salt. — Mix in a capa- 
cious porcelain mortar 2.2 lb. of ammo- 
nium carbonate with 1.1 lb. of ammonia, 
cover the mortar, and let it stand quietly. 
In the course of a few days the contents 
will have been converted into normal car- 
bonate of ammonium. The latter is re- 
duced to a coarse powder, and perfumed 
with bergamot oil, 0.56 dr. ; lavender oil, 
0.9 dr. ; nutmeg oil, 0.28 dr. ; clove oil, 
0.28 dr. ; rose oil, 0.28 dr. ; cinnamon oil, 
2.82 dr. The incorporation of the volatile 
oils is effected by first triturating about 
one-tenth of the salt with the oils, and 
then gradually incorporating with this 
perfumed mass the rest of the salt. In 
this manner a uniform distribution of the 
odor is effected. 

Toilet Waters. 

EauiX!, in perfumery, are either solu- 
tions of the fragrant essential oils, in 
spirit, with or without the addition of 
other fragrant substances ; or they are 
distilled waters, largely charged with the 
odorous principles of flowers. Eau de co- 
logne, eau de lavande, eau de bouquet, 
etc., are examples of the first ; and eau 
de rose, eau de fleurs d'oranges, etc., of 
the second. The application of the term 
is usually restricted to articles of the 
kind imported from the south of France 
or Italy, and always so in reference to 



(Toilet Waters) 



those of the latter class. Etiglish per- 
fumers often give the name to perfumed 
spirits of their own manufacture, which, 
though generally greatly inferior to those 
imported, they pass off as foreign, or as 
made by foreign houses there. The eaux 
of the first class, just referred to, resem- 
ble, for the most part, the other esprits 
or perfumed spirits. They differ from 
extraits and most of the essences in be- 
ing colorless, or nearly so, a quality which 
is secured either by distillation or by the 
use of only pure and pale essential oils 
and essences in their preparation. They 
also generally, but not always, possess 
less alcoholic strength, and ai*e less highly 
charged with odorous matter than those 
preparations. 

Distilling Perfumed Waters. — ^The still 
should have a high and narrow neck, to 
prevent the liquor in it from spurting 
over, and should be furnished with a 
steam jacket, or a bath should be used to 
prevent injury from excessive heat. Dry, 
hard or fibrous substances should be 
bruised, or otherwise mechanically divid- 
ed and macerated in water before under- 
going distillation. In almost all cases, 
salted or pickled flowers, herbs, etc., are 
superior to fresh ones. The product from 
them has little or none of the herbaceous 
and raw odor which is always present 
when fresh ones are used ; besides which, 
the waters thus prepared keep better, and 
reach maturity, or the full development of 
their odor, in a much shorter time. Ebul- 
lition should be attained as quickly as 
possible, and should be continuous ; and 
the heat, when possible, be regulated by a 
thermometer. Waters distilled from plants 
are apt to have a smoky odor at first, even 
when the greatest care and precaution 
have been observed in their distillation ; 
exposure for a short time to the air will 
remove this, after which they should be 
kept in closely stoppered bottles, and pref- 
erably in bottles containing only sufficient 
for probable use at one time ; they should 
be entirely filled and closed airtight. 

Ammonia Water. — 1. — Distilled water, 
5 pt. ; liquid ammonia forte, 2i/^ pt. ; 
French rose water, 5 oz. ; soluble essence 
of orange, 7 dr. ; soluble essence of lemon, 
7 dr. ; soluble essence of neroli, 6 dr. ; sol- 
uble essence of bergamot, 2 dr. ; soluble es- 
sence of rosemary, 2 dr. Mix the essences 
with the distilled and rose water, and then 
add the ammonia. 

2. — Stronger water of ammonia, 6 oz. ; 
lavender water, 1 oz. ; soft soap, 10 gr. ; 
distilled water, enough to make 16 oz. 

3. — Soft soap, 1 oz. ; borax, 2 dr. ; eaa 
de cologne, % oz. ; stronger water of am- 



[874] 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



(Toilet Waters) 



' monia, S^/^ oz. ; water, enough to make 
12 oz. Rub up the soap and borax with 
water until dissolved ; strain, and add the 
other ingredients. The perfume may be 
varied to suit the price. 

4. — Sodium carbonate, 20 oz. ; water of 
ammonia, 48 oz. ; water, 32 oz. Mix. 
Allow to stand 2 or 3 days, and then de- 
cant the clear solution, and bottle. 

5. — A Cloudy Preparation. — Potassium 
carbonate, 1 part ; borax, 1 part ; green 
soap, 1% parts; stronger water of am- 
monia, 4 parts ; distilled water, 8 parts. 
Heat the water, and dissolve in it the 
soap and potassium carbonate ; then add 
the borax, and, when cold, the stronger 
water of ammonia. If a cheap odor is de- 
sired, the preparation may be perfumed 
with oil of mirbane. 

6. — Violet Ammonia. — a. — Ammonia 
water, 8 oz. ; rose water, 8 oz. ; powdered 
orris, 1 oz. ; color, enough. Macerate the 
orris in a mixture of the two waters for 
a week, and then so filter the solution 
as to prevent evaporation of the ammonia. 
Finally, add the color. 

b. — Ammonia water, 8 oz. ; green soap, 

4 oz. ; oleic acid, 3 dr. ; oil of bay, 15 
minims ; oil of rosemary, 15 minims ; oil 
of verbena, 15 minims ; water, enough to 
make 2 pt. Dissolve the soap in 1 pt. 
of water, by the aid of heat. When the 
solution has cooled add the other things, 
the oleic acid next to last, the balance of 
the water being last, of course. 

c. — Stronger ammonia water, 6 pt. ; al- 
cohol, 1 pt. ; oil of orris, 2 dr. ; oil of 
bergamot, 2 dr. ; water, enough to make 

5 gal. ; color, enough. Mix the ammonia 
water with a goodly portion of the water ; 
dissolve the oils in the alcohol ; mix the 
two liquids, and add the remainder of the 
water. 

d. — Coloring Material. — Water-soluble 
chlorophyll may be used to give a green 
color to these mixtures, but it will pre- 
cipitate, in part, after a while. An aque- 
ous solution of litmus may be used to 
impart a violet color. Another green 
color, which should be used cautiously, if 
at all, may be made of copper sulphate, 
1 oz. ; potassium bichromate, 1 oz. ; am- 
monia water, 8 oz. ; water, 16 oz. Dis- 
solve the salts separately in portions of 
the water, mix, and add the ammonia 
water. 

Aromatic or Perfumed Waters. — The 
finest of these, such as are generally used 
by perfumers, are prepared by distilla- 
tion, and are strictly pure water impreg- 
nated with the odoriferous principles of 
the plant or s-ubstance from which they 
are distilled. Those in use for pharraa- 



( Toilet Waters) 



ceutical purposes are, generally, solutions 
of these principles, chiefly the essential 
oils, in distilled water, usually prepared 
by trituration with the water, by means 
of some suitable intermedium, and then 
filtered. 

Carholic Toilet Water. — Crystallized 
carbolic acid, 10 parts ; essence of mille- 
fleurs, 1 part ; tincture of quillaya sa- 
pouaria, 50 parts ; water, 1,000 parts. 
Mix. The saponine replaces soap with 
advantage. The above sliould be employed, 
diluted with 10 times its bulk of water, 
for disinfecting the skin, for washing the 
hands after any risk of contagion, etc. 
The tincture of saponine in the above is 
made by taking of bark of quillaya sa- 
ponaria, 1 part, and of alcohol, 90°, 4 
parts. Heat to ebullition, and filter. 

Cosmetic Water, Viennese. — This very 
economical and fragrant cosmetic is pre- 
pared as follows : Bruised almonds, 15 
parts ; water of orange flower, 62 parts ; 
water of roses, 62 parts. Rub up the 
almonds with the waters, allow to stand, 
express, and add borate of soda, 1 part ; 
spirit of benzoin, 2 parts. Dissolve. 

Creole Water. — Orris root, 6% oz., cut 
in small pieces, and put in 1% pt. of 
French brandy. Allow it to stand for 2 
weeks, stir frequently, filter. Then add 
3 pt. of French brandy, 3 dr. of oil of 
orange blossoms, % fl.oz. of oil of ger- 
anium. Distil, and add a little coumarin 
essence. 

Florida Water. — 1. — Oil of bergamot, 2 
oz. ; fine oil of lavender, 1 oz. ; oil of 
oloves, % oz. ; extract of civet, 1 oz. ; 
oil of pimento, ^ oz. ; alcohol, 2 gal. ; 
water, 4 pt. 

2. — Oil of lavender, 4 oz. ; oil of berga- 
mot, 4 oz. ; oil of cinnamon, 2 dr. ; oil of 
cloves, 1 dr. ; oil of neroli, 2 dr. ; pure 
musk, 4 gr. ; cologne spirits, 95%, 1 gal. 
Macerate 15 days, and filter through pa- 
per. 

3. — Oil of bergamot, 3 fl.oz. ; oil of lav- 
ender, 1 fl.oz. ; oil of cloves, 1^/4 fl.dr. ; 
best oil of cinnamon, 2% fl.dr. ; oil of ne- 
roli, yo. fl.dr. ; oil of lemon, 1 fl.oz. ; ex- 
tract of -jasmine, 6 fl.oz. ; extract of musk, 
2 fl.oz. ; ;ose water, 1 pt. ; deodorized alco- 
hol, 8 pt. ; magnesium carbonate, q. s. 
Mix, and if cloudy, filter through magne- 
sium carbonate. 

Geranium Water. — Oil of rose ger- 
anium, 2 oz. ; tincture of orris root, 2 
oz. ; tincture of musk, 1 dr. ; rose water. 
8 oz. ; alcohol, 4 pt. 

Goulard Water, Goulard's Lotion. — 
This is ordered to be prepared by adding 
2 fl.dr. of solution of diacetate of lead 
and 2 fl.dr. of rectified spirit to IQi^ 



[875] 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



(Toilet Waters) 



fl.oz. of distilled water. It is kept ready 
prepared in the shops. It is white, and 
poisonous. Used as a sedative, refriger- 
ant and astringent lotion, in various af- 
fections ; also in many cosmetic washes. 

Heliotrope Water. — Heliotropine, 2 dr. ; 
rose oil, 15 minims ; bergamot oil, i-^ dr. ; 
neroli oil, 5 minims ; alcohol, 10 oz. ; wa- 
ter, 6 oz. 

Honey Water. — Oil of bergamot, 12 
drops ; oil of lemon, 12 drops ; oil of ne- 
roli, 5 drops ; rose water, 10 oz. ; alcohol, 
22 oz. Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, 
and add the rose water. 

Hungary Water, Compound Spirit of 
Rosemary.- — Rosemary tops, in blossom, 2 
lb. ; fresh sage, % lb. ; rectified spirit, 3 
qt. ; water, 1 qt. Digest for 10 days, 
throw the whole into a still, add of com- 
mon salt ll^ lb., and draw over 6 pt. 
To the distillate add of Jamaica ginger, 
bruised, 1 oz. Digest a few days, and 
either decant or filter. The old plan of 
adding the ginger before distillation is 
wrong, as the aromatic principle of the 
root does not pass over with the vapor 
of the alcohol. 

Lavender Water (Eau de Lavande) . — 
1.— Dissolve 3 kgm. of 90% spirit in 130 
grams of lavender oil, and add 200 grams 
of rose water. 

2. — Alcohol, 90%, 5 kgm. ; lavender oil, 
85 grams ; lemon oil, 10 grams ; geranium 
oil, African, 5 grams ; Peru balsam, 32 
grams ; musk tincture, 50 grams ; civet 
tincture, 25 grams ; liquid storax, 50 
grams. 

3. — Flowering tops of lavender, fresh, 
and carefully picked, 10 lb. ; rectified 
spirit, 1 gal. ; water, % gal. Digest a 
week, throw it into a clean still, add 1^^ 
lb. of common salt, dissolved in i^ gal. 
of water, and after stirring the whole to- 
gether, draw over, rapidly, 1 gal., by the 
heat of steam or of a salt-water bath. 
To the distillate add oil of bergamot, 5 
fl.dr. ; essence of ambergris, finest, 2 fl.dr., 
and mix well. 

4. — Finest oil of lavender, Mitcham, 2 
oz. ; finest essence of musk, 1 fl.oz. ; finest 
essence of ambergris, % oz. ; pure oil of 
bergamot, recent, % oz. ; rectified alcohol 
(56 overproof, scentless), % gal. Mix 
by agitation. Very fine without distilla- 
tion, but better for it, in which case the 
essences should be added to the distillate. 
Delightfully and powerfully fragrant. 

5. — Smith's British Lavender. — Oil of 
lavender, Mitcham, i/^ oz. ; essence of am- 
bergris, % oz. ; eau de cologne, finest, 
% pt. ; rectified alcohol, % pt. Mix by 
agitation. Very fragrant, and much es- 
teemed. Eau de lavande is a most agree- 



( Toilet Waters) 



able and fashionable perfume for personal 
use, but, like most others of its class, it 
must not be used too freely. Its excessive 
use distinguishes the vulgar. 

6. — Eau de Lavande de Millefleurs. — ■ 
Eau de lavande, 1 qt. ; oil of cloves, 1% 
fl.dr. ; oil of cassia, % fl.dr. ; essence of 
ambergris, 14 fl.dr. Mix. 

Lilac Water. — 1. — Lilac perfumes were 
formerly made by blending together the 
pomade washings of orange flowers and 
tuberose with otto of rose, the tuberose 
scent predominating. The more modern 
method is to make a solution of terpineol 
in deodorized alcohol, and to round off 
the odor with a little tuberose and rose 
extract. Terpineol, also called lilacine, 
is a thick liquid with a strong smell of 
lilac flowers. It is one of the new syn- 
thetic bodies now so largely used by per- 
fumers. The following formula will be 
found to yield an agreeable toilet water : 
Terpineol, 1 oz. ; oil of rose, 30 drops ; 
tincture of benzoin, 30 drops ; deodorized 
alcohol, 71/4 pt. ; orange-flower water, 8 
oz. 

2. — A cheaper toilet water is made by 
reducing the amount of terpineol and sub- 
stituting distilled water for the orange- 
flower water. Use, say, % oz. of ter- 
pineol, dissolved in % gal. of deodorized 
alcohol, and add, by degrees, 8 pt. of dis- 
tilled water, or as much as will be taken 
up without throwing the terpineol out of 
solution. 

3. — Heliotropine, ^2 oz. ; ol. cananga, 
2 dr. ; ol. muguet, 2 dr. ; anisic alde- 
hyde, 2 dr. ; ol. neroli and ol. jasmin, of 
each 2 dr. ; rose water, 3 pt. ; alcohol, 5 
pt. Mix the perfumes with the alcohol, 
dissolve, add rose water, shake well, let 
set 3 days, and filter through talc. 

4. — Essence of tuberose, 4 oz.; essence 
of orange flowers, 1 oz. ; oil of bitter alm- 
ond, 1 drop ; alcohol, 1 qt. ; tincture of 
civet, 1 dr. ; water, a sufficient quantity. 
Add the essences, oil and tincture to the 
alcohol, then add the water gradually, 
with agitation, until the liquid becomes 
very slightly milky, and filter. 

Myrtle Water, Eau de MyrtJie. — Alco- 
hol, 3 1. ; myrtle water, 1 1. ; balm water, 
0.5 1. ; myrtle oil, 300 grams ; orange- 
flower water, 450 grams ; rose water, 500 
grams. 

Orange-Flower Waters. — 1. — Orange- 
flower essence, 8 oz. ; magnesium carbo- 
nate, 1 oz. ; water, 8 pt. Triturate the 
essence with the magnesium carbonate, 
gradually adding the water, and filter. 

2. — Oil of neroli, 90 minims ; magne- 
sium carbonate, 1 dr. ; water, 8 pt. Pro- 
ceed as in No. 1. 



[876] 



Toilet Preparations — -Perfumes 



(Toilet Waters) 



Orgeat Rum (Bay Rum Substitute).-— 
Essential oil of almonds, 32 drops ; ex- 
tract of vanilla, 1 fl.oz. ; alcohol, 12 fl.oz. ; 
water, sufficient to make 2 pt. ; tincture 
of cudbear, enough to color. Dissolve the 
oil in the alcohol, add the extract of va- 
nilla, water and tincture of cudbear. 
Shake well. If not perfectly clear, rub 
with a little carbonate of magnesia, and 
filter through paper. As a rule, it does 
not require filtration. 

Pond-Lily Extract. — Essence of tube- 
rose, 1 oz. ; essence of jasmine, 1 dr. ; 
essence of orange flowers, 2 dr. ; essence 
of cassie, 4 dr. ; spirit of rose, 4 dr. ; 
spirit of almond, 15 minims ; tincture of 
vanilla, 3 dr. The essences are made by 
washing their respective pomades with 
deodorized alcohol, 1 pt. to the lb., in 
the usual way. The spirit of rose con- 
sists of 80 minims each of oil of rose 
and oil of rose geranium in 1 pt. of de- 
odorized alcohol, while the spirit of alm- 
ond is made by dissolving 80 minims of 
oil of bitter almond in 1 pt. of the spirit. 
By diluting the extract with orange-flower 
water and deodorized alcohol, much or 
little, according to the price at which the 
finished product is to be sold, a pond-lily 
toilet water results. 

Rose Water. — A rose water made from 
the oil, with a trace of oil of clove, has 
been found to resemble the distilled wa- 
ter very closely, and possesses a "remark- 
ably true rose odor." A rose spirit for 
the preparation of rose water is as fol- 
lows : Rose oil, 2.5 grams ; clove oil, 
0.25 gram ; alcohol, to make 100 c.c. ; 10 
c.c. of this spirit, mixed with 1,000 c.c. 
of boiling distilled water, and allowed to 
stand until it has undergone the viscous 
fermentation and blend, produces "a prod- 
uct eminently superior to the commercial 
water." If, after ageing, the water be- 
comes turbid, it can be clarified by the 
addition of a little calcium phosphate or 
kaolin before filtration. 

Verbena Water. — Extract of verbena, 4 
oz. ; cologne spirit, 8 oz. 

Violet Water. — Violet extracts and wa- 
ters may be divided into two classes, those 
made with ionone and those which depend 
upon a combination of rose, bergamot and 
sandalwood for a vague suggestion of vio- 
let. The only point of agreement is in 
the use of sandalwood and musk. Sandal- 
wood is prominent in most of the violet 
perfumes, and some contain quantities of 
musk (artificial or natural) far above 
what is commonly employed in perfumes. 
Plainly, "violet" is not adapted as a re- 
freshing toilet accessory for persons not 
in vigorous health. The combinations 



(Toilet Waters) 



containing ionone may have a suggestion 
of the real violet odor. Ionone itself has 
a delicate odor, and a quality which can 
only be described as "thin," and it re- 
sembles the odor of violets only in part. 
It needs something to fill it out and give 
it "body," to become acceptable as a per- 
fume. The most convenient single agent 
for this purpose is sandalwood, and the 
more of this the perfume contains the 
more certain is the user that "something 
smells." Ionone, though thin, is very 
extensible. Doubling the quantity does 
not double its apparent power. The art 
of its use lies in properly developing and 
backing it in a mixture. So almost any 
of the heavier and more prominent odors 
can be, and probably are, used in its com- 
binations. Violet, more than any other 
odor, needs time to develop. Ionone dis- 
appears entirely when first added to alco- 
hol, but after a few days it begins to 
show its presence, and it continues to de- 
velop for some time. Most of the pub- 
lished formulas direct excessive quanti- 
ties of ionone, and the result may be un- 
satisfactory, while the cost is prohibitive. 
Oil of orris may be used in place of 
ionone, using about eight times as much. 

1. — Violet pomade, 6 lb. ; rectified spirit, 
1 gal. Macerate and digest, in closed ves- 
sel, for a month, and decant. Then add 
3 oz. of tincture of orrisroot and 3 oz, 
of cassia spirit to each pint. 

2. — ^Ionone, 2 dr. ; oil of sandalwood, 4 
dr. ; oil of neroli, 1 dr. ; oil of bitter alm- 
ond, 8 minims ; oil of spearmint, 15 min- 
ims ; heliotropine, 1 dr.; musk (artificial 
preferred), 2 gr. ; tincture of civet, 4 dr. ; 
water, 2 pt. ; alcohol, 6 pt. 

3. — In some of the popular "violets," 
the rose odor is very prominent, and com- 
binations with rose are almost as com- 
mon as ionone mixtures. In the cheaper 
grades, rose geranium is used in place of 
rose, and the following is typical of this 
class, but the rose odor does not predom- 
inate : Oil of sandalwood, 4 dr.; oil of 
bergamot, 4 dr. ; oil of rose geranium 
(Algerian), 2 dr. ; oil of neroli, 1 dr. ; oil 
of bitter almond, 15 minims; musk (arti- 
ficial or natural), 1 gr. ; tincture of ben- 
zoin, 4 dr. ; powdered orris root, 2 oz. ; 
water, 3 pt. ; alcohol. 5 pt. Macerate 30 
days, and filter. The samples are col- 
ored with just a trace of green dye, not 
enough to leave a stain. This mixture 
needs a number of weeks to blend. Oil 
of rose, in smaller quantity, in place of 
oil of geranium, will make a softer and 
more fragrant water. 

4. — Spirit of ionone, 10%, 14 dr. ; dis- 
tilled w.ater, 5 oz. ; ..orange-flower water, 



[ 877 1 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



(Toilet Vinegars) 



1 oz. ; rose water, 1 oz. ; cologne spirit, 
8 oz. Add the spirit of ionone to the al- 
cohol, and then add the waters. Let 
stand, and filter. 

5. — Violet extract, 2 oz. ; cassie extract, 
1 oz. ; spirit of rose, % oz. ; tincture of 
orris, % oz. ; green coloring, a sufficiency ; 
alcohol, to 20 oz. 

6. — Tincture of orris, 64 oz. ; tincture 
of vanillin, 16 oz. ; oil of sandalwood, % 
oz. ; oil of bergamot, 1 oz. ; oil of rose 
geranium, ^ oz. ; cologne spirit, 80 oz. ; 
rose water, 96 oz. Dissolve the oils in 
the spirit ; add the tinctures, and set aside 
for 3 days ; then add the water slowly, 
stirring well, and let stand for 2 weeks 
before filtering. Color with chlorophyll 
or aniline green to the tint required. 

Vinegars. 

These are solutions of aromatics in 
acetic acid, and are highly esteemed as 
reviving perfumes, both for the toilet and 
sick-room. They are corrosive, and should, 
therefore, be kept from contact with the 
skin and clothes. For use, they should 
be dropped on a piece of sponge, and 
placed in a stoppered bottle or vinaigrette. 
This refers to toilet vinegars. 

Aromatic Vinegar. — 1. — Henry's. — • 
Dried leaves of rosemary, rue, wormwood, 
sage, mint and lavender flowers, of each 
% oz, ; bruised nutmeg, cloves, angelica 
root and camphor, of each i/4 oz. ; rectified 
alcohol, 4 oz. ; concentrated acetic acid, 
16 oz. Macerate tke materials for a day 
in the spirit, then add the acid, and di- 
gest for a week longer, at a temperature 
of 14 or 15° C. Finally, press out the 
now aromatized acid, and filter it. 

2. — Concentrated acetic acid, 8 oz, ; 
otto of English lavender, 2 dr. ; otto of 
English rosemary, 1 dr. ; otto of cloves, 
1 dr. ; otto of camphor, 1 oz. First dis- 
solve the bruised camphor in the acetic 
acid, then add the perfumery ; after re- 
maining together for a few days, with oc- 
casional agitation, filter. All vinegars are 
used by pouring 3 or 4 dr. into an orna- 
mental smelling bottle, previously filled 
with crystals of sulphate of potash. 

3. — Aromatic Vinegar, Aromatic Acetic 
Acid, Yinaigre Aromatique, Acide Acet- 
ique Aromatique, Acetum Aromaticum, 
Acidum A. A, — The following are ap- 
proved formulas : Glacial acetic acid, 1 
lb, ; 90% alcohol, 2 fl.oz. ; pure camphor, 
crushed small, 2^5 oz, ; finest oil of cloves, 
11/4 dr. ; oil of rosemary, 1 dr. ; oil of ber- 
gamot, % dr. ; oil of cinnamon, % dr. ; 
oil of lavender, % dr. ; oil of pimento, % 
dr. ; neroli, or essence of de petit grain, 
y^ dr. Mix in a stoppered bottle, and 



(Toilet Vinegars) 



agitate until the whole of the camphor 
is dissolved. Very fine, and highly es- 
teemed. 

4. — Essence of bergamot, 10 minims ; 
essence of musk, 15 minims ; essence of 
neroli, 10 minims ; essence of tonka, % 
dr. ; otto of rose, 5 minims ; glacial acetic 
acid, 1 dr, ; alcohol, 3 oz. 

5. — Vinaigre de Cologne. — To eau de 
cologne, 1 pt., add strong acetic acid, % 
oz. 

6. — Cosmetic Vinegar, Piesse & Lubin's. 
— Spirit, 1 qt. ; gum benzoin, 3 oz, ; 
concentrated aromatic vinegar, 1 oz. ; bal- 
sam of Peru, 1 oz. ; otto of neroli, 1 dr. ; 
otto of nutmeg, i/^ dr. This is one of the 
best made. 

7. — Elder-Flower Vinegar. — To every y^ 
peck of the flowers, free from stalks, put 
1 gal. of strong ale vinegar ; set in the 
sun, in a stone jar, for a fortnight, then 
filter through a flannel bag ; bottle off into 
quite small bottles. 

8, — ^Health Vinegar (Vinaigre anti- 
Mephitique). — To 7 qt. of water take al- 
cohol, 4% qt. ; essence of bergamot, 1 oz. ; 
essence of lemon, 1 oz. ; essence of Portu- 
gal, 3 dr. ; essence of rosemary, 6 dr. ; 
essence of lavender, 2 dr. ; essence of ne- 
roli, 1 dr, ; tincture of melisse, 1 pt. Mix 
the whole together, and after 24 hours' 
repose add infusion of storax, 2 oz, ; in- 
fusion of benzoin, 2 oz, ; infusion of 
cloves, 2 oz. Shake well again, then pour 
in 2 qt. of good vinegar, and after some 
hurs filter, and mix 3 oz. of strong acetic 
acid. 

9. — Hygienic Vinegar, — Brandy, 1 pt. ; 
otto of cloves, 1 dr. ; otto of lavender, 1 
dr, ; otto of marjoram, i/4 dr. ; gum ben- 
zoin, 1 oz. Macerate these together for a 
few hours, then add brown vinegar, 2 pt, ; 
and strain or filter, if required to be 
bright. . 

10. — Marseilles Vinegar. — Four Thieves 
Vinegar, Prophylactic Vinegar, Vinaigre 
des Quatre Voleurs, Acetum Quator Fu- 
rum. — The original formula for this once 
celebrated preparation is : Dried rose- 
mary tops, 4 oz. ; dried sage flowers, 4 
oz, ; dried lavender flowers, 2 oz, ; fresh 
rue, 1% oz, ; camphor, dissolved in spirit, 
1 oz. ; sliced garlic, V^ oz. ; bruised cloves, 
1 dr. ; strongest distilled wine vinegar, 1 
gal. Digest for 7 or 8 days, with occa- 
sional agitation ; pour off the liquor, press 
out the remainder, and filter the mixed 
liquids. It is said that this medicated 
vinegar was invented by four thieves of 
Marseilles, who successfully employed it 
as a prophylactic during a visitation of 
pestilence. 

11. — Medicated Vinegar Essence. — a. — 



[878] 



Toilet Preparations — Perfumes 



(Perspiration) 



Herb. Dracuculi rec, 200 ; Fruct. Anethi 
rec, 200 : Herb. Achilleae moschat, 25 ; 
Fol. Lauri, 25. These spices are well 
moistened with diluted alcohol, and after 
24 hours 5,000 parts of acetic acid (80%) 
are poured over it. After 5 days it is 
squeezed off and filtered. This aroma is 
then mixed with 80% of acetic acid, as 
required. 

b. — 4 parts by weight of tarragon oil, 
8 parts oil of celery, 4 parts pepperwort 
oil, 5 parts oil of parsley, and 30 parts 
Maitrank essence ; add alcohol to make 
up 1,000 parts. One part of this mix- 
ture is added to 1,000 parts of the acid. 
As a coloring agent for vinegar essences, 
a solution of sugar color in acetic acid, 
or for hotels (which frequently prefer 
red colored table vinegar), a solution of 
cochineal red in concentrated acetic acid 
is employed. 

12. — Rose Toilet Vinegar. — a. — Dry 
rose leaves, 112 parts ; triple rose extract, 
280 parts ; acetic acid, 140 parts ; dis- 
tilled water, 980 parts. Mix. Let ma- 
cerate for 14 days, then filter. 

b. — Concentrated acetic acid, 1 oz. ; 
otto of roses, % dr. Well shaken to- 
gether. 

Perspiration. 

1. — Facial Preparation. — Lavender wa- 
ter, 50 grams ; lemon water, 50 grams ; 
peppermint water, 50 grams ; tincture of 
myrrh, 50 grams ; tincture of quallaya, 
50 grams ; sodium carbonate, 20 grams. 
Three times daily moisten a portion of 
a napkin, dipped in water and wrung out, 
with the above mixture, from a dropping 
bottle, and wash the face with it. 

2. — Hands. — a. — Zinc oleate, 10 parts ; 
bismuth subnitrate, 20 parts ; beta-naph- 
thol, 1 part ; starch, 69 parts. 

b. — Zinc oleate, 1 dr. ; bismuth subni- 
trate, 2 dr. ; betanaphthol, 10 gr. Dust 
frequently over the surface. 

3. — Hands and Feet. — Prepared Vene- 
tian talc, 20 oz. ; powdered orris root, 10 
oz. ; oxide of zinc, 5 oz. ; powdered tar- 
taric acid, 5 oz. ; powdered boric acid, 5 
oz. ; salicylic acid, 2% oz. ; menthol, M: 
oz. : oil of eucalyptus, i^ oz. Make a fine 
powder, to be applied to the hands and 
feet, or to be sprinkled inside the gloves 
or stockings. 

4. — Odorous Perspiration. — a. — Zinc 
oleate, 4 dr. ; boracic acid, 3 dr. Keep 
the surface constantly covered with the 
powder. 

b. — Hydrastine hydrochloride, 5 gr. ; co- 
logne water, 4 oz. Apply frequently to 
the surface. 



(Pomades) 



oz. ; powdered 
starch, 1 oz, ; salicylic acid, 20 gr. 

Pomades. 

1. — Base. — a. — Lard, 725 grams ; white 
wax, 75 grams ; borax, 10 grams ; water, 
200 grams. Fuse the lard and wax to- 
gether, allow it to cool, and when nearly 
congealing stir it briskly until quite stiff ; 
dissolve the borax in the water, and add 
it gradually to the above, with constant 
stirring, until thoroughly incorporated. 

b. — Lard, 100 grams ; cocoanut oil, 400 
grams ; white wax, 100 grams ; borax, 10 
grams; water, 400 grams. Prepared as 
above. 

2. — Cacao Pomade. — Cacao butter, li/^ 
oz. ; yellow wax, li^ oz. ; olive oil, 5 oz.l 
oil of lemon grass, % oz, ; oil of rose, 6 
drops ; oil of neroli, 6 drops. 

3. — Cucumher Pomade. — a. — White 
wax, 3 dr. ; spermaceti, 3 dr, ; oil of alm- 
ond, 7 oz. ; fresh cucumber juice, 7 oz. ; 
extract of cucumber, 1 oz, 

b.— Veal suet, 600 parts; lard, 1,000 
parts ; cucumber juice, 1,200 parts ; tinc- 
ture of tolu, 2 parts; rose water, 10 
parts. To the liquefied suet and lard add 
the tolu tincture ; when nearly cool, grad- 
ually incorporate the cucumber juice and 
rose water, previously mixed, stirring con- 
stantly. 

4. — Liquid Pomade. — ^White wax, 30 
parts ; olive oil, 450 parts ; fused together 
and perfumed with 25 parts of oil of ber- 
gamot, 15 parts of oil of clove and 5 
parts of oil of lavender. 

5. — Stick Pomade. — a. — White. — Melt 
together, white wax, 50 parts ; castor oil, 
25 parts; Venetian turpentine, 25 parts. 
For every 3 oz, of the mixture add 5 
drops of the perfume given below. 

b. — Blonde. — Melt together, yellow wax, 
250 parts ; castor oil, 125 parts ; Venetian 
turpentine, 125 parts; etheric extract of 
annatto, 1 part ; and perfume as above. 

c. — Light Brown. — Use the bases given 
above (for blonde), adding 1 part of ex- 
tract of alkanet and 2% parts of chloro- 
phyll. Perfume as above. 

d. — Dark Brown. — The same bases as 
for light brown, the deepening of the 
shade being obtained by increasing the 
proportion of extract of alkanet and chlo- 
rophyll, a very dark brown being secured 
by doubling the proportion of these in- 
gredients. An intense brown is obtained 
by the addition of umber, which should 
be rubbed up with the castor oil before 
melting. 

e. — Perfume for Stick Pomades. — Ber- 
gamot oil, 4(X) parts ; lemon oil, 300 parts ; 
oil of lavender, 2(X) parts ; neroli oil, 50 
79] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Powders) 



parts ; cinnamon oil, 30 parts ; clove oil, 
20 parts ; oil of wintergreen, 10 parts ; 
attar of ylang-ylang, 5 parts ; heliotro- 
pine, 5 parts ; coumarin, 1 part. Mix, 
and let stand for several days before 
using. Five drops to every 3 oz. of po- 
made are sufficient. 

6. — Walnut Pomade. — Green walnut 
shells, 1 lb. ; powdered alum, 2 oz. ; olive 
oil, 24 oz. ; palm oil, 4 oz. ; white wax, 3 
oz. Bruise, digest together on a sand 
bath until the moisture has evaporated, 
strain, and when nearly cold add rose 
pomade, 6 oz. ; jasmine pomade, 3 oz. ; 
orange pomade, 2 oz. ; previously melted 
on a water bath. Collect the walnut 
shells before they get too ripe and dry. 

Powders. 

Barter's Powder. — 1. — Corn starch, 5 
lb. ; precipitated chalk, 3 lb. ; powdered 
talc, 2 lb. s oil of neroli, 1 dr.; oil of 
citron, 1 dr. ; oil of orange, 2 dr. ; ex- 
tract of jasmine, 1 oz. 

2. — Styptic Powder. — The majority of 
the preparations upon the market contain 
tannic acid, alum, subsulphate of iron, or 
some other astringent substance, which, 
when applied, will arrest Jocal bleeding. 
Two formulas follow: 

a.— Alum, nutgalls, gum arable, gum 
benzoin, of each, equal parts. Powder 
each separately, and mix. 

b. — Alum, gum tragacanth, tannic acid, 
of each, equal parts. Powder, and mix. 

Face Powder. — 1. — Rose. — White tal- 
cum, 8 lb. ; fine kaolin, 4 lb. Mix. 

2. — Magnesium carbonate, 60 parts ; 
zinc oxide, 350 parts ; talcum, 590 parts ; 
perfume to suit. 

3. — Pink powder is produced by tritur- 
ating the above with an ammoniacal car- 
mine solution, and the yellow tint by 
adding to 985 parts of white powder i/^ 
part of carmine and 15 parts of yellow 
ocher. 

4. — ^An authority says a good face pow- 
der must contain snow-white steatite, 
light calcium carbonate, zinc white and 
wheat or rice starch. Flesh color for 
blonds is produced by carmine, and the 
tint for brunettes by burnt umber or 
sienna. Orris is best for scent. The fol- 
lowing ideal cosmetic powder is construct- 
ed from these ingredients : Zinc white, 
500 parts ; English precipitated calcium 
carbonate, 3,000 parts ; best white steat- 
ite, 500 parts ; wheat or rich starch, 1,000 
parts ; triple extract of white rose, 30 
parts ; triple extract of jasmine, 30 parts ; 
triple extract of orange flower, 30 parts ; 
extract of cassia, 30 parts ; tincture of 
musk, 8 parts. Mix thoroughly by re- 



( Powders) 



peated siftings. Orris root, in powder, 
may be substituted for the perfumes. 

5. — Magnesium carbonate, ^2 lb. ; pow- 
dered talc, 1 lb. ; oil of rose, 8 drops ; oil 
of neroli, 20 drops ; extract of jasmine, 
% oz. ; extract of musk, 1 dr. 

6. — ^Corn starch, 7 lb. ; rice flour, 1 lb. ; 
powdered talc, 1 lb. ; powdered orris, 1 lb. ; 
extract of cassia, 3 oz. ; extract of jas- 
mine, 1 oz. Mix thoroughly, and pass 
through a lOO-mesh bolting cloth. 

7. — Zinc oxide, 4 oz. ; rice powder, 14 
oz. ; precipitated chalk, 4 oz. ; talcum 
powder, 2 oz. ; orris root, powder, 2 oz. ; 
perfume, sufficient. 

8. — Zinc oxide, 2 oz. ; orris root, pow- 
der, 2 oz. ; rice flour, 16 oz. ; oil of rose, 
9 drops ; oil of rose geranium, 3 drops ; 
oil of ylang-ylang, 1 drop ; coumarin, % 
gr. ; acetic ether, 10 drops. Mix the first 
three ingredients ; mix the other ingredi- 
ents so as to dissolve the coumarin, and 
incorporate this mixture with the pow- 
der. 

9. — Venetian chalk, 20 lb. ; subnitrate 
of bismuth, 42 oz. ; zinc white, 42 oz. ; 
oil of lemon, 1^/^ oz. 

10. — Talc, 10 dr. ; orris root, 1 dr. ; oil 
of bergamot, 1 drop. 

11. — Bismuth subnitrate, % dr. ; puri- 
fied talcum, 1% oz. ; wheat starch, 2 oz. ; 
gypsum, 3 oz. ; triple extract of fleur de 
lis, 1 dr. Mix intimately, and pass 
through fine bolting cloth. 

12. — Talc, of the finest white grade, 38 
lb. ; English precipitated chalk, 25 lb. ; 
powdered carbonate of magnesium, 10 lb. ; 
oxychloride of bismuth, 7 lb. ; corn starch, 
20 lb. ; acid salicylic, true, 43 gr. ; pure 
oil of rose, 5 dr. ; heliotropine, % oz. ; 
oil of bitter almonds, 10 drops. Tritur- 
ate oils, heliotrope, salicylic acid with 
bismuth, thoroughly; mix with balance, 
and sift through bolting cloth. 

13. — Venice talc, very finely ground, 50 
parts ; rice flour, 50 parts ; zinc oxide (or 
oxychloride), 25 parts; oil of bergamot, 
3 parts ; attar of ylang-ylang, 2 parts ; 
neroli oil, 2 parts. Mix, and pass through 
bolting cloth twice. 

14.— Blonde.— "White" powder, 1% lb. ; 
carmine. No. 40, 5 gr. ; burnt umber, in 
fine powder, 2 dr. ; raw sienna, 2 dr. Pro- 
ceed as with the "pink." 

15. — ^Brunette or Rachelle. — Base, 9 
lb. ; powdered Florentine orris, 1 lb. ; per- 
fume the same ; powdered yellow ocher, 
3 oz. 120 gr. (av. ) ; carmine No. 40, 60 
gr. Rub down the carmine and ocher 
with alcohol, in a mortar, and spread on 
glass to dry ; then mix and sift. 

16.— Flesh Face Powder.— Base, 9 Vo. ; 
powdered Florentine orris, 1 lb. ; carmine 



[880] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Powders) 



No. 40, 250 gr. ; extract of jasmine, 100 
minims ; oil of neroli, 20 minims ; vanil- 
lin, 5 gr. ; artificial musk, 30 gr. ; white 
heliotropine, 30 gr. ; coumarin, 1 gr. Rnb 
the carmine with a portion of the base 
and alcohol, in a mortar, mixing the per- 
fume the same way in another large mor- 
tar, and adding the orris. Mix, and sift 
all until specks of carmine disappear on 
rubbing. 

17. — Grecian Face Powder. — Zinc ox- 
ide, 7 oz. ; powdered talcum, 9 oz. ; pre- 
cipitated chalk, 1 oz. ; magnesium carbo- 
nate, 1 oz. ; extract of jasmine, 30 drops ; 
extract of white rose, 15 drops. Mix well, 
and run through fine sieve. 

18. — ^Lanolin Face Powder. — Lanolin, 
anhydrous, 1 oz. ; starch, 1 oz. ; talcum 
powder, 20 oz. ; coumarin, 24 gr. ; oil of 
rose, 16 gtt. The lanolin and the perfume 
are gradually mixed ; the talcum, and then 
the starch is added. Lanolin may also be 
incorporated in face powders by dissolv- 
ing in some volatile solvent, like ether, 
chloroform or benzine, incorporating this 
solution quickly with magnesia, chalk, or 
other powder, allowing the solvent to va- 
porize, and incorporating other suitable 
ingredients with the residue. Lanolin is 
introduced into some face powders owing 
to the dryness of the skin, or to prevent 
the latter from becoming dry and scaly. 
The fat imparts to the powder a desirable 
smoothness, increases the power to ad- 
here to the skin, and preserves the latter 
in a smooth and supple condition. 

19. — Rose Face Powder. — Starch, 3,150 
grams ; rose oil, 2 grams ; essential ber- 
gamot oil, 20 drops; attar of roses, 10 
drops ; rose geranium oil, 60 drops. Mix 
well, and sift. 

20.— White Face Powder. — Base, 9 lb. ; 
powdered Florentine orris, 1 lb. Perfume 
the same. Mix and sift. 

Foot Poxvder. — 1. — Formoform Dusting 
Powder. — A white powder, having a fee- 
ble odor of thymol. It has the following 
composition : Formaldehyde, 0.13% ; thy- 
mol, 0.1% ; zinc oxide, 34.44% ; starch, 
65.27%. Intended as a disinfectant for 
perspiring feet. It is said to have great 
disinfecting power, in consequence of 
splitting off formaldehyde, when brought 
in contact with wounds and pus forma- 
tions. 

2.- — ^An unfailing remedy for sweaty 
feet and bad odor of the feet. Powdered 
alum, 21 parts ; maize meal, 1 part. 

Glove Powder. — 1. — Castile soap, dried 
by exposure to a warm, dry atmosphere 
for a few days, and then reduced to fine 
powder in a mortar. Used to clean 
gloves. 



(Powders) 



2. — Pipeclay, colored with yellow ochei% 
umber or Irish slate, q. s., and afterward 
scented with a little powdered orris root 
or cloves. Used to color gloves made of 
doeskin, and similar leather. 

Infant Powders. — 1. — Calcined magne- 
sia, 50 parts ; Venetian talc, 250 parts ; 
boracic acid, 1 part. 

2. — ^Arrow root, 1 lb. ; orris root, 2i/^ 
oz. 

3. — ^Potato or wheat starch, 1 lb. ; orris 
root, % oz. ; oil of bergamot, 10 drops ; 
oil of rhodium, 2 drops. Boracic acid 
may, if desired, be added to this powder, 
the amount given in No. 1 serving as a 
guide. 

4. — Salicylic acid, 2 parts ; talcum, 100 
parts ; lycopodium, 100 parts ; starch, in 
finest powder, 50 parts ; zinc oxide, c. p., 
20 parts. Mix intimately by sieving sev- 
eral times. This powder not only is very 
grateful to the tender skin, but . it rap- 
idly heals chafes and other similar inju- 
ries. 

5. — Fuller's earth, 9 oz. ; boric acid, 1% 
oz. ; zinc oxide, 3 oz. ; starch, 9 oz. ; orris 
root, 1^2 oz. ; oil of bergamot, 2 dr. Mix 
the powders thoroughly, then add the oil, 
and pass through a fine sieve. 

6. — Lycopolic. Powder. — An absorbent 
for excoriated surfaces in infants. Lyco- 
podium, V2 lb. ; rose or violet toilet pow- 
der, 1 lb. 

7. — Magnesium Powder. — Chlorate of 
potash, 3 parts ; perchlorate of potash, 3 
parts ; magnesium powder, 4 parts. 

8. — Meen Fun (Chinese Skin Powder). 
— Magnesian eai-th. Very absorbent. 

9. — Violet Powder. — Calcined magnesia, 
50 parts ; Venetian talc, 250 parts ; bo- 
racic acid, 1 part. Scent with a small 
admixture of orris root, or any suitable 
mild essential oil. 

Infusorial Earth as a Dusting Poivder. — • 
Infusorial earth, sterilized by being sub- 
jected to a heat sufficient to cause it to 
glow, constitutes, it is said, an excellent 
inert dusting powder. It is capable of 
absorbing about six times its own weight 
of water. Mixtures of equal parts of this 
earth, thus dried, with salicylic acid, salol, 
or iodoform, have proved of equal use. 

Meal Preparations. — 1. — Almond Pow- 
der for the Toilet. — a. — Almond meal, 6 
kgm. ; bran meal, 3 kgm. ; soap powder, 
0.6 kgm. ; bergamot oil, 50 grams ; lemoi? 
oil, 15 grams ; clove oil, 15 grams ; neroli 
oil, 6 grams. 

b. — Oatmeal, almond meal, ground fine 
of each, equal parts ; perfume, sufficiency. 
Mix, and pass through a coarse sieve. 

c. — Wheat flour, 4 lb. ; almond bran, 1 
lb. ; orris root, fine powder, 1 lb. ; extract 



[881] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Powders) 



of rose, 1 pt. ; glycerine, 6 fl.oz. Form 
into a dough, which is thinned with wa- 
ter, and painted on the skin. 

d. — Glycerine, 4 parts ; borax, 5 parts ; 
almonds, 100 parts ; oil of almonds, es- 
sence of musk, oil of neroli, of each a 
sufficiency. The almonds are blanched, 
rubbed to a fine powder, mixed with the 
other ingredients, and passed through a 
sieve. The product is perfumed as de- 
sired. 

2. — Oatmeal. — a. — Oatmeal and almond 
meal, equal parts ; perfume at will. Mix, 
and pass through a coarse sieve. 

b. — Powdered orris root, 1 oz. ; oat- 
meal, in fine powder, 8 oz. ; oil of neroli, 
2 drops ; oil of bergamot, 5 drops. Mix 
the perfumes with the orris root, in a 
mortar, and gradually add the oatmeal, 
stirring well until perfectly mixed. A 
little of this powder may be dusted on 
the skin after washing. 

3. — Rice Powder. — Starch, 3 lb. ; rice 
flour, 1 lb.; perfume, q. s. Mix thor- 
oughly, and pass through a sieve. Make 
a mold, or use a package of Lubin's pow- 
der for the purpose. Now take sheets 
of stiff manilla paper, cut to the proper 
size, and fold them on the mold, pasting 
or sealing the sides and bottom, and fold- 
ing the top so that it can be opened. 
Fill your cartons with the powder, fold 
the top, and seal it, and then wrap in 
any embossed or fancy paper. 

Talcum Toilet Powder. — 1. — ^Talc, to 
be used as a toilet powder, should be in 
a state of very fine division. Antiseptics 
are sometimes added in small proportions, 
but these are presumably of little or no 
value in the quantity allowable, and may 
prove irritating. For general use, at all 
events, the talcum alone is the best and 
the safest. As a perfume, rose oil may 
be employed, but, on account of its cost, 
rose geranium oil is probably more fre- 
quently used. A satisfactory proportion 
is y^ dr. of the oil to 1 lb. of the pow- 
der. In order that the perfume may be 
thoroughly disseminated throughout the 
powder, the oil should be triturated first 
with a small portion of it ; this should 
then be further triturated with a larger 
portion, and if the quantity operated on 
be large the final mixing may be effected 
by sifting. Many odors besides that of 
rose would, of course, be suitable for a 
toilet powder. Ylang-ylang would doubt- 
less prove very attractive, but a powder 
perfumed with that odor would be some- 
what expensive. 

2. — Antiseptic Talc. — Powdered talc. 1 
lb. ; boric acid, 2 oz. ; salicylic acid, 2i/^ 
dr. ; oil of eucalyptus, 14 dr. ; oil of 



(Rouge) 



[ 882 ] 



thyme, white, 20 drops. For general use. 
purified talc alone is best, and should be 
in a very fine state of division. 

3. — Borated Talc. — a. — Powdered talc, 
1 lb. ; powdered boric acid, 1 oz. Such a 
powder is useful in soothing and healing 
reddened or cracked skin. 

b. — Powdered talc, 2 lb. ; magnesium 
carbonate, 4 oz. ; boric acid, l^/^ oz. 

4.— Carbolated Talc. — Powdered talc. 1 
lb. ; carbolic acid, % oz. An antiseptic 
powder is made by this formula, the uses 
of which are numerous. 

5. — Favorite Talcum Powder. — Boric 
acid, 1 av.oz. ; salicylic acid, 100 gr. ; 
talcum (face powder), 7i/^ lb.; powdered 
orris, % oz. ; extract of violet, % oz. Mix. 

6.— Phenolated Talc— Boric acid, 2 
oz. ; phenol, crystals, 1 dr. ; powdered 
talc, 14 oz. 

7. — Rose Talc. — Powdered talc, 5 lb. ; 
oil of rose, i/^ dr. ; extract of jasmine, 4 
oz. 

8. — Salicylated Talc. — Powdered talc, 5 
lb. ; salicylic acid, 3 oz. This produces an 
article of recognized value in preventing 
and curing offensive perspiration. 

9. — Tannated Talc. — Powdered talc, 5 
lb. : tannic acid, 4 oz. This is indicated 
in excoriated and suppurating surfaces. 

10.— Tea Rose Talc— Powdered talc, 5 
lb. ; oil of rose, 50 drops ; oil of winter- 
green, 4 drops ; extract of jasmine, 2 oz. 

Prickly Heat. 

1. — Bismuth subnitrate, 1 oz. ; zinc car- 
bonate, 1 oz. 

2. — Hydrarg. chlor. mit., 80 gr. ; lyco- 
podii, 1 oz. Use as a dusting powder. 

Rouge. (See also Theatrical Paints.) 

Liquid. — Several different preparations 
are sold under this name, but the first 
of those following only strictly deserves 
it. 

1. — Dissolve pure rouge (carthamine) 
in alcohol, and acidulate the solution with 
acetic acid. Very rich. 

2. — A solution of carmine in liquor of 
ammonia, or in carbonate of potash wa- 
ter, to be diluted for use. Rich colored. 

3. — The red liquid left from the prepa- 
ration of carmine. Inferior to the pre- 
ceding. 

4. — Spanish Lady's Rouge. — 'This is 
properly rouge crepons ; but cotton wool 
which has been repeatedly wetted with a 
strong ammoniacal solution of carmine, 
and dried, is usually sold for it. Used 
like rouge crepons. 

5. — Eosin, 4 parts ; distilled water, 80 
parts ; glycerine, 20 parts ; eau de cologne, 
300 parts; spirit (free from fusel oil). 



Toilet Preparations 



(Shaving Preparations) 



400 parts. Dissolve ; allow to stand, and 
filter. According to desire, the propor- 
tions of eosin may be increased or dimin- 
ished, or modified with aniline orange. 

6. — Finest carmine, 20 parts ; lead 
white, 30 parts ; French chalk, 60 parts ; 
tincture of benzoin, simple, 5 parts ; eau 
de cologne, 50 parts ; rose water, 250 
parts. Mix. 

7. — Carmine, 4 parts ; strongest ammo- 
nia, 4 parts ; rose water, 500 parts ; es- 
sence of rose, 15 parts. This liquid is 
principally used to give the lips the beau- 
tiful cherry-red color which is so much 
admired. 

Shaving Preparations. 

1. — Creams. — As raw materials in the 
production of this class of toilet articles, 
lard, olive or sesame oil, and Cochin co- 
coanut oil are used. Before proceeding 
with the manufacture one must be sure 
that the fats and oils are perfectly fresh 
and clean. If this is' not the case, they 
must undergo a process of refining. This 
consists in carefully boiling the substance 
in clean kettles, together with water, to 
which some cooking salt has been added. 
The fats thus purified are strained, and 
are ready for immediate use. 

a. — Lard, 10 parts ; olive or sesame oil, 
8 parts ; Cochin cocoa oil, 7 parts. Stir 
together at a temperature of 35° C. (95° 
F.), and add, in a thin stream, 12.5 parts 
of caustic potash lye of 40° B., and 1.5 
parts of a potash solution of 150° B., 
with constant stirring. Maintain the agi- 
tation until the mixture saponifies and 
becomes thick and tenacious. As a per- 
fume, use for every 25 kgm. of fats the 
following : Lavender oil, 100 grams ; 
lemon oil, 50 grams ; spike oil, 50 grams ; 
thyme oil, 50 grams. These oils are stirred 
in at the last. For containers, use little 
porcelain ars. Keep in a cool place. 

b. — -Curd soap, 8 oz. ; almond oil, 2 oz. ; 
glycerine, 1 oz. ; spermaceti, % oz. ; car- 
bonate of potassium, % oz. ; water, 16 oz. 
Cut the curd soap into shreds, and dis- 
solve it by the aid of a water bath, in 
14 oz. of water. Dissolve the spermaceti 
in the almond oil, and while warm mix 
it with glycerine, potash and remainder 
of the water ; transfer to a warmi mortar, 
gradually and steadily incorporate the 
warm soap solution, and continue to stir 
until a smooth paste is formed. With 
this incorporate a suitable perfume. 

c. — Animal soap, 8 oz. ; spermaceti, 2 
oz, ; rose water, 20 oz. ; isinglass, 1 oz. ; 
potassium carbonate, 1 dr. ; whites of 4 
eggs ; lanolin, 1 oz. ; perfume, enough. 
He 



[eat the soap, spermaceti and the rose 



(Shaving Preparations) 



water on a water bath until a jelly is 
formed ; transfer to a warm mortar, and 
add the isinglass, first softened in a min- 
imum of water, the potassium carbonate 
and the whites of the eggs. Mix well 
with an eggbeater ; beat in the lanolin, 
and perfume as desired. 

d. — Lard, 11 oz. ; potassium hydroxide, 
13 dr. ; water, 41/4 oz. ; alcohol, 4 dr. ; 
white of 1 egg ; oil of bitter almond, 10 
minims. Dissolve the potassium salt in 
the water, and triturate with the lard, in 
a mortar. Set aside for 12 hours, and 
add the oil, dissolved in the alcohol, and 
the white of the egg, beating the mass 
until it becomes pearly in appearance. 

e. — Lard, 4 oz. ; cocoanut oil, 12 oz. ; 
Castile soap, dried and powdered, 2 oz. ; 
solution of potassium hydroxide (sp. gr. 
1.33), 8 oz. ; oil of neroli, 5 minims; oil 
of rose geranium, 30 minims. Heat to- 
gether the lard, the cocoanut oil and the 
potash lye for several hours, at 100° C. 
Sieve the powdered soap upon the mass, 
and incorporate it by continued tritura- 
tion. When the mass has cooled, add 
the perfume, and transfer to collapsible 
tubes. 

f. — Castile soap, 1 oz. ; rose water, 4 
fl.oz. ; expressed oil of almond, 4 fl.dr. ; 
oil of cacao, 4 fl.dr. ; tincture of benzoin, 
1 fl.dr. ; oil of rose geranium, 5 minims ; 
essential oil of almond, 5 minims ; glycer- 
ine, sufficient. Digest the soap and wa- 
ter on a water bath. Melt the cacao in 
the expressed oil of almond at a gentle 
heat, and add to the soap and water ; then 
incorporate the tincture of benzoin, and 
finally add the essential oils, and suffi- 
cient glycerine to produce a stiff cream. 

g. — Collapsible Tubes. — The soaps 
known as shaving creams are usually, if 
not always, of the soft variety, and un- 
less made too firm, can be put up in 
tuhes as well as jars. Lard, 7 parts; 
caustic potassa, 1 part; water, 3 parts; 
glycerine, perfume, of each sufficient. Melt 
the lard in a porcelain vessel, over a 
salt-water bath ; dissolve the potasSa in 
the water, and run the lye formed, very 
slowly, into the melted grease, stirring 
thoroughly all the time, until saponifica- 
tion is completed. Then add the requisite 
perfume, and sufficient glycerine to ren- 
der the mass thin enough to be adapted 
for use in tubes. The glycerine will aid 
in keeping the "cream" soft. For the 
perfume we would suggest the "brown 
Windsor" mixture given by Piesse, which 
consists of equal parts of the oils of cara- 
way, clove, white thyme, cassia, orange 
leaf (petit grain) and lavender flowers, 
leaf (petit grain) and lavender flowers. Of 



[883] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Shaving Preparations) 



this mixture about 2 dr. to the pound* of 
cream would be required to give a fine odor. 
Of course, where expense is an object, 
cheaper oils and lesser quantities may be 
made to answer. The "cream," as or- 
dinarily made, can be given a pearly ap- 
pearance by trituration with a small pro- 
portion of alcohol. Whether the addi- 
tion of glycerine will prevent the "pearl- 
ing," we are unable to say. 

h, — Mentholated Cream. — ^The mentho- 
lated cream frequently used by barbers 
as a cooling application to the face, after 
shaving, may be prepared, according to 
the Pharmaceutical Era, as follows : Put 
1 oz. of tragacanth in 12 oz. of warm wa- 
ter, and allow to stand, with occasional 
agitation, for 2 or 3 days ; then add 3 
dr. of glycerine and 40 gr. of menthol, dis- 
solved in 1/^ oz. of alcohol. Color pink 
with tincture of cudbear. 

2. — Liqtiid. — a. — White soap, 10 lb. ; 
alcohol, 20 lb. ; orange-flower water, 30 
lb. Melt up the soap with some of the 
orange-flower water, at as low a tempera- 
ture as possible, and when complete solu- 
tion has taken place add the rest of the 
orange-flower water and the alcohol. Aft- 
er the finished product has stood for a 
few hours in a closed vessel it is bottled. 
Some makers filter the solution, but if 
very pure materials are taken, and if 
the solution is allowed to stand and de- 
posit any insoluble matter, as we have 
just recommended, the filtration, which 
is a long and tedious process, will become 
quite unnecessary. 

b. — ^White soap, 12 lb. ; essence of fat 
almonds, 1% lb. ; alcohol, 6 lb. ; rose wa- 
ter, 6 lb. ; tincture of amber, 2 oz. ; tinc- 
ture of benzoin, 2 oz. The manipulation 
is the same as that described above. The 
soap may be dyed pink with alkanet or 
cochineal tincture. 

c. — To combine all the properties enum- 
erated above, many makers who make a 
specialty of shaving soaps, prepare them 
at a boiling heat. The following recipe 
will, however, give good results at low 
temperatures, if the proportions given and 
the processes described are closely adhered 
to. Melt together 200 lb. of tallow and 
50 lb. of cocoanut oil, and as soon as the 
mass is sufficiently liquid add 40 lb. of 
potash lye (30° B.) and 100 lb. of soda 
lye (30° B.). When the soap is thick 
enough to pour, scent with oil of kum- 
mel, 1 lb. ; oil of lavender, 1 lb. ; oil of 
thyme (white), % lb.; fennel oil, ^ lb. 

d. — White soap, 1 lb. ; alcohol, 2 pt. ; 
orapge-flower water, 3 pt. Melt the soap 
with some of the orange-flower water at 
as low a temperature as possible, and 



(Shaving Preparations) 



when dissolved add the rest of the orange- 
flower water and the alcohol. 

3. — Lotions. — a. — Spirit of lavender, 1 
oz. ; rose water, 6 oz. ; distilled extract of 
witch hazel, to make 16 oz. 

b. — Glycerine, 3 oz. ; orange-flower wa- 
ter, 5 oz. ; distilled extract of witch hazel, 
to make 16 oz. The perfume may be al- 
tered to suit the taste. 

c. — Bay rum, 3 pt. ; glycerine, ^2 pt. ; 
extract of violet, % oz. ; rose water, % 
pt. Mix, and filter if necessary. 

d. — Glycerine, 6 fl.oz. ; quince seed, % 
dr. ; alcohol, 5 fl.oz. ; oil of rose, 16 min- 
ims ; hot water, 21 fl.oz. Pour 8 fl.oz. 
of the water upon the quince seed, agitate 
well until a mucilage is formed, and 
strain through muslin. Pour the remain- 
der of the hot water into a bottle, add the 
oil of rose, and shake well. Finally, add 
the alcohol. If desired, the preparation 
may be tinted by the use of a little ani- 
line. 

4. — Paste. — This popular cosmetic may 
be prepared in various ways, but the fol- 
lowing formulas may be taken as repre- 
senting the mode of manufacture : 

a. — Naples soap, 1 lb. ; Castile or Mar- 
seilles soap, 1/^ lb. ; honey, % lb. ; essence 
of ambergris, oils of cassia and nutmeg, 
of each 20 to 30 drops. Mix these in- 
gredients well together in a mortar, add- 
ing a little rose water, until a perfectly 
homogeneous paste is formed. 

b. — White or virgin wax, spermaceti 
and almond oil, of each 2 oz. ; melt over 
a water bath, and then add 3 oz. of W' id- 
sor soap previously worked up into a 
paste with a little rose water. Mix all 
well together, and place in a jar, which 
should be kept well covered. 

c. — White soft soap, 12 oz. ; sperniaqeti 
and olive oil, of each 1% oz. Melt tnese 
ingredients all together, and stir until the 
mass is nearly cold ; perfume with any 
essential oil, or a mixture of perfumes, 
according to taste. 

5. — Powders. — a. — To be used after 
shaving. — Corn starch, 5 lb. ; precipitated 
chalk, 3 lb. ; powdered talc, 2 lb. ; oil of 
neroli, 1 dr. ; oil of citron, 1 dr. ; oil of 
orange, 2 dr. ; extract of jasmine, 1 oz. 
Mix thoroughly, and pass through a 100- 
mesh bolting cloth. 

b. — Powdered soap, 1.250 kgm. ; sodium 
carbonate, 0.150 kgm. ; wheat starch, 
0.240 kgm. ; orris root, 0.080 kgm. ; oil 
of bergamot, 6 drops. Instead of the or- 
ris root the same weight of powdered quil- 
laya and a very little oil of orris may 
be used. An addition of 19 to 20 grams 
of glycerine will render the powder milder 
in use. 



[884] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Shaving Preparations) 



6. — Soaps. — Ttie properties most essen- 
tial to a good shaving soap are softness, 
economy in use, and the power of retain- 
ing a lather for the longest possible time. 

a. — Purified tallow, 90 lb. ; cocoanut oil, 
first quality, 10 lb. ; soda lye, 80 lb. ; pot- 
ash lye, 20 lb. ; color and scent to taste. 
Most shaving soaps contain cocoanut oil, 
as this fat is particularly efficacious in 
making them lather well. 

b. — A very fine shaving soap solution 
may be made by taking % lb. of white 
Castile soap, in shavings, 1 pt. of recti- 
fied spirit, 1/4 pt. of water ; perfume to 
taste. Put in a bottle, cork tightly, set 
in warm water for a short time, and agi- 
tate occasionally till solution is complete. 
Let stand, pour the liquid off the dregs, 
and bottle for use. 

c. — Hampel's shaving soap is made by 
his patented process, as follows : Cleaned 
olein, 6.6%, is first mixed thoroughly with 
13% of hot water ; then 5.4% of soda 
lye at 25° is added, and the mass, which 
assumes the appearance of soft butter, is 
agitated until it becomes cold and is easily 
liquefied, when 12.5% of best white soap 
and 50% of boiling water are added. All 
these ingredients are to be well mixed to- 
gether, and finally 12.5% of spirit at 90° 
is to be added, and well incorporated with 
the mass. The compound is then to be 
covered, and allowed to rest for a while, 
after which it is filtered, and is then 
ready for use. 

d. — Antiseptic Shaving Soap. — (1) If 
yoii; do not wish to make the soap direct 
from the ingredients, you can melt any 
good tallow soap, and to the molten mass 
add about 3% of salol, in powder, and 
incorporate it by vigorous stirring, which 
sho-M be kept up until the mass com- 
mences to set in cooling. If you wish to 
make the article outright, proceed as fol- 
lows : Melt together 400 parts of beef 
tallow and 200 parts of cacao butter. 
Let the mass cool down to about 125 or 
130*' F., then add 340 parts of soda lye 
of 30° B., and 60 parts of potash lye of 
the same density B. (sp. gr. 1.261). Now 
raise the temperature slightly, and stir 
vigorously for 30 minutes, or until the 
mass becomes homogeneous ; add the salol, 
remove from the fire, and stir as before 
directed. If you desire to perfume the 
product, you can use formula given above, 
or any you may desire. 

(2) The following makes a very pleas- 
ant mixture : Oil of kiimmel, 4 parts ; oil 
of bergamot, 5 parts ; oil of lavender, 3 
parts : oil of thyme, 2 parts : oil of myr- 
bane, 1 part. Mix. In adding the per- 
fume to the soap it should be done gradu- 

[ 



(Shaving Preparations) 



ally, little by little, and under constant 
stirring. Add about 1 dr. of the above 
mixture to 1 lb. avoirdupois of the soap. 

(3) Hard paraffine (130° F., melting 
point), 22 parts; beef tallow, 3 parts; 
potash soap, 2 parts ; boiling water, 68 
parts. Put the paraffine, tallow and soap 
in a suitable vessel, on the water bath, 
raise to the melting point, then add the 
boiling water, under constant stirring, 
which should be maintained until a com- 
plete emulsion is obtained. Let cool down, 
still keeping up the agitation, to 100° F., 
then add, all at once, 2 parts of powdered 
tragacanth, 2 parts of glycerine and 1 
part of oil of lavender, and stir until 
the mass sets. 

(4) Take any good tallow soap, old, 
and well dried, and reduce it to a pow- 
der. To every 2 lb. of powder add the 
following : Coumarin, 1 drop ; bergamot 
oil, 5 drops ; balsamic oil mixture, 3 
drops ; oil of wintergreen, 2 drops. Mix 
thoroughly, and put up in appropriate 
glass or block-tin boxes. For "balsamic 
oil mixture," see National Formulary, or 
the dispensatories. 

e. — Depilatory Soap. — (1) Powdered 
wheat starch, 20 parts ; water, 120 parts. 
(2) Sodium sulphide, 34 parts; barium 
sulphide, 30 parts; water, 180 parts. (3) 
Palm oil, 36 parts ; glycerine, 21 parts. 
Dissolve the powdered starch in 120 parts 
of tepid water, in one vessel, and set 
aside for use when wanted (1). In a 
second vessel dissolve the sodium sulphide 
(crystals), and stir it and the barium 
sulphide into the 180 parts of water (2). 
Add the glycerine. In another separate 
vessel melt the palm oil. To mix the 
compounds, make the sulphide solution 
(2) boiling hot, stir up the starch so- 
lution (1), and then gradually stir it 
into the sulphide solution (2) ; keep stir- 
ring until the starch thickens ; add the 
melted palm oil, mix all well together, 
and add the perfume (citronella essence, 
mirbane, or oil of lavender, etc.). Before 
the mass cools and congeals, pour it into 
porcelain pots or wide-mouthed bottles. 
Rub the soap into the hair to be removed 
until the hair loses its crispness and fila- 
mentous form, and becomes a pulpy mass ; 
then wash the part well with water, and 
the hair will all be removed. Should the 
skin smart after applying the soap, rub 
in a little olive oil or vaseline. 

f. — Eukesis, or Essence of Soap. — Shav- 
ing cream, 9 oz. ; liquor potassa, 3 dr. ; 
sweet oil of almonds, % oz. ; alcohol, 60°, 
1% pt. ; oil of pimento, % dr.; oil of 
almond, essential, 1% dr. ; oil of berga- 
mot, 3 dr. 
885] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Tattoo Marks) 



Sponge Powder. 

Dried sodium carbonate, 15 oz. ; so- 
dium sulphite, 1 oz. ; oil of lavender, 10 
minims ; oil of verbena, 2 min. Add 1 
teaspoonful to 1 qt. of warm water. Soak, 
squeezing occasionally, for half an hour. 
Rinse well in clean water. 

There are formulas for sponges under 
Cleansing. 

Sunburn Remedies. 

1. — Zinc sulphocarbolate, 1 part ; glyc- 
erine, 20 parts ; rose water, 70 parts ; 
90% alcohol, 8 parts ; cologne water, 1 
part ; spirit of camphor, 1 part. 

2. — Borax, 4 parts ; potassium chlorate, 
2 parts ; glycerine, 10 parts ; alcohol, 4 
parts ; rose water, to make 90 parts. 

3. — Citric acid, 2 dr. ; ferrous sulphate 
(crystals), 18 gr. ; camphor, 2 gr. ; elder- 
flower water, 3 fl.oz. 

4. — Potassium carbonate, 3 parts ; so- 
dium chloride, 2 parts ; orange-flower wa- 
ter, 15 parts ; rose water, 65 parts. 

5. — Boroglycerine, 50%, 1 part ; oint- 
ment of rose water, 9 parts. 

6. — Sodium bicarbonate, 1 part ; oint- 
ment of rose water, 7 parts. 

Tattoo Marks. 

1. — These are said to be removable by 
the application of a paste of salicylic acid 
and glycerine. A compress is applied 
over the paste, and the whole secured 
with sticking plaster. After about 8 days 
the paste is taken off, the dead skin re- 
moved, and the application of the paste 
repeated (as a rule, three times). 

2. — Applications of cotton wadding, 
soaked in chloroform, and kept in place 
by means of a bandage, are also recom- 
mended. 

3. — The following mixture is also re- 
ported to be efficacious : Pepsin, 5 parts ; 
water, 25 parts ; glycerine, 75 parts ; di- 
lute hydrochloric acid, 1 part. The pep- 
sin is rubbed down in a mortar with the 
mixture of hydrochloric acid and water, 
the (mixture allowed to stand for an 
hour, the glycerine added, the whole left 
standing for 3 hours, and then filtered. 

i. — The operation is performed by ap- 
plying nitric acid with the stopper of 
the bottle (a better instrument would be 
a glass rod, pointed, to carry the acid), 
just sufficient to cover the stain, so as 
to avoid making a larger scar than need- 
ful, the acid to remain about 1% min- 
utes, until the cutis vera is penetrated, 
and a crusted appearance shown, then 
washed off with clean cold water. In a 
few days after this treatment a scab 



(Theatrical Paints) 



forms, which contains the tattoo mark or 
stain ; remove it, and should inflammation 
supervene, poultice and bathe with warm 
water. In this way the skin with the 
stain is not only removed almost pain- 
lessly, but the nitric acid at the same 
time, to a certain extent, seems to decol- 
orize the stain. Of course large tattoo 
marks, greatly extending over the surface, 
must necessitate the operation being per- 
formed differently. 

5. — 'Tattoo the skin in the usual way 
with a concentrated solution of tannin, 
following the original design. Then apply 
a crayon of nitrate of silver until the 
part tattooed with the tannin blackens. 
Wipe oft" excess of moisture and allow 
matters to take their own course. Slight 
pain continues for two to four days, and 
after two months the cicatrix which re- 
sults will almost disappear. 

Theatrical Paints, Powders, etc. 

Beards and Mustaches, False. — Spirit 
Gum for. — 1. — Spirit gum is the name 
applied to an alcoholic solution of rosins 
employed for fastening false beards to the 
face. Mastic, 2 gr. ; sandarac, 4 gr. ; 
rosin, 12 gr. ; ether, 2 gr. ; alcohol, 16 gr. 

2. — Mastic, 1 oz. ; ether, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 
4 oz. 

3. — Mastic dissolved in alcohol. 

4. — Sandarac dissolved in ether, amount 
to be found by trial. 

5. — Shellac dissolved in alcohol. 

6. — A good quality of collodion. 

7. — The face is cleaned, after removal 
of the beard, by wiping with a rag moist 
wuth alcohol. 

8. — Varnish. — For affixing mustaches : 
Rosin, 4 parts ; oil ricini, 1 part ; meth- 
ylated spirit, 16 fl. pt. Dissolve, strain 
and perfume. 

Cold Cream. — Spermacetic, 1 lb. : white 
wax, 3 lb. ; liquid petrolatum, 2 gal. ; 
borax, 4 oz. ; water, 1 gal. ; enough per- 
fume. 

Eyelrow Pencil. — Suet, % lb. ; curd 
soap, Vi lb. ; ivory black, q. s. Put in a 
metal case or roll into spills. 

Eyes, Black. — Paint for. — Bismuth. 2 
parts ; talc, 1 part ; color with carmine 
to skin tint. Wash the part with mixture 
of glycerine, 1 part ; water, 5 parts ; dry 
and apply powder. 

Face Paint. — 1. — Black. — a. — Best 
lampblack, 1 gram : cacao butter, 6 
grams ; oil neroli, 5 drops. Melt the 
cacao butter, add the lampblack, and 
while cooling make an intimate mixture, 
adding the perfume toward the last. In 
a similar manner you can prepare brown 
face paints by using finely levigated 



[886] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Theatrical Paints) 



burnt umber instead of lampblack, or for 
a reddish-brown, sienna or similar dry 
powders. The cost of the cacao butter is 
considerable. You can easily devise a 
base, being careful to guard against ran- 
cidity, if lard is a component, by care- 
fully benzoinating it. 

b. — Drop black (made by burning cam- 
phor and washing the soot with spirit), 
2 dr. ; almond oil, 2 dr. ; cocoanut oil, 6 
dr. Mix, perfume and cast into sticks. 

c. — Nigger Black. — (1) Beat the finest 
lampblack into a stifE paste with glyc- 
erine and apply with a sponge. If neces- 
sary, add a little water to the mixture 
when using. (2) Make a "grease paint" 
as follows : Drop black, 2 dr. ; almond 
oil, 2 dr.; cocoanut oil, 6 dr.-; oil of 
lemon, 5 minims ; oil of neroli, 1 minim. 
Mix. 

2. — Brown. — The general principle in 
making such preparations consists in mix- 
ing the dry powder, a little darker than 
the desired tint, with some fat, such as 
petrolatum or lard. 

3. — Grease Paints, etc. — a. — Skin 
Color. — Vermilion, 3 dr. ; tincture of saf- 
fron, 2 dr. ; powdered orris, 5 dr. ; pre- 
cipitated chalk and oxide of zinc, of each 
20 dr. ; camphor, 20 gr. ; oil of pepper- 
mint, 20 minims ; almond oil, a suflB- 
ciency. Perfume with bouquet essence, as 
in the foregoing. 

b. — Fatty face powders have a small 
percentage of fat mixed with them in or- 
der to make the powder adhere to the 
skin. Dissolve 1 dr. anhydrous lanoline 
in 2 dr. of ether in a mortar. Add 3 dr. 
of light magnesia. Mix well, dry and 
then add the following : French chalk,^ 2 
oz. ; powdered starch, 1^ oz. ; boric acid, 
1 dr. ; perfume, a sufficient quantity. A 
good perfume is coumarin, 2 gr., and otto 
of rose. 2 minims. 

c. — Stick Grease Paint. — White bees- 
wax, 2 oz. ; prepared suet, 3 oz. ; bismuth 
oxycarbonate, 5 oz. The melted basis 
may be colored to any desired tint by the 
use of aniline oil, soluble "fettfarbe" col- 
ors, or with vermilion, carmine, lamp- 
black, sienna and other inorganic colors. 
The melted and tinted basis is run into 
suitable molds, such as glass tubes, and 
rolled when cold in waxed paper and tin- 
foil. 

d. — Yellows are obtained with ocher, 
browns with burnt umber and blue is 
made with ultramarine. These colors 
should in each case be levigated finelv 
along with their own weight of equal 
parts of precipitated chalk and oxide of 
zinc and diluted with the same to the 
tint required, then made into sticks with 



(Theatrical Paints) 



mutton suet (or vaseline or paraffine, 
equal parts) well perfumed. By blending 
these colors other tins may thus be ob- 
tained. 

4. — Red Paint. — a. — About 1 part car- 
mine to 40 of finished paint is the proper 
proportion. Dissolve 1 part carmine in 
sufficient aqua ammonia (4 to 8 parts). 
Mix with 6 parts of powdered talc, dry, 
powder and mix with white meal, 13% 
parts ; olive or sweet almond oil, 20% 
parts. 

b. — Bright Red. — Oxide of zinc, subni- 
trate of bismuth and plumbate of alu- 
mina, of each 10 dr. ; eosin, 2^ gr. (dis- 
solved in a dr. of essence bouquet) ; oil 
of peppermint, 12 minims ; camphor, 12 
gr. ; almond oil, a sufficiency to make a 
paste. Mix as above. 

c. — Deep Bordeaux Red. — Oxide of 
zinc, subnitrate of bismuth, plumbate of 
alumina, of each 15 dr. ; oil of pepper- 
mint, 12 minims ; camphor, 12 gr. ; car- 
mine, 30 gr. (dissolved in 80 minims of 
water in ammonia) ; almond oil, a suffi- 
ciency. Perfume with 1% dr. bouquet 
essence. 

5. — Rouge. — a. — Base. — Cornstarch, 4 
dr. ; powdered white talcum, 6 dr. Mix. 

b. — Oarminolin, 10 gr. ; base, 6 dr. ; 
water, 4 dr. Dissolve the carminolin in 
the water, mix with the base and dry. 

c. — Geranium red, 10 gr. ; base, 6 dr. ; 
water, 4 dr. Mix as above and dry. 

d. — Carminolin rouge No. 1, 1 oz. ; 
geranium rouge No. 2, 3 oz. Mix in a 
mortar to a paste with water and mold or 
stamp out. Set aside to dry. 

6. — Vermilion. — Vermilion, 3 dr. ; tinc- 
ture of saffron, 2 dr. ; powdered orris, 5 
dr. ; precipitated chalk and oxide of zinc, 
of each 20 dr. ; camphor, 20 gr. ; oil of 
peppermint, 20 minims ; essence bouquet, 
1% dr. ; almond oil, a sufficiency. Mix. 

7.— White Paint.— a. — White meal, 2 
parts ; olive or almond oil, 2 par'ts ; pow- 
dered talc, 1 part ; oxide of zinc, % part. 

b. — Oxychlo'ride of zinc, 5 parts ; white 
wax, 2 parts ; sweet almond oil, 5 parts. 

c. — Oxide of zinc, subnitrate of bis- 
muth and plumbate of alumina, of each 1 
oz. Mix and make into a paste with 
almond oil (5 or 6 dr. required) and per- 
fume with 12 minims of oil of pepper- 
mint, 12 gr. of camphor and 1 dr. of 
bouquet essence. 

d.— Liquid Blanc de Perle (for the- 
atrical use). — Rose or orange flower 
water, 1 pt. ; oxide of bismuth, 4 oz. 
Mixed by long trituration. 

Freckles, Imitation of. — "Spot" the 
actor's face with a little burnt umber 
worked up in the same fatty base you 



[887 1 



Toilet Preparations 



(Tooth Preparations) 



employ for making face paints. Several 
adhesive substances may be suggested, but 
the above will probably answer. 

Lining Pencils for Theatricals. — Stear- 
ine, 1 oz. ; finely powdered plumbago, 1 
oz. ; prepared suet, 2 oz. Melt the fats, 
add the plumbago and run into glass tube 
molds. 

Nose Paste or Putty. — 1. — Wheat flour, 
1 oz. ; powdered tragacanth, 2 dr. Tint 
with carmine. Take as much of the pow- 
der as necessary, knead into a stiff paste 
with a little water and apply to the nose, 
having previously painted it with spirit 
gum. 

2. — White wax, 8 parts ; white rosin, 8 
parts ; mutton suet, 4 parts ; color to suit. 
Mix together. 

Powders. — 1. — Red Powder. — Pow- 
dered Venetian talc, 100 grams ; carmine, 
2.5 grams ; water of ammonia, 20 grams. 
Digest the carmine in the water of am- 
monia until dissolved, mix the solution 
with a portion of the powdered talc, and 
this with the remainder, and dry by ex- 
posure to the air, 

2. — White Powder. — Powdered Vene- 
tian talc, 300 grams ; bismuth oxychlo- 
ride, 50 grams ; carmine, .05 gram ; oil 
bergamot, 10 drops ; oil neroli, 2 drops. 

Wigs, Wax for. — Elemi rosin, 1 gr. ; 
tallow, 85 gr. ; white wax, 170 gr. ; tur- 
pentine (thick), 170 gr. ; rosin, 565 gr. 
Melt together, and when partly cool add 
56 grams of starch previously triturated 
with 5 parts of balsam of Peru. 

Teeth, The. 

These should be well cleaned with a 
soft brush and powder every morning be- 
fore breakfast. After dinner or other 
meal they may have the brush passed 
lightly round them for a few seconds, and 
the mouth should be washed out with a 
weak solution of permanganate of potash 
or other antiseptic. To scrub the teeth, 
more especially if the brush be hard, sev- 
eral times daily, is injurious to their 
structure. 

Arnica Dentifrice. — Powdered quillaja, 
4 oz. ; powdered orris root, 3 oz. ; precipi- 
tated chalk, 3 oz. ; tincture myrrh, 1 dr. ; 
f. e. arnica, 2 dr. ; oil rose geranium, 30 
drops ; oil sandalwood, 5 drops. 

Aromatic. — Star anise, 1 oz. ; soap 
bark, 3 oz. ; cloves, 2 dr. ; cinnamon, 2 
dr. ; oil peppermint, 12 minims ; cudbear, 
1 dr. ; diluted alcohol, 28 oz. Macerate 
the drugs with the alcohol for 3 or 4 
days, filter and add the essential oil. 

Astringent. — Rhatany, 100 parts ; cin- 
namon, 5 parts ; distilled water, 80 parts ; 
alcohol, 20 parts; salicylic acid, 1 part. 

[888 



(Tooth Preparations) 



Pulverize the rhatany and cinnamon, 
mix the ingredients, macerate and for 
each 32 oz. of liquid add 10 drops of oil 
of peppermint, 2 drops of oil of cloves 
and 1 drop of oil of ylang-ylang. 

Astringent Cinchona. — Tincture orris 
(made by percolation, 1 in 4) ; lavender 
water, 1% oz. ; tincture cinnamon, i/^ 
oz. ; tincture yellow cinchona bark, 1 oz. ; 
eau de cologne, 2 oz. 

Borax and Myrrh. — Myrrh, 1% oz. ; 
borax, 1% oz. ; distilled water, 3 oz. ; 
syrup, 4 oz. ; tincture of rhatany, 1 oz. ; 
eau de cologne, 24 oz. Macerate for 7 
days, strain and filter, 

Eau Dentifrice. — Star anise seed, 30 
parts ; oil anise, 5 parts ; oil peppermint, 
5 parts ; alcohol, 400 parts ; alkanet root 
to color. 

Foaming Tooth Wash. — Quillaia bark, 
in coarse powder, 4 oz. ; glycerine, 3 oz, ; 
rectified spirit, 5 oz. ; water, 30 oz. Mac- 
erate for 7 days and filter through 2 dr. 
of magnes. carb,, with which have been 
mixed oil of wintergreen, 20 drops, and 
oils of neroli and cloves, 4 drops each. 
Finally add 1 dr, each of benzoic acid 
and tincture of pellitory. Color with 
cochineal or saffron. 

Foamy Mint. — Castile soap, 3 oz. ; 
glycerine, 5 oz. ; water, 20 oz. ; alcohol, 
30 oz. ; oil peppermint, oil wintergreen, 
oil orange, oil anise, oil cassia, of each 1 
dr. Beat up the soap with the glycerine 
and water in a mortar. Dissolve the oils 
in the alcohol and pour upon the soap 
solution contained. Color to suit with 
solution of carmine. 

Formalhenzoin. — Formaldehyde, 50 
grams ; tincture benzoin, 200 grams ; tinc- 
ture myrrh, 50 grams ; oil peppermint, 3 
grams ; oil anise, 2 grams ; oil cassia, 1 
gram ; oil cinnamon, 1 gram ; cochineal, 
powdered, 2 grams ; alcohol, 1,000 grams. 

Liquid Dentifrice. — 1. — Powdered kra- 
meria, 100 parts ; powdered cinnamon, 50 
parts ; distilled water, 800 parts ; alcohol 
(90%), 200 parts; salicylic acid, 10 
parts ; peppermint oil, 10 drops ; clove 
oil, 2 drops ; ylang ylang oil, 1 drop. 
Macerate 8 days and filter. 

2.— (Said to resemble odol).— Salol, 25 
grams ; saccharine, .04 gram ; oil pepper- 
mint, 5 grams ; oil cloves, 1 gram ; oil 
caraway, 0,5 gram ; rectified spirit to 1 1, 

Mint and Cedar. — Oil peppermint, 30 
minims ; oil spearmint, 15 minims ; oil 
cloves, 5 minims ; oil red cedar, 60 min- 
ims ; tincture myrrh, 1 oz, ; alcohol, 16 
oz. ; tincture cochineal to color. 

Myrrh Mixture, Emulsion or Milk of. 
— Myrrh Water. — 1, — ^Myrrh, % oz. 
Powder it, add of thick mucilage, 2 fl.dr. 

] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Tooth Preparations) 



Triturate to a perfectly smooth paste, 
and, triturating all the time, add gradu- 
ally of warm water, % pt. Agitate the 
whole till cold and then strain the liquid 
through muslin. 

2. — Cuttle fish bone, 6 oz. ; burnt harts- 
horn, 2 oz. ; myrrh, 2 oz. ; orris root, 2 
oz. Mix. A good powder, often service- 
able in foul gums, loose teeth, etc. 

3. — Myrrh and Borax. — Tinct. myrrhse, 
4 oz. ; tinct. rhatanise, 1 oz. ; glycerin- 
boracis, 1 oz. ; syrupus, 1 oz. ; aquae des- 
tillata, 8 oz. ; aquae coloniensi, 3 oz. ; al- 
cohol, 20 oz. Mix the glycerine and 
borax and the syrup with the water and 
then add the alcohol and eau de cologne 
and finally the two tinctures. 

Sozodont. — ^^This much advertised tooth 
wash is said to consist of soap, 5 parts ; 
glycerine, 6 parts ; spirits, 30 parts ; 
water, 20 parts. Flavored with several 
oils, colored ; chalk and magnesia. 

Pastes and Powders. — ^^The necessary 
properties of a tooth powder are cleans- 
ing power unaccompanied by any abrad- 
ing or chemical action on the teeth them- 
selves, a certain amount of antiseptic 
power to enable it to deal with particles 
of stale food and a complete absence of 
any disagreeable taste or smell. The 
mouth should be rinsed out very thor- 
oughly the moment the teeth-cleaning 
operation is at an end. The following is 
a selection from a collection of the best 
known recipes for tooth powders and 
pastes : 

1. — Charcoal and sugar, equal weights. 
Mix and flavor with clove oil. 

2. — Charcoal, 156 oz. ; red kino, 156 
oz. ; sugar, 6 oz. Flavor with peppermint 
oil. 

3.— Charcoal, 270 oz. ; sulphate of 
quinine, 1 oz. ; magnesia, 1 oz. Scent to 
liking. 

4. — Charcoal, 30 oz. ; cream of tartar, 
8 oz. ; yellow cinchona bark, 4 oz. ; sugar, 
15 oz. Scent with oil of cloves. 

5. — Sugar, 120 oz. ; alum, 10 oz. ; 
cream of tartar, 20 oz. ; cochineal, 3 oz. 

6. — Cream of tartar, 1,000 oz. ; alum, 
190 oz. ; carbonate of magnesi, 375 oz. ; 
sugar, 375 oz. ; cochineal, 75 oz. ; essence 
Ceylon cinnamon, 90 oz. ; essence cloves, 
75 oz. ; essence English peppermint, 
45 oz. 

7. — Sugar, 200 oz. ; cream of tartar, 
400 oz. ; magnesia, 400 oz. ; starch, 400 
oz. ; cinnamon, 32 oz. ; mace, 11 oz. ; sul- 
phate of quinine, 16 oz. ; carmine, 17 oz. 
Scent with oil of peppermint and oil of 
rose. 

8. — Bleaching powder, 11 oz. ; red 
coral, 12 oz. 



(Tooth Preparations) 



9. — Red cinchona bark, 12 oz. ; mag- 
nesia, 50 oz. ; cochineal, 9 oz. ; alum, 6 
oz. ; cream of tartar, 100 oz. ; English 
peppermint oil, 4 oz. ; cinnamon oil, 2 oz. 
Grind the first five ingredients separately, 
then mix the alum with the cochineal, 
and then add to it the cream of tartar 
and the bark. In the meantime the mag- 
nesia is mixed with the essential oils, 
and finally the whole mass is mixed 
through a very fine silk sieve. 

10. — Whitewood charcoal, 250 oz. ; 
cinchona bark, 125 oz. ; sugar, 250 oz. ; 
peppermint oil, 12 oz, ; cinnamon oil, 
8 oz. 

11. — Pumice, 250 oz. ; white coral, 250 
oz. ; cuttle bone, 250 oz. ; cream of tartar, 
250 oz. ; Florence orris root, 250 oz. ; sal 
ammoniac, 60 oz. ; ambergris, 4 oz. ; cin- 
namon, 4 oz. ; coriander, 4 oz. ; cloves, 4 
oz. ; rosewood, 4 oz. 

12. — Dragon's blood, 250 oz. ; cream of 
tartar, 30 oz. ; Florence orris root, 30 
oz. ; cinnamon, 16 oz. ; cloves, 8 oz. 

13. — Red coral, 250 oz. ; cuttle bone, 
250 oz. ; dragon's blood, 250 oz. ; red san- 
dalwood, 125 oz. ; alum, 125 oz. ; orris 
root, 250 oz. ; cloves, 15 oz. ; cinnamon, 
15 oz. ; vanilla, 8 oz, ; rosewood, 15 oz. ; 
carmine lake, 250 oz. ; carmine, 8 oz. 
This tooth powder is said to be a favo- 
rite in America. 

14. — Cream of tartar, 150 oz. ; alum, 
25 oz. ; cochineal, 12 oz. ; cloves, 25 oz. ; 
cinnamon, 25 oz. ; rosewood, 6 oz. Scent 
with essence of rose. 

15. — Coral, 20 oz. ; sugar, 20 oz. ; wood 
charcoal, 6 oz. ; essence of vervain, 1 oz. 

16. — Precipitated chalk, 500 oz. ; orris 
root, 500 oz. ; carmine, 1 oz. ; sugar, 1 
oz. ; essence of rose, 4 oz. ; essence of 
neroli, 4 oz. 

17. — Cinchona bark, 50 oz. ; chalk, 100 
oz. ; myrrh, 50 oz. ; orris root, 100 oz. ; 
cinnamon, 50 oz, ; carbonate of ammonia, 
100 oz. ; oil of cloves, 2 oz. 

18, — Gum arable, 30 oz. ; cutch, 80 oz. ; 
licorice juice, 550 oz. ; cascarilla, 20 oz. ; 
mastic, 20 oz. ; orris root, 20 oz. ; oil of 
cloves, 5 oz. ; oil of peppermint, 15 oz, ; 
extract of amber, 5 oz. ; extract of musk, 
5 oz. 

- 19.— Chalk, 200 oz. ; cuttle bone, 100 
oz. ; orris root, 100 oz. ; bergamot oil, 2 
oz. ; lemon oil, 4 oz. ; neroli oil, 1 oz. ; 
Portugal oil, 2 oz. 

20.— Borax, 50 oz. ; chalk, 100 oz. ; 
myrrh, 25 oz. ; orris root, 22 oz. ; cinna- 
mon, 25 oz. 

21. — Wood charcoal, 30 oz. ; white 
honey, 30 oz. ; vanilla sugar, 30 oz. ; cin- 
chona bark, 16 oz. Flavor with oil of 
peppermint. 



[889] 



Toilet Preparatio7is 



(Tooth Preparations) 



22.— Syrup of 33" B„ 38 oz.;' cuttle 
bone, 200 oz, ; carmine lake, 30 oz. ; Eng- 
lish oil of peppermint, 5 oz. 

23. — Red coral, 50 oz. ; cinnamon, 12 
oz. ; cochineal, 6 oz. ; alum, 2y^ oz. ; 
honey, 125 oz. ; water, 6 oz. Triturate 
the cochineal and the alum with the 
water. Then, after allowing them to 
stand for 24 hours, put in the honey, the 
coral and the cinnamon. When all the 
effervescence has ceased, which happens 
in about 48 hours, flavor with essential 
oils to taste. 

24. — Well-skimmed honey, 50 oz. ; 
syrup of peppermint, 50 oz. ; orris root, 
12 oz. ; sal ammoniac, 12 oz. ; cream of 
tartar, 12 oz. ; tincture of cinnamon, 3 
oz. ; tincture of cloves, 3 oz. ; tincture of 
vanilla, 3 oz. ; oil of cloves, 1 oz. 

25. — Honey, 250 oz. ; precipitated 
chalk, 250 oz. ; orris root, 250 oz. ; tinc- 
ture of opium, 7 oz. ; tincture of myrrh, 
7 oz. ; oil of rose, 2 oz. ; oil of cloves, 2 
oz. ; oil of nutmeg, 2 oz. 

Pastes. — 1. — Collapsible Tubes, Tooth 
Paste for. — Precipitated chalk, 8 oz. ; or- 
ris root, 8 oz. ; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ; honey 
enough to form a paste. 

2. — Diatomite Tooth Paste. — Diato- 
mite, 6 oz. ; burnt alum, 1 oz. ; powdered 
myrrh, 1 oz. ; oil cloves, 24 minims ; glyc- 
erine, 2 oz. ; tincture cochineal to color. 

3. — Eucalyptus Tooth Paste. — Precipi- 
tated chalk, 50 gr. ; Venetian talc, 30 gr. ; 
starch, 20 gr. ; medicinal soap, 20 gr. ; 
eucalytol, 2 gr. ; oil peppermint, 1 gr. ; 
oil geranium, 1 gr. ; oil cloves, 10 gr. ; 
oil anise, 10 gr. ; carmine, 1 gr. ; glyc- 
erine and alcohol enough. 

4. — Mentholated Tooth Cream. — Pre- 
cipitated chalk, 8 av.oz. ; white Castile 
soap (powder), 4 av.oz.; magnesium car- 
bonate, 2 av.oz. ; menthol (dissolved in 
alcohol), solution carmine, glycerine, of 
each suflBcient. Rub the first three in- 
gredients into a paste with glycerine, 
then flavor and color to suit with the 
menthol and carmine solutions. 

5. — Myrrh Tooth Paste. — a. — Precipi- 
orris, 8 oz. ; white 
borax, 2 oz. ; myrrh, 
. Color and perfume 



tated chalk, 8 oz. 
Castile soap, 2 oz. 
1 oz. ; glycerine, q. 
to suit. 

b. — Precipitated chalk, 54 parts ; ar- 
rowroot, 5 parts ; powdered myrrh, 7 
parts ; cinnamon, 1 part. SuflScient glyc- 
erine to make a paste. A mixture 1 part 
glycerine and 2 parts chloroform water 
is better than glycerine alone. 

c. — Take sugar of milk, 100 parts ; 
pure tannin, 15 parts ; lake, 10 parts ; 
oils of mint, aniseed and orange flowers, 
sufficient quantity. Rub together the 



(Tooth Preparations) 



lake and tannin, gradually add the sugar 
of milk and then the oils. 

6. — Salicylated Tooth Paste. — Precipi- 
tated chalk, 16 av.oz. ; white Castile soap 
(powder), 4 av.oz.; sugar (powder), 4 
av.oz.; orris (powder), 4 av.oz.; pumice 
(powder), 1% av.oz.; sodium salicylate, 
80 gr. ; glycerine, 2 fl.oz. ; carmine or so- 
lution of carmine sufficient to color; 
water sufficient to form a mass. Mix 
well and perfume with oil of peppermint, 
wintergreen or other oil. 

7. — Thymol Tooth Paste. — Calcium 
carbonate, 16 av.oz. ; magnesium carbo- 
nate, % av.oz.; orris root (powder), 3 
av.oz. ; thymol, 60 gr. Mix well and 
make a mass with sufficient of the follow- 
ing mixture: Gelatine (pure), 70 gr. ; 
glycerine, 3 fl.oz. ; water, 1 fl.oz. Dis- 
solve by the application of a gentle heat. 

8. — Violet Tooth Powder. — Prepared 
chalk, 3 oz. ; cuttlefish bone, powdered, 2 
oz. ; white sugar, powdered, 2 oz. ; orris 
root, powdered, 1 oz. ; smalts, 2 to 3 dr. ; 
syrup of violets, to mix, q. s. A fashion- 
able tooth paste, highly esteemed for its 
power of cleaning the teeth and its deli- 
cate color and odor. 

9. — Cream of tartar, 120 oz. ; pumice, 
120 oz. ; alum, 30 oz. ; cochineal, 30 oz. ; 
bergamot oil, 3 oz, ; cloves, 3 oz. Make 
to a thick paste with honey or sugar. 

Powders. — 1. — Cuttlefish powder, 8 oz. ; 
rock alum, 1 oz. ; cream of tartar, 2 oz. ; 
orris root, 1 oz. ; burnt hartshorn, 2 oz. ; 
oil of rhodium, 6 drops. 

2. — Prepared chalk, 2 oz. ; cuttlefish, 1 
oz. ; orris root, 1 oz. ; myrrh, ^^ oz. ; sul- 
phate of quinine, 10 gr. 

3. — Orris root, 4 oz. ; cuttlefish, 2 oz. ; 
cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; myrrh, i^ oz. ; oil 
of cloves, 16 minims. 

4. — Peruvian bark, 1 oz. ; cream of tar- 
tar, 2 dr. ; myrrh, 1 dr. ; cuttlefish, 4 dr. ; 
oil of cloves, 8 drops. 

5. — Cuttlefish, 8 oz. ; cream of tartar, 4 
oz. ; orris root, 2 oz. 

6. — Prepared chalk, 4 oz. ; cuttlefish 
bone, 3 oz. ; orris root, 2 oz. ; dragon's 
blood, 1 oz. ; oil or essence (as last), V2 
dr. Mix ; 1 or 2 oz. of red bole or rose 
pink are often added. 

7. — Anadoli. — Powdered soap, 42 parts ; 
starch powder, 44 parts ; le van tine soap- 
wort, 12 parts ; oil of bergamot and 
lemon to color. 

8. — Antiseptic Strontium Tooth Pow- 
der. — Strontium carbonate, 150 gr. ; pre- 
pared chalk, 375 gr. ; calcined magnesia, 
375 gr. ; salol, 90 gr. ; thymol, 15 gr. ; 
carmine solution, enough ; oil of pepper- 
mint, enough. 

9. — Astringent Tooth Powder. — Myrrh,! 



[890] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Tooth Preparations) 



1 ; sodium chlorate, 1 ; soap, 0.50 ; cal- 
cium carbonate, precipitated, 50 ; rose oil. 

10. — Camphor Tooth Powder. — Cam- 
phor, 0.500 ; soap, 1 ; saccharine, 0.025 ; 
thymol, 0.050 ; calcium carbonate, precipi- 
tated, 50 ; oil of sassafras, 1 to 2 drops. 

11. — Camphorated Chalk. — Camphor, 1 
oz. ; precipitated chalk, 15 oz. Prepared 
chalk may be used in lieu of precipitated 
chalk. Less white and velvety, but cleans 
the teeth better than the softer article. 

12.— Coral Tooth Powder, Coral Den- 
tifrice. — Red coral, 3 oz. ; red bole, 3 oz. ; 
cuttlefish bone, 3 oz. ; dragon's blood, 1^^ 
oz. ; cinnamon, % oz. ; cochineal, 3 dr. ; 
cloves, 1 dr. ; cream of tartar, 4% oz. 

13. — 'Impalpably pulverized charcoal, 1 
oz. ; sugar, 1 oz. ; volatile oil of cloves, 3 
drops. Make into a homogeneous powder 
under a muller. 

14. — Impalpably pulverized charcoal, 1 
oz. ; red bark, 1 oz. ; pulverized sugar, 4 
dr. ; volatile oil of mint, 4 drops. 

15. — Impalpably pulverized charcoal, 1 
oz. ; sulphate of quinine, 2 gr. ; magnesia, 
2 gr. Perfume with some drops of rose 
water or essence of mint, cinnamon, or 
with powdered rose leaves, or orris root. 

16. — Diatomite Tooth Powder. — Diato- 
mite, 1 oz. ; precipitated chalk, 1 oz. ; 
powdered soap, 1 oz. ; oil of rose, 2 min- 
ims ; oil of clove, 1 minim ; spirit of pep- 
permint, 5 minims ; milk sugar, 1 dr. 

17. — Farina Tooth Powder (Piesse).— 
Burnt horn, 2 lb. ; orris root, 2 lb. ; car- 
mine, 1 dr. ; very fine powdered sugar, l^ 
lb. ; otto of neroli, % dr. ; otto of lemon, 
^ oz. ; otto of bergamot, % oz. ; otto of 
orange peel, % oz. ; otto of rosemary, 1 dr. 

18. — ^Oxygen Tooth Powder. — Precipi- 
tated chalk, 6 dr. ; sodium perborate, 1 
dr. ; powdered soap, 20 gr. ; oil of winter- 
green, 15 minims. 

19. — Piesse & Lubin's Tooth Powder. — 
Precipitated chalk, 1 lb. ; orris powder, 1 
lb. ; carmine, i/^ dr. ; powdered sugar, % 
lb. ; otto of roses and neroli, of each, 1 
dr. 

20.— Salol Tooth Powder.— Salol, 4 
grams ; lime phosphate, 20 grams ; lime 
carbonate, 20 grams ; magnesium carbo- 
nate, 20 grams ; sodium bicarbonate, 15 
grams ; peppermint oil, in suitable quan- 
tity. 

21.— -Thymol Dentifrice.— Thymol, 3 
grams ; benzoic acid, 30 grams ; tincture 
of eucalyptus, 150 c.c. ; oil of peppermint, 
7.5 c.c. ; alcohol, 1,000 c.c. 

22.— Violet Tooth Powder.— a.— Precip- 
itated chalk, 16 lb. ; powdered orris, 4 lb. 
powdered cuttlefish bone, 2 lb. ; ultrama 
rine, 9i/^ oz. ; geranium lake, 340 gr. 
jasmine, 110 minims ; oil of neroli, 110 



(Tooth Preparations) 



minims ; oil of bitter almonds, 35 minims ; 
vanillin, 50 gr. ; artificial musk (Lau- 
tier's ) , 60 gr. ; saccharine, 140 gr. Rub 
up the perfumes with 2 oz. of alcohol, 
dissolve the saccharine in warm water, 
add all to the orris, and set aside to dry. 
Rub the colors up with water and some 
chalk, and when dry pass all through a 
mixer and sifter twice to bring out the 
color. 

b. — Precipitated chalk, 6 oz. ; cuttlefish 
bone, 3 oz. ; bright rose pink, 2^^ oz. ; 
orris root, 1% oz. ; essence of violets 
(orris), % fl.dr. ; indigo (pure, to strike 
a violet tint), q. s. 

c. — Betanaphthol, 0.05 ; saccharine, 
0.025 ; soap, 1 ; calcium carbonate, pre- 
cipitated, 50 ; ionon and oil of cananga, 
of each, 1 to 2 drops. 

Soaps. — 1. — Antiseptic Tooth Soap. — 
Thymol, 25 parts ; extract of rhatany, 100 
parts ; warm glycerine, 600 parts ; cal- 
cined magnesia, 50 parts ; borax, 400 
parts ; oil of peppermint, 100 parts ; me- 
dicinal soap, enough to make 3,000 parts. 
Dissolve the thymol and extract of rhat- 
any in the warm glycerine, and add the 
other ingredients, stirring constantly. 

2. — ^Castile soap, in powder, 200 parts ; 
glycerine, 5 parts ; salicylic acid, 5 parts ; 
oil of anise, 10 parts ; carmine, sufficient ; 
eosin, sufficient. Rub up the carmine and 
eosin with a small amount of the pow- 
dered soap, then add the rest of the soap, 
and the oil, and rub well together. Dis- 
solve the acid in glycerine, add the so- 
lution, under constant rubbing. Finally, 
add sufficient glycerine to make a paste 
of the desired consistency. 

3. — White Castile soap, powdered, 10 
av.oz. ; tincture of rhatany, 314 A-oz. ; 
precipitated chalk, 3% av.oz.; benzoic 
acid, l^ av.oz. ; powdered potassium chlo- 
rate, % av.oz. ; powdered borax, % av.oz. ; 
saccharine, 40 gr. ; oil of cinnamon, suf- 
ficient to flavor. Make into a hard mass 
by the addition of glycerine and water, 
press into tin boxes, and dry. 

4. — Castile soap, 1 lb. ; prepared chalk, 
1 oz. ; carbolic acid, 20 gr. ; oil of win- 
tergreen, 30 minims. Shave the soap into 
ribbons, beat into a paste with a little 
water, and add, first, the prepared chalk, 
and lastly the carbolic acid and winter- 
green oil, dissolved in a little alcohol. 

Toothache Remedies. 

Odontalgic Drops. — As nearly all of 
them contain highly volatile ingredients, 
such as ether, alcohol, etc., they should 
be kept in closely stoppered or corked bot- 
tles, and the mouth should be closed im- 
mediately on their application, and kept 



[891] 



Toilet Preparations 



(Tooth Preparations) 



so for some time. As many of them con- 
tain active ingredients, care should also 
be taken not to swallow them. 

1.— Liquor of ammonia (0.880-0.885), 
1 part ; 90% alcohol, 3 or 4 parts. A lit- 
tle oil of cloves or of cajeput, or of both, 
is sometimes added. Very effective, if 
properly applied. 

2.— Ether, IVa fl.dr. ; alcohol, II/2 A-dr. ; 
camphor, 1 dr. Dissolve, and add of li- 
quor of ammonia (0.880-0.885), 1/2 fl.dr. 
Very serviceable. 

3.— Creosote, 1 dr. ; 90% alcohol, 1 dr. ; 
oil of cloves, % fl.dr. Excellent for rot- 
ten or decayed teeth. 

4. — Hydrochlorate of moi-phia, 30 gr. ; 
concentrated tincture of pellitory (made 
with 90% alcohol), 21/2 fl.oz. ; oil of 
cloves, % fl.oz. ; chloroform, 1^ fl.oz. Agi- 
tate them together until mixed. Used 
as toothache drops, observing to shake the 
bottle well before use, and to keep it 
closely corked or stoppered, and in a cool 
place. An excellent remedy. 

5. — American Toothache Drops. — Those 
which took the prize at Vienna consisted 
of common salt and brandy, colored with 
harmless cochineal red. 

6. — Dr. Blake's. — Alum, in fine pow- 
der, 1 dr. ; sweet spirits of niter, 1 fl.oz. 
Agitate them together occasionally for an 
hour. A bad chemical mixture, of little 
value, since the alum is nearly insoluble 
in the intended menstruum. Sweet spir- 
its of niter is a name for an alcoholic 
solution of nitrous ether. 

7. — Boerhaave's Odontalgic. — Opium, 
V2 troy dr. ; powdered camphor, 4 or 5 
av.dr. ; oil of cloves, 2 fl.dr. ; 90% alco- 
hol, strongest, li/^ fl.oz. Agitate the mix- 
ture occasionally for a week, and after 
repose pour off the clear portion. Often 
serviceable, and much esteemed by some 
persons as toothache drops. 

8. — Dr. Copland's. — Powdered opium, 
10 gr. ; camphor, 10 gr. ; oil of cloves, 1 
dr. ; oil of cajeput, 1 dr. ; 90% alcohol, 
strongest, % fl.oz. ; ether, % fl.oz. Mix, 
and agitate the bottle occasionally for a 
day or two, as the last. 

9. — CottereaiCs. — A nearly saturated 
ethereal solution of camphor, to which 
as much of the strongest liquor of ammo- 
nia is added as can be without clouding 
the liquid. If the latter occurs, the addi- 
tion of a few drops of alcohol will restore 
it. A useful remedy. 

10. — RighinVs. — Creosote, 5. dr. ; recti- 
fied spirit, 5 fl.dr. ; tincture of cochineal, 
strong, 2 fl.dr. ; oil of peppermint. Eng- 
lish, % dr. Mix, Resembles No. 3. 



(Wrinkles) 



Pastes for the Toothache, Odontalgic 
Pastes, Pastoe Odontalgics, Pates Odon- 
talgiques. — 1. — Root bark of pellitory, 1 
dr. ; hydrochlorate of morphia, 5 gr. 
Triturate until reduced to fine powder, 
then add of finest thick honey, 3 dr. ; 
oil of cloves or cajeput, 20 drops ; concen- 
trated tincture of pellitory, q. s. Form 
the whole into a smooth paste. Very ef- 
fective. 

2. — Pellitory root, in fine powder, 1 
part ; mastic, in fine powder, 1 part ; 
white sugar, in fine powder, 1 part ; chlo- 
roform, q. s. Make them into a paste, 
and at once put it in a stoppered bottle. 
It must be kept in a cool place. 

3. — De Handel's. — Powdered opium, % 
dr. ; powdered camphor, 1 dr. ; extract of 
belladonna, 1 dr. ; extract of henbane, 1 
dr. ; oil of cajeput, 15 drops ; tincture of 
cantharides, 15 drops. Mix, adding dis- 
tilled lettuce water, q. s. to form a paste. 

4. — Rust's. — Powdered opium, 10 gr. ; 
extract of henbane, 10 gr. ; powdered pel- 
litory root, 20 gr. ; extract of belladonna, 
20 gr. ; oil of cloves, 15 drops. Mix 
thoroughly. 

5. — Turton's. — ^Pellitory root, powdered, 
1 dr. ; powdered lump sugar, 1 dr. ; pow- 
dered camphor, 30 gr. ; concentrated tinc- 
ture of pellitory, q. s. To form a paste. 

6. — Vohler's. — Powdered dragon's blood, 
1 dr. ; powdered opium, 2 dr. ; powdered 
gum mastic, 4 dr. ; powdered gum san- 
darac, 4 dr. ; oil of rosemary, 25 drops ; 
tincture of opium, q. s. To form a paste. 

A small quantity of one of the preced- 
ing is inserted in the hollow of the ach- 
ing tooth, or placed against the corre- 
sponding gum. They must on no account 
be swallowed. 

Wrinkle Remover. 

1. — White petrolatum, 7 av.oz. ; paraflBne 
wax, % av. oz. ; lanolin, 2 av.oz. ; water. 
3 fl.oz. ; oil of rose, 3 drops ; vanillin, 2 
gr. ; alcohol, 1 fl.dr. Melt the paraffine, 
add the lanolin and petrolatum, and when 
these have melted pour the mixture into 
a warm mortar, and with constant stir- 
ring incorporate the water. When nearly 
cold add the oil and vanillin, dissolved 
in the alcohol. Preparations of this kind 
should be rubbed into the skin vigorously, 
as friction assists the absorbed fat in de- 
veloping the muscles, and also imparts 
softness and fullness to the skin. 

2. — Wrinkles on the face yield to a 
wash consisting of 50 parts of milk of 
almonds (made with rose water) and 4 
parts of aluminum sulphate. Use morn- 
ing and night. 



[ 892 ] 



J 



CHAPTER XXVI 



WATEEPEOOFIT^G^ FIREPEOOFIlNrG A]^D FIEE 
EXTI]S"GIJISHINa 



FIREPROOFING 
Asbestos. 

The name given to several varieties of 
amphibolic and augitic minerals. It is 
now used to a large extent in the manu- 
facture of non-conducting and fireproof 
articles, such as boiler coverings, paint, 
theater curtains, etc. 

Paints, Fireproof. (See Paints.) 
Paper and Ink. 

1. — Mix from 5 to 75 parts of alumi- 
num sulphate w^ith 62i/^ parts of asbestos 
fiber. Moisten this mixture with chloride 
of zinc, and wash thoroughly with water. 
Treat with a solution composed of 20 to 
25 parts of pure aluminum sulphate and 
2^ parts of rosin soap. Afterward man- 
ufacture into paper in the same way as 
with ordinary pulp. 

2. — Pass the paper through a strong so- 
lution of alum, and dry. 

3. — Sulphate of ammonia, 8 kgm. ; bo- 
racic acid, 6 kgm. ; borax, 2 kgm. ; ordi- 
nary water, 100 kgm. Heat the mixture 
to 59° C. (138° F.). 

4. — Ink. — A free-flowing ink for writ- 
ing on fireproof paper with an ordinary 
metallic pen may be obtained by using 5 
parts of dry platinum chloride with 15 
parts of oil of lavender, 15 parts of Chi- 
nese ink, and 1 part of gum arable, add- 
ing thereto 64 parts of water. When the 
paper is ignited, after being written upon 
with this ink, the platinum ingredient 
causes the writing to appear transparent, 
and as a consequence it is claimed that 
such writing as has become black or il- 
legible will become readily legible again 
during the process of heating the • paper. 
Colors for painting may also be made fire- 
proof by mixing commercial metallic col- 
ors with the chloride of platinum and 
painters' varnish, adding an ordinary 
aquarelle pigment to strengthen the cov- 
ering power of the color. These fireproof 



paints or colors can be easily used in the 
same manner as the common water colors, 
and it is claimed they will resist the de- 
structive influence of great heat quite as 
successfully as the fireproof printing and 
writing inks just referred to. 

Roofing. 

1, — After the paper is put on, take coal 
tar and lime (burnt, but not slaked), and 
boil them together in the proportion of 
15 lb. of lime to 100 lb. of tar. Put it 
on hot. To pulverize the lime, sprinkle 
it with a little water, and sift it. To 
avoid the tar boiling over, stir the lime 
in the boiling tar very slowly. The mix- 
ture must always be heated before put- 
ting on. The lime and tar form a chemi- 
cal connection, which is fireproof, cannot 
be melted by sun heat or dissolved by 
steam or hot water, and makes a smooth, 
glazed roof. 

2. — Take 1 measure of fine sand, 2 
measures of sifted wood ashes and 3 meas- 
ures of lime, ground up .with oil. Mix 
thoroughly, and lay on with a painter's 
brush, first a thin coat and then a thick 
one. This composition is not only cheap, 
but strongly resists fire. 

Tent Canvas and Other Coarse Cloth. 

1. — Water, 100 1. ; ammonium- sulphate, 
chemically pure, 14 kgm. ; boracic acid, 1 
kgm. ; hartshorn salt, 1 kgm. ; borax, 3 
kgm. ; glue water, 2 kgm. Boil the wa- 
ter, put ammonium sulphate into a vat, 
pour a part of the boiling water on, and 
then add the remaining materials in ro- 
tation. Next follow the rest of the hot 
water. The vat should be kept covered 
until the solution is complete. 

2. — Boil together, with constant stir- 
ring, the following ingredients until a 
homogeneous mass results : Linseed oil, 
77 kgm. ; litharge, 10 kgm. ; sugar of lead, 
2 kgm. ; lampblack, 4 kgm, ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 2 kgm. ; umber, 0.4 kgm. ; Japa- 
nese wax, 0.3 kgm. ; soap powder, 1.2 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[893] 



Waterproofing and Fireproofing 



(Fireproofing) 



kgm.i manilla copal, 0.7 kgm. : caoutchouc 
varnish, 2 kgm. 

Textile Fabrics. 

1. — The first composition, which may be 
applied to all kinds of fabrics, without 
deteriorating them in any way, consists 
of sulphate of ammonia (pure), 8 lb.; 
carbonate of ammonia, 2.5 lb, ; boracic 
acid, 3 lb. ; pure borax, 1.7 lb. ; starch, 2 
lb. ; water, 100 lb. It is simply necessary 
to steep the fabrics in a hot solution com- 
posed as above until they have become 
thoroughly impregnated, after which they 
are drained and dried sufficiently to en- 
able them to be ironed or pressed like or- 
dinary starched goods. 

2. — As a sample of the Melunay proc- 
ess, introduced in France, the following 
has been published : Apply to a cotton 
fabric, like flannelette, or other cotton 
goods, a solution of stannate of soda (or 
a salt chemically equivalent), of the 
strength of 5 to 10° B. ; then dry the 
fabric, and saturate it again, this time 
with a solution of titanium salt ; any sol- 
uble titanium salt is suitable. This salt 
should be so concentrated that each liter 
may contain about 62 grams of titanium 
oxide. The fabrics are again dried, and 
the titanium is ultimately fixed by means 
of a suitable alkaline bath. It is ad- 
vantageous to employ for this purpose a 
solution of silicate of soda of about 14° 
B., but a mixed bath, composed of tung- 
state of soda and ammonium chloride, 
may be employed. The objects are after- 
ward washed, dried and finished as neces- 
sary for trade. A variation consists in 
treating the objects in a mixed bath con- 
taining titanium, tungsten, and a suitable 
solvent. 

.3. — (According to Eisner.) — Dissolve 
sulphate of alumina in cold water, and 
add a solution of phosphate of ammonia 
as long as a precipitate is produced, and 
finally mix in sufficient sal ammoniac so- 
lution until the precipitate is dissolved 
again. The fabric is impregnated with 
this fluid. 

4. — Bone ashes, 10 parts ; water, 50 
parts ; sulphuric acid, 6 parts ; allow to 
stand for 2 days at moderate heat, then 
add 100 parts of water, and filter. The 
fluid is first mixed with a solution of 5 
parts of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom 
salts) in 15 parts of water, and then with 
so much ammonia that its excess may be 
detected by the odor. The resulting pre- 
cipitate is pressed and dried. Two parts 
of this precipitate should be mixed with 
1 part of tuugstate of soda and 6 parts 
of wheat starch, blued with a little indigo- 



( Fireproofing) 



carmine, and then boiled with enough 
water to produce a slimy fluid, with which 
the fabric must be saturated. 

5. — Among the means recommended 
for this purpose we may, in the first place, 
mention one of exceeding simplicity, ap- 
plicable to muslins and all dresses which 
are starched after washing. It is merely 
necessary to mix the starch with sal am- 
moniac and plaster of paris. The goods 
thus dressed may certainly be set on fire 
by the flame of a match, but the flanie 
does not extend. The inventor of this 
first process afterward recommecided : Bo- 
rax, 12 parts ; Epsom salts, 9 parts ; dis- 
solved in 80 parts of warm water. The 
tissues to be prepared are dipped in the 
solution till thoroughly saturated. They 
are then pressed, wrapped in a cloth, 
wrung again, laid between cloths, and 
passed through a mangle, after which the 
articles are ironed while still damp. The 
necessary quantity of starch can be stirred 
in the saline solution. 

6. — Voight dissolves sublimed sal am- 
moniac, 2 parts ; sulphate of zinc, 1 part ; 
in 15 to 20 parts of water. The starch 
or other ingredients required for stiffen- 
ing or finishing are added to the solution. 
The dresses, etc., are steeped in the mix- 
ture till thoroughly saturated, pressed 
well out and dried. According to Sie- 
brath, a good result may be got by steep- 
ing the dresses in a solution containing 
5% of alum and 5% of phosphate of am- 
monia. Tissues so treated are said not 
to burn, even if previously rubbed with 
gunpowder. The powder deflagrated, but 
left the tissue unburat. 

7. — Hottin proceeds in a very similar 
manner. He takes a solution of acid 
phosphate of lime, mixed with ammonia 
in excess. After decolorizing it with ani- 
mal charcoal he adds 5% of gelatinous 
silica, and evaporates to dryness. The 
dresses to be made fireproof are laid in 
a 30% sobition of this mixture, which he 
calls "Hottine." [If this mixture has 
once been evaporated to dryness, we do 
not see how it can be all brought into 
solution again without the aid of an acid. 
Acid phosphate of lime, if mixed with am- 
monia, will be precipitated as insoluble 
tribasic phosphate of lime, while the ex- 
cess of the phosphoric acid will combine 
with the ammonia. So that the process 
is, in reality, merely a method of making 
phosphate of ammonia.] 

8. — Among other agents proposed for 
the same purpose are soluble glass, tuug- 
state of soda, ammonia, alum and hypo- 
sulphite of soda. 

9. — According to Versman and Oppen- 



[894] 



Waterproofing and Fireproofing 



(Fireproofing) 



heim, phosphate of ammonia is mixed 
with half its weight of sal ammoniac, and 
a 20% solution of the mixture is used. 
Tissues which are to be afterward ironed 
are afterward treated with a 20% solu- 
tion of the tungstate of soda. 

10. — ^The phoenix essence of M. Pereles 
consists of a mixed solution of tungstate, 
silicate and phosphate of soda, 

11. — Nicoll proposed a bath of alum, 6 
parts ; borax, 2 parts ; tungstate of soda, 

1 part ; dextrine, dissolved in soap lye, 1 
part. The dextrine is said to cause the 
salts to adhere better to the fiber. 

12. — Sulphate of ammonia, 8 parts ; 
carbonate of ammonia, 2i/^ parts ; boracic 
acid, 2 parts; borax, 1% parts; starch, 

2 parts ; water, 100 parts. The dresses 
or other tissues are taken through this 
mixture boiling. 

13. — Steep the fabric in almost any sa- 
line solution, such as borax, alum, sal 
ammoniac, etc. The addition of about 1 
oz. of alum or sal ammoniac to the last 
water used to rinse a lady's dress, or set 
of bed furniture, or the addition of a less 
quantity to the starch used to stiffen 
them, renders them uninflammable, or at 
least so little combustible that they will 
not readily take fire, and if kindled will 
not burst into flame. 

14. — ^Make a solution of sodium tung- 
state, 28'' Tw., mix with 3% of sodium 
phosphate. 

Theatrical Scenery, etc. 

1. — A composition to be used for theat- 
rical scenery (or the mounted but un- 
painted canvas to be used for this pur- 
pose), and also for woodwork, furniture, 
door and window frames, etc., is to be ap- 
plied hot with a brush, like ordinary 
paint. It is composed of boracic acid, 5 
lb. ; hydrochlorate of ammonia or sal am- 
moniac, 15 lb. ; potash feldspar, 5 lb. : 
gelatine, 1.5 lb. ; size, 50 lb. ; water, 100 
lb. ; to which is added a sufficient quan- 
tity of a suitable calcareous substance to 
give the composition sufficient body or 
consistency. 

2. — Chlorhydrate of ammonia, 15 kgm. ; 
boracic acid, 5 kgm. ; softened glue, 5 
kgm. ; gelatine, li/^ kgm. ; ordinary wa- 
ter, 100 kgm. ; lime, q. s. The mixture 
is kept at 60 or 80° C. (140 to 176° F.) 
until it is of the consistency of oil. Spread 
it over the materials with a brush, like 
varnish. For scenery already painted, 
spread the liquid on the unpainted side. 
Care must be taken to cover twice over 
the frame and posts. 

3. — Mix 15 kgm. of ammonium chloride 
with enough floated chalk to give the 

[89 



(Fireproofing) 



mass consistency ; theh heat to 50 to 60° 
C, and give the material one or two 
coats of it by means of a brush ; 1 kgm. 
of it, costing about 4 to 5 cents, is suffi- 
cient to cover 5 sq. yd. 

Walls, etc. 

A material for covering walls, or other 
substances needing such protection, may 
be made as follows : Talc, 90 parts ; 
white dextrine, 11 parts ; plaster of paris, 
11 parts ; calk spar, 4 parts ; alum, 4 
parts ; cooking salt, 2 parts. Powder 
thoroughly and mix intimately. To use, 
stir 4 parts of this mixture in 3 parts 
of boiling water until a creamlike mass 
is obtained. Any desired color may now 
be stirred in. The cream is to be applied 
to the surface that one desires to pro- 
tect. It is claimed to be proof against 
fire and water, vs^hich is easily and evenly 
applied, and which will not scale off. 

Wicks. 

1. — To prepare lamp wicks so that they 
will not burn out, steep them in a con- 
centrated aqueous solution of tungstate 
of soda, and then dry thoroughly in an 
oven. 

2. — Sea sand, 15 parts ; powdered fire- 
clay, 5 parts ; fine wood sawdust, 10 
parts ; powdered glass, 2% parts ; cotton 
or cotton dust, 2^2 parts. Moisten this 
mixture, dry, and fire at a full red heat 
for V2 hour. This is said to yield a per- 
manent and porous material for lamp 
wicks. 

Woods. 

1. — According to one authority, the 
most commendable process is by immer- 
sion in a saline solution composed as fol- 
lows : Ammonium phosphate, 1(X) kgm. ; 
boric acid, 10 kgm. ; water, 1,000 1. Mix, 
and dissolve. 

2. — To make applications of paints, 
plasters, etc., appreciably effective as fire 
preventers, they should be put on in nu- 
merous successive coatings. The follow- 
ing is the first formula for this form of 
protective : Liquid sodium silicate, 1,000 
parts; Meudon white, 500 parts; glue, 
1,000 parts. Mix. 

3. — Make the following two solutions. 
Apply a coating of the first, let dry, and 
then apply the second: (a) Aluminum 
sulphate, 20 parts ; water, 1,000 parts, 
(b) Liquid sodium silicate, 50 parts; wa- 
ter, 1,000 parts. Mix, and use as indi- 
cated above. 

4. — Solid sodium silicate. 350 parts ; 
powdered asbestos, 350 parts ; boiling wa- 
ter, 1.000 parts. Mix. Give several coat- 
5] 



Waterproofing and Fireproofing 



(Fire Extinguishers) 



ings, letting each dry before applying the 
next. 

5. — Powdered asbestos, 35 parts ; so- 
dium borate, 20 parts ; water, 100 parts ; 
gum lac, 10 to 15 parts. Dissolve the 
borax in the water by the aid of heat, and 
in the hot solution dissolve the lac. When 
solution is complete, incorporate the as- 
bestos. These last solutions give a super- 
ficial protection, the eflBciency of which 
depends upon the number of coatings 
given. 

6. — Shingles. — a. — Shingle roofs, and 
indeed all woodwork, may be rendered less 
liable to take fire from falling cinders, 
etc., by coating it with a wash composed 
of lime, salt and fine sand or -wood ashes. 
This compound also preserves the wood, 
and should be applied in the same man- 
ner as ordinary whitewash. 

b. — Fireproof wash for shingles, etc. 
Dissolve in a barrel of hot water : Sul- 
phate of zinc, 20 lb. ; alum, 20 lb. ; caus- 
tic potash, 8 lb. ; manganate oxide, 8 lb. ; 
and add sulphuric acid, 8 lb. Pack the 
shingles loosely in another barrel, and fill 
with the liquid, holding the shingles un- 
der the mixture. Fill up the first bar- 
rel also with shingles, soak for 3 hours, 
and pile to dry, and repeat until all the 
shingles are fireproofed. After the house 
is shingled, paint with oxide of iron paint, 
tempered with other mineral color in 
boiled linseed oil, and mixed to suit your 
taste as to shade of color. 

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS 
Charging Fire Extinguishers. 

The Babcock fire extinguisher is 
charged with a solution of bicarbonate of 
soda in water, and sulphuric acid in a 
lead bottle, which, when required, -is 
turned over by a crank, spilling the acid 
into the charge of soda. Carbonic acid 
gas is instantly generated, by which a 
pressure is obtained sufficient for throw- 
ing the whole contents of the apparatus 
with much force through a nozzle for fire 
purposes. Use of sulphuric acid, 5 parts ; 
bicarbonate of soda, 6 parts ; by weight. 
Other combinations are used, such as car- 
bonate of ammonia, potash, etc. Iron 
can be used for the alkaline reservoirs. 

Chimney, To Extinguish Fire in. 

Shut all the doors of the room, so as 
to prevent any current of air up the chim- 
ney ; then throw a few handfuls of com- 
mon fine salt upon the fire in the grate 
or stove. This will immediately extin- 
guish the fire in the chimney. In the 
process of burning the salt, muriatic acid 



(Fire Extinguishers) 



gas is evolved, which is a good extinguish- 
er of fire. 

Dry Chemical Fire Extinguishers. j 

1. — Dieterich gives the following for- | 
mula for a chemical fire extinguisher. By j 
a slight modification of it we have a recipe ^ 
for making gunpowder : Potassium ni- 
trate, 60 oz. ; sulphur, 36 oz. ; charcoal, 
4 oz. ; colcothar of rouge, 1 oz. Powder 
separately, dry, and mix. This powder ■ 
is used by placing it in 5-lb. round paste- 1 
board boxes, through an orifice in which 
a fuse is inserted, an end being left hang- 
ing out. The extinguisher so made is 
intended for use in a closed room. It is 
supposed to act automatically by absorb- 
ing oxygen. 

2.- — Sodium chloride, 4 parts ; sodium 
bicarbonate, 3 parts ; sodium sulphate, 1 
part ; calcium chloride, 1 part ; sodium 
silicate, 1 part. 

3. — Sodium chloride, 3 parts; ammo- 
nium chloride, 3 parts; sodium bicarbo- 
nate, 4 parts. 

Hand Grenades. 

1. — Fill thin, spherical bottles of blue 
glass with a solution of calcium chloride, 
sal ammoniac or borax. 

2. — AVe know of nothing quite so con- 
venient and efficacious in fighting fires in 
a small way as carbonated water under 
pressure. This may be thrown from si- 
phons or soda-water tanks, or from spe- 
cially prepared apparatus. Not only may 
such water be directed from its container 
in a fine stream, but the carbon dioxide 
which it liberates rapidly, has a decided 
deterrent effect of its own. 

3. — ^Chloride of ammonia, 2 parts ; wa- 
ter, 200 parts. 

4. — Burned alum, 3i/^ parts ; water, 100 
parts. 

5. — Sulphate of ammonia, 30 parts ; 
water, 50 parts. 

6. — Common salt, 20 parts ; water, 400 
parts. 

7. — Sodium carbonate, SVq parts ; wa- 
ter, 50 parts. 

8. — Soda water glass, 45 parts. 

These fluids are mixed together in the 
order quoted, and should the mixture ap- 
pear milky or yellowish, a further 200 
parts of water may be added. The solu- 
tion is allowed to stand, the supernatant 
clear portion being used. 

9. — The chemical department of the 
University of Virginia analyzed a popu- 
lar hand grenade, and found that the ves- 
sel, holding about 600 c.c, contained a 
solution of the following: Sodium hypo- 
sulphite, 255.55 grams ; sodium chloride, 

6] 



Waterproofing and Fireproofing 



(Fire Extinguishers) 



48.12 grams ; ammonium chloride, 12.60 
grams ; free ammonia, 12.24 grams, 

10. — Another is said to be composed of 
ground marble, sulphuric acid and water. 
The aeid and water are mixed in the pro- 
portion of 2 parts of acid to 6 parts of 
water, are put in the bottles, and then 
about 8 oz, of ground marble to each pint 
of the liquid put in, and the bottles in- 
stantly corked and tied down ; when 
thrown into the fire the bottles are broken 
or burst by the heat, liberating the car- 
bolic acid, and thus extinguishing the 
fire. 

11. — A simple fire extinguisher may be 
made by any one at small cost, by dis- 
solving 2 lb, of common salt and 10 lb. 
of ammonium chloride in 3 qt. of water 
and filling the solution into quart bottles 
of thin glass. This mixture has been 
found very suitable for extinguishing 
small fires. The bottles must be tightly 
corked and sealed, to prevent evapora- 
tion. At the breaking out of a fire the 
bottles are thrown into the flames, or 
their vicinity, and the extinction is ef- 
fected by the contents of the breaking 
bottles. 

12. — Harden's ExtinguisMiig Grenades. 
— ^The solution contains 18.46% of chlo- 
ride of sodium and 8.88% of chloride of 
ammonium. 

13. — Hayward^s Extinguishing Gren- 
ades consist of a watery solution which 
contains 15.7% of chloride of calcium and 
5.6% of chloride of magnesium. 

14. — Hayward's Hand Grenades are 
filled with a solution, which, in 100 parts, 
contains : Chloride of calcium, 18.4% ; 
chloride of magnesium, 5.7% ; chloride of 
sodium, 1.3% ; bromide of potassium, 
2.2% (?) ; chloride of barium, 0.3%; wa- 
ter, 72.2%. 

15. — Martin's Fire Protector. — Glycer- 
ine, 21/^ oz. ; carbonate of ammonium, 4 
dr. ; chloride of ammonium, 10 dr. ; boric 
acid, 10 dr.; bitartrate of potassium, 1 
dr. ; oxalate of potassium, 1 dr, 

16, — Munich Fire Annihilating Powder 
consists of chloride of sodium, 43% ; alum, 
19.5% ; sulphate of sodium, 5% ; carbo- 
nate of sodium, 3.5% ; silicate, 6.6% ; wa- 
ter, 22.3%. ^ .^ ., ^ 

17. — Schoenherg's Fire Anmhtlator 
holds 15 oz. The solution contains 1.66% 
of carbonate of sodium and 6.43% of 
chloride of sodium. 

Liquid Fire Extinguishers. 

One of the best agents — probably the 
best — is aqua ammonia, without any addi- 
tion whatever. Next in order as an ex- 
tinguisher comes carbonic acid gas. The 

[ 



(Fire Extinguishers) 



following was patented in France several 
years ago, after numerous public exhibi- 
tions of the ability of the liquid to sub- 
due fire, 

1. — Make six solutions, as follows : 

a, — Ammonium chloride, 200 parts ; wa- 
ter, 20,000 parts. 

b. — Alum, calcined and powdered, 350 
parts ; water, 10,000 parts. 

c. — • Ammonium sulphate, powdered, 
3,000 parts ; water, 5,000 parts. 

d, — Sodium chloride, 2,000 parts ; wa- 
ter, 40,000 parts. 

e. — Sodium carbonate, 350 parts ; wa- 
ter, 5,000 parts, 

f, — Liquid water glass, 4,500 parts. Mix 
the solutions in the order named, and to 
the mixture, while still yellow and turbid, 
add 20,000 parts of water. Let stand, 
and when the precipitate has settled de- 
cant the clear liquid into thin blue glass 
containers, each holding from 3 pt. to % 
gal. 

2. — Calcium chloride, 30 parts ; magne- 
sium chloride, 10 parts ; water, 60 parts. 

3. — Sodium chloride, 20 parts ; ammo- 
nium chloride, 9 parts ; water, 71 parts. 

4. — ^Sodium carbonate, 16 parts'; so- 
dium chloride, 64 parts ; water, 920 parts. 

5. — Boric acid, 16 parts, by weight ; 
alum, 24 parts ; ferrous sulphate, 20 
parts ; dissolve in 160 parts of water. 
The solution is slowly poured into a cold 
solution of hyposulphite, 24 parts by 
weight ; water glass, 40 parts ; water, 640 
parts, 

6, — The now well-known extincteur in- 
troduced by Sinclair is a vessel filled with 
water charged with carbonic acid gas un- 
der great pressure. 

7, — Foster, of Bolton, has introduced 
an extincteur in the form of a portable 
pump, which can draw a continuous water 
supply from any source, and saturate it 
with carbonic acid under pressure before 
emitting it in a jet. 

8. — Common salt, 1 oz. ; nitrate of soda, 
1 oz. ; sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; chloride of 
magnesium, 4 oz. ; water, 20 oz. Dissolve. 

9. — Vienna Fire Extinguishing Agent. 
— A solution of 5 parts of ferrous sul- 
phate (copperas), 20 parts of ammonium 
sulphate and 125 parts of water. 

Petroleum or Benzine Flame. 

Smother with a woolen cloth or carpet, 
or a wet muslin or linen cloth ; or the 
flames may be extinguished by throwing 
on earth or sand. 

Powders and Pastes. 

1. — Alum, 24% ; ammonium sulphate, 
52% ; ferrous sulphate, 4%. 
897] 



W at ea- proofing mid Fire proofing 



(Waterproofing) 



2. — Johnstone's.— -Msike sl mixture of 
equal parts of pyrolusite (manganese di- 
oxide), potassium chlorate and potassium 
nitrate. Moisten with water glass, and 
press into a block. Place the block iu 
a pasteboard box. Several boxes, con- 
nected by fuses, are suspended from the 
ceiling of a room, 

3. — Bucher's fire extinguishing powder 
contains 50 parts of saltpeter, 30 parts of 
sulphur, 4 parts of charcoal, and 1 part 
of oxide of iron. We fail to see the ad- 
vantage of this peculiar sort of impure 
gunpowder as a fire extinguisher. 

4. — One of the best solutions for the 
extinction of incipient fires consists of 
crude calcium chloride, 20 parts ; salt, 
5 parts ; dissolved in water, 75 parts. 
Keep at hand, and apply with a hand 
pump. 

5. — Common salt, 60% ; sal ammoniac, 
60% ; sodium bicarbonate, 80%. 

6. — Sal ammoniac, 100% ; sodium sul- 
phate, 60% ; sodium bicarbonate, 40%. 

7. — Carbonate of soda, 8 lb. ; alum, 4 
lb. ; borax, 3 lb. ; carbonate of potash, 1 
lb. ; silicate of soda solution, 24 lb ; are 
mixed together; 1% lb. of this mixture is 
added to each gallon of water when re- 
quired for use. The object is to cover 
everything with a fireproof film or deposit. 

WATERPROOFING 
Awning or Apron. 

1. — Dissolve 1 oz. of yellow soap in ll^ 
pt. of water by boiling ; then stir in 1 qt. 
of boiled oil, and when cold add %, Pt. of 
gold size. 

2. — Awnings, Thick Blankets, etc. — 
Soak in a 7% solution of gelatine at 40° 
C, dry, pass through a 4% solution of 
alum, dry again, rinse in water, and dry. 

Canvas. 

1. — A solution containing equal parts 
by weight of gelatine and chrome alum. 
It is not advisable to mix more of the so- 
lution at once than is sufficient to give 
the canvas one coat, as if the mixture 
once sets it cannot be reliquefied like a 
plain solution of gelatine, and hence, if 
the quantity of canvas to be waterproofed 
is small, it would, perhaps, be preferable 
to coat with plain gelatine solution until 
quite impervious to cold water, and then 
to thoroughly soak for, say, 24 hours, in 
a strong solution of chrome alum. 

2, — The canvas is coated with a mix- 
ture of three solutions, as follows: (a) 
Gelatine, .50 grams ; boiled in 3 1. of wa- 
ter free from lime, (b) Alum, 100 grams, 
dissolved in 3 1. of water, (c) Soda soap, 
dissolved in 2 1. of water. 

[8 



(Waterproofing) 



3. — Sackcloth or canvas can be made 
as impervious to moisture as leather, by 
steeping it in a decoction of 1 lb. of oak 
bark with 14 lb. of boiling water. This 
quantity is sufficient for 8 yd. of stuff. 
The cloth has to soak for 24 hours, when 
it is taken out, passed through running 
water, and hung up to dry. The flax and 
hemp fibers, in absorbing the tannin, are 
at the same time better fitted to resist 
wear. 

4. — ^The following is highly recommend- 
ed as a simple and cheap process for coat- 
ing canvas for wagon tops, tents, awn- 
ings, etc. It renders it impermeable to 
moisture, without making it stiff and 
likely to break. Soft soap is dissolved in 
hot water, and a solution of iron sul- 
phate added. The sulphuric acid com- 
bines with the potash of the soap, and the 
iron oxide is precipitated with the fatty 
acid as insoluble iron soap. This is 
washed and dried, and mixed with linseed 
oil. The soap prevents the oil from get- 
ting hard and cracking, and at the same 
time water has no effect on it. 

5. — Sodium carbonate, 1 lb. ; caustic 
lime, % lb. ; water, 21/^ pt. Boil togeth- 
er, let it stand to settle, then draw off 
the clear lye and add to it 1 lb. of tallow, 
% lb. of rosin, previously melted togeth- 
er. Boil, and stir occasionally for half 
an hour ; then introduce 3 oz. of glue, 
previously softened, 3 oz. of linseed oil, 
and continue the boiling and stirring for 
another half hour. In waterproofing, % 
oz. of this soap is mixed with 1 gal. of 
hot water, and in this the goods are 
soaked for about 24 hours, according to 
thickness and character. The pieces are 
allowed to drain until partly dried, then 
soaked for 6 hours or more in a solution 
prepared as follows : Aluminum sulphate, 
1 lb. ; lead acetate, % lb. ; water, 8 gal. 
Shake together, allow to settle, and draw 
off the clear liquid. Wring out after rins- 
ing, and dry at a temperature of 80° F. 

6. — Boiled linseed oil, 3 gal. ; spirits of 
turpentine, 3 pt. ; patent driers, 3 oz. ; 
powdered sulphur, % oz. ; yellow ocher 
or other pigment), q. s. 

7. — Grind 96 lb. of English ocher with 
boiled oil, and add to it 16 lb. of black 
paint. Dissolve 1 lb. of yellow soap in 
1 pailful of water, on the fire, and mix 
it, while hot, with the paint. Lay this 
composition, without wetting it, upon the 
canvas as stiff as conveniently can be 
done with the brush, so as to form a 
smooth surface ; the next day, or the day 
after (if the latter, so much the better), 
lay on a second coat of ocher and black, 
with very little, if any, soap ; allow this 

1] 



Waterproofing and Fireproofing 



(Waterproofing) 



coat a day to dry, and then finish the 
canvas with black paint. 

Carriage Covers, Waterproof Finish for. 
Melt 6.35 parts of carnauba wax, dis- 
solve in it 0.57 part of stearate of alum- 
ina, add 25.40 parts each of dark mineral 
oil and cotton oil and 6.35 parts of bone 
black ; stir well together, and add, when 
somewhat cooled, 25.40 parts of rosin 
spirit. 

Coat, Waterproof. 

Isinglass, alum, soap, equal parts; wa- 
ter, sufficient. Dissolve each separately, 
and mix the solutions, with which imbue 
the cloth on the wrong side. Dry, and 
brush the cloth well, first with a dry 
brush, and' afterward (lightly) with a 
brush dipped in water. 

Cotton, Linen, Jute and Hemp. 

1. — Put into a bath of ammoniacal 
cupric sulphate of 10° B. at a tempera- 
ture of 25° C. ; let steep thoroughly, then 
put in a bath of caustic soda (20° B.), 
and dry. To increase the impermeability, 
a bath of sulphate of alumina may be sub- 
stituted for the caustic soda. 

2. — Linen or Calico. — a. — The Manner 
in Which Sea Fishermen do Coats and 
Leggings. — Whatever the article is, let it 
be stretched on a table. Make a very 
thick paint of whatever color is wished. 
An invisible green is, perhaps, as good 
as any. Take a large lump of common 
brown soap, pretty freshly cut from a 
bar, in the left hand, and every time you 
replenish the brush with paint rub well 
on the soap, and take up as much as 
possible, and rub well on one surface of 
the calico or linen. It will take long to 
do, and should be hung in the windiest 
place you can find. Summer is the best 
time, but a month will see it in very 
usable order, and you will have a supple 
and perfectly waterproof garment as 
paint can make. After wearing a few 
times, a second coat would be advisable, 
which will dry in half the time of the 
first, and must be done in the same way. 

b. — A solution of alumina sulphate in 
10 times its weight of water, and a soap 
bath of the following composition : 1 oz. 
of light-colored rosin and 1 oz. of crystal- 
lized soda are boiled in 10 oz. of water 
until dissolved. The rosin soap is pre- 
cipitated with ^ oz. of table salt, and is 
subsequently dissolved along with 1 oz. 
of white curd soap in 30 oz. of hot water. 
It should be put in wooden tubs for use. 
On made-up articles, the two solutions 



(Waterproofing) 



can be applied with a brush and then 
rinsed off. 

Damp-proof Composition. 

1. — Mineral naphtha, 20 gal. ; mineral 
turps, 10 gal. ; rosin, 112 lb. ; dammar 
siftings, 28 lb. Run the rosin ; when 
melted, take away from fire and add the 
turps and naphtha ; dissolve the dammar 
siftings, and mix in. When thoroughly 
mixed, add 2Vo gal. of boiled oil. Strain. 

2.— Buff.— Use 11/2 lb. of sulphide of 
zinc and ^^ lb. of Oxford ocher to every 
gallon of spirit. 

3. — Drah.—TJse 1% lb. of sulphate of 
zinc, 1.4 lb. of raw Turkey umber, and 
^ lb. of Oxford ocher. 

4. — Green. — Use 2 lb. of deep Bruns- 
wick green to 1 gal. of liquid. 

5. — Red. — Use to every gallon of liquid 
1% lb. of Venetian red. 

Q.— White.— \5&Q 1^2 lb. of sulphide of 
zinc to every gallon. 

Felt Hats. 

1. — It is made of shellac dissolved in 
water by the aid of ammonia. 

2. — The stuff of coarse hat bodies is 
imbued with drying oil, prepared by boil- 
ing 50 parts of linseed oil with 1 part 
each of white lead, litharge and umber ; 
the felt to be dried in a stove, and then 
polished by pumice ; 5 or 6 coats of oil 
are required ; the surface is at last var- 
nished. When the hat is intended to be 
stiff, the fabric is to be impregnated, first 
of all, with paste, then stove dried, cut 
into the desired shape, and pumiced re- 
peatedly ; lastly, placed in a hot iron 
mold and exposed to strong pressure. 

3. — Remove lining of hat, and paint the 
inside with Canada balsam, made hot. 
Hats made waterproof, and not ventilated, 
will bring on premature baldness ; so 
punch a few holes in the side. 

4.— Boil 8 lb. of shellac, 3 lb. of frank- 
incense and 1 lb. of borax in sufficient 
water. 

Fishing Lines. 

1. — Boiled oil, 2 parts ; gold size, 1 
part. Put in a bottle, shake well, and 
it is ready for use. Apply with a piece 
of flannel, expose to the air, and dry. 
After using the line 2 or 3 times it should 
have another coat, the application being 
repeated when necessary. 

2. — Apply a mixture of 2 parts of 
boiled linseed oil and 1 part of good size ; 
expose to the air, and dry. 

Floors. 

Flooring may be made impermeable by 
painting it with a solution of paraffine 



[899] 



Waterproofing and Fireproofing 



(Waterproofing) 



wax in kerosene. The coat lasts for 2 
years. (See also Wood.) 

Iron Pipes. 

1. — Coating /or.— Pitch, 112 lb.; coal 
tar, 160 lb. ; creosote oil, 160 lb. ; linseed 
oil, 112 lb. ; rosin, 14 lb. Proportions of 
tar and creosote can be varied. Melt at 
300° F., and dip in the iron pipes. 

2. — Composition for Preserving. — Coal 
tar, 60 parts ; pitch, 40 parts ; linseed oil, 
6 parts ; rosin, 5 parts. Heat together 
to 300° F., and dip in the pipes. 

Leather. 

1. — Add to a boiling solution of com- 
mon yellow soap, in water, a solution of 
alum or alum cake (alumina sulphate) as 
long as a separation of white alumina 
soap takes place ; allow the precipitate 
to subside, wash it with hot water, heat 
moderately for some time to expel adher- 
ing water, and dissolve the semi-trans- 
parent mass in warm oil of turpentine. 
The solution may be applied by brush, 
or by dipping and rolling. Oil and colors 
may be added to the bath, and the sub- 
stance dried in the air, or more rapidly 
in a drying-room at 90 to 100° F. (32 to 
38° C), with care to prevent fire. 

2. — Best white or yellow wax, 100 oz. ; 
Burgundy pitch, 6 oz. ; ground-nut oil, 8 
oz. ; iron sulphate, 5 oz. ; essence of 
thyme, 2 oz. 

3. — A method of waterproofing leather 
and raw hides, used in Southern Austria, 
is as follows : Impregnate the substance 
with a gelatine solution, mixed with some 
mineral salt to coagulate the gelatine in 
the pores. The following mixture can be 
used : Water, 1,200 parts ; gelatine, 15 
parts ; potash bichromate, 5 parts. 

4. — Water, 1,500 parts ; gelatine, 50 
parts ; potash bichromate, 30 parts. The 
temperature of the solution may vary 
from 53° F. (10° C.) to boiling point. 
When the bichromate percentage is small 
the liquor is used cold, and the leather 
or hide is immersed for 24 hours ; as the 
proportion approaches the point of satu- 
ration the temperature must approximate 
more nearly to boiling, and the time of 
immersion be reduced until it becomes 
momentary. The bichromate solution 
may be replaced by the following : Water, 
1,000 parts ; gelatine, 10 parts ; lead ace- 
tate, 100 parts ; alum, 100 parts. In 
every case, after impregnation on one or 
both sides, the leather or hide should be 
dried, and dressed on both sides with par- 
affine; 



(Waterproofing) 



Oil, Waterproofing. 

1. — The manner of making oilcloth or 
oilskin was at one period a mystery. The 
process is now well understood, and is 
equally simple and useful. Dissolve some 
good rosin or lac over the fire in drying 
linseed oil, till the rosin is dissolved, and 
the oil brought to the thickness of a bal- 
sam. If this be spread upon canvas or 
any other linen cloth, so as fully to drench 
and entirely glaze it over, the cloth, if 
then suffered to dry thoroughly, will be 
quite impenetrable to wet of every de- 
scription. This varnish may either be 
worked by itself or with some color added 
to it ; as verdigris for a green, umber for 
a hair color, white lead and lampblack 
for a gray, indigo and white for a light 
blue, etc. To give the color you have only 
to grind it with the last coat of varnish 
you lay on. You must be as careful as 
possible to lay on the varnish equally in 
all parts. 

2. — A better method, however, of pre- 
paring oilcloth is first to cover the cloth 
or canvas with a liquid paste, made with 
drying oil in the following manner : Take 
Spanish white or pipeclay which has been 
completely cleaned by washing and sifting 
it from all impurities, and mix it up with 
boiled oil to which a drying quality has 
been given by adding a dose of litharge, 
one-quarter the weight of the oil. This 
mixture, being brought to the consistency 
of thin paste, is spread over the cloth 
or canvas by means of an iron spatula, 
equal in length to the breadth of the cloth. 
When the first coating is dry a second is 
applied. The roughness occasioned by the 
coarseness of the cloth or the unequal 
application of the paste are smoothed 
down with pumice, reduced to powder, 
and rubbed over the cloth with a bit of 
soft serge or cork dipped in water. When 
the last coating is dry the cloth must 
be well washed in water to clean it, and 
after it is dried a varnish composed of 
lac dissolved in linseed oil boiled with 
turpentine is applied to it, and the process 
is complete. The color of the varnished 
cloth thus produced is yellow, but differ- 
ent tints can be given to it in the manner 
already pointed out. An improved de- 
scription of this article, intended for 
printed and figured varnished cloths, is 
obtained by using a finer paste and cloth 
of a more delicate texture. 

3. — Dissolve 1 oz. of beeswax in 1 pt, 
of the best boiled linseed oil, over a gen- 
tle fire, applying when cold, with a piece 
of rag, rubbing it well in, and afterward 



[900} 



Waterproofing' and Fireproofing 



(Waterproofing) 



hanging up to dry, which will take 4 or 5 
days. 

4. — Paint with boiled linseed oil, col- 
ored to suit. It must be done in a very 
hot room or in a bright sunlight. A 
shoebrush is the best for applying it. A 
little patent drier may be added. It is 
said that the Chinese use a mixture of 1 
oz. each of beeswax and soft soap with 
the oil, which is then boiled down. If 
the surface seems tacky, varnish with 
shellac varnish. In any case, apply the 
oil as thin as possible, and let it dry per- 
fectly between successive coats. 

Oilcloth. 

Take 20 oz. of lard oil, 10 oz. of par- 
affine, 1 oz. of beeswax ; heat the oil over 
a slow fire, and when hot add the par- 
affine and wax ; allow the whole to remain 
over the fire until the latter articles are 
melted, and add a few drops of sassafras 
oil or other essential oil to preserve it. 

Oilskins, Seamen's. 

The material should be fine twilled cal- 
ico, dipped in bullock's blood, and well 
dried in a current of air ; then 2 or 3 
coats of raw linseed oil, with a little gold 
size or litharge in it (say 1 oz. to 1 pt. 
of oil.) Each coat should be allowed to 
dry thoroughly before the next is put on 
(as before in a current of air, care being 
taken to shelter it from both sun and 
rain). Oilskins made in this way, both 
here and in the tropics, have stood for 
years. 

Paper. 

1. — It is a well-known fact that cellu- 
lose is soluble in cuprous ammonia solu- 
tion ; paper, linen, and other vegetable 
tissues, laid therein, undergo a sort of 
surface amalgamation of the fibers, which 
alters their absorbent powers. A sheet 
of paper so treated, and dried afterward, 
becomes impermeable to water, and this 
property is not effaced by subsequent boil- 
ing. Sheets of paper soaked in the solu- 
tion, and laid one upon the other, and 
rolled, become amalgamated into a kind 
of cardboard, possessing great elasticity 
and cohesive power. The cuprous solu- 
tion may be prepared by agitating copper 
filings in a closed vessel containing liquid 
ammonia of 0.88 sp. gr. 

2. — Dissolve 8 oz. of alum and 3% oz. 
of Castile soap in 4 pt. of water, and 2 
oz. of gum arable and 4 oz. of glue, sep- 
arately, in 4 pt. of water ; mix the solu- 
tions, heat slightly, dip in the single 
sheets, and hang up until dry. 

3. — Take pale shellac, 5 oz. ; borax, 1 



(Waterproofing) 



[901] 



oz. ; water, 1 pt. Digest at nearly the 
boiling point till dissolved, then strain. 
This forms also an excellent vehicle for 
water colors, inks, etc. If required quite 
transparent, the lac should be bleached as 
follows : Dissolve shellac in a lye of 
pearlash, by boiling ; filter, and pass an 
excess of chlorine gas through the solu- 
tion, which will precipitate the white lac. 
Wash and dry the precipitate, and cast it, 
if desired, into sticks. 

4. — Treat the tissue to be waterproofed 
with chloride, sulphate, or other soluble 
salt or salts of zinc or cadmium, in con- 
junction with ammonia, applied in the 
form of a solution composed of about 3 
parts of crystallized zinc sulphate or 3 
parts of a solution of zinc chloride at 
96° Tw. (47° B.), and about 2 parts of 
a solution of ammonia of sp. gr. 0.875. 
The paper which it is proposed to treat 
is passed through a cistern lined with 
lead, and specially constructed for this 
purpose, with an arrangement of rollers, 
so as to allow the material to pass through 
at a speed varying from 30 to 36 yards 
per minute, according to the thickness. 
In its passage through the liquor the ma- 
terial becomes perfectly saturated. From 
the bath it passes through a pair of 
squeezing rollers, which remove the su- 
perfluous liquor, and harden it by com- 
pression. From the rollers it is next 
passed to a suspending apparatus, then 
hung along the room in folds, in a tem- 
perature of 110° F. (43° C), until it is 
sufficiently dry to be taken down. The 
rollers in the cistern, the squeezing roll- 
ers, and the suspending apparatus are so 
speeded that the material is taken from 
one to the other without any inconveni- 
ence or stoppage. 

5, — Treat with glue, gelatine, or other 
similar substances, in conjunction with 
bichromate or chromate of potash, soda 
or alumina, applied in the form of a so- 
lution of about 1 part of glue or gelatine 
in about 8 parts of water at 1G0° F. 
(71° C.) and a solution of 1 part of 
potash bichromate in 15 parts of water. 
The mode of treatment in this case dif- 
fers from 4 only in two points : (a) Dur- 
ing the time the material is traversing the 
bath, as already described, the solution 
is maintained at 160° F. (71° C.) by 
means of siphon pipes charged with 
steam, (b) Instead of suspending to dry, 
the material is immediately passed over 
three steam cylinders 7 ft. in diameter, 
carrying a pressure of 15 to 20 lb. to the 
square inch. The cylinders are provided 
with gauges to indicate the pressure they 
are required to carry, and also with safe- 



Waterproofing and Fireproofing 



(Waterproofing) 



ty valves to prevent this pressure from 
being exceeded. The bath must always 
be kept in a state of darkness. 

6. — The paper is treated with acetate, 
sulphate or chloride of alumina, applied 
in the form of a solution of 1 part of any 
of these compounds in 6 parts of water 
at 160° F. (71° C). The same condi- 
tions are required to produce a water- 
proof material wuth these compounds as 
those described in 4 and 5, with this dif- 
ference, that it is not absolutely necessary 
to preserve darkness during the process. 

7. — Mix 28 pa^ts of ordinary olive oil, 
28 parts of rape-seed oil and 28 parts of 
linseed oil, and add to the mixture a solu- 
tion of 8 parts of wax in 8 parts of oil 
of turpentine. This mixture is applied 
on the paper on one side or both sides, by 
hand or in machine. The paper thus pre- 
pared is said to remain waterproof longer 
than the waterproof paper now in the 
market. 

8. — Packing Paper. — a. — Dissolve 1% 
lb. of white soap in 1 qt. of water. In 
another quart of water dissolve 1% oz. 
of gum arable and 5 oz. of glue. Mix the 
two solutions, warm them, soak the pa- 
per in the liquid, and pass it between roll- 
ers, or simply hang up to di'y. 

b. — Packing paper may be made water- 
tight by dissolving 1.8 lb. of white soap 
in 1 qt. of water, and in another quart 
1.8 oz. of gum arable and 5.5 oz. of glue. 
The paper is soaked in the mixture and 
hung up to dry. 

9. — Parchment Paper. — a. — To Render 
Paper Impervious to Grease and Water. — 
Parchment paper is plunged into a warm 
solution of concentrated gelatine to which 
has been added 2% to 3% of glycerine, 
and allowed to dry. The resulting paper 
is impervious to grease. If desired to 
make a paper waterproof, the same parch- 
ment paper is dipped in carbon bisulphide 
containing 1% of linseed oil and 4% of 
india-rubber. 

b. — Thoroughly wash woolen or cotton 
fabrics, so as to remove gum, starch, and 
other foreign bodies ; then immerse them 
in a bath containing a small quantity of 
paper pulp. The latter is made to pene- 
trate the fabric by being passed between 
rollers. Thus prepared, it is afterward 
dipped into sulphuric acid of suitable con- 
centration, and then repeatedly washed 
in a bath of aqueous ammonia until every 
trace of acid has been removed. Finally, 
it is pressed between rollers to remove the 
excess of liqrid, dried between two other 
rollers which are covered with felt, and 
lastly, calendered. 

10. — Roofing. — Old newspapers may be 



(Waterproofing) 



converted into waterproof roofing mate- 
rial by applying coats of hot coal tar with 
a brush, uniting two or more thicknesses. 

Roofs. 

Paint for Roofing Paper. — 1. — Dissolve 
rosin in a hot mixture of a fat oil and 
coal tar, then add to this an intimate 
mixture of sulphide of barium and sul- 
phide of zinc, and coat the roof to be pro- 
tected with the mixture. 

2. — According to Roedelius, 25 parts of 
distilled coal tar, 18 parts of distilled 
pine tar, 15 parts of silicic acid, 10 parts 
of magnesia, 6 parts of linseed oil, 6 parts 
of anthracene oil, 8 parts of oxide of iron, 
8 parts of oxide of lead and 4 parts of 
silicate of soda must be intimately mixed 
at about 212° F., until a uniform mass 
is obtained. The mass, thinly applied, is 
transformed, within 12 hours, into a plas- 
tic cement, of gutta percha-like consist- 
ency, that iSj in an extraordinary degree, 
weatherproof. 

Roof Stopping. — 1. — Best. — Common 
rosin, 56 lb. ; parafiine wax, 20 lb. ; cal- 
cined flint, 50 lb. ; raw linseed oil, 3 gal. ; 
red lead, 3 lb. ; wood tar, 3 lb. ; slaked 
lime, 3 lb. Boil the oil with the red lead, 
melt in the rosin and the wax. Heat the 
tar and lime together, add to the oil mix- 
ture, then add the calcined flint, and thor- 
oughly mix. 

2.— Black "American Roof Paint."— 
To any quantity of coal tar add as much 
lime water as it will stand ; it is then 
ready for use. If required with a luster 
surface, add a small quantity of a good 
Brunswick black. 

3. — Brown "American Roof Paint." — 
Proceed as for black, adding strong Vene- 
tian red to shade required. 

4. — Dark. — Common rosin, 42 lb. ; raw 
linseed oil, 2% gal. ; stout terebine, % 
gal. ; paraffine wax, 4 lb. ; powdered slate, 
14 lb. ; gas tar, 14 lb. Melt the rosin and 
wax together, and stir in the oil and 
terebine ; then add the powdered slate and 
gas tar, and thoroughly stir. For stop- 
ping roofs, melt in a ladle, and pour along 
the cracks, §nd run well in with a plumb- 
er's soldering iron. For walls, melt, and 
mix with some ot the material of the 
wall — stone or brick, as the case may be — 
crushed very fine, and applied hot, as 
putty. When cold, scrape off the super- 
fluous material. This is very useful for 
mending slate roofs and cisterns, and lead 
roofs, gutters, parapets, balconies, win- 
dow sills, etc., and also as a damp course. 
Absolutely impervious to water, and is 
not affected by solar heat or the most 



[902] 



Waterproofing and Fireproofing 



( Waterproofing ) 



intense frost; it forms a perfect cure for 
leaky roofs. 

5. — Elastic Roof Paint. — Gum shellac, 
7 lb. ; soda crystals, 1 lb. ; water, 12 gal. 
Place in a pan over a fire ; keep at a good 
heat, but do not boil ; when all is dis- 
solved — should be in from 1 to 2 hours — 
remove, and keep in cans, tightly corked. 
To use, add 1 gal. of above to 1 gal. of 
ordinary paint. It will not interfere with 
consistency or covering power of the 
paint. Is weatherproof, and suitable for 
both wood and metal. 

6. — Light. — Common rosin, 42 lb. ; raw 
linseed oil, 2i/^ gal. ; stout terebine, 14 
gal. ; paraflane wax, 14 lb. ; powdered 
limestone, 28 lb. 

Sailcloth. (See also Awnings; Canvas.) 
1. — Sailcloth, allowed to lie about in 
a wet condition, or rolled up wet, will 
begin to rot, and the spots cannot after- 
ward altogether be removed by washing, 
and not even by chlorine. If dried in the 
stretched condition, the cloth will not 
spoil. This can be done on a fully manned 
boat, but not always on other craft. Soap 
and brush, applied at once, will do some 
good. There is also a mistaken idea that 
rinsing with fresh water, and drying in 
the sun, will prevent mischief. To avoid 
all trouble, the sailcloth should be im- 
pregnated. The weaver's glue has first 
to be removed, which is accomplished by 
boiling a roll of about 6 pieces in malt, 
or also in caustic soda. In the latter 
case, every packet must have a fresh lye, 
but the subsequent washing in dilute hy- 
drochloric acid does not call for a re- 
newal of the bath every time. The cloth 
is dried hanging, as in all subsequent op- 
erations ; there is more shrinkage on a 
cylinder. For impregnation, a solution 
of alum and phenylate of lime is recom- 
mended: The impregnated cloth passes 
between two rolls, the upper of metal, 
the lower of paper. Finally, comes the 
fixing with soda silicate. 

2. — First prepare a zinc soap by com- 
pletely dissolving 56 parts of soft soap 
in 12.5 to 150 parts of water, and addi'^g 
28 to 33 parts of zinc vitriol to the boil- 
ing liquid, stirring constantly. The zinc 
soap will float on the surface, and form, 
when cold, a hard white mass, which must 
be removed, and redissolved in fresh boil- 
ing water to free it from any alkaline 
sulphates. Then pour 233.5 parts of crude 
linseed oil (free from slime) into a boiler 
with 2.5 parts of best potash and 5 parts 
of water. Boil the mass till it becomes 
white and opaque, forming a fluid soapy 
compound. Add 1.25 parts of sugar of 



(Waterproofing) 



lead, 1 part of litharge, 2 parts of red 
lead and 10.5 parts of brown rosin. Boil 
the whole for about an hour, taking care 
that the temperature does not exceed 100° 
C. (212° F.), and stir thoroughly from 
time to time. Now add 15 parts of the 
zinc soap, and stir till the metallic soap 
has combined with the oil ; here also the 
temperature must not be raised above 
100° C. When the ingredients are thor- 
oughly mixed add a solution of 1.5 parts 
of india-rubber in 8.56 parts of turpen- 
tine oil, and stir till it has thoroughly 
combined with the mass. Coat one side 
of the cloth with this compound, which 
should be 70° C. (158° F.) hot, by means 
of a brush. Hang the article up to dry, 
and then apply a second coat of the com- 
pound at the same temperature, again al- 
lowing it to dry. The fibers will now be 
completely saturated, and the fabric ren- 
dered waterproof. 

Silk, Varnished. 

This material, often employed for um- 
brellas, is prepared with a paste composed 
of linseed oil, boiled with ^^ part of 
litharge, 16 parts of dried and sifted pipe- 
clay, 3 parts of litharge very finely 
ground, dried and sifted, and 1 part of 
lampblack. After washing the silk, fat 
copal varnish is applied instead of that 
used for oilcloth. 

Stone Preserving Compositions: Damp- 
proof Compositions Made by Var- 
nish Processes. 

Special Gum Compound for Use in the 
Stone Liquids. — Raw linseed oil, 6 gal. ; 
india-rubber, 6 lb. ; common rosin, 6 lb. ; 
paraffine wax, 56 lb. Dissolve the rubber 
in the oil by gentle heat, and with con- 
tinual stirring. When the rubber is dis- 
solved melt the rosin, and stir in. Break 
up the wax and stir well in. When all 
is thoroughly mixed, strain through a 
coarse sieve while hot. The heat during 
this process should not be excessive, or the 
rubber loses some of its elastic qualities. 
It facilitates the manufacture of this com- 
pound if it is made a rule to have a stock 
of rubber cut up and soaked in linseed 
oil, always ready. It will then readily 
melt at 212° F. 

Black Gompo. — (Not used alone, but 
employed in other preparations). Black 
rosin, 68 lb. ; rosin oil, 18 gal. Boil to- 
gether till the rosin is dissolved ; strain 
while hot in tank. 

Brick Red. — Thinning liquid, 10 gal. ; 
dry zinc white, 2 lb. ; powdered Spanish 
brown, 5 lb. With these stone liquid 
compounds it is possible to preserve a 



[903] 



Waterproofing and Fireproopng 



(Waterproofing) 



stone front without altering its appear- 
ance, or it can be renovated to appear 
new without any glossy or painted look, 
its stony aspect not being altered by the 
liquid after it is dried in, so that it can 
be used when paint is entirely out of the 
question. Before applying the liquid, 
dirty surfaces should be brushed clean 
with wire brushes. 

Textiles. (See also Awnings; Canvas; 
Sailcloth; Silk.) 
1. — Lowry's Process. — Soap, 2 oz. ; 
glue, 4 oz. ; water, 1 gal. Soften the 
glue in cold water, and dissolve it, to- 
gether with the soap, in the water, by 
aid of heat and agitation. The cloth is 
filled with this solution by boiling it in 
the liquid for several hours, the time re- 
quired depending upon the kind of fiber 
and thickness of the cloth. When prop- 
erly saturated, the excess of liquid is 
wrung out, the cloth is exposed to the 
air until nearly dry, then digested for 

5 to 12 hours in the following solution : 
Alum, 13 oz. ; salt, 15 oz. ; water, 1 gal. 
It is finally wrung out, rinsed in clean 
water, and dried at a temperature of 
about 80° F. (27° C). 

2. — Paiifs Process. — Requires a small 
quantity of oil, but in other respects re- 
sembles the last. It is given as follows : 
Sodium carbonate, 1 lb. ; caustic lime, % 
lb. ; water, 2% pt. Boil together, let it 
stand to settle, then draw ofE the clear 
lye, and add to it 1 lb. of tallow, i/^ lb. 
of rosin, previously melted together. Boil, 
and stir occasionally, for half an hour ; 
then introduce 3 oz. of glue (previously 
softened), 3 oz. of linseed oil, and con- 
tinue the boiling and stirring for another 
half hour. In waterproofing, ^ oz. of 
this soap is mixed with 1 gal. of hot wa- 
ter, and in this the goods are soaked for 
about 24 hours, according to thickness 
and character. The pieces are allowed to 
drain until partly dried, then soaked for 

6 hours or more in a solution prepared 
as follows : Aluminum sulphate, 1 lb. ; 
lead acetate, % lb. ; water, 8 gal. Shake 
together, allow to settle, and draw off 
the clear liquid. Wring out after rins- 
ing, and dry at a temperature of 80° F. 
(27° C). 

3. — Reimann's Process. — ^The cloth is 
passed slowly, by machinery, through a 
tank divided into 3 compartments, the 
first containing a warm solution of alum, 
the second a warm solution of lead ace- 
tate, and the third pure water, which is 
constantly renewed. The cloth, on pass- 
ing from the latter, is brushed, and beaten 
to remove the salt adhering to the surface, 



( Waterproofing ) 



and finally hot-pressed and brushed. In 
this case, lead sulphate is deposited in 
the fibers. 

4. — Townsend's Process. — Two solu- 
tions are used, as follows : Dextrine, 20 
lb. ; white soap, 10 lb. ; water, 16 gal. 
The solution is boiled for some minutes, 
and if color is required, 1 pt. of logwood 
liquor is added. The second solution con- 
sists of a saturated solution of alum in 
water, or 6 lb. of zinc sulphate and 9 gal. 
of water. 

5. — Bullard's Process. — Somewhat sim- 
ilar to Reimann's. In this, strong aque- 
ous solutions of aluminum sulphate and 
lead acetate are used alternately. 

6. — Coating the under side of the cloth 
with a solution of isinglass, and then ap- 
plying an infusion of galls, is another 
method, a compound being thus formed 
which is a variety of leather. 

7. — Another and easier method is the 
formation of aluminum stearate in the 
fiber of the cloth, which may readily be 
done by immersing it in a solution of 
aluminum sulphate in water (1 in 10), 
and, without allowing it to dry, passing 
through a solution of soap made from 
soda and tallow, or similar fat, in hot 
water. Reaction between the aluminum 
sulphate and the soap produces aluminum 
stearate and sodium sulphate. The for- 
mer is insoluble, and remains in the fiber ; 
the latter is removed by subsequently rins- 
ing the fabric in water. 

8. — Acetate of lead, 16 av.oz. ; tannin, 
2 av.oz. ; sulphate of soda, 1 av.oz. ; alum, 
10 av.oz. ; water, 1 gal. Dissolve the 
alum and soda salt in half the water, and 
the lead salt in the other half, mix the 
solutions, let stand overnight, decant the 
clear liquid, and in this dissolve the tan- 
nin ; filter through paper, and add enough 
water to make the whole measure 1 gal. 

Umbrellas. 

First sponge the cloth on both sides 
with a solution of 1 part of sulphate of 
alumina in 10 parts of water, then with 
a solution of soap, which is prepared by 
boiling 1 part of light-colored rosin and 
1 part of crystallized carbonate of soda 
with 10 parts of water until the rosin 
is dissolved. The rosin soap thus formed 
is to be separated by the addition of com- 
mon salt. This soap is then dissolved, 
together with 1 part of soda soap, by boil- 
ing in 30 parts of water. After this last 
sponging, rinse in the rain. 

Wallpaper, To Render Washable. 

1.— Wallpapers that are exposed to 
many vapors or smoke, and are liable to 



[904] 



Waterproofing and Fireproofing 



( Waterproofing ) 



become soiled or black, may, according to 
Fiir's Haus, be easily rendered washable, 
either before or after they are hung, by 
preparing them in the following manner : 
Dissolve 2 parts of borax and 2 parts of 
shellac in 24 parts of water, and strain 
through a fine cloth. With a brush or a 
sponge apply this to the surface of the 
paper, and when it is dry polish it to a 
high gloss with a soft brush. Thus treat- 
ed, the paper may be washed without fear 
of removing the colors or even smearing 
or blurring them. It may be treated on 
or off the walls. 

2. — The following coating has proved 
very effective in preventing the penetra- 
tion of moisture on the weather side of 
walls : Pitch, 50 lb. ; rosin, 30 lb. ; red 
ocher, 6 lb. ; fine brick dust, 12 lb. ; all 
boiled together, with constant stirring, 
and then sufficient oil of turpentine — 
about one-quarter of the volume of the 
above — added, to cause it to spread rap- 
idly. It should be laid on as thin as pos- 
sible, with a bristle brush. 

Wood. 

1. — In order to render wood waterproof 
and fireproof, the following "silicification" 
process is made use of : The small boards 
are first laid into a water glass solution 
of 5 to 10° B., where they are left 10 
to 12 hours, when they are taken out and 
allowed to drip off. After drying they are 
placed in a solution (gravity 2 to 3° B.) 
of calcium chloride, magnesium chloride 
and ammonium chloride. In this they are 
left 4 to 6 hours, and after dripping off 
and drying again they are ready for use. 

2. — Dry the wood, and saturate with 
hot paraffine oil or melted paraffine. 



(Waterproofing) 



Wooden Dishes, Water-tight Preparation 
for. 

1. — Common brown rosin, % lb. ; bees- 
wax, 2 oz. Melt together in a tin pan 
(preserved meat tin will do) ; when quite 
fluid, run solution rapidly all over where 
required. Wood must be perfectly dry 
and warm. 

2. — Soak % lb. of best glue in cold 
water until quite soft ; melt in the glue 
kettle. When quite dissolved, pour in 

1 oz. of hot saturated solution of bichro- 
mate of potash, and stir well. It is now 
ready for use ; apply with a brush. Put 
the article so treated to dry in full day- 
light for a day or two, and then apply 
strong alum solution. The vessel is now 
ready for use, but must be washed first. 

Woolen Cloth. 

1. — Powdered alum, 4 oz. ; sugar of 
lead, 41/^ oz. ; dissolved in 3 gal. of water, 
stirred twice a day for 2 days. When 
perfect subsidence has taken place, pour 
off the clear liquid only, and add to it 

2 dr. of isinglass, previously dissolved in 
warm water, taking care to mix thor- 
oughly. Steep the garments in this mix- 
ture for 6 hours, after which hang up 
to drain and dry. Wringing must be 
avoided. This recipe is used by woolen 
cloth waterproofers. 

2. — Boil 4% oz. of white soap in 2% 
gal. of water, and separately dissolve 5% 
oz. of alum in 2^ gal. of water. Heat 
the two solutions to 190° F. (88° C), 
pass the fabric first through the soap bath 
and then through the alum, and finally 
dry in the open air. 



r.Bos] 



CHAPTEE XXVII 



WEITma MATEEIALS 



Bags. 



WRITING MATERIALS 
(See Marking Inks.) 



Blotting Paper. 

1. — Blotting Block. — Steep 50 parts of 
wool fibers in 1,000 parts of water in 
which 4 parts of soda have been dis- 
solved ; in addition, mix 945 parts of cal- 
cined plaster with 1 part of tartaric acid, 
and add the powder to the soda solution. 
The carbonic acid set free aerates the 
plaster paste, forming a very porous mass, 
which very readily absorbs ink and other 
fluids. 

2. — Chemical Blotting Pad. — A cheap 
and excellent substitute for blotting paper 
may be extemporized as follows : Mix 
14 parts, by weight, of gypsum and 2 
parts of potato flour with sufficient water 
to produce a plastic paste. Pour or press 
into a suitable mold. As soon as the mass 
has become hard and dry it affords an 
admirable blotter, 

8. — Substitute. — A cheap and excellent 
substitute for blotting paper may be ex- 
temporized as follows : Mix 14 parts, by 
weight, of plaster qf paris and 2 parts of 
potato flour with sufficient water to pro- 
duce a plastic paste. Pour or press into 
a suitable mold, and as soon as the mass 
becomes hard and dry it affords an ad- 
mirable blotter. 

Crayons. 

Indelible Oil Crayon. — The nearest ap- 
proach to preparations of this kind that 
we know of are the pencils made at the 
Faber Pencil Works in Germany, for 
sketching on glass, porcelain, etc. 

Black. — Lampblack, 10 parts ; white 
wax, 40 parts ; tallow, 10 parts. 

Dark Blue. — Prussian blue, 15 parts ; 
gum arable, 5 parts ; tallow. 10 parts. 

Light Blue. — Prussian blue, 10 parts ; 
white wax, 20 parts ; tallow, 10 parts. 

White. — Zinc white, 40 parts ; white 
wax, 20 parts ; tallow, 10 parts. 

Yellow. — Chrome yellow, 10 parts ; 
wax, 20 parts ; tallow, 10 parts. 



The colors are mixed with the fats in 
warmed vessels, levigated with the same, 
and are then allowed to cool until they 
have acquired the proper consistency for 
being transferred to the presses. In these 
the mass is treated and shaped, similarly 
as the graphite in the presses, for ordi- 
nary pencils. 

HEKTOGRAPH 

1. — The hektograph, or copying pad, is 
very useful in copying writing or draw- 
ings when only a limited number of cop- 
ies is required. A practical hektograph 
may be prepared according to the follow- 
ing directions : Soak 1 oz. of Cooper's 
gelatine overnight in enough cold water 
to cover it well, taking care that all the 
gelatine is swelled. Prepare a salt water 
bath by dissolving 2 oz. of common salt 
in 1 pt. of water. Heat 6 or 7 oz. of pure 
glycerine over the salt water bath to a 
temperature of 200° F, Pour off from 
the gelatine all the water remaining un- 
absorbed, and add the gelatine to the 
hot glycerine. Continue the heating for 
an hour, carefully stirring the mixture 
occasionally, avoiding as much as possi- 
ble the formation of bubbles or froth. 
Finally, add 20 drops of oil of cloves to 
prevent decomposition. The composition 
is now ready for pouring into the vessel 
designed to hold it while in use. This 
vessel may be made especially for the 
purpose, or a shallow cake tin may be 
used. After the tin is filled with the 
composition it must be placed in a level 
position, in a cool place, free from dust, 
and allowed to remain for at least 5 
hours. To prepare the pad for use it is 
necessary to pass a wet sponge lightly 
over the face of the gelatine and allow it 
to nearly dry before taking the first copy. 
If this precaution is neglected the face 
of the pad will be ruined by the first 
transfer. The writing or drawing to be 
copied must be made with hektograph ink, 
using a new steel pen. (For ink, see 
Inks, Hektograph.) After the writing be- 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[907] 



Writing Materials 



(Hektograph) 



comes dry it is placed face down on the 
pad and rubbed gently on the back to in- 
sure the perfect contact of every part. 
After remaining on the pad for about a 
minute, remove the original and proceed 
to take the copies by placing the paper 
on the pad and removing it therefrom, 




Hektograph 

always beginning at the corner, as shown 
in the engraving. After taking the de- 
sired number of copies, or when the im- 
pression is exhausted, the pad is to be 
washed lightly with a sponge wet in cold 
water. The pad is then allowed to dry 
before being used again. The washing is 
unnecessary when the pad is left unused 
for 2 or 3 days, as the ink will be ab- 
sorbed so as not to interfere with making 
a new transfer. The pad unavoidably 
wastes away in use. If its surface should 
become uneven, or should it be injured 
in any way, it can be restored by reheat- 
ing it over the salt water bath and allow- 
ing it to cool as before described. Fail- 
ure in making the hektograph results from 
either of the following causes : ^ Inatten- 
tion to the instructions ; insuflBcient heat- 
ing of the composition ; the use of too 
much glycerine, which prevents gelatiniza- 
tion. The obvious remedy for the last 
difficulty is to use less glycerine or more 
gelatine. No. 2 (kaolin formula) is rec- 
ommended, as the composition gelatinizes 
quickly. 

2.— Gelatine, 100 parts; water, 375 
parts; glycerine, 375 parts; kaolin, 50 
parts. _^^ 

3. — Gelatine, 100 parts; dextrine, 100 
parts ; glycerine, 1,000 parts ; barium sul- 
phate, q. s. 

4. — Good ordinary glue, 100 parts ; glyc- 



(Inks) 



erine, 50 parts ; finely powdered barium 
sulphate, 25 parts ; water, 375 parts. 

5. — Glue, 100 parts ; glycerine, 500 
parts ; finely powdered kaolin or baric sul- 
phate, 25 parts ; water, 375 parts. For 
ink, a concentrated solution of Paris vio- 
let is recommended. To remove old copy 
from pad, a little muriatic acid is added 
to the water. 

6.— For a tin dish, 7 x 11 in. : Glue, 
3 oz. ; glycerine, 15 oz. ; kaolin, % oz. ; 
water, 11^4: oz. 

_ 7. — Soak 2 parts of best glue or gela- 
tine in cold water overnight. Pour off 
the excess of water. Warm the glue in 
a water bath, and add 20 to 24 parts of 
glycerine, 8 to 12 parts of finely ground 
heavy spar or barytes, 2 parts of dextrine. 
Mix thoroughly, stirring constantly. Pour 
the melted mixture in a shallow pan, and 
allow it to cool. Less glycerine should be 
used in warm weather. 



INKS 

The following collection of ink recipes 
is very large, and only those have been 
selected which were believed to be trust- 
worthy. Ink recipes are noted for their 
unreliability, but the following were se- 
lected principally from periodical litera- 
ture, and many are translated for the 
first time. The manufacture of writing 
ink is one of the most promising of the 
small industries. There are few chemi- 
cal preparations the use of which has be- 
come so general as that of writing ink, 
and yet it is rare to find an ink that ful- 
fills all the conditions required of it. This 
is explainable upon the ground that ink 
recipes are not constructed according to 
any chemical formula, but that we are 
compelled to rely upon empirical experi- 
ments, and make use of the results gath- 
ered by practical experience. A good 
black ink must flow easily from the pen, 
and must yield either immediately or in 
a short time a deep black writing. It 
must not corrode metallic pens, nor de- 
stroy the paper. Further than this, a 
good ink should contain no considerable 
sediment when kept in airtight bottles. 
In ordinary ink bottles a sediment will 
always form, and the more it is exposed 
to the atmosphere the faster it will form. 
An ink that is to be used for important 
documents must not be washed out with 
water or absolute alcohol so as to be per- 
manently illegible. Ink may consist of 
either a clear solution of any dyestufif, or, 
as in the case of common black ink, a 
finely divided, insoluble precipitate sus- 
pended in water. The chief materials 



[908] 



Writing Materials 



(Inks) 



used for making this ink are gallnuts, 
green vitriol and gum, whicli are employed 
in the most varied proportions. The gall- 
nuts are crushed to a coarse powder and 
boiled in water, or, better, digested for 
several hours at a temperature near the 
boiling point, and the gum and green vit- 
riol added to the filtered decoction in so- 
lution. The so-called alizarine inks flow 
easily from the pen, but they mostly suf- 
fer from the fact that the writing appears 
at first only of a faint greenish, bluish 
or reddish color, although it gets darker 
afterward. The most permanent writing 
is done with India ink, because the black 
coloring matter of this ink consists of 
finely divided carbon, which is unaffected 
by chemical reagents. Its high price sel- 
dom permits of its use. 

Aniline Inks. 

Many of the aniline dyes now manu- 
factured produce good inks, particularly 
copying and hektograph inks, and serve 
well where no special permanence is re- 
quired. They become bleached from the 
action of air and light. Water containing 
lime is apt to decompose many aniline col- 
ors, hence only distilled water should be 
used in the manufacture of these inks. 

1. — Black. — a. — Water-soluble nigro- 
sine, 200 gr. ; potassium bichromate, 30 
gr. ; gelatine, 30 gr. ; water, 1 pt. Dis- 
solve the dye and the gelatine in about 
12 fl.oz. of water, with the aid of gentle 
heat, and add the bichromate, dissolved 
in the remainder of the water. Keep in 
the dark. 

b. — Methyl violet, 6 grams ; Bengal 
green, 10 grams ; Bismarck brown, 4 
grams ; acacia, 60 grams ; water, 8 fl.oz. 

2. — Blue. — Resorcin blue, M, 48 gr. ; 
sugar, 192 gr. ; oxalic acid, 10 gr. ; dis- 
tilled water, 19^ fl.oz. Mix the dye with 

1 fl.oz. t)t cold water, set aside for 2 
hours, then add the remainder of the 
water, in the hot state, and the other in- 
gredients, and stir until dissolved. Any 
other water-soluble blue may be used — 
phenyl blue, methylene blue, etc. 

B.— Red.— Eosine, 144 gr. ; sugar, 288 
gr. ; distilled water, 20 fl.oz. Mix the dye 
with 1 fl.oz. of cold water, set aside for 

2 hours, add the remainder of the water, 
hot, and the sugar, and stir until dis- 
solved. 

Autographic Ink. 

1. — White soap, 100 parts ; white wax, 
100 parts ; mutton suet, 30 parts ; shellac, 
50 parts ; mastic, 50 parts ; lampblack, 
30 or 35 parts. 



(Inks) 



2. — Use a saturated solution of alum 
with coloring matter in it, as indigo. 

Black Inks. 

1. — Tannic acid, 1 oz. ; pyrogallic acid, 
1/^ dr. ; lactate of iron^ 1 oz. ; sulphate of 
iron, 1 oz. ; pyoktannin, % dr. ; tartaric 
acid, 1 oz. ; warm water, 6 pt. Shake 
well, to dissolve. Set aside for a few 
days, shaking occasionally. Strain through 
cotton wool, and add li/^ oz. of fresh 
mucilage. This ink writes a deep black, 
and gives good copies, it is said. 

2. — An exceedingly fine ink is said to 
be produced by the following recipe : 
Galls, 11 parts ; green vitriol, 2 parts ; 
indigo solution, 1-7 part ; water, 33 parts. 
Here the relatively larger quantity makes 
the gum ^unnecessary, while the indigo so- 
lution makes the brilliant black seem still 
deeper. Writing executed with this ink 
may, it 'is true, be removed by means of 
dilute acids, but it may be rendered vis- 
ible by chemical means, 

3. — French extract of campeachy wood, 
100 parts ; lime water, 800 parts ; phenol 
(carbolic acid), 3 parts; hydrochloric 
acid, 25 parts ; gum arable, 30 parts ; red 
chromate of potash, 3 parts. The extract 
is first dissolved in the lime water, on a 
steam bath, with frequent stirring or 
shaking, after which the carbolic and hy- 
drochloric acids are added, and change 
the red color to a brownish yellow. It is 
then heated half an hour on a steam bath 
and set aside to cool. It is next filtered, 
and the gum and bichromate, dissolved 
in water, are added. Enough water is 
then added to make up the solution to 
1,800 parts. This ink is a fine red when 
used, but soon gets black, 

4, — Bruised galls, 2 lb,, digested in 2 qt. 
of alcohol at a temperature bf 104 to 
140° F. (40 to 60° C.) ; when about half 
the alcohol has evaporated add 3 qt. of 
water ; stir well, and strain through a 
linen cloth. To clarify the solution, add 
8 oz. of glycerine, 8 oz. of gum arable 
and 1 lb. of sulphate of iron, dissolved 
in water. Stir thoroughly from time to 
time, for a few days, allow to settle, and 
put in well stoppered bottles for preser- 
vation. The addition of too much sul- 
phate of iron is to be avoided, as causing 
the ink soon to turn yellow. Ink thus 
prepared is said to resist the action of 
light and air for at least 12 months with- 
out suffering any change of color. 

5. — Digest in an open vessel 42 oz. of 
coarsely powdered galls, 15 oz. of gum 
Senegal, 18 oz. of sulphate of iron, 3 dr. 
aqua ammoniae, 24 oz. of alcohol and 
18 qt. of distilled or rain water. Continue 



9091 



Writing Materials 



I 



(Inks) 



the digestion till the fluid has assumed a 
deep black color. 

6. — To good gall ink add a strong so- 
lution of fine Prussian blue in distilled 
water; the ink writes greenish blue, but 
afterward turns black. It is said that it 
cannot be erased either by acids or alka- 
lies without the destruction of the paper. 

Blue-Black Ink. 

1. — Aleppo nutgalls "blue," 4^/^ oz. ; 
bruised cloves, Ys oz. ; cold water, 40 oz. ; 
ferrous sulphate (purified crystals), li/^ 
oz. ; sulphuric acid, 35 drops ; sulphate 
of indigo, % oz. Macerate the nutgalls 
and cloves in the water during a fort- 
night, then press and strain through a 
cloth filter ; add the ferrous sulphate, pre- 
viously powdered, dissolve, and add the 
acid and indigo solution. Shake or stir 
the mixture well, then set it aside for a 
week, and filter it. The nutgalls should 
be free from insect perforations. The sul- 
phate of indigo should be used in the 
form of a thinnish paste, neutral, or near- 
ly so. 

2. — Bruised galls, 3 oz. ; iron sulphate, 
1 oz. ; gum arable, 1 oz, ; vinegar, 1 oz. ; 
water, enough to make 24 oz. ; indigo 
carmine, enough to give a blue. tint. Mac- 
erate, with frequent shaking, for 14 days, 
and then decant. Permanent blue-black 
ink. 

3. — Phenol black, B, 2^^ av.oz. ; sugar, 
2% av.oz. ; carbolic acid, 1 fl.dr. ; sul- 
phuric acid, pure, 25 minims ; distilled 
water, 96 fl.oz. Mix the dye with 6 fl.oz. 
of cold water, allow to stand for 2 hours, 
then add the remainder of the water, in 
the boiling condition, and the other in- 
gredients, and stir about until dissolved. 
This ink writes a handsome blue-black. 
For school purposes, it may be cheapened 
by reducing the dye even to l^/^ av.oz. 

4. — Aniline Ink. — Methyl violet, 4 gr. ; 
Bengal green, 5 gr. ; Bismarck brown, 3 
gr. ; gum arable, 20 gr. ; water, 4 oz. This 
makes a good copying ink, and costs only 
a few cents a quart. Knowledge of prop- 
er manipulation is essential to the mak- 
ing of a satisfactory gall ink. No great 
skill, however, is required to weigh out 
a few grains of aniline colors and dump 
them into a bottle of water. 

Blue Inks. 

1. — Bruised galls, 3 lb. ; sulphate of 
iron, 1 lb. ; gum arabic, 1 lb. ; vinegar, 
1 pt. ; water, sufficient to make 3 gal. ; 
indigo carmine, sufficient to give a blue 
tint. Macerate, with frequent shaking, 
for 14 days, and then decant. Inks of 
this type are also frequently called "writ- 



(Inks) 



Ing fluids." The "fluid" is very pale un- 
til exposed to the air, and the indigo 
answers the double purpose of rendering 
it more visible in writing and of making 
the ink more resistant against bleaching 
agents. 

2. — The following is a simplification of 
the usual form : Tannic acid, 200 gr. ; 
gallic acid, 50 gr. ; sulphate of iron, 1 
oz. ; indigo carmine, neutral, 320 gr. ; 
powdered cloves, 5 gr. ; water, 1 pt. Dis- 
solve the tannic and gallic acids in the 
water. To this solution add the iron 
salt, and filter through cotton. Then add 
the indigo carmine, and lastly, the cloves. 

3, — Special Formula for Blue. — Dis- 
solve 15 gr. of aniline blue in 1 oz. of 
alcohol, and add 6 oz. in distilled water. 
Boil in proper vessel, until odor of 
alcohol has disappeared. Then add 3 
dr. of powdered gum arabic, dissolved in 
4 oz. of distilled water. Finally, filter. 
You will perceive that there is some con- 
siderable difference in the above special 
formula, but there can be no harm in 
making it too strong, as it is no difficult 
matter to dilute with distilled water to 
taste, 

4. — Resorcin blue, M, 48 gr. ; sugar, 
192 gr, ; oxalic acid, 10 gr. ; distilled wa- 
ter, 19% fl.oz. This ink writes a hand- 
some blue, and flows readily, but has the 
disadvantage of somewhat corroding the 
pen, and hence the latter should be cleaned 
frequently. 

Brown Ink. 

1. — By adding to the violet ink finely 
powdered bichromate of potash, in the 
proportion of from 15 to 30 gr. to 1 oz., 
various shades of brown and snuff color 
are obtained. 

2. — A strong decoction of catechu. The 
shade may be varied by the cautious ad- 
dition of a little weak solution of bichro- 
mate of potash. 

3. — A strong decoction of logwood, with 
a very little bichromate of potash. 

Canceling Postage Stamps. 

Lampblack, 1 av.oz. ; gum arabic, 164 
gr. ; glycerine, 2 fl.dr. ; water, 80 minims. 
Dissolve the gum in the water, add the 
glycerine, and filter. Tben triturate the 
lampblack with the filtrate until a uni- 
form product is obtained. 

Carbon Ink. 

Genuine India ink, rubbed down with 
good black ink until it will flow easily 
from a pen. This ink resists chlorine and 
oxalic acid. 



[910] 



Writing Materiah 



(Inks) 



Carmine Ink. (See Red or Carmine.) 
Celluloid, Inks for Writing on. 

1. — Ferric chloride, 10 parts ; tannin, 
15 parts; acetone, 100 parts. Dissolve 
the ferric chloride in a portion of the ace- 
tone, and the tannin in the residue, and 
mix the two solutions. Any pen may be 
used with the liquid. 

2. — Pale drying varnish, 2 oz. ; best 
quality black printing ink, 8 oz. ; aniline 
blue, soluble in oil, % oz. Other colors 
may be made by mixing the oil-soluble 
anilines with pale drying varnish. 

Chrome Ink. 

Extract of logwood, y^ oz. ; gum, % 
oz. ; water, 1 pt. Dissolve also, in 12 oz. 
of water, % oz. of yellow chromate of 
potash (or ^ oz. of bichromate and bi- 
carbonate of potash), and mix the two 
solutions. The ink is ready for immedi- 
ate use. 

Copying Ink. 

1. — Black. — a. — Mix about 3 pt. of jet 
black writing ink and 1 pt. of glycerine. 
This, if used on glazed paper, will not 
dry for hours, and will yield one or two 
fair, neat dry copies by simple pressure 
of the hand, in any good letter copybook. 
The writing should not be excessively fine 
nor the strokes uneven or heavy. To pre- 
vent setting off, the leaves, after copying, 
should be removed by blotting paper. The 
copies and the originals are neater than 
when water is used. 

b. — A black copying ink which flows 
easily from the pen, and will give very 
sharp copies without the aid of a press, 
can be prepared thus : Coarsely broken 
extract of logwood, 1 oz., and crystallized 
carbonate of soda, 2 dr., are placed in 
a porcelain capsule with 8 oz. of distilled 
water, and heated until the solution is 
of a deep red color, and all the extract 
is dissolved. The capsule is then taken 
from the fire. Stir well into the mixture 
1 oz. of glycerine, sp. gr. 1.25, 15 gr. of 
neutral chromate of potash, dissolved in 
a little water, and 2 dr. of finely pulver- 
ized gum arable, which may be previously 
dissolved in a little hot water so as to 
produce a mucilaginous solution. The ink 
is now complete and ready for use. 

c. — The following, if good materials are 
used, and care is taken in the manipula- 
tions, will give an excellent black copying 
ink : Into a clean jar put 425 parts of 
Aleppo galls, coarsely powdered, and pour 
over them 4,500 parts of water and 56 
parts of glycerine. Set aside to macerate 
for 10 days, with frequent stirring up 



(Inks) 



from the bottom. Dissolve 70 parts of 
gum arable in sufficient water, and add 
to the liquid. Dissolve 170 parts of crys- 
talline iron sulphate, c. p., in sufficient 
hot water, and add the solution to the 
foregoing. Let the whole now stand 14 
days longer, with an occasional agitation, 
and then strain off. Add 150 parts of 
loaf sugar, and dissolve. Finally, filter. 
This is the best black ink made, and is 
exclusively used in all the correspondence 
of the Bank of England. If the ink does 
not copy freely enough, add a little more 
sugar or a trifle of glucose. 

2. — Alizarin Blue Copying Ink. — In 20 
parts of fuming sulphuric acid dissolve 
5 parts of indigo, and to the solution 
add 100 parts of extract of aqueous myro- 
balous and 10.5 parts of iron filings or 
turning shavings. Finally, add gum ara- 
ble, 1.5 parts ; sugar, 7.5 parts ; sulphuric 
acid, 66° B., 10.5 parts ; aniline blue, 1.5 
parts ; carbolic acid, 0.5 part ; mirobalan 
extract, to make 1,000 parts. This ink, 
when first used, has a bluish tint, after- 
ward becoming black. 

3. — Alizarin Green Copying Ink. — In 
100 parts of aqueous extract of gall ap- 
ples dissolve iron sulphate, 30 parts ; cop- 
per sulphate, 0.5 part ; sulphuric acid, 2 
parts ; sugar, 8 parts ; wood vinegar, rec- 
tified, 50 parts ; indigo carmine, 30 parts. 

4. — Ink Which Will Copy on Dry Pa- 
per. — Water-soluble aniline black, 30 
parts ; water-soluble aniline blue, 2 parts ; 
ammonia alum, 16 parts ; glycerine, 1,000 
parts ; water, enough to make 3,000 parts. 

5. — Red Copying Ink. — Dissolve 50 
parts of extract of logwood in a mortar, 
in 750 parts of distilled water, without 
the aid of heat ; add 2 parts of chromate 
of potassium, and set aside. After 24 
hours add a solution of 3 parts of oxalic 
acid, 20 parts of oxalate of ammonium 
and 40 parts of sulphate of aluminum in 
200 parts of distilled water, and again set 
aside for 24 hours. Now raise it once 
to boiling in a bright copper kettle, add 
50 parts of vinegar, and, after cooling, 
fill into bottles, and cork. After a fort- 
night, decant. This^ ink is red in thin 
layers, writes red, gives excellent copies 
in brownish color, and turns blackish 
brown upon the paper. 

6. — Tissue Paper. — A copying ink that 
will copy legibly on tissue paper without 
water or a copying press, can be made by 
taking 10 oz. of nigrosine, C. P. fine, glu- 
cose A, 1^ oz. ; hot water, 1% pt. ; and 
glycerine, 1^/4 oz. The nigrosine is to be 
dissolved by trituration in the hot water, 
the other ingredients to be then added, 
and the mixture strained through a piece 



[911] 



Writing Materials 



(Inks) 



of siUk. If too thick to flow from the pen 
readily, it can be diluted with water. 

7. — Violet Copying Ink. — For blue vio- 
let, dissolve in 300 parts of boiling water 
methyl violet 5B, Hofmann violet 3B, or 
gentiana violet B. For reddish violet, 
dissolve in a similar quantity of water, 
methyl violet BR. A small quantity of 
sugar added to these inks improves their 
copying qualities. If the writing, when 
dry, retains a bronzy appearance, more 
water must be added. 

Diamond Ink. 

The so-called "diamond inks" are li- 
quids used for etching glass. (See chap- 
ter on Glass.) 

Drawing Ink. 

1. — A very black and indelible drawing 
ink may be made by dissolving shellac in 
a hot-water solution of borax, and rub- 
bing up in this solution a fine quality of 
India ink. After using, dip the drawing 
pen in alcohol, and wipe dry, to keep it 
clean and bright. 

2. — The addition of 1 part of carbolic 
acid to 80 parts of the fluid India ink, 
while it does not impair its fluidity, 
causes it to dry rapidly, even in heavy 
lines, so that they can be varnished over. 
The proper amount of carbolic acid to be 
added in any case may be ascertained by 
adding, drop by drop, the ordinary apothe- 
cary's solution of it in alcohol until var- 
nishing does not affect the definition of 
a test line by causing it to run. The ad- 
dition of too much carbolic acid is indi- 
cated by the transparency of the line, and 
the inability to draw fine lines, a condi- 
tion easily remedied by the addition of 
more of the fluid ink. 

Enameled Cards, Ink for. 

An ink that may be applied to enam- 
eled calling or playing cards, that will 
show perfectly plain, and that will not de- 
stroy the gloss, is printer's ink, diluted 
with oil of lavender. 

Enamels, White, Black, for Writing on. 

Use vegetable ^ black, mixed with _ a 
hard-drying varnish, and thinned with 
boiled oil and turpentine. 

Fireproof Ink. 

1. — White paper has been prepared by 
using borax, asbestos, etc., which will not 
burn. There has, so far, been no ink 
prepared which, when subjected to fire, is 
not either destroyed or rendered illegible. 
A formula which it is claimed will fur- 
nish an ink the legibility of which will 



(Inks) 



not be affected by fire, is as follows: Mix 
40 parts of finely powdered graphite, 72 
parts of gum copal, 3.5 parts of ferrous 
sulphate, 3.5 parts of tincture of galls 
and 14 parts of indigo sulphate ; add to 
a sufficient quantity of water, boil, and 
then cool, when the ink is ready for 
use. 

2. — The ink is made from 85 parts of 
graphite, 0.8 part of copal varnish, 7.5 
parts of copperas, 30 parts of tincture of 
nutgalls, and a sufficient quantity of in- 
digo carmine. 

Frostproof Ink. 

Aniline black, 1 dr. ; rub with a mix- 
ture of concentrated hydrochloric acid, 1 
dr. ; pure alcohol, 10 oz. The deep blue 
solution obtained is diluted with a hot 
solution of concentrated glycerine, 1^^ dr., 
in 4 oz. of water. This ink does not in- 
jure steel pens, is unaffected by concen- 
trated mineral acids or strong alkalies, 
and will not freeze at a temperature of 
22 or 24° below zero. 

Glass. 

Labeling Bottles, Ink for. — 1. — Take 20 
grams of brown shellac, which is dissolved 
in 150 c.c. of lamp spirit ; then prepare a 
solution of 35 grams of borax in 250 c.c. 
of distilled water, and pour the first solu- 
tion slowly into the second. Now a dye- 
stuff has to be added to the product re- 
ceived ; for this, 1 gram of methyl violet 
is well suited. The ink prepared in this 
manner is said to be indestructible. 

2. — Liquid I, in one bottle : Dissolve 
36 grams of sodium fluoride in % 1. of 
distilled water, and add 7 grams of po- 
tassium sulphate. Liquid II, in another 
bottle : Dissolve zinc chloride, 14 grams, 
in % 1. of distilled water, and add 65 
grams of concentrated hydrochloric acid. 
For use, mix equal parts together, and 
add a little dissolved India ink to render 
the writing more visible. The mixing 
cannot, however, be conducted in a ves- 
sel. It is best to use a cube of paraffine 
which has been hollowed out. 

Gluten Ink. 

Dissolve wheat gluten, free from starch, 
in weak acetic acid, of the strength of 
common vinegar ; mix 10 gr. of lampblack 
and 2 gr. of indigo with 4 oz. of the solu- 
tion, and a drop or two of oil of cloves. 

Gold Ink. 

Honey and gold leaf, equal parts ; trit- 
urate until the gold is reduced to the 
finest possible state of division, agitate 
with 30 parts of hot water, and allow it 



[912] 



Writing Materials 



(Inks) 



to settle. Decant the water, and repeat 
the washing several times ; finally, dry 
the gold, and mix it with a little weak 
gum water, for use. 

Liquid Gold for Vellum. — Grind gold 
leaf with gum water ; add a little bichlo- 
ride of mercury, and bottle. 

Green Ink. 

1. — A good bright green aniline ink may 
be made as follows : Aniline green, sol- 
uble, 2 parts ; glycerine, 16 parts ; alco- 
hol, 112 parts ; mucilage of gum arable, 
4 parts. Dissolve the aniline in the alco- 
hol, and add the other ingredients. Most 
of the gum arable precipitates, but ac- 
cording to the author of the formula (Nel- 
son) it has the effect of rendering the 
ink slow-flowing enough to write with. 
Filter. 

2. — Water-soluble bluish methyl green, 
96 gr. ; sugar, 192 gr, ; distilled water, 
19% fl.oz. Prepare in the same manner 
as violet ink. 

3. — Klaproth's Green Ink. — This has 
the following formula : Crystallized cop- 
per acetate, 4 parts ; cream of tartar, 2 
parts ; water, 16 parts. Boil the copper 
and cream of tartar with the water, in 
a porcelain kettle (a clean copper one 
will answer), until the solution acquires 
an intensely green color, then filter, and 
add 1 part of mucilage of gum arable. 

Hektograph Inks. 

Black. — Methyl violet, 10 parts ; nigro- 
sine, 20 parts ; glycerine, 30 parts ; gum 
arable, 5 parts ; alcohol, 60 parts. 

Blue. — Resorcin blue, M, 10 parts ; di- 
lute acetic acid, 1 part ; water, 85 parts ; 
glycerine, 4 parts ; alcohol, 10 parts. Dis- 
solve by the aid of heat. 

Green. — Water-soluble aniline green, 15 
parts ; glycerine, 10 parts ; water, 50 
parts ; alcohol, 10 parts. The writing is 
allowed to dry without blotting. The 
pad having been moistened with clean 
water, the paper is placed on it, face in- 
ward, of course, and rubbed gently but 
firmly over every portion, care being 
taken to prevent it changing position. It 
is allowed to remain on the pad for from 
2 to 5 minutes, and is then carefully re- 
moved. Copies are now taken by press- 
ing dry paper on this surface and remov- 
ing immediately. The operation should 
be carried out with as little interruption 
as possible. The New Idea states that 
the distinctness and sharpness of hekto- 
graph prints may be very materially 
heightened by wetting the paper upon 
which the prints are to be made with al- 
cohol, and removing the excess of alcohol 



(Inks) 



by blotting paper. After using the pad 
the ink should be removed from the sur- 
face immediately with a soft sponge and 
warm water, drying it well. It will then 
be ready for another operation. It may 
be used a great many times, if properly 
manipulated. 

Purple. — Methyl violet, 2 parts ; alco- 
hol, 2 parts ; sugar, 1 part ; glycerine, 4 
parts ; water, 24 parts. Dissolve the vio- 
let in the alcohol, mixed with the glycer- 
ine ; dissolve the sugar in the water ; mix 
both solutions. 

Red. — Fuchsin, 10 parts ; alcohol, 10 
parts ; glycerine, 10 parts ; water, 50 
parts. 

Horticultural Ink. 

Blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; sal ammoniac, % 
oz. (both in powder); vinegar, i/4 Pt. ; 
dissolve. A little lampblack or vermilion 
may be added. For iron, tin or steel 
plate. 

Indelible Inks. 

1. — Bottger prepares an ink that does 
not corrode steel pens, by triturating 3.65 
gr. of aniline black with 22 gr. of alcohol 
and 4 drops of hydrochloric acid ; a por- 
celain mortar is employed, and the paste 
thus produced is mixed with 1.82 gr. of 
gum arable, previously dissolved in 85 gr. 
of hot water. If this ink be added to 
an alcoholic solution of shellac (21 gr. of 
lac to 85 gr. of alcohol), a black product 
results, suitable for coloring leather and 
wood. 

2. — If the ink is to be used for writing 
or drawing, and there is no danger of the 
letters, etc., being rubbed off mechanically, 
printing ink or India ink may be used. 

3. — Printing ink sinks into woven fab- 
rics to a considerable depth, and will last 
a long time. It is probably one of the 
cheapest marking inks to be used with 
stencils. 

4. — In many cases, India ink answers 
as well, and in some cases, as for engross- 
ing valuable documents, it is the only safe 
ink, since nothing but the destruction of 
the document itself will be able to obliter- 
ate it. It is made by triturating 100 gr. 
of best India ink (Chinese) with very 
dilute hydrochloric acid (about 22 parts 
of absolute hydrochloric acid in 1,000 
parts), or with a solution of acetate of 
manganese in diluted acetic acid. 

5. — Another fine indelible ink, which 
resists all ordinary reagents, is made by 
means of vanadium. Vanadium and its 
salts are rather expensive still, although 
their price has fallen during the last few 



[913] 



Writing Materials 



(Inks) 



years to about one-tenth of what it was 
formerly. 

6. — This ink consists of lampblack and 
caustic soda, mixed with gelatine and 
caustic soda. It is said to be indelible, 
and to resemble China ink. 

7. — India ink, ground up with ordinary 
black writing ink, forms a cheap indelible 
ink for common purposes. It will resist 
the action of chlorine, most acids, and 
even ablution with a brush or sponge. 

8. — Dissolve 4 parts of aniline black in 
16 parts, by weight, of alcohol, with 60 
drops of strong hydrochloric acid, and di- 
lute the dark blue solution with 90 parts, 
by weight, of water, in which 6 parts 
of gum arable have been previously dis- 
solved. This ink is said not to act upon 
steel pens or to suffer any alteration by 
alkalies or acids. 

9. — By adding ferrocyanide of potas- 
sium to ordinary ink, an indelible writing 
ink may be obtained. The removal of 
such an ink by acid would result in the 
production of Prussian blue. 

10. — Gelatine, 2 gr. ; bichromate of po- 
tassium, 2 gr. ; nigrosine, 10 gr. ; water, 
2 fl.oz. Dissolve the gelatine and nigro- 
sine in most of the water, and the bichro- 
mate in the remainder. Mix the two so- 
lutions in an amber-colored bottle. 

11. — Dissolve, with the assistance of 
heat, 20 parts of brown shellac in a solu- 
tion of 30 parts of borax in 300 to 400 
parts of water, and filter the solution 
while hot. Then add to the filtrate a so- 
lution of 10 parts of aniline black soluble 
in water, 3-10 part of tannin, 1-10 part 
of picric acid, 15 parts of spirit of sal 
ammoniac, and % oz. of water. 

12. — Aniline Inks, To Render Indelible. 
— Coat the reproduction with some prep- 
aration. An excellent compound consists 
of collodion dissolved to the consistency 
used by photographers, with 2% of stear- 
ine added. 

13. — Gold Indelihle Ink. — Make two so- 
lutions, as follows: (a) Chloride of gold 
and sodium, 1 part ; water, 10 parts ; 
gum, 2 parts, (b) Oxalic acid, 1 part; 
water, 5 parts ; gum, 2 parts. The cloth 
or stuff to be written on should be mois- 
tened with liquid (b). Let dry, and then 
write upon the prepared place with liquid 
(a), using, preferably, a quill pen. Pass 
a hot iron over the mark, pressing heav- 
ily. 

Indestructible Ink. 

Graphite, impalp., powder, 400 parts; 
gum copal, 720 parts ; iron sulphate, 
35 parts; tincture of galls, 35 parts; 
indigo sulphate, 140 parts. Mix the 



(Inks) 



materials, and boil them in sufficient 
water to make a fluid of the desired con- 
sistency. After boiling for a few min- 
utes let it stand a while for the grosser 
particles to settle. Then decant and bot- 
tle. 

India Ink. 

1. — India ink consists of finely divided 
carbon, cemented together by certain glu- 
tinous vegetable juices, gum, gelatine, etc. 
The precise nature of the cement or mu- 
cilage used by the Chinese in the manu- 
facture of their inks is not known, but 
the greater part of the ink now sold as 
India ink consists of fine lampblack and 
glue. Purify fine lampblack by washing 
it with a solution of caustic soda, dry, 
and make it into a thick paste with a 
weak solution of gelatine containing a 
few drops of musk essence and about half 
as much ambergris ; mold, and dry. In- 
stead of gelatine the following solution 
may be used : Seed lac, 1 oz. ; borax, i/4 
oz. ; water, 1 pt. ; boil until the solution 
is effected, and make up with water to 
% pt. 

2. — Purify fine lampblack by washing 
it with a solution of caustic soda, dry, 
and make into a thick paste with a weak 
solution of gelatine containing a few drops 
of musk essence and about half as much 
ambergris; mold, and dry. Instead of 
gelatine the following solution may be 
used : Seed lac, 1 oz. ; borax, ^4 oz. ; 
water, 1 pt. ; boil until a solution is ef- 
fected, and make up with water to % 
pt. 

3. — Mix the finest lampblack with a so- 
lution of 100 gr. of lac with 20 gr. of 
borax and 4 oz. of water. 

4. — Imitation of India Ink. — Grind to- 
gether lampblack and gelatine, the gelat- 
inizing power of which has been partly 
destroyed by boiling with water. Scent 
with camphor, and make into sticks. 

5. — Liquid India Ink. — A little glycer- 
ine added acts as a preservative, and 
causes the ink to flow well. Too much 
glycerine should not be used, as it will 
prevent the ink from drying, and in this 
case it is, of course, easily blotted or 
smeared. Keep in well corked bottles. 

Indorsing Inks. 

Dissolve 1 part of aniline blue, violet 
or magenta, according to the color re- 
quired, in a mixture of 30 parts of alco- 
hol and 30 parts of glycerine. 
Japan Ink. 

Dissolve in ^ pt. of soft water % oz. 
of potassium bichromate, and add the so- 
lution to 6 oz. of logwood extract, dis- 



[ 914 ] 



Writing Materials 



(Inks) 



solved in 1 gal. of water ; then dissolve 

in 1 gal. of water by continued boiling, 

borax, 6 oz. ; shellac, 1% oz. Mix all 

together while warm, and add 3 oz. of 

ammonia. 

Marble. (See Stone or Marble.) 

Marking Ink. 

With Base of Aniline Hydrochlorate. — 
Aniline hydrochlorate is a colorless salt, 
possessing a strong affinity for water, and 
forming deep black compounds with vari- 
ous metallic, and especially with copper 
salts. Two liquids are therefore required 
in preparing the above ink ; they should 
be mixed shortly before use, and applied 
immediately, as the black or dark gray 
deposit is quickly precipitated. The ani- 
line salt mixture may also be applied 
first and the developing fluid immediately 
afterward ; some difficulty may, however, 
arise on account of the necessity of both 
applications exactly coinciding, but the 
signs thus obtained are more lasting. 

1. — Parts by weight: (a) Cupric chlo- 
ride, 10.34 ; sal ammoniac, 6.89 ; sodium 
chlorate, 13.72; distilled water, 68.95. 
(b) Aniline hydrochlorate, 16.40; gum 
arable, 13 ; glycerine, 3.40 ; distilled wa- 
ter, 33. Both liquids must be mixed 
shortly before use, in the proportion of 
1 : 1, and immediately applied. 

2. — Parts by weight: (a) Cupric chlo- 
ride, 2.38 ; spirit of sal ammoniac, 95.23 ; 
sodium chloride (common salt), 2.38. (b) 
Aniline hydrochlorate, 94.28 ; gum arable, 
35.28; glycerine, 35.28; distilled water, 
35.29. The liquids to be mixed before 
use, in the proportion of 4 parts of the 
first to 1 part of the second. 

3. — ^Parts by weight : (a) Cupric chlo- 
ride, 10 ; sodium chlorate, 12.60 ; sal am- 
moniac, 6.30; distilled water, 71.10. (b) 
Aniline hydrochlorate, 24.60, in 36 parts 
of distilled water ; gum arable, 1.25 ; glyc- 
erine, 13.65 ; distilled water, 24.60. 

4. — Bags, Ink for. — A good, cheap and 
quick-drying ink for marking bags can be 
compounded in a simple manner. Let 250 
grams of rosin and 100 grams of ordi- 
nary shellac dissolve in % 1. of spirit, 
with moderate heat, in a closed bottle for 
12 hours. Upon shaking well together, 
stir into this varnish substance 200 grams 
of Frankfort black, and the ink, which is 
dissolved neither by water nor oil, is 
ready. Any other color may be used in 
place of the Frankfort black. 

Metallic Surfaces, Ink for Marking Pol- 
ished. (See also Silver.) 
Rosin, 20 parts ; alcohol, 150 parts ; 
borax, 35 parts ; methylene blue, 1 part ; 



(Inks) 



I 915 ] 



water, 250 parts. Dissolve the rosin in 
the alcohol and the blue in the solution. 
Dissolve the borax in the water, and mix 
the solutions. Any other color may be 
substituted for the blue : For black, ni- 
grosine ; for red, eosine, etc. Use sufficient 
to make the mark plain and legible. 

Mimeograph Ink. 

For use with any kind of a stencil, ink 
must necessarily be thick — more like a 
paste than like writing fluid, and it would 
apparently be best to use for the color- 
ing agent some substance not soluble in 
the liquid employed to carry it, as it 
would then have less tendency to "creep" 
under the edges of the stencil and so spoil 
the impression. To grind a pigment fine 
enough for the purpose would be quite 
laborious, if done by hand, but colors may 
be obtained in the market ground in wa- 
ter, under the name of "distemper col- 
ors." An addition of gum arabic or dex- 
trine mucilage would be necessary to hold 
the pigment to the paper on drying, and 
a very small quantity of glycerine would 
prevent the mixture from drying too read- 
ily. Aniline colors, ground with dextrine 
mucilage, can also probably be made to 
answer. The ink used for mimeograph 
copying process is of a pasty character, 
and almost any good stencil ink will an- 
swer the purpose. A few formulas fol- 
low : 

1. — Shellac, 2 oz. ; borax, 2 oz. ; water, 
25 oz. ; gum arabic, 2 oz. ; and of Vene- 
tian red, lampblack, Prussian blue, or any 
desired coloring substance, a sufficiency. 
Boil the shellac, borax and some water 
until they are dissolved ; add the gum 
arabic, and withdraw from the fire. When 
the solution has become cold, complete to 
25 oz. with water and more of the color- 
ing substance to bring the ink to a suit- 
able consistency. 

2. — Printers' ink, made thin, is used 
on the mimeograph. The manufacture of 
inks of this type calls for a considerable 
amount of experience and skill. As much 
depends upon the manipulation as upon 
the formula. The basis of printers' ink 
is a good quality of linseed oil, thoroughly 
boiled. It is boiled until it smokes, then 
ignited, allowed to burn about half an 
hour, then smothered, and again boiled 
until it can be pulled out into strings 
about Vo in. long. Then a little rosin is 
added, and some soap, and the whole is 
boiled again, after which the pigment, 
usually lampblack, is thoroughly incorpo- 
rated by machinery. The amount of rosin 
and soap to be incorporated varies with 
the conditions of use, and governs the 



Writmg Materials 



(Inks) 



consistency of the ink. The pigment must 
be very thoroughly triturated in to get 
good results. 

3. — A simple substitute formula is the 
following : Copaiba, 9 oz. ; lampblack, 3 
oz. ; indigo, 5 dr. ; Prussian blue, 5 dr. ; 
Indian red, 6 dr. ; yellow soap, dried and 
powdered, 2 or 3 oz. These must be very 
thoroughly triturated together. The con- 
sistency, which is an important feature 
of this kind of ink, may be controlled by 
the quantity of soap used. 

4. — Boiled linseed oil, 16 lb. ; purified 
indigo, 3 oz. ; Berlin blue, 3 oz. ; finest 
lampblack, 8 lb. The boiled linseed oil 
should be used hot. A mixture of tur- 
pentine and ligroine is employed in thin- 
ning the base. 

5. — Rub up to a fine powder on a mar- 
ble slab : Rosin, 10 parts ; lampblack, 3 
parts ; Berlin blue, indigo, indigo red, of 
each, y^ part ; yellow rosin soap, V2 part. 
If blue ink is desired, 3 oz. of ultramarine 
blue may be substituted for the 3 parts 
of lampblack. Experiments are being car- 
ried on to substitute boiling linseed oil 
by a mixture of 50 parts of rosin dis- 
solved in 25 parts of paraffine oil. This 
is then incorporated with the powders for 
the production of colors, etc. 

Neostyle or Cyclostyle Ink. 

Grind aniline color with glycerine, thin- 
ning with spirit, if desired. A few drops 
of oil of cloves will give a pleasant odor, 
if it is wished. 

Oil, To Remove from Ink. 

Add a little oxgall and vinegar to the 
ink. 

Papyrograph Ink. 

Dissolve any of the soluble dyes in 
warm glycerine. 

Paste Form. 

Tannic acid, 1 oz. ; tartaric acid, 10 
gr. ; acacia, 1 dr. ; phenol black, B, 30 
gr. ; ferrous sulphate, 1 oz. ; glycerine, 1 
fl.dr. ; salicylic acid, 10 gr. ; water, suffi- 
cient. Thoroughly mix the solids, all in 
fine powder, and add the glycerine and 
sufficient water to make a paste, of which 
a small quantity is to be dissolved in 
water when required for use. 

Preserving Ink. 

Add from 0,1 to 0.2 gram of salicylic 
acid to 1 1. of ink. 

Purple Ink. 

Aniline purple, 80 gr. ; alcohol, 12 fl.dr. ; 
mucilage of acacia, 10 fl.dr. ; water, 17 



(Inks) 



fl.oz. This color is brilliant at first, but 
is liable to fade. 

Red and Carmine Inks. 

1. — Genuine carmine ink is made by 
placing 15 to 20 gr. of carmine in 3 oz. 
of water, and then to add so much strong 
liquid ammonia, drop by drop, till all 
the carmine is dissolved ; then add 20 
gr. of powdered gum arable. If you want 
a cheaper ink, substitute droplake for the 
carmine, but it is not so beautiful. 

2. — Macerate for 2 days, 5 parts of 
coarsely powdered cochineal and 10 parts 
of potassium carbonate with 100 parts of 
distilled water, then add 30 parts of neu- 
tral potassium tartrate and 2 parts of 
chemically pure alum. Heat the mixture 
until the carbonic oxide is given off, add 
5 parts of alcohol, and filter. Wash the 
filter with 10 parts of distilled water, dis- 
solve 5 parts of gum arable in the filtrate, 
and add a little oil of cloves. 

3. — Erythrosin, 1 part ; w^ater, 99 parts. 
Thicken with gum arable, and add a lit- 
tle boric acid or other preservative. 

4. — Pure carmine (No. 4()), 2 dr.; am- 
monia water, 5 dr. ; water, 3^ oz. ; mu- 
cilage of gum arable, 3 dr. This' ink 
should be put in rubber or glass-stoppered 
bottles, as ammonia affects cork. 

5. — WincJder's. — Rub fine 6 parts of 
red carmine with 75 parts of liquid water 
glass. Dilute this mixture with 675 parts 
of rain water. Let it stand a few days, 
and pour off the fluid. 

6. — Bottger rubs up carmine and sili- 
cate of soda, and then adds to this mix- 
ture a concentrated silicate solution till 
the whole is of sufficient consistency to 
write well. The product gives a very 
brilliant ink v/hen dry, and dries quickly. 
It must be kept out of contact of air in 
a well closed vessel. 

7. — Dissolve 20 gr. of pure carmine in 
3 fl.oz. of liquid ammonia ; add 18 gr. of 
powdered gum. 

8. — Best ground Brazil wood, 2 oz. ; di- 
luted acetic acid, % pt. ; alum, % oz. Boil 
them slov/Iy in an enameled vessel for 
half an hour, strain, and add % oz. of 
gum. 

Resinous Safety Ink. 

Add 10 parts each of pine rosin and 
crystallized soda to 100 parts of water, 
and boil till a clear solution is obtained. 
To save time, a mixture of 7 parts of 
soda and 3 parts of soda lye may also 
be used. Then rub together 4 parts of 
rubber and 2 parts of lampblack, dilute 
with water, and add the mixture to the 
rosin solution. 



£916] 



Writing Materials 



(Inks) 



Rosin Oil Ink, 

Rosin oil, l^/^ lb. ; rosin, 19% oz. ; soft 
soap, 2% oz. Melt together. Add lamp- 
black when cold. 

Ruling Inks. 

1. — Black. — Add fresh gall to good 
* black ink. Do not cork, as it prevents it 
from turning black. 

2. — Blue. — Take 4 oz. of vitriol, best 
quality, to 1 oz. of indigo ; pulverize the 
indigo very fine ; put the indigo on the 
vitriol ; let them stand exposed to the air 
for 6 days, or until dissolved ; then fill 
the pot with chalk, add ^2 giU of fresh 
gall, boiling it before use. 

3. — Faint Lines, Ink to Rule. — Dissolve 
in a small quantity of warm water 20 
parts of Prussian blue, by the aid of 3 
parts of potassium ferrocyanide, and di- 
lute the solution with thin gum water 
until the proper degree of color is ob- 
tained. See also Black Ink, above. 

4. — Red. — One pound of Brazil wood 
to 1 gal. of best vinegar ; let the vinegar 
simmer before you add the wood, then let 
them simmer together for half an hour ; 
then add % lb. of alum to set the color ; 
sti'ain it through a woolen or cotton cloth, 
cork it tight in a stone or glass bottle. 
For ruling, add % gill of fresh gall to 1 
qt. of red ink, then cork it up in a bottle 
for use. 

Shading Inks. 

1. — Paris violet, 2 parts; water, 6 
parts, mucilage of acacia, 2 parts. 

2. — Rosaniline acetate, 2 parts ; alcohol, 
1 part ; water, 10 parts ; mucilage of aca- 
cia, 2 parts. 

3. — Bordeaux red, 3 parts ; alcohol, 2 
parts ; water, 20 parts ; mucilage of aca- 
cia, 2 parts. 

4. — Methyl violet, 1 part ; distilled wa- 
ter, 7 parts ; mucilage of acacia, 2 parts. 

5. — Water-soluble nigrosine, 1 part ; 
water, 9 parts ; mucilage of acacia, 1 
part. 

6. — Black, for Shading Pews.— The fol- 
lowing recipe is for a glossy black ink for 
patent shading pens : Powdered nutgalls, 
18 parts ; iron sulphate, 8 parts ; gum 
arabic, 7 parts ; pure water, 145 parts. 
The galls are first boiled in 130 parts of 
water, the iron sulphate and gum arabic 
dissolved in 15 parts of water, and this 
solution then slowly added to the former. 

Silver, To Write on with a Permanent 
Black. 

Take burnt lead, and pulverize it. In- 
corporate it next with sulphur and vine- 



(Inks) 



gar, to the consistency of a paint, and 
write with it on any silver plate. Let it 
dry, then present it to the fire so as to 
heat the work a little, and it is com- 
pleted. 

Silver Ink. 

1. — For silver ink, the process is the 
same as for gold, substituting silver leaf 
for the gold leaf. (See Gold Ink, above.) 

2. — Mix 1 oz. of finest block tin, in 
shavings, with 2 oz. of mercury till they 
become perfectly amalgamated. Then 
shake up in a stoppered bottle with 
enough gum water to give proper consist- 
ency. The writing, when dry, will have 
the appearance of silver. 

3. — Liquid Silver, for Vellum. — Grind 
silver leaf with gum water, or white of 
egg. 

Sympathetic Inks. 

Inks That Appear Through Eeat.—l.—- 
Write with a concentrated solution of 
caustic potash. The writing will appear 
when the paper is submitted to strong 
heat. 

2. — Write with a solution of hydrochlo- 
rate of ammonia, in the proportion of 15 
parts to 100. The writing will appear 
when the paper is heated by holding it 
over a stove, or by passing a hot smooth- 
ing iron over it. 

3. — A weak solution of nitrate of cop- 
per gives an invisible writing, which be- 
comes red through heat. 
_ 4.— A very dilute solution of perchlo- 
ride of copper gives invisible characters 
that become yellow through heat. 

5. — A slightly alcoholic solution of bro- 
niide of copper gives perfectly invisible 
characters, which are made apparent by 
a gentle heat, and which disappear again 
through cold. 

6. — Write upon rose-colored paper with 
a solution of chloride of cobalt. The in- 
visible writing will become blue through 
heat and will disappear on cooling. 

7. — Write with a solution of sulphuric 
acid. The characters will appear in black 
through heat. This ink has the disad- 
vantage of destroying the paper. 

8. — Write with lemon, onion, leek, cab- 
bage or artichoke juice. Characters writ- 
ten with these juices become very visible 
when the paper is heated. 

9. — Digest 1 oz. of zaffre. or oxide of 
cobalt, at a gentle heat, with 4 oz. of ni- 
tromuriatic acid till no more is dissolved ; 
then add 1 oz. of common salt and 16 oz. 
of water. If this be written with, and 
the paper held to the fire, the writing be- 
comes green, unless the cobalt should be 



[917] 



Writing Materials 



LCk I 

nd 1 



(Inks) 



quite pure, in which case it will be blue. 
The addition of a little nitrate of iron 
will then impart the property of becom- 
ing green. It is used in chemical land- 
scapes for the foliage. 

10. — Put in a vial ^/^ oz. of distilled 
water, 1 dr. of bromide of potassium and 
1 dr. of pure sulphate of copper. The 
solution is nearly colorless, but becomes 
brown when heated. 

11. — Nitrate of nickel and chloride of 
nickel, in weak solution, form an invisible 
ink, which becomes green by heating, 
when the salt contains traces of cobalt, 
which usually is the case ; when pure, it 
becomes yellow. 

12. — When the solution of acetate of 
protoxide of cobalt contains nickel or 
iron, the writing made by it will become 
green when heated ; when it is pure, and 
free from these metals, it becomes blue. 

13. — Milk makes a good invisible ink, 
and buttermilk answers the purpose bet- 
ter. It will not show if written with 
a clean new pen, and ironing with a hot 
flatiron is the best way of showing it 
up. All invisible inks will show on glazed 
paper ; therefore unglazed paper should 
be used. 

14. — Burn flax so that it may be rather 
smoldered than burned to ashes, then 
grind it with a muller, on a stone, put- 
ting a little alcohol to it ; then mix it 
with a little weak gum water, and what 
you write, though it seem fair, may be 
rubbed or washed out. 

15. — 'Boil oxide of cobalt in acetic acid. 
If a little common salt be added, the 
writing becomes green when heated ; but 
with niter it becomes a pale rose color. 

16. — A weak solution of nitrate of mer- 
cury becomes black by heat. 

Inks That Appear Under the Influence 
of Light. — 1. — Chloride of gold serves for 
forming characters that appear only as 
long as the paper is exposed to daylight, 
say for an hour at least. 

2. — Write with a solution made by dis- 
solving 1 part of nitrate of sflver in 1,000 
parts of distilled water. When submit- 
ted to daylight, the writing appears of a 
slate color, or tawny brown. 

Inks Appearing Through Reagents. — 

1. — If writing be done with a solution 
of acetate of lead in distilled water, the 
characters will appear in black upon pass- 
ing a solution of an alkaline sulphuret 
over the paper. 

2. — Characters written with a very 
weak solution of chloride of gold will be- 
come dark brown upon passing a solution 
of perchloridfi of tin over them. 

3. — Characters written with a solution 



(Inks) 



of gallic acid in water will become black 
through a solution of sulphate of iron, and 
brown through the alkalies. 

4. — Upon writing on paper that con- 
tains but little sizing, with a very clear 
solution of starch, and submitting the dry 
characters to the vapor of iodine, or pass- 
ing over them a weak solution of iodide 
of potassium, the writing becomes blue, 
and disappears under the action of a so- 
lution of hyposulphite of soda, in the pro- 
portions of 1 to 1,000. 

5. — 'Characters written with a 10% so- 
lution of nitrate of protoxide of mercury 
become black when the paper is moistened 
with liquid ammonia, orange red with a 
solution of, and gray through heat. 

6. — Characters written with a weak so- 
lution of the soluble chloride of platinum 
or iridium become black when the paper 
is submitted to mercurial vapor. This 
ink may be used for marking linen. It 
is indelible. 

7. — C. Widemann communicates a new 
method of making an invisible ink to Die 
Natur. To make the writing or the draw- 
ing appear which has been made upon 
paper with the ink, it is sufiBcient to dip 
it into water. On drying, the traces dis- 
appear again, and reappear by each suc- 
ceeding immersion. The ink is made by 
intimately mixing linseed oil, 1 part ; wa- 
ter of ammonia, 20 parts ; water, 100 
parts. The mixture must be agitated each 
time before the pen is dipped into it, as 
a little of the oil may separate and float 
on top, which would, of course, leave an 
oily stain upon the paper. 

8. — Write with a solution of ferrocya- 
nide of potassium ; develop by pressing 
over the dry, invisible characters a piece 
of blotting paper moistened with a solu- 
tion of copper sulphate or of copperas. 

9. — Write with pure dilute tincture of 
iron ; develop with a blotter moistened 
with strong tea. 

10. — Writing with iodide of potash and 
starch becomes blue by the least trace 
of acid vapors in the atmosphere, or by 
the presence of ozone. To make it, boil 
starch, and add a small quantity of iodide 
of potassium in solution. 

11. — ^Sulphate of copper in very dilute 
solution will produce an invisible writing, 
which will turn light blue by vapors of 
ammonia. 

12. — Soluble compounds of antimony 
will become red by sulphide of hydrogen 
vapor. 

13. — Soluble compounds of arsenic and 
of peroxide of tin will become yellow by 
the same vapor. 

14. — An acid solution of chloride of 



[•918] 



Writing Materials 



(Inks) 



iron is diluted till the writing is invisible 
when dry. This writing has the remark- 
able property of becoming red by sulpho- 
cyanide vapors (arising from the action 
of sulphuric acid on suTphocyanide of po- 
tassium in a long-necked flask), and it 
disappears by ammonia, and may alter- 
nately be made to appear and disappear 
by these two vapors. 

15. — Writing executed with rice water 
is visible when dry, but the characters be- 
come blue by the application of iodine. 
This ink was much employed during the 
Indian mutiny. 

16. — Write with a solution of paraflBne 
in benzol. When the solvent has evap- 
orated the paraffine is invisible, but be- 
comes visible on being dusted with lamp- 
black or powdered graphite, or smoking 
over a candle flame. 

17. — To Write Black Characters with 
Water. — Mix 10 parts of nutgalls and 2^/^ 
parts of calcined sulphate of iron. Dry 
thoroughly and reduce to fine powder. 
Rub this powder over the surface of the 
paper, and force into the pores by pow- 
erful pressure ; brush ofE the loose pow- 
der. A pen dipped in water will write 
black on paper thus treated. 

18. — To Write Blue Characters with 
Water. — Mix sesquisulphate of iron and 
ferrocyanide of potassium. Prepare the 
paper in the same manner as for writing 
black characters with water. Write with 
water, and the characters will appear 
blue. 

19. — To Produce Brown Writing with 
Water. — Mix sulphate of copper and fer- 
rocyanide of potassium. Prepare the pa- 
per in the same manner as before. The 
characters written with water will be 
reddish brown. 

20. — There is a well-known proprietary 
article sold in Paris under the name of 
"Encre pour les Dames" (ink for ladies). 
Hager, in a recent scientific journal, 
states that this consists of an aqueous 
solution of iodide of starch, and is spe- 
cially intended for love letters. In four 
weeks characters written with it disap- 
pear, preventing all abuse of letters, and 
doing away with all documentary evi- 
dence of any kind in the hands of the re- 
cipient. The signers of bills of exchange 
who use this ink are, of course, freed 
from all obligations in the same length of 
time. Of course, this is criminal. 

Powder. 

1. — (Roy). — Various qualities of inks 
are prepared in powder. By placing a 
small quantity of this powder in water, 
ink for writing is immediately obtained. 



(Inks) 



One variety, styled indelible ink, is stated 
to resist the most energetic chemical re- 
agents. It appears to consist mainly of 
charcoal and glycerine. 

2. — Extract of logwood, 1 oz. ; potas- 
sium bichromate, 48 gr. ; sodium carbo- 
nate, 3V^ dr.; gum arable, 2 dr.; indigo 
carmine, 15 gr. For 1 qt. of ink. 

Rubber Stamp Inks. (See Stamps, Ink 
for.) 

Solid Inks. 

Cakes. — May be prepared by evaporat- 
ing good ink to dryness in shallow dishes, 
but the best results are obtained by dis- 
solving Chinese ink in water. 

Stamps, Inks for. (See also Rubber 
Stamp Inks.) 

Inks in Which the Colors Are Suspend- 
ed. — These inks should be labeled "Shake 
before using." 

1. — Black. — Lampblack (gasblack), 3 
parts ; olive oil, 17 parts. 

2. — Blue. — a. — Aniline blue, 3 parts ; 
oleic acid, 6 parts ; castor oil, 94 parts. 

b. — Blue-Black. — Aniline black, 5 parts ; 
oleic acid, 6 parts ; castor oil, 94 parts. 

c. — Dark Blue. — Ultramarine, 1 part ; 
Paris blue, 2 parts ; olive oil, 17 parts. 

3. — Green. — Aniline blue, 25 parts ; 
aniline lemon yellow, 15 parts ; oleic acid, 
50 parts ; castor oil, 950 parts. 

4. — Red. — a. — Vermilion, 2 parts ; olive 
oil, 3 parts. 

b. — Bordeaux red, 15 parts ; aniline 
scarlet, 15 parts ; crude oleic acid, 50 
parts ; castor oil, 950 parts. 

5. — Violet. — Aniline violet, 3 parts ; 
oleic acid, 5 parts ; castor oil, 95 parts. 

In preparing these inks, rub the aniline 
(oil-soluble) to perfect smoothness with 
oleic acid ; then add the oil, little by lit- 
tle, with constant rubbing. After incor- 
poration of the whole of the oil, heat the 
mixture, under constant stirring, to about 
45° V. (167° F.). 

Metal Stamp Inks. — Stamping inks de- 
signed for metal stamps are best prepared 
with oil ; those for rubber stamps, with 
glycerine. (See also Typewriter Inks.) 

Blue. — Ultramarine, 25 grams ; olive 
oil, 75 grams. Mix them intimately with 
the aid of slab and muller. 

Brass Stamps, Black Ink for. — 1. — Or- 
dinary printers' ink, thinned with olive 
oil. 

2.— Aniline black, E, 3 dr.; distilled 
water, 10 dr. ; wood vinegar, 10 dr. ; alco- 
hol, 10 dr. ; glycerine, 7 oz. Mix, and 
dissolve. 



[919] 



Writing Materials 



(Inks) 



Green.— Copper, subacetate, 25 grams ; 
oleic add, 5 grams ; olive oil, 70 grams. 
Mix as in Blue. 

Red. — Cinnabar, 40 grams ; olive oil, 60 
grams. Mix as for Blue. 

Steel Stamp, Ink for. — Copaiba, 9 oz. ; 
lampblack, 3 oz. ; indigo, 5 dr. ; Prussian 
blue, 5 dr. ; Indian red, % oz. ; dried yel- 
low soap, 3 oz. Grind to a uniform 
smoothness. 

Rubier Stamp Inks. — 1. — In order to 
make the ink directed below, first make 
an oil mixture, as follows : Oil Mixture : 
Oleic acid, purified, 5 parts ; castor oil, 
55 parts. Mix thoroughly. 

2. — Black Ink.— Oil mixture, 300 parts ; 
oil-soluble black, 15 parts. Proceed as 
directed above. 

3. — Blue Ink. — Oil mixture, 300 parts ; 
oil-soluble blue, 15 parts. Heat the oil 
mixture on a water bath to blood temper- 
ature. Shave the color into small pieces, 
and stir into the oil mixture until it is 
completely dissolved. Let it stand for 12 
hours, and then strain through a double 
thickness of cheese cloth. 

4. — Glycerine Stamp Ink. — Aniline wa- 
ter blue, IB, 3 dr. ; distilled water, 10 dr. ; 
acetic acid, 2 dr. ; alcohol, 1^/^ oz. ; glyc- 
erine, enough to make 10 oz. Make a so- 
lution by rubbing in a mortar. In the 
same way, inks of the following colors 
may be prepared with the above compound 
menstruum, substituting, of course, the 
pigment named for the aniline water-blue 
in the formula given : Violet : Methyl 
violet (3B), 2 dr. Red: Diamond fuchsin 
(I), 2 dr. Green: Aniline green (D), 
4 dr. Brown : Vesuvine (B), 5 dr. Black: 
Deep black (E), 3 dr. For bright red, 
omit the acid from the solution, replacing 
it by water, and using 3 dr. of eosin. 

5. — Red Ink. — Oil mixture, 150 parts ; 
oil-soluble red, 2 parts. Proceed as for 
blue ink, except that the color does not 
have to be shaved. While castor oil is 
not a drying oil, yet when it is mixed 
with oleic acid, which serves as a mor- 
dant, it will bite the oil-soluble aniline 
color into the paper, and thus prevent it 
from "rubbing." Another thing in favor 
of the combination is that the oil-soluble 
colors will not be affected by the mois- 
ture of the hand which may be rubbed 
over them. The castor oil prevents the 
ink from drying on the pad. 

6. — Violet Ink. — Oil mixture, 150 parts ; 
oil-soluble violet, 4 parts. Proceed as 
for blue ink. 

Ruhler Stamp Pads. — The following 
is said to be a cushion that will give 
color permanently. It consists of a 



(Inks) 



box filled with an elastic composition, 
saturated with a suitable color. The 
cushion fulfils its purpose for years 
without being renewed, always contains 
sufficient moisture, which is drawn from 
the atmosphere, and continues to act as 
a color stamp cushion so long as a rem- 
nant of the mass or composition remains 
in the box or receptacle. This cushion 
or pad is too soft to be self-supporting, 
but should be held in a low, flat pan, and 
have a permanent cloth cover. The com- 
position consists preferably of 1 part of 
gelatine, 1 part of water, 6 parts of glyc- 
erine and 6 parts of coloring matter. A 
suitable black color can be made from 
the following materials : 1 part gelatine 
glue, 3 parts lampblack, aniline black, or 
a suitable quantity of logwood extract, 10 
parts of glycerine, 1 part absolute alcohol, 
2 parts of water, 1 part of Venetian soap, 
1-5 part salicylic acid. For red, blue or 
violet, 1 part of gelatine glue, 2 parts of 
aniline of desired color, 1 part of abso- 
lute alcohol, 10 parts of glycerine, 1 part 
of Venetian soap and 1-5 part of salicylic 
acid. The following are two additional 
receipts used for this purpose : 

1. — Mix and dissolve 2 to 4 dr. of ani- 
line violet, 15 oz. of alcohol, 15 oz. of 
glycerine. The solution is poured on the 
cushion, and rubbed in with a brush. The 
general method of preparing the pad is 
to sweU the gelatine with cold water, then 
boil and add the glycerine, etc. A full 
description of the general method will be 
found under the Hektograph. 

2. — Aniline violet, 90 gr. ; boiling rain 
water, 1 oz. ; to which is added a little 
glycerine and a small quantity of mo- 
lasses. The quantities of the last two 
ingredients will vary with the season, but 
y2 teaspoonful will be ample for the quan- 
tities of violet and water specified. 

Stencil Ink. 

1. — Take of shellac, 2 oz. ; borax, 2 oz. ; 
water, 25 oz. ; gum arable, 2 oz. ; Vene- 
tian red, a sufficiency. Boil the borax, 
shellac, and some water, until they are 
dissolved ; add the gum arable, and with- 
draw from the fire. When the solution 
has become cold complete 25 oz. with wa- 
ter, and add more red to bring it to a 
suitable consistency. 

2. — Mastic, in tears, 8 oz. ; shellac, 12 
oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 oz. Melt to- 
gether, add 1 lb. of wax, 6 oz. of tallow ; 
when dissolved, add 6 oz. of hard soap 
shavings (tallow soap), and mix; then 
add coloring matter, such as lampblack, 
Prussian blue, vermilion or carmine. 



[920] 



Writing Materials 



(Inks) 



chrome green or white lead, or other pig- 
ment. The cake should be brittle. 

3. — Colored Stencil Ink. — a, — Shellac, 4 
parts ; borax, 1 part. Dissolve in a small 
quantity of boiling water and dilute with 
hot water to the consistency of very thin 
syrup ; to this add a sufficient quantity of 
logwood, or Brazil wood extract, or sol- 
uble coal-tar reds, for red. For blue, add 
to the lac solution soluble Prussian blue 
or blue carmine. 

b.— Blue Stencil Ink.— -The basis of the 
stencil inks commonly used varies to some 
extent, some preferring a mixture of pig- 
ments with oils, and others a watery shel- 
lac basis, and we give alternate formulas : 

(1) The Basis.— Shellac, 2 oz. ; borax, 
1% oz. ; water, 10 oz. Boil together un- 
til 10 oz, of solution are obtained. 

(2) The Coloring. — Prussian blue, 1 
oz. ; China clay, % oz. ; powdered acacia, 
% oz. Mix thoroughly, and gradually in- 
corporate the shellac solution. 

(3) Prussian blue, 2 oz. ; lampblack, 1 
oz. ; gum arable, 3 oz. ; glycerine, suffi- 
cient. Triturate together the dry powders 
and then make into a suitable paste with 
glycerine. 

4. — Stencil Ink for Wood. — An excel- 
lent stencil ink for boxes and packing 
cases can be made by mixing lampblack, 
fine clay and gum arabic together. The 
lampblack gives the color, the clay fur- 
nishes a body, and the gum an adhesive. 
Water will answer as a solvent, but lamp- 
black is so light that a few drops of vine- 
gar or other acid will facilitate its ad- 
mixture with the other ingredients. Any 
good adhesive substance, such as dextrine 
or gum tragacanth, may be found to an- 
swer as well as gum arabic to bind the 
mixture. 

Stone or Marble, Ink for. 

Trinidad asphaltum and oil of turpen- 
tine, equal parts. This is used in a melt- 
ed state for filling in letters cut on tomb- 
stones, marble slabs and monuments, and 
is very durable. 

Tin, Ink for Writing on. 

1. — Nitric acid, 12i/^ parts ; copper, 1^/4 
parts; add water, 121^ parts. Clean the 
tin with dry whiting ; write with a quill. 

2. — Mix verdigris, 1 part ; sal ammo- 
niac, 1 part ; chimney black, ^ part ; 
water, 10 parts. To be well shaken in a 
bottle (and labeled poison). To be used 
with a quill pen. 

Typewriter Ink. 

1. — Transparent soap, 1 part ; glycer- 
ine, 4 parts ; water, 12 parts ; 94% alco- 
hol, 24 parts ; aniline color, sufficient. 



(Inks) 



Mix the water and glycerine, and in the 
mixture dissolve the soap by the aid of 
heat. Dissolve the color in the alcohol, 
and mix the two solutions. Nigrosine is 
recommended for black. The only objec- 
tion that we have heard to this ink is that 
it is somewhat hygroscopic in wet weath- 
er, and has a tendency to thicken up in 
long continued dry weather. Castor oil 
has been strongly recommended as a basis 
for typewriter inks, stamping inks, etc., 
and it is claimed that inks made with it 
are not subject to the objections noted 
above, being very little affected by extreme 
dryness, moisture, heat or cold, etc. Any 
of the oil-soluble anilines will answer for 
a coloring agent, the copying qualities de- 
pending on the amount of color used. 

2. — Blue aniline, oil-soluble, 3 ; oleic 
acid, 6; castor oil, 94. Mix the dye with 
the oleic acid, gradually incorporate the 
oil, then heat the whole to 40° C., stirring 
constantly all the while. 

3. — Blue aniline, oil-soluble, 2.5 ; lemon 
yellow aniline, oil-soluble, 1.5 ; oleic acid, 
5 ; castor oil, 95. Prepare in the same 
manner as the preceding aniline inks. 

4. — Blue aniline, IB, 3 ; distilled water, 
10 ; wood vinegar, 10 ; alcohol, 70 ; glyc- 
erine, 70. 

5. — The following dyes are dissolved 
in the same menstruum in the quantities 
indicated : Methyl violet, 3B, -2 parts ; 
diamond fuchsin, I, 2 parts ; green aniline, 
D, 4 parts ; vesuvine, B, 5 parts ; jet 
black, 3 parts. 

6. — Blue-Black. — Aniline black, oil-sol- 
uble, 5 parts ; crude oleic acid, 5 parts ; 
castor oil, q. s. to make 100 parts. Pro- 
ceed as before. 

7. — Red. — Bordeaux red, oil-soluble, 15 
parts ; aniline red, oil-soluble, 15 parts ; 
crude oleic acid, 45 parts ; castor oil, 
enough to make 1,000 parts. Rub the col- 
ors up with the oleic acid, add the oil, 
warming the whole to 100 to 110° F. (not 
higher), under constant stirring. If the 
color is not sufficiently intense for your 
purposes, rub up a trifle more of it with 
oleic acid, and add it to the ink. By a 
little experimentation you can get an ink 
exactly to your desire in the matter. 

8. — Violet. — Aniline violet, oil-soluble, 
3 parts ; crude oleic acid, 5 parts ; castor 
oil, q. s. to make 100 parts. Mix. Pro- 
ceed as in first instance. The penetration 
of the ink may be increased ad lihitum 
by the addition of a few drops of absolute 
alcohol, or, better, of benzol. 

Vanadium Ink. 

The following formula for a vanadium 
ink is said to yield a satisfactory prepa- 



[921] 



Writing Materials 



(Inks) 



ration : Tannin, 45 gr, ; ammonium van- 
adate, 2 gi% ; water, enough to make 1 
fl.oz. Dissolve the tannin in 7 fl.dr. of 
water, the ammonium vanadate in 1 fl.dr. 
of water, and mix the two solutions. This 
furnishes a deep black ink, which flows 
freely without blotting, dries rapidly, with 
a brilliant gloss, and is not impaired by 
water. In the course of a few weeks the 
ink, as well as the writing, changes to a 
reddish yellow, remaining in this condi- 
tion, unaltered by water or acids. 

Vegetable Ink. 

Experiments are being made to accli- 
matize in Europe the Coriaria thyniifoUa, 
or ink plant, of New Granada. The juice 
of this plant, locally termed chanchi, is 
at first of a somewhat reddish color, but 
becomes intensely black in a few hours. 
This juice can be used for writing with- 
out requiring any further preparations ; 
it corrodes steel pens less than ordinary 
ink, and has, moreover, the advantage of 
better resisting chemical agents. When 
the portion of America named above was 
under Spanish dominion, all public docu- 
pients were written with chanchi, which 
was not removed from paper by sea water. 

Violet Ink. 

1. — Methyl violet, 3B, 96 gr. ; sugar, 
96 gr. ; oxalic acid, 20 gr. ; distilled wa- 
ter, 19% fl.oz. Mix the dye with 1 fl.oz. 
of cold water, set aside for 2 hours, then 
add the remainder of the water, in the 
hot condition, and the other ingredients, 
and stir about until dissolved. 

2. — Digest % oz, of aniline violet in 1 
oz. of alcohol, in a suitable vessel, as 
above, for 3 hours ; then add 1 qt. of dis- 
tilled water, and heat gently till the odor 
of spirit is dissipated. Then add 2 dr. 
of gum arable, dissolved in ^^ pt. of wa- 
ter, and allow the whole to settle. This 
will bear dilution, if desired, with an ad- 
ditional quantity of distilled water. 

White Ink. 

1. — White ink is made by suspending 
some insoluble substance in a liquid and 
applying with a brush or pen. In this 
way, zinc oxide (Chinese white) may be 
ground very fine on a slab, with a little 
mucilage of tragacanth, then thinned to 
the required consistency to flow from a 
pen. The mixture requires shaking from 
time to time to keep the pigment from 
separating. The ink may be preserved by 
adding a little oil of cloves, carbolic acid, 
or other antiseptic, to prevent decomposi- 
tion. All so-called white inks for colored 



(Papers) 



papers are made from acids or alkalies 
which will discharge the color. 

2.— -The following preparation is used 
for writing on slate-colored, blue or red 
paper : Slaked lime, 4 dr. ; tragacanth, in 
powder, 16 gr. ; glycerine, a sufficiency ; 
distilled water, 4 oz. The lime is rubbed 
with the tragacanth, and enough glycerine 
to make a stiff paste ; rub for about 15 
minutes, and then add the water, and bot- 
tle. 

3. — The following is an ink for a blue 
paper : Hydrochloric acid, 1 fl.dr. ; muci- 
lage, 30 minims ; water, 7 fl.dr. 

Yellow Ink. 

1. — Coarsely powdered gamboge, 1 oz. ; 
hot water, 5 oz. Dissolve, and when cold 
add % oz. of spirit. 

2. — Boil 1/^ lb. of French berries and 1 
oz. of alum in 1 qt. of rain water for half 
an hour, or longer, then strain, and dis- 
solve in 1 oz. of hot liquor of gum arable. 

Zinc, Writing on. ( See Stamps, Ink for. ) 

PAPERS 

Adhesive Paper. — Use a good quality of 
mucilage (see Mucilages), and paint the 
paper, which should be stretched with 
this, and when dry cut up for use. Paper 
may be gummed on both sides ; affords 
a very convenient mode of mounting pic- 
tures, etc. 

Anti-Rust Paper for Needles, etc. — This 
is paper covered with logwood, and pre- 
pared from a material to which fine 
graphite powder has been added, and 
which has been sized with glue and alum. 
It is used for wrapping around steel 
goods, such as sewing needles, etc., and 
protecting them against rust. According 
to Lake, the paper is treated with sul- 
phuric acid, like vegetable parchment, the 
graphite being sprinkled on before the pa- 
per is put into the water. 

Carion Papers. — 1. — Many copying pa- 
pers act by virtue of a detachable pigment, 
which, when the pigmented paper is 
placed between two sheets of white paper, 
and when the uppermost paper is writ- 
ten on, transfers its pigment to the lower 
white sheet, along lines which correspond 
to those traced on the upper paper, and 
therefore gives an exact copy of them on 
the lower paper. If the copying paper is 
coated with pigment on one side only, that 
is naturally made the lower side. If, 
however, it is pigmented on both sides, 
it is placed between two sheets of white 
paper, and the sheet to be written on is 
placed on the top of all. Two copies are 
thus obtained, one of which is reversed, 



[922] 



Writing Materials 



(Papers) 



but can be easily read by either of the 
two well-known devices. The pigments 
used are fine soot or ivory black, indigo 
carmine, ultramarine and Paris blue, or 
mixtures of them. The pigment is inti- 
mately mixed with grain soap and then 
rubbed on to thin but strong paper with 
a stiff brush. Fatty oils, such as linseed 
or castor oil, may be used, but the grain 
soap is preferable. Graphite is frequently 
used for black copying paper. It is rubbed 
into the paper with a cotton pad until 
a uniform light gray color results. All 
superfluous graphite is then carefully 
brushed off. It is often required to make 
a copying paper which will produce at 
the same time a positive copy, which is 
not required to be reproduced, and a neg- 
ative or reversed copy from which a num- 
ber of direct copies can be taken. Such 
paper is covered on one side with a man- 
ifolding composition, and on the other 
with a simple copying composition, and is 
used between two sheets of paper wdth 
the manifolding side undermost. The 
manifolding composition is made by mix- 
ing 5 oz. of printers' ink with 40 oz. of 
spirits of turpentine, and then mixing it 
with a fused mixture of 40 oz. of tallow 
and 5 oz. of stearine. When the mass is 
homogeneous, 30 oz. of the finest pow- 
dered protoxide of iron, first mixed with 
15 oz. of pyrogallic acid and 5 oz. of gal- 
lic acid, are stirred in till a perfect mix- 
ture is obtained. This mass will give at 
least 50 copies on damp paper, in the or- 
dinary way. The copying composition for 
the other side of the prepared paper con- 
sists of the following ingredients : _ Print- 
ers' ink, 5 oz. ; spirits of turpentine, 40 
oz. ; fused tallow, 30 oz. ; fused wax, 3 
oz. ; fused rosin, 2 oz. ; soot, 20 oz. It 
goes without saying that rollers or stones 
or other hard materials may be used for 
the purpose under consideration, as well 
as paper. The manifolding mass may be 
made blue with indigotin, red with ma- 
genta, or violet with methyl violet, add- 
ing 30 oz. of the chosen dye to the above 
quantities of pigment. If, however, they 
are used, the oxide of iron and gallic 
acids must be replaced by 20 oz. of car- 
bonate of magnesia. 

2. — The white paper is only very fine, 
thin writing paper. The black is soft 
paper, prepared by being smeared with 
a composition of grease and plumbago or 
lampblack. This mixture is allowed to 
remain on for 12 hours, and the paper 
is then wiped smooth with a piece of 
wool or cotton waste. Place white pa- 
per over black, and write with a blunt 
point. 



(Papers) 



3. — Melt 10 parts of lard, 1 part of 
wax, and mix with a suflScient quantity 
of fine lampblack. Saturate unglazed pa- 
per with this, remove excess, and press. 

4, — A workable substitute for the car- 
bon manifolding paper bought in the sta- 
tionery stores may be made as follows: 
Lard, 12 grams ; beeswax, 2 grams ; lamp- 
black, 2 grams. Melt together the lard 
and wax, and pour gradually into a warm 
mortar containing the lampblack, with 
constant trituration. Brush this mixture, 
while still liquid, over warm paper, and 
remove the excess with a flannel cloth. 

Chemically Prepared Paper. — 1. — Chem- 
ically prepared paper for autographic and 
automatic telegraphy is prepared by soak- 
ing it in either of the following solutions : 
Nitrate of ammonia, 2 lb. ; ferricyanide 
of potassium, 1/2 oz. ; gum tragacanth, 2 
oz. ; glycerine, 2 oz. ; water, ^2 gal. Or, 
iodide of potassium, % lb.; bromide of 
potassium, 1 lb.; starch, 1^ oz. ; water, 
2 qt. 

2. — Iodide of potassium, y^ lb. ; bromide 
of potassium, 2 lb. ; dextrine or starch, 1 
oz. ; distilled water, 1 gal. 

Cleaning Paper. — (See Cleansing.) 

Cork Paper. — A paper under this title 
has been patented in the United States ; 
it is prepared by coating one side of^ a 
thick, soft and flexible paper with a mix- 
ture composed of glue, 20 parts ; gelatine, 
1 part ; molasses, 3 parts ; and afterward 
covering with finely powdered cork, which 
is afterward lightly rolled in. This pa- 
per is largely used to pack bottles. 

Filtering Paper. — That usnallv em- 
ployed Is blotting paper. S. H. Johnson 
makes a kind by mixing 5 to 20% of pur- 
ified animal charcoal powder with the 
puln, which is preferably long-fibered. 

Glass Paper. — The fragments of broken 
wine bottles, etc., are carefullv washed 
to remove dirt, the glass is crushed under 
a revolving stone, and sifted into 6 sizes, 
as in manufacturing emery. It is sifted 
through sieves of wire cloth, which are 
generally cylindrical, like the bolts of 
flour mills. The cloths have from 16 to 
90 wires to the inch. A surface of thin 
glue is spread on the paper, and the pul- 
verized glass dusted over it with a sieve. 

Oold Leaf. — To attach permanently to 
paper or cardboard without discoloration 
by the adhesive striking through : Dis- 
solve finely shredded isinglass in a little 
water, at moderate temperature, which 
must not be allowed to reach the boiling 
point. Add as much nitric acid by weight 
as of isinglass. 

Greasy Paper, To Wrife on. — To 1 ox- 
gall add a handful of salt and %, pt. of 
3] 



Writing Materials 



(Papers) 



vinegar. If the parchment or paper is 
greasy, add a little of this to the ink. 

Hydrographic Paper. — A name applied 
to prepared paper which is written on 
with water, when the writing appears. 

1. — Calcined sulphate of iron, 1 part, 
and 4 parts of nutgalls, both finely pow- 
dered, are rubbed into the paper, with 
pressure. Writes black with water. 

2. — Use persulphate of iron and ferro- 
cyanide of potassium in the same way as 
No. 1. 

3. — As in the last, using copper sul- 
phate instead of iron sulphate. Writes 
brown. 

Insulating Paper. — Absorbent tissue pa- 
per is rendered insulating by steeping it 
in melted paraflSne, and is used for the 
dielectric of large telegraph condensers, 
and Muirhead's artificial cable. An in- 
sulating varnish for paper is made by 
mixing 1 part of Canada balsam and 2 
parts of essence of turpentine. Digest in 
a bottle, with gentle heat, and filter be- 
fore cooling. 

Iridescent Paper. — Gallnuts, coarsely 
powdered, 6% oz. ; sulphate of iron, 4^/4 
oz. ; sulphate of indigo, % oz. ; gum ara- 
ble, 18 gr. Boil these ingredients, strain 
through a cloth, crush the paper with the 
liquid, and expose to vapor of ammonia. 

Issue Paper. — One part each of elemi, 
spermaceti and Venice turpentine ; white 
wax, 2 parts. Melt them together by 
gentle heat, and spread the mixture on 
paper. Used to keep issues open. 

Luminous Paper. — Dry thoroughly, and 
mix by grinding, 3 parts of gelatine, 3 
parts of potassium bichromate and 37i/^ 
parts of calcium sulphide. Stir 1 part 
of the powder with 1% parts of boiling 
water to a thickly fluid paint. Apply 
one or two coats with a brush to the pa- 
per or pasteboard to be made luminous. 

Mourning Stationery, Black Color for. 
— In its production, add to a solution of 
500 parts of gum arable 40 parts of bi- 
chromate of potassium, and then intro- 
duce the quantity of ivory black required 
to produce the desired depth of color. To 
prevent the cracking of the raixture it 
may be mixed with some glycerine. 

Packing Paper. — Packing paper may be 
made watertight by dissolving 1.82 lb. of 
white soap in 1 qt. of water, and dissolv- 
ing in another quart 1.82 oz. (apothe- 
caries' weight) of gum arable and 5.5 oz. 
of glue. The two solutions are mixed and 
warmed, the paper is soaked in the mix- 
ture, and passed between rollers or hung 
up to dry. 

Painted Paper. — Unsized paper is eoat- 
1 with an aqueous solution of dextrine. ' 



(Papers) 



ed with 



When this coat is dry, a layer of sicca 
tive oil paint is applied, and the shee 
so obtained may be used for packing pur 
poses, to render fabrics impermeable 
water, etc. 

Papyrine. — Dip white unsized paper fo 
V2 minute in strong sulphuric acid, after 
ward in water containing a little ammo 
nia. Paper thus treated has, when dry 
the toughness and appearance of parch 
ment. 

Parafftne Paper. — Dissolve paraffine ii 
benzine, and into the warm solution dii 
the paper, sheet by sheet ; let drip ofl 
and dry. On the large scale, it may b( 
done by letting paper from a continuous 
roll pass through such a solution and thei 
between flannel to absorb the surplus 
Wax is best dissolved in carbon disul 
phide, and paper can thus be made readi 
for use in 5 minutes. Quite a good plai 
is to apply the benzine solution of par 
afiine by means of a sponge. 

Phenyl Paper. — Used for packing meat 
and substances liable to decay. Fuse 
121/^ parts of stearic acid at a moderat( 
heat. Mix with 5 parts of carbolic acid 
and 12^ parts of paraflBne (melted) 
Stir until the mixture becomes solid. Take 
the paper and go over quickly with a hot 
iron, against which is held a piece of th( 
mixture, which will melt and run dowi 
on the paper. 

Preserving Papers. — 1. — Butter-Pre- 
serving Paper. — Cooking salt, in fine 
powder, 160 gr. ; saltpeter, in fine powder, 
320 gr. ; whites of 20 eggs. Beat tht 
albumen to a froth, mix the salts, and add 
the mixture to the froth, little by little, 
with constant stirring, until a solution 
is formed. In this imbibe a good quality 
of bibulous paper, and hang it across 
strings to dry. When dry, go over each 
sheet with a hot smoothing iron, the face 
of which is kept well waxed. 

2. — Salicylated Paper. — Divide any de- 
sired quantity of salicylic acid into 
equal parts. Make a solution containing 
3 parts of Glauber salt and 7 parts of 
borax in 58 parts of water, heat, and add 
one of the parts of salicylic acid. Digest 
the remaining half of the acid in a vol- 
ume of hot glycerine about equal to that 
of the saline solution. Mix the two 11 
quids, and then carefully add water until 
a solution of about 3% of salicylic acid is 
obtained. This answers for thin paper, 
but a thicker paper requires a 5% solu- 
tion. The best .paper for the purpose is 
one having a satin finish. If the salts 
show a tendency to crystallize out on the 
paper on drying, more glycerine is needed. 



[924] 



Writing Materials 



(Papers) 



Each sheet should be put in separately, 
and kept immersed for 4 or 5 minutes, 
the solution being maintained at a tem- 
perature of not less than 150° F. The 
paper should be dried at ordinary temper- 
atures and kept pressed between paste- 
board, or in rolls. 

3. — Silverware, Paper for. — Caustic 
soda, 6 parts ; zinc oxide, 4 parts ; water, 
sufficient. Dissolve the caustic soda in 
water until a density of 20° B. is ob- 
tained (sp. gr. 1.161, to obtain which, 
near enough for all practical purposes, 
take 11 parts of sodium hydrate to every 
100 parts of water), add the zinc oxide, 
and boil for 2 hours, if possible, under a 
pressure of 5 atmospheres. After cool- 
ing, thin down with water to 10° B. (sp. 
gr. 1.075). Proceed as in the general di- 
rections. Paper for wrapping silver 
should be soft and thin, so that it will 
cling to the surface of the article wrapped 
in it, without danger of scratching it. A 
good article of tissue paper is excellent, 
but the best is a Japanese fiber paper 
of great softness and thinness, yet very 
strong. 

Safety Paper. — 1. — Paper may be pre- 
pared for bank checks and other docu- 
ments so that any writing in ink, once 
made thereon, cannot be altered without 
leaving plainly visible marks, by passing 
the sheets through a solution composed of 
0.015 gr. of gallic acid to 1 gill of dis- 
tilled water. 

2. — Protective for Checks. — Print with 
a fugitive writing ink, which will be eas- 
ily destroyed. 

Splitting a Sheet of Paper. — People 
who have not seen this done might think 
it impossible, yet it is not only possible, 
but extremely easy. Get a piece of plate 
glass, and place on it a sheet of paper ; 
then let the latter be thoroughly soaked. 
With care and a little dexterity the sheet 
can be split by the top surface being re- 
moved. But the best plan is to paste a 
piece of cloth or very strong paper to 
each side of the sheet to be split. When 
dry, violently, and without hesitation, 
pull the two pieces asunder, when part 
of the sheet will be found to have ad- 
hered to one and part to the other. Soften 
the paste in water, and the pieces can be 
easily removed from the cloth. The proc- 
ess can be utilized in various ways. If 
it be wanted to paste in a scrapbook a 
newspaper article printed on both sides 
of the paper, and there is only one copy, 
it is very convenient to know how to 
detach the one side from the other. The 
paper, when split, as may be imagined, 

[ 



(Papers) 



is more transparent than before, and the 
printing ink is somewhat duller. 

Sticking Paper. — Brush over your 
sheets a solution of dextrine, with sugar 
mixed. 

Test Papers. — Use good unsized paper, 
wet uniformly with the substance. In 
preparing decoctions, making solutions, 
etc., where water is used, only distilled 
water must be used. 

1.— rBrazil Wood. — Make from the de- 
coction ; alkalies turn it to a purple ; 
acids, if strong, to a red. 

2. — Buckthorn. — Reddened by acids. 

S.^Cherry Juice. — Same as buckthorn. 

4. — Dahlia. — This very delicate test is 
turned green by alkalies, red by acids ; 
caustic alkalies, yellow. 

5. — Elderberry — Same as last. 

6. — Iodide of Potassium. — Make the so- 
lution in distilled water. Used in a num- 
ber of ways as a test. 

7. — Lead Acetate. — Make from a solu- 
tion of the salt in water. Used to detect 
hydrogen sulphide. 

8. — Mallow. — Prepare an infusion of 
the purple flowers of the mallow. Af- 
fected the same as the dahlia paper. 

9. — Manganese. — From solution of 
manganese sulphate ; blackened by ozone. 

10. — Rhubarb. — Make a strong infusion 
of the powdered root. Alkalies turn it 
brown ; boracic acid has no effect upon 
it. 

11. — Rose. — Made from a strong infu- 
sion of the leaves of the red rose. Alka- 
lies turn it green. 

12. — Starch. — From a cold decoction of 
starch. Free iodine turns it blue. 

13. — Sulphate of Iron. — From a solu- 
tion of ferrous sulphate. Used as a test 
for hydrocyanic acid. 

14. — Turmeric. — This is made by pre- 
paring an alcoholic tincture of turmeric 
root. Unsized paper may be stained with 
it ; used in testing for alkalies. 

Waxed Paper. — Place cartridge or oth- 
er paper on a hot iron and rub it with 
beeswax, or brush on a solution of wax 
in turpentine. On a large scale, it is 
prepared by opening a quire of paper flat 
upon a table, and rapidly ironing it with 
a heavy, hot iron, against which is held 
a piece of wax, which, melting, runs down 
upon the paper and is absorbed by it. Any 
excess on the topmost layer readily pene- 
trates to the lower ones. Such paper is 
useful for making waterproof and air- 
proof tubes, and for general wrapping 
purposes. 
925] 



Writing Materials 



( Pencils ) 



PENCILS, (See also Crayons.) 
Aniline. — The materials used are ani- 
line, graphite and kaolin, in different pro- 
portions. Made into a paste with cold 
water, they are pressed through a screen 
that divides the mass into slender sticks 
used in filling the pencils. When dry, 
the sticks are fitted to the wooden parts, 
and glued together in the usual way. 
They may be used in copying, marking 
in permanent color, and in reproducing 
writing or designs. In copying, a thin 
sheet of moistened paper is laid over the 
letter, design or document, and the lines 
are traced with the pencils. The action 
of the water on the aniline gives a deep, 
fast tracing, resembling ink in color. On 
ordinary dry paper they give a mark 
which cannot be removed by india-rubber. 
Moistened sheets of paper laid over the 
writing, under a slight pressure, will 
transfer good impressions that do not 
blur. 

Black Lead for. — The successful pro- 
duction of pencil leads is a very valuable 
trade secret to the manufacturers of pen- 
cils. In a general way, it may be said 
that black lead for pencils is usually pre- 
pared by one or another of the following 
methods : 

1. — The blocks of plumbago are ex- 
posed to a bright red heat in a closely 
covered crucible, and are afterward sawed 
into minute sticks and mounted in cases 
of cedar or satin wood. 

^ 2. — The plumbago, in powder, is cal- 
cined as before, and then mixed with an 
equal or any other desired proportion of 
pure washed clay, also in powder, after 
which the mixture is reduced to a plastic 
state with water and pressed into grooves 
cut on the face of a smooth board, or 
into well greased wooden molds, in which 
state it is left to dry. When dry, the 
pieces are tempered to any degree of 
hardness by exposing them, surrounded 
by sand or powdered charcoal, to various 
degrees of heat. The crucible is not 
opened until the whole has become cold, 
when the prepared "slips" are removed, 
and mounted as before. This method was 
invented by M. Conte in 1795. 

3. — The dough or paste, prepared as 
last, is reduced to the required form by 
forcing it through a perforated plate (in 
a similar manner to that adopted for col- 
ored crayons), or into minute metallic 
cylinders, from which it may be readily 
shaken after it becomes partially dry. The 
leads for some varieties of drawing pen- 
cils are immersed for a minute in very 
hot melted wax or suet before mounting 



(Pencils) 



them. To the composition for others a 
little lampblack is added to increase and 
vary the degree of blackness. 

Bronze Pencils. — Bronze powder is 
thoroughly mixed with finely washed clay 
and dissolved gum, and to improve the 
hold of the stroke on the marked sub- 
stance, as well as increase brilliancy, 
some fat is added. The formation of the 
mass into strips, and its subsequent treat- 
ment, is effected Avith the aid of machines 
employed in making lead pencils. 

Colored Lead Pencils. — Faber receipt 
(Stein, near Nuremberg) . — 1, — Very 
Soft. — Aniline dyestuff, 50 ; chemically 
prepared graphite, 87.5 ; purified kaolin, 
12.5. 

2. — Soft. — Aniline dyestuff, 46 ; chemi- 
cally prepared graphite, 34 ; purified kao- 
lin, 20. 

3. — Hard. — Aniline dyestuff, 30 ; chemi- 
cally prepared graphite, 30 ; purified kao- 
lin, 40. 

4. — Very Hard. — Aniline dyestuff, 25 ; 
chemically prepared graphite, 25 ; purified 
kaolin, 50. 

The materials, pulverized as finely as 
possible, are mixed with water into a 
paste, of which little sticks are formed. 

Copying Pencils. — A mass adapted for 
red, yellow, blue and green copying pen- 
cils is obtained by making an intimate 
mixture of 1 part each of slaked lime, 
with 2 to 3 parts of a cochineal and borax 
mixture or 2 to 3 parts of logwood ex- 
tract and chromate of potash or 2 to 3 
parts of indigo extract, or 2 to 3 parts of 
fustic extract, or 2 to 3 parts of the last 
two mixed. To make copying pencils 
from such mixture, mix them with min- 
eral wool, pulverized hard soap and a 
solution of oxgall and soap, and press 
them, according to the method practiced 
in manufacturing lead pencils, in molds, 
or through perforated plates. 

Indelible Pencils. — 1. — Reduce nitrate 
of silver to an impalpable powder, add 
just enough lampblack to give it a black 
color, and enough of a thick solution of 
gum arable in hot water to make the 
powder coherent. Rub these ingredients 
well together, form into thin sticks, and 
dry. 

2. — Kaolin, 8 parts ; finely powdered 
manganese dioxide, 2 parts ; silver nitrate, 
3 parts. Mix, and knead intimately with 
5 parts of distilled water ; then dry the 
mass, and enclose it in wood. Transfer 
paper is made by rubbing white paper 
with a composition of 2 oz. of tallow, % 
oz. of powdered black lead, % pt. of lin- 
seed oil and sufficient lampblack to make 
it of the consistency of cream. These 



[926] 



Writing Materials 



(Sealing Wax) 



should be melted together, and rubbed, 
while hot, on the paper. When dry, it 
will be fit for use. 

Marking Linen, Pencils for. — Mix 4 
parts of powdered pyrolusite with 16 parts 
of thoroughly dried alumina ; add to this a 
solution of 6 parts of nitrate of silver 
in 10 parts of distilled water. Rub and 
knead the mass thoroughly. Pencils are 
formed from this and dried. Used for 
marking linen. 

SEALING WAX 

Mixing. — It is essential that all the in- 
gredients be dry, and to insure this they 
are kept in paper bags on a shelf running 
around the walls of the stove room, at 
about 18 in. below the ceiling. The order 
of adding the ingredients is as follows : 
The rosins and turpentines are first melt- 
ed together ; then the neutral bodies 
(chalk, etc.), if any, are stirred in; next 
the pigments are added ; and the volatile 
balsams and oils are only introduced at 
the last moment before forming. When 
only one pigment is used, it is simply 
warmed, and stirred into the mass. When 
a shade is to be produced by a mixture 
of colors, no neutral bodies are added to 
the rosins, but they are mixed with the 
colors in a china dish, warmed, and then 
added to the melted mass. Any required 
tint is obtained by mixing, and frequent 
testing. 

Melting. — The melting of the mass 
should be conducted at the lowest possible 
temperature, sufiieing only to keep it in 
a fluid state. Quantities of 20 to 25 lb. 
are treated at a time in a vessel large 
enough to perniit quick stirring. Often 
the furnace used resembles an ordinary 
cook stove, the fire heating cast-iron 
plates ; but these are objectionable from 
the inequality of the heating and the risk 
of fire. Enameled cast-iron pots are best 
for melting in, keeping a separate pot for 
each mixture. Before using a pot for a 
new color it must be allowed to get quite 
cold, when the adhering wax can be easily 
cleaned off. The shellac is first put into 
the pot and melted, while being contin- 
ually stirred with a flat paddle of hard 
wood ; the turpentine is then intimately 
incorporated ; next follow the neutral bod- 
ies and colors, in a thin stream, with 
constant stirring, which is more neces- 
sary if the pigments are heavy. When 
the mass seems uniform, drops of it are 
examined by letting them fall on a cold, 
smooth metallic plate, when the color, 
hardness and fracture can be tested. 
When satisfactory, the heat is adjusted 
to maintain a fluid condition, aromatic 

[ 



(Sealing Wax) 



substances are quickly stirred in, and 
forming is commenced. 

Forming. — Sealing wax is molded into 
sticks in special forms, consisting of one 
piece for rectangular or triangular sticks, 
but must be of two for oval or round. 
Forms in one piece are made of rectan- 
gular brass plate, carrying grooves 1-25 
in. wider at the top than at the bottom, 
for facilitating removal of the sticks. It 
is a common practice to put forms on a 
stove, or cool them oflE, while molding, 
by placing them on metallic trays with 
cold water beneath, to cool the sticks 
rapidly ; this releases the forms more 
quickly, but makes the sticks brittle, and 
it is better to let them cool gradually on 
a wooden table, while if the form be- 
comes so warm as to much protract the 
setting of the wax, it may be dipped in 
cold water and carefully dried before 
using again. Engraved forms are difficult 
to turn out, but this may be partly reme- 
died by slightly rubbing the engraved 
parts with oil of turpentine.- Surface or- 
namentation, such as gilding or silvering, 
is effected by placing the substances in 
the form. As brass forms are expensive, 
they are sometimes replaced by home- 
made ones of type metal. To produce 
them, a stick of fine wax is coated with 
a thin film of olive oil, and a cast of it 
is taken in plaster of paris ; when this is 
thoroughly dry it is put into a small 
wooden box, and melted type metal is 
poured round to make a form. The form- 
ing of the wax is conducted as follows : 
The molten wax is ladled from the pot 
into a casting spoon, previously heated. 
By this it is poured in a uniform stream 
into the forms. These should be slightly 
warmed before the first molding takes 
place. 

Polishing. — Polishing, dressing or en- 
ameling is usually applied to all grades, 
though the finer qualities have a lustrous 
surface on coming out of the form. When 
the improved furnace before mentioned is 
not in use, a special polishing stove is 
necessary. This consists of an iron slab 
covering a vault, heated by a fire beneath. 
The sticks are taken in the hand and 
held in the heat of the polishing stove 
till the surfaces begin to melt and the 
sticks bend. For gilding, silvering or 
bronzing, the part to be ornamented is 
touched with a brush dipped in 90% alco- 
hol, and the gold or silver leaf, or bronze 
powder, is applied, and adheres tena- 
ciously. 

Composition. — The following recipes 
for the compounding of sealing waxes will 
927 ] 



Writing Materials 



(Sealing Wax) 



be found to embrace all that are of gen- 
eral utility : 

Black. — 1. — Shellac, 15 parts ; tui-pen- 
tine, 27 parts ; pine rosin, 20 parts ; chalk, 
12 parts ; soot, 16 parts. 

2. — Shellac, 16 parts ; turpentine, 12 
parts ; rosin, 12 parts ; chalk, 3 parts ; 
gypsum, 2 parts ; vine black, 7 parts. 

Blue. — Shellac, 7 parts ; turpentine, 6 
parts ; pine rosin, S^/^ parts ; magnesia, 1 
part ; chalk, 2 parts ; blue coloring mat- 
ter, 2 to 21/^ parts. 

Brown. — 1. — Shellac, 4 parts ; turpen- 
tine, 12 parts ; pine rosin, 8 parts ; gyp- 
sum, 4 parts ; chalk, 4 parts ; umber, 4 
parts. The shellac for preparing choco- 
late brown sealing wax must not be too 
dark. The product of the above recipe 
is dark brown, and unbleached shellac and 
dark rosin may be used for preparing it. 

2.— Light Brown. — Take 7i^ oz. of 
shellac and 4 oz. of Venice turpentine, 
and color with 1 oz. of brown ocher and 
% oz. of cinnabar (red sulphuret of mer- 
cury or vermilion). 

Colorless Sealing Wax. — Beeswax, 11 
parts ; turpentine, 3 parts ; Rhine oil, 1 
part ; shellac, 5 parts. Mix with heat. 

Deed. — Light-colored rosin, 12 parts ; 
turpentine, 7 parts ; clarified tallow, 6 
parts ; whiting, 8 parts ; minium, 6 parts. 

Diplomas, Soft Sealing Wax for. — Yel- 
low wax, 24 parts ; turpentine, 4% parts ; 
olive oil, 11/^ parts. After these ingredi- 
ents are melted, stir in cinnabar or other 
coloring matter. 

Gold Sealing Wax. — Melt cautiously 4 
oz. of pure shellac in a copper vessel, at 
the lowest possible temperature; add li/4 
oz. of Venice turpentine, previously 
warmed, and stir in 3 oz. of mica span- 
gles ; pour into metallic molds, and allow 
it to cool. 

Green. — Shellac, 14 parts ; turpentine, 
16 parts ; pine rosin, 8 parts ; magnesia, 
3 parts ; Berlin blue, 5 parts ; chrome yel- 
low. 5 parts. 

Without a Light. — Colophony. 3 parts ; 
rosin, 3 parts ; suet, 3 parts ; Venice tur- 
pentine, 4 parts ; pulverized carbonate of 
lime, 4 parts ; pulverized minium, 4 parts. 
Melt the first 3 ingredients together, then 
add the others in snccession, stirring con- 
stantly till cold. 

Parcel Sealing Wax. — 1. — Shellac, 7 
parts ; rosin, 13 parts ; turpentine. 10 
parts ; oil of turpentine, 1 part ; chalk, 3 
parts ; gypsum, 2 parts ; cinnabar, 5 parts. 

2. — Shellac, 6 parts ; rosin, 24 parts ; 
turpentine, 15 parts ; oil of turpentine, 
11/^ parts ; chalk, 9 parts ; gypsum, 16 
parts ; minium, 18 parts. 

Red. — 1. — Rosin turpentine, 1 part ; 



(Slates) 



rosin, 8 parts ; bleached shellac, 5 parts ; 
German vermilion, 1^ parts ; heavy spar, 
10 parts ; light spar, 5 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 1 part. 

2. — Shellac, 24 parts ; turpentine, 16 
parts ; cinnabar, 18 parts ; oil of turpen- 
tine, 4 parts ; magnesia, 6 parts. 

3. — Shellac, 10 parts; turpentine, 6 
parts ; oil of turpentine, 1 part ; chalk, 
1 part ; magnesia, 2 parts ; cinnabar, 8 
parts. 

4. — ^Shellac, 20 parts; turpentine, 2 
parts ; oil of turpentine, 1 part ; chalk, 3 
parts ; gypsum, 3 parts ; magnesia, % 
part ; cinnabar, 12 parts. 

Translucent. — A beautiful variety 
(aventurin), which can be prepared at 
comparatively low cost, is obtained by 
stirring finely powdered mica into the 
melted ground mass. Gold and silver 
waxes are obtained by mixing finely pow- 
dered leaf metal with the melted ground 
mass. Ground masses for translucent 
wax are : 

1. — Bleached shellac, 3 parts ; viscid 
turpentine, 3 parts ; mastic, 6 parts ; 
chalk, 2 parts. 

2. — Bleached shellac, 15 parts ; viscid 
turpentine, 20 parts ; mastic, 25 parts ; 
sulphate of baryta, 15 parts ; or nitrate 
of bismuth, 15 parts. 

3. — Bleached shellac, 3 parts ; viscid 
turpentine, 4 parts ; mastic, 5 parts ; ni- 
trate of bismuth, 3 parts. 

White Sealing Wax. — 1.' — Bleached 
shellac, 28 parts ; Venice turpentine, 13 
parts ; plaster of paris, 30 parts. 

2. — White rosin, 15 parts ; gum turpen- 
tine. 4 parts ; plaster of paris, 10 parts. 

We think a satisfactory article could 
also be made by melting together white 
rosin, white wax and plaster of paris. 
The proportions could be determined by a 
few experiments. 

SLATE 

Artificial. — Fine sand, 41 par^s ; lamp- 
black, 4 parts ; boiled linseed or cotton- 
seed oil, 5 parts. Boil thoroughly to- 
gether. Reduce the mixture by adding 
spirits of turpentine, so that it may be 
easily applied to a thin piece ■of paste- 
board. Give three coats, drying between 
each coat ; finish by rubbing smooth with 
a piece of cotton waste soaked in spirits 
of turpentine. Makes excellent memo- 
randum books, etc. Use a slate pencil. 

Blackboard or School Slating. — The 
making of a good surface for drawing or 
writing on with chalk or crayons is not 
as easy as it would appear to be. The 
great secret of success, however, lies ^ in 
avoiding grease or oil of any description 



[928] 



Writing Materials 



(Slates) 



in preparing the lacquer. The following 
give good results : 

1. — Shellac, 250 parts ; lampblack, 25 
parts ; ultramarine, 40 parts ; Rochelle 
salt in powder, 125 parts ; pumice stone, 
175 parts ; alcohol, 2,250 parts. Dissolve 
the shellac in the alcohol, and mix in 
the solid ingredients. 



(Slates) 



2.— Shellac, 500 parts ; ivory black, 250 
parts ; emery, in fine powder, 150 parts ; 
ultramarine, 125 parts. Proceed as be- 
fore. Wood naphtha may be used in place 
of alcohol as a solvent, if the rooms in 
which the boards are placed are left open 
long enough for the odor to evaporate 
before the classes assemble. 



[925] 



APPEIN^DIX 



MISCELLAI^EOUS FOEMFLAS I^OT CLASSIFIED 
ELSEWHERE 



'Note. — Be sure and always refer to the 
Index, as miscellaneous formulas are 
often classified in one of the regular chap- 
ters. This fact is readily disclosed by 
the index. 

Absorbent Cotton. 

Boil best quality of cotton with a 5% 
solution of caustic soda or potash for 
^2 hour. Wash thoroughly, and press 
out all water as far as possible, and im- 
merse in a 5% solution of chloride of lime 
(bleaching powder) for 15 or 20 minutes ; 
wash with a little water, then with water 
acidulated with hydrochloric acid, then 
with water. Boil once more for 15 min- 
utes with caustic soda solution, and wash 
with acidulated and plain water as be- 
fore. 

Accidents. ( See special chapter. ) 
Agriculture. ( See special chapter. ) 
Albumen. 

Blood Albumen. — Production of a light- 
colored product, containing globulin from 
blood. The blood coagulum, obtained in 
any manner, is extracted with ethyl alco- 
hol, methyl alcohol, or acetone, with ad- 
mixture of 0.5 to 1% of an acid, an alkali, 
or an alkaline carbonate, until the great- 
er portion of the hematine and coloring 
constituents have been removed. A com- 
plete decoloration cannot be effected by 
prolonged extraction, but can be accom- 
plished by distributing the product ob- 
tained in water and bleaching it by the 
addition of a suitable bleaching medium, 
such as chlorine, permanganate of pot- 
ash, or peroxide of hydrogen. In this con- 
dition the albumen obtained can be em- 
ployed for finishing tissues, for the pro- 
duction of coatings, or as nutriment. 

Fish Albumen. — Hilman's process for 
preparing it is as follows : The crushed 
spawn is macerated in sufiicient water 
to dissolve out the albumen. The albu- 
minous water is separated by filter press, 
and evaporated in a vacuum pan nearly to 
dryness. The thickened mass is then dried 
on drying floors, salicylic acid, in the pro- 
portion of 1 to 20, being added as a pre- 



servative. There are difficulties in the 
way of freeing fish albumen from accom- 
panying substances, which reduce its 
value. 

Powdered Albumen. — If blood serum, or 
white of egg, is exposed in thin layers, 
and a current of dry air passed over it, 
it will become a solid, transparent sub- 
stance like horn. It will keep well in 
this state, or it may be reduced to powder, 
and stored in bottles. For use in pho- 
tography, 3 teaspoonfuls of cold water 
added to every i^ teaspoonful of powder 
represent the normal consistency of egg 
albumen. 

Vegetable Albumen. — It is most easily 
prepared from potatoes, by cutting them 
into slices, covering them with very di- 
lute sulphuric acid (2%), leaving them 24 
hours, then adding fresh potatoes, and re- 
peating the operation once more, after- 
ward neutralizing with potash and boil- 
ing. A considerable quantity of albumen 
is then deposited in thick white flocks. It 
can also be made from wheat flour and 
from oleaginous seeds. Kingzett's and 
Portheim's processes are equally applic- 
able to gluten, the protein of worts, etc. 
The latter inventor takes 100 lb. of the 
albuminous matter, ground up and washed 
with water, and dissolves it in 200 to 250 
lb. of water in which has been previously 
dissolved 4 lb. of caustic soda or potash 
at 194 to 212° F. (90 to 100° C). To 
the solution thus prepared he adds 4% 
of a solution containing 40% of glycero- 
sulphate or glycero-phosphate of calcium, 
or 4% of a mixture of calcic chloride 
and an alkaline salt of citric, tartaric 
or metaphosphoric acid. The mixtures 
are "scaled" in the usual way. 

Alcohol. 

Alcohol, as the term is generally un- 
derstood, may signify spirits of various 
strengths, and we distinguish, therefore, 
between alcohol of 60, 70, 80%, etc., 
meaning that in 100 volumes of the spirit 
there are contained 60, 70 or 80 volumes 
of absolute alcohol. As used in the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia, the term alcohol is meant 
to designate that which contains 91%, by 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[933] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Alcohol) 



weight, of absolute alcohol and 9% of 
water. 

Absolute Alcohol is alcohol without any 
water whatever, and, as it absorbs water 
from the atmosphere with great energy, 
it can scarcely be ohtained in commerce. 
What is sold for absolute alcohol is rarely 
above 98%. Absolute alcohol has a spe- 
cific gravity of 0.7939 at 60° F. 

Caustic AlcoJiol. — This term is com- 
monly applied to sodium ethylate, a prod- 
uct formed by the decomposition of abso- 
lute alcohol with pure metallic sodium, 
the chemical formula being Cj H5, NaO, 
or alcohol which has had one atom of its 
hydrogen replaced by one of sodium. 

Cologne Spirits is the highest grade of 
alcohol, having been so purified as to be 
devoid of all color and odor. 

Deodorizing Alcohol. — 1. — Add to the 
barrel of alcohol 1 gal. of water saturated 
with chlorine gas ; agitate thoroughly, let 
rest for 12 hours, then saturate with 
chalk (which, combining with the ohlo- 
rme, forms chloride of lime), and distil. 
Filtering through animal charcoal after 
precipitating the chlorine with the chalk 
affords a very fair substitute for the re- 
distilled alcohol. The fusel oil can be sep- 
arated from alcohol, in small quantity, 
by adding a few drops of olive oil and 
thoroughly agitating in a bottle and al- 
lowing it to settle, and then decant. The 
olive oil combines with and retains the 
fusel oil. 

2. — Alcohol employed in perfumery 
should be free from all smell of fusel or 
other oils. Alcohol is deodorized by dis- 
tillation over permanganate of potassa. 
Spirits of wine, brandy and alcohol, dis- 
tilled over soap, lose their empyreumatic 
odor and taste entirely. At about 215° 
F. the soap retains neither alcohol nor 
wood spirit. The empyreumatic oil which 
remains in combination with the soap 
which forms the residuum of the distilla- 
tion is carried off at a higher tempera- 
ture by the watery vapor, which is formed 
during a second distillation, the product 
of which is a soap free from empyreuma, 
and is fit to be nsed again for similar pur- 
poses. The concentration of the alcohol 
increases in this operation more than 
when the soap is not employed, because 
this compound retains the water, and the 
alcoholic vapors which pass over are more 
concentrated. Thirty-three pounds of soap 
are enough for 100 gal. of empyreumatic 
brandy ; and direct experiment has shown 
that, under the most favomible circum- 
stances, the soap can retain 20% of em- 
pyreumatic oil. The soap employed should 
contain no potassa ; it should be hard or 



(Alcohol) 



soda soap, and ought to be completely 
free from any excess of fatty acids or flu- 
ids, otherwise it may render the product 
rancid or impure. Common soap, made 
with soda and oleine, has satisfied all the 
conditions in practice. If this soap is 
employed, it is better to add a little soda 
during the first distillation. 

Denatured Alcohol. — Alcohol which has 
been rendered unfit for a beverage, but 
which is not impaired for industrial uses. 
The subject is fnlly treated in "Indus- 
trial Alcohol, Its Manufacture and Uses," 
by J. K. Brachvogel, published by Messrs. 
Munn & Co., New York. It is the au- 
thoritative work on the subject of alcohol 
manufacture. 

Diluted Alcohol. — (See Proof Spirits.) 
Grain Alcohol. — The cereals contain an 
amylaceous (starchy) substance, which, 
under the influence of diastase, is convert- 
ed into fermentable sugar. The following 
table shows the possible yields from dif- 
ferent grains : 

Pints pure 
_^^ alcohol. 

100 lb. rice 24i^ 

'' wheat 22V2 

;; rye 191/2 

barley 171^^ 

" buckwheat 17i^ 

maize 171/3 

oats 151^ 

Rice, maize, wheat, sorghum and rye 
are most largely used; barley and buck- 
wheat are added in some proportions ; 
oats are too dear to be employed for any 
purpose but lending an aroma to the prod- 
uct of other grains. 

The processes necessary to prepare 
grain for fermentation are : 

(1) Steeping in water for 30 to 40 
hours, or until the grains yield readily 
when crushed between the fingers. 

(2) Germination, or spreading the 
drained grain in beds on the prepared 
floors of a "malthouse," kept at 53%° F. 
(12° C.) ; here it heats, and soon begins 
to germinate ("grow out"), this oper- 
ation being finished when the ^rootleU 
have attained two-thirds the length of the 
grains, which may require 8 to 15 days. 
Care is needed in regulating the tempera- 
ture, and the mass wants turning every 
6 to 8 hours before germination, and 
every 3 to 5 hours afterward, the tem- 
perature of the grain being kept at 59 to 
61° F. (15 to 16° C). 

(3) Drying the germinated grain 
("malt") in layers of ahout 12 in. in 



[934] 



"kiln," at a temperature commencing at 
95° F. (35° C), rising to 181 to 140° 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Alcohol) 



F. (55 to 60° C), and finishing at 176 
to 194° F. (80 to 90° C). 

(4) Grinding more or less finely. 

(5) Mashing the malt and unmalted 
grain with water at 95 to 100° F. (35 
to 38° C. ) , to liberate the saccharine fer- 
mentable matters from the starch of the 
unmalted grain by the action of the dia- 
stase generated in the germination of the 
salt. 

(6) Infusion of the mass by adding 
boiling water till the temperature reaches 
140 to 158° F. (60 to 70° C), then al- 
lowing to stand for 4 hours with the heat 
never below 122° F. (50° C), to con- 
vert the liberated starch into glucose. 

(7) Fermentation of the "wash," previ- 
ously cooled down to 68 to 79° F. (20 
to 26® C), in covered vats, by adding 
about 101/^ pt. of liquid or 7 lb. of dry 
brewer's yeast for every 250 lb. of grain 
used, and leaving for 4 or 5 days. 

Grain alcohols are chiefly represented 
by gin and whisky. 

The Manufacture and Denaturization 
of Alcohol are treated of in our Scientific 
American Supplement Numbers *1603, 
*1604, *1605, 1611, 1612, *1627, *1628, 
1636 and *1637. (*) Indicates illustra- 
tion of distilling apparatus, etc. 

Methyl Alcohol. — (See Wood Spirits.) 

Proof Spirits, or Diluted Alcohol. — 
Proof spirits are defined by the United 
States laws as spirit containing (in 100 
volumes) 50 volumes of absolute alcohol 
of sp. gr. 0.7939 and 53.71 volumes of 
water (the apparent excess of 3.71 vol- 
umes being lost by shrinking upon mixing 
the alcohol and water). Its s'pecific grav- 
ity is 0.93353 at 60° F. The government 
hydrometers for examining spirits are so 
graduated that they indicate (at 60° F.) 
in pure water and 200 in absolute al- 
cohol ; in proof spirits they sink to 100. 
A spirit is said to be "10 above proof," 
or "110 proof," when the hydrometer in- 
dicates 110, and such spirit contains 55% 
of absolute alcohol. A modification of 
this hydrometer is the alcoholometer, 
which is graduated to show in pure 
water and 100 in absolute alcohol ; each 
division of that instrument thus indicates 
1% of alcohol, and the number of the 
division is directly equal to the volumetric 
percentage of absolute alcohol in the 
spirit. The diluted alcohol, as the term 
is used in the U. S. Pharmaccepia, is that 
containing 53%, by volume, of absolute 
alcohol (or about 45.5% by" weight), and 
has 9 sp. gr. of 0.920. 

Purified Alcohol— To 1,000 c.c. of al- 
cohol add 1/^ to 1 gr., or a sufl5cient quan- 
tity, of potassium permanganate, in 



(Alum) 



coarse powder. When the color of the 
alcohol is dark pui'ple, strain to remove 
the excess of potassium permanganate. 
Allow to stand for a few hours, and then 
filter. The filtrate should be perfectly 
clear and colorless. If it comes through 
colored, the mixture did not stand long 
enough, and refiltration will be necessary. 
The alcohol so purified could be used in 
making aromatic spirits of ammonia and 
other alkaline and alcoholic preparations, 
it is thought. 

Rectified Spirits are spirits rendered 
purer and stronger by redistillation. 

Solid Alcohol. — The solid alcohol lat- 
terly introduced in all sorts of forms, 
may be easily produced in the following 
manner: Heat 1 1. of denaturized alco- 
hol (90%) in a flask of double the ca- 
pacity, on the water bath to about 60° 
C., and then mix with 28 to 30 grams of 
well dried, rasped Venetian soap and 2 
grams of gum lac. After repeated shak- 
ing complete dissolution will take place. 
The solution is put, while yet warm, into 
metallic vessels, closing them up at once, 
and allowing the mixture to cool therein. 
The admixture of gum lac effects a bet- 
ter preservation and also prevents the 
evaporation of the alcohol. On lighting 
the solid spirit the soap remains behind. 

Spirits of Wine. — This is the stronger 
alcohol that is generally found in com- 
merce, and contains about 90% of alco- 
hol and 10% of water. It derives its 
name from the fact that it was first ob- 
tained from the distillation of wine. The 
strongest commercial alcohol is about 95°. 

Wood Spirits or Methyl Alcohol. — A 
spirit obtained, among other products, 
from the destructive distillation of wood. 
It is poisonous. Valuable articles on the 
Production of Wood Alcohol, etc. (wood 
distillation) are contained in our Scien- 
tific American Supplement Numbers 
*1592, 1643, 1661, 1684, *1723, ^1724, 
1736 and 1789. 

Alum, Burnt. 

Heat the alum in an open vessel to 401 ° 
F., such as an enameled fryingpan. Alum, 
in small pieces, 184 parts. To make 100 
parts. Expose the alum for several days 
to a temperature of about 80° C. (176° 
F. ), until it has thoroughly effloresced. 
Then place it in a porcelain capsule, and 
gradually heat it to a temperature of 
200° C. (392° F.), being careful not to 
allow the heat to rise above 205° C. (401° 
F. ) . Continue heating at the before men- 
tioned temperature until the mass be- 
comes white and porous, and weighs 100 
parts. When cold, reduce it to fine pow- 



[ 93.5 ] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Antiseptics) 



der, and preserve it in well stopped ves- 
sels. 

Alum, Chrome. 

A double sulphate of chromium and 
potash. It is obtained as a by-product 
in the manufacture of artificial alizarine, 
and is coming into use as a mordant. It 
is not, as some suppose, a mixture of alum 
and bichromate of potash. 

Aniline, Solvent for. 

In converting red aniline into a dye 
for staining wood, a very weak solution 
of alcohol is sufficient to hold the dye 
after it is once dissolved. In all prob- 
ability, if the color is first dissolved in 
a small quantity of strong alcohol, and 
then diluted with wood spirit, the result 
will be the same. It has been found by 
experiment that a very considerable pro- 
portion of water can be added to the dye 
without causing the alcohol to deposit it. 
Glycerine can also be used for dissolving 
aniline. A German writer says that "the 
aniline colors may be made to dissolve in 
water by dissolving them in a solution 
of gelatine dissolved in acetic acid." The 
aniline color is added to this solution, 
wMoh is made like a syrup in thickness. 
It is stirred until an evenly colored paste 
is obtained. Then the mixture is heated 
in a glue pot for some little time. 

Antiseptics. 

The following are practical antiseptics, 
which every physician can keep on hand, 
ready for any emergency. 

Antiseptic Pencils. — ^Tannin, q. s. ; al- 
cohol, q. s., 1 part ; ether, q. s., 3 parts. 
Make into a mass, using as an excipient 
the alcohol and ether, previously mixed. 
Roll into pencils of the desired length and 
thickness. Then coat with collodion, roll 
in pure silver leaf, and finally coat with 
the following solution of gelatine, and set 
aside to dry : Gelatine, 3ij ; water, O i. 
Dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat. 
When wanted for use, shave away a por- 
tion of the covering, dip the pencil into 
tepid water, and apply. According to a 
German authority, pencils for stopping 
bleeding are prepared by mixing purified 
alum, 480 ; borax, 24 ; oxide of zinc, 2i^ : 
thymol, 8 ; formaline, 4. Melting care- 
fully in a water bath, adding some per- 
fume, and forming mixture into pencils 
or cones. A very convenient way to form 
into pencils where you have no mold is 
to take a small glass tube, roll a piece of 
oil paper around the tube, remove the 
glass tube, crimp the paper tube thus 
formed on one end, and stand it on end 



(Aquafortis) 



or in a bottle, and pour the melted solu- 
tion in it and leave until cold ; then re- 
move the paper. 

Aristol. — This is a non-toxic germicide, 
used as a substitute for iodoform, and is 
similarly employed for chronic and syphil- 
itic and scrofulous ulcers. 

Betanapthol. — ^A solution of 1-2500 for 
irrigating cavities, cleansing instruments 
and the surgeon's hands. 

Boric Acid. — Affords an excellent all- 
round dressing. A 5 to 25% solution to 
mucous surfaces ; an ointment, 1 part to 5 
parts of vaseline ; a lotion of salicylic 
acid, and boric acid, 12 parts, to hot wa- 
ter, 1,000 parts, is a safe application to 
the bladder or cavity of the peritoneum. 

Carlolic Acid. — In solution, 1-20 to 
1-40 for sterilizing instruments or for ir- 
rigating wounds or washing sponges. 
There is a possibility of carbolic poison- 
ing, and children are specially susceptible 
to its effects in moderate strength solu- 
tion. 

Chloride of Zinc. — A solution of gr. 
XXX, or xl, to the ounce of water in poi- 
soned wounds — dissecting wounds. 

Corrosive Suhlimate. — The most conve- 
nient is to purchase tablets, the strength 
of which is shown, and directions for 
making the different strength solutions. 
Symptoms of poisoning must be guarded 
against. This is evidently the most pow- 
erful germicide, but the most dangerous. 

CreoUn. — Used like carbolic acid, but 
it is non-poisonous and unirritating to the 
skin. It is not soluble in water. 

Peroxide of Hydrogen. — In 15 volume 
solution may be used undiluted, or diluted 
10%. A convenient antiseptic for steril- 
izing all suppurating sinuses and cavi- 
ties, when once open. It may be injected 
or sprayed. 

Potassium Permanganate. — Two-grain 
tablets are the most convenient. Used 
in foul wounds ; various strengths ; non- 
poisonous ; and at times a tablet is made 
wet with water and touched to ulcers, 
especially abrasions of the os uteri. Used 
in snake bites, dog bites, and the bites 
of insects. 

Aquafortis. 

Aquafortis is a name originally given 
by the alchemists, and is dilute nitric 
acid. 

Simple or Single. — Distil 2 lb. of salt- 
peter and 1 lb. of copperas. 

Double. — Saltpeter, 6 lb. ; copperas, 6 
lb., in its usual crystallized state, together 
with 3 lb. calcined to redness. 

Strong. — Copperas, calcined to white- 
ness, and saltpeter, of each 30 lb. ; mix, 



[936] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Bakelite) 



and distil in an iron pot with an earthen- 
ware head. 

Nitric Acid or Spirit of Niter. — White 
saltpeter, 6 lb. ; oil of vitriol, l^/^ lb. ; 
distil into 1% pt. of water. 

Dilute. — Strong nitric acid, 1 oz. by 
measure, and water 9 oz. by measure. 

Compound. — Double aquafortis, 16 oz. ; 
common salt, 1 dr. ; distil to dryness. 

Aqua-Regia. 

This is a mixture of nitric and hydro- 
chloric acids. (Nitric acid is sometimes 
called spirit of niter, while hydrochloric 
acid is often called muriatic acid, or spir- 
its of salts.) The name aqua-regia was 
given by the alchemists, owing to the 
power this mixture has of dissolving gold, 
platinum, etc., which neither of the two 
acids named will do separately. 

1. — Distil together 16 oz. of nitric acid 
with 4 oz. of common salt. 

2.- -Mix together equal parts of nitric 
acid and hydrochloric acid. 

3. — Nitric aoid, 1 part, and hydrochlo- 
ric acid, 2 parts. 

Of the above, 3 is the most effective. 

Artists' Materials. (See special chapter.) 
Asbestos: Its mining, chemistry, manu- 
facture, uses, etc. ; is treated of in our 
Scientific American Supplement, Nos. 
396, 485, 650 and 1656. 

As'jestos, Acid-Resisting. 

F. Schrader, in Ghemiker Zeitung, 
1897, 285. states that asbestos fabrics, to 
resist acids, such as are required in the 
chemical industry, should he made of horn- 
blende asbestos, in which the proportion 
of bases to silica is as 1 : 1, or of the 
formula RSiOg (R being mostly mag- 
nesia). Asbestos of the composition 3:2 
— that is to say, serpentine asbestos — is 
attacked by very weak acids, like acetic 
acid. 

Asphaltum Liquid. 

1. — Scio turpentine, 2 oz. ; melt ; add 
asphaltum, in powder, 1 oz. ; mix, cool a 
little, and reduce with hot oil of turpen- 
tine. 

2. — Asphaltum, % lb. ; melt ; add of 
hot balsam of copaiba, 1 lb. ; and when 
mixed, thin with hot oil of turpentine. 
Both are used as black japan or varnish 
and as a glazing color by artists. 

Bakelite. 

This composition is insoluble, infusible, 
is "unaffected by most chemicals, and is an 
excellent insulator for heat and electric- 



( Battery Preparations) 



ity. See our Scientific American Supple- 
ment Numbers 1768, 1769, 1774 and 1775. 

Barometers, Paper. 

Some hygroscopes are not mechanical ; 
they owe their hygroscopic properties to 
their color, which changes with the state 
of humidity of the air by reason of the 
application of sympathetic inks. These 
instruments are often composed of a 
flower or a figure, of light muslin or pa- 
per, immersed in one of the following so- 
lutions : 

1. — Cobalt chloride, 1 part ; gelatine, 10 
parts ; water, 100 parts. The normal col- 
oring is pink ; this color changes into 
violet in medium humid weather, and into 
blue in very dry weather. 

2. — Oupric chloride, 1 part; gelatine, 
10 parts ; water, 100 parts. The color is 
yellow in dry weather. 

3. — Cohalt chloride, 1 part; gelatine, 
20 partsj nickel oxide, 75 parts ; cupric 
chloride, 25 parts ; water, 200 parts. The 
color is green in dry weather. 

Battery Preparations. 

Bichromate Batteries, Trouve^s Solution 
for. — ^The proportional parts by weight 
are : Bichromate of potash, 1 ; sulphuric 
acid, 3 ; water, 6.6. To charge 1 gal. 
of water, according to M. Trouve's 
method, dissolve in it 24 oz. (1% Jb.) of 
bichromate of potash, and then add, slow- 
ly, 72 oz. (9 lb.) of sulphuric acid, bear- 
ing in mind that 8 fl.oz. equal 1 lb., not 
16, as in dry measure. 

Garhon, To Gut. — Gas carbon can be 
cut with an old saw and a large expendi- 
ture of labor and patience. Fix the car- 
bon in a vise, keep it moist with water, 
and saw away. You may use a strip 
of sheet iron, or of iron hoop held in a 
frame, like a hack saw, or a revolving 
disk of the same metal, instead of a saw, 
and in this case employ wet sand in the 
cut as an auxiliary. 

Garhon, Molding. — As carbon cannot be 
melted to a fluid condition, it cannot be 
cast in a mold ; but powdered carbon can 
be combined with a cementing substance, 
made into a stiff paste, then molded to 
shape and baked. If the grain of the 
article is to be close and hard, the carbon 
must be ground to a very fine powder. 
It may then be made into a paste by add- 
ing sugar syrup or treacle. This paste is 
next pressed into a strong iron mold, so 
made as to be easily taken apart after- 
ward for the removal of the carbon arti- 
cle. The mold, with its carbon, must then 
be baked at a strong, bright-red heat, 
which will carbonize the sugar, and ce- 



[937] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



( Battery Preparations ) 



ment the powdered carbon. It may be 
necessary to soak the carbon again in 
sug-ar syrup, and rebake until sufficiently 
smooth and hard. 

Carhon, Plastic, for Batteries. — Grood 
coke is ground, and mixed with coal tar to 
a stiff dough, and pressed into molds made 
of iron and brass. After drying for a 
few days in a closed place, it is heated 
in a furnace, where it is protected from 
the direct flames, and burned, feebly at 
first, then strongly, the fire being gradu- 
ally raised to white heat, which is main- 
tained for 6 to 8 hours. The fire is then 
permitted to slowly go down, and when 
perfectly cold the carbon is taken out of 
the furnace. 

Carhon Rods and Plates. — Carbon rods 
and plates of the finest quality can be 
made economically only by the use of ex- 
pensive machinery and apparatus, such as 
pulverizing mills, hydraulic presses, and 
retorts or ovens ; but the amateur, with- 
out a great deal of trouble, and with very 
little expense, can make carbon plates and 
rods which will answer a good purpose. 
The materials required are wheat, coke 
flour, molasses or syrup, and wtater. The 
tools consist of a few molds, a trowel or 
its equivalent, for forcing the carbon mix- 
ture into flat molds, tubes to be used as 
molds for carbon rods, and ramrods for 
condensing the material in the tubes and 
forcing it out, and an iron mortar, or 
some other device, for reducing the coke 
to powder. Clean pieces of coke should 
be selected for this purpose, and such as 
contain no volatile matters are preferred. 
The coke is pulverized and passed through 
a fine sieve. It is then thoroughly mixed 
with one-sixth to one-eighth its bulk of 
wheat flour, both heing in a dry state. 
The mixture is moistened with water (or 
water with a small percentage of molasses 
added) sufficiently to render it thoroughly 
damp throughout, but not wet. It should 
now be allowed to stand for 2 or 3 hours 
in a closed vessel, to prevent the evapora- 
tion o-f the watei". At the end of this 
time the mixture may be pressed into 
molds of any desired form, then removed 
from the molds, and dried, slowly at first, 
afterward rapidly, in an ordinary oven, at 
a hi^h temperature. When the plates or 
rods thus formed are thoroughly dried 
they are packed in an iron box, or, if 
they are small, in a crucible, and com- 
pletely surrounded by coke dust to exclude 
air and to prevent the combustion of the 
plates or rods during the carbonizing 
process. The box or crucible must he 
closed by a non-com'busti'ble cover, and 
placed in a furnace or range fire in such 

[9 



(Battery Preparations) 



a way as to cause it to be heated gradu- 
ally to a red heat. After the box becomes 
heated to the required degree, it is main- 
tained at that temperature for an hour or 
so, after which it is removed from tho 
fire and allowed to cool before being 
opened. Tlie rods or plates are then 
boiled for half an hour in this syrup, or 
in molasses diluted with a little water. 
They are again baked in an ordinary 
oven, and afterward carbonized in the 
manner already described. This latter 
process of boiling in syrup and reoarbon- 
izing is repeated until the required den- 
sity is secured. As some gases are given 
off during carbonization, it is necessary 
to leave the box or crucible unsealed to 
allow these gases to escape. 

Dry Cells. — 1. — The Burnley cell has a 
zinc cylinder lined with a plastic excit- 
ing mass made of sal ammoniac, 1 part ; 
zinc chloride, 1 part ; plaster of paris, 3 
parts ; flour, 1 part ; water, 2 parts. In 
the center of the cell a carbon core is 
placed, the space between it and the ex- 
citing mass being filled with manganese 
peroxide, 3 parts ; sal ammoniac, 1 part ; 
zinc chloride, 1-10 part ; powdered char- 
coal, 3% parts ; water, sufficient. The 
manganese oxide and charcoal play the 
part of a depolarizing agent. 

2.— Obach's cell (patent 6,565 of 1893) 
is formed of an outer cylinder of zinc, 
cemented to an insulating base composed 
of asphalt, 70 to 80 parts; paper pulp, 
10 to 15 parts ; rosin, 10 to 15 parts. A 
smaller cylinder of depolarizing paste, 
with the carbon rod in the center, is put 
inside the zinc cylinder, the space be- 
tween the two cylinders being filled with 
exciting mixture. The composition of the 
depolarizing paste is : Manganese perox- 
ide, 50 to 60 parts ; plumbago, 40 to 50 
parts ; tragacanth, 1 part. The exciting 
mixture is : Plaster of paris, 80 to 90 
parts ; flour, 10 to 20 parts. Made into 
a thin paste with a solution of sal am- 
moniac. The cells are covered with gran- 
ular cork or an equivalent, to prevent es- 
cape of moisture, and a bitumen seal. 
One terminal is soldered to the zinc, and 
the other to the carbon, by means of an 
alloy of bismuth, 2 parts ; lead, 2 parts ; 
tin, 1 part ; which expands on soldering, 
and insures good contact. The patents 
for the Burnley and Obach cells are in 
force. 

3. — In the Hellesen cell, the patent for 
which has expired, superoxide of lead, 
oxide of iron, or superoxide of manganese, 
is used for surrounding the cathode, the 
powder being packed around it with slight 
pressure, and held there bv means of fab- 

n 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Battery Preparations) 



ric, a porous cell, or parchment paper. 
The powder, the inventor states, can be 
advantageously mixed with such things 
as charcoal, graphite and copper filings; 
and when saline solutions are used, an 
acetate, free ammonia, or sal ammoniac, 
prevents crystallization of the zinc com- 
pounds. 

Fluids for Batteries. — 1. — Potash bi- 
chromate, 2 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 3 fl.oz. ; 
water, 16 fl.oz. Dissolve the potash in 
the water and add the acid. 

2. — Potash bichromate, 2 oz. ; sulphuric 
acid, 3 fl.oz. ; water, 16 fl.oz. ; mercury bi- 
sulphate, 2 dr. Mix as above. 

3. — Commercial chromic acid, 16 oz. ; 
sulphuric acid, 10 fl.oz. ; water, 120 fl.oz. 
Dissolve the chromic acid in the water 
and add the sulphuric acid. 

4. — Soda bichromate, 2 oz. ; sulphuric 
acid, 3 fl.oz. ; water, 16 fl.oz. Mix as 
above. 

5. — Mercury bisulphate, 120 gr. ; po- 
tassium bichromate, 2i/4 oz. ; commercial 
sulphuric acid, 3 fl.oz. ; water, 16 fl.oz. 
In the water first dissolve the mercury 
bisulphate and then the bichromate ; then 
add the sulphuric acid very carefully, stir- 
ring constantly with a glass rod. When 
cool, the solution is ready for use. The 
mercury keeps the zinc well amalgamated. 
Sometimes the mercury salt is omitted, 
and frequently sodium bichromate is sub- 
stituted for the potassium bichromate. 

Pole-Indicating Paper, Electric. — Dis- 
solve 1 to 2 grams of phenol-phthalein in 
10 c.c. of alcohol of 90% ; add 110 c.c. 
of distilled water, and impregnate porous 
paper (blotting paper) with the milky so- 
lution. While the paper is still moist 
draw it through a solution of 20 grams 
of sodium sulphate in 100 c.c. of distilled 
water. Dry at moderate heat, and^ cut 
paper into narrow strips. For use, moisten 
the paper, and place ends of wire on it, 
at a distance of about % in. to V2 in- A 
red spot or strip will then appear at once 
at the negative pole. 

Zincs, Amalgamation of. — ^This is ac- 
complished in several ways : 

1. — By dipping the zinc in dilute sul- 
phuric acid and then dipping the end of 
it into a small quantity of mercury, after 
rubbing the surface with a brush. 

2. — Dissolve 1 lb. of mercury in 5 lb. 
of nitromuriatic acid (nitric acid, 1 part; 
muriatic acid, 3 parts), heat the solution 
gently to hasten the action. When a com- 
plete solution of the mercury is effected, 
add 5 lb. more of nitro-muriatic acid. The 
solution should be applied with a brush, 
as immersing the zinc in it is wasteful. 

3. — To the bichromate solution com- 



( Benzine) 



monly used in batteries add to every pint 
of solution 1 dr. of bisulphate of mercury, 
or a similar amount of nitrate of mer- 
cury (mercury dissolved in nitric acid). 
By employing this method the amalgama- 
tion of the zincs is maintained continu- 
ously after the first amalgamation, which 
must be accomplished by methods 1 or 2. 

4. — In the Bunsen, Grove or Fuller bat- 
tery the amalgamation may be accom- 
plished by placing a small quantity of 
mercury in the cells containing the zincs. 

5. — Place a little mercury in a saucer 
with some dilute sulphuric acid. Dip the 
zincs into dilute acid. Then with a lit- 
tle strip of zinc or galvanized iron touch 
the mercury under the acid, and rub it 
on the zinc. This will transfer a little 
to the surface, and a few minutes' rub- 
bing will make the zincs as bright as 
silver. A very small globule of mercury 
is enough for a single plate. 

Benzine. 

An ethereal hydrocarbon, obtained in 
many ways, principally from the distilla- 
tion of petroleum. It is very useful in 
the arts as a solvent and for the removal 
of grease spots, etc. 

To Deodorize Benzine. — 1.— Shake re- 
peatedly with fresh portions of metallic 
quicksilver. Let it stand for 2 days, then 
rectify, or shake with plumbate of soda 
(oxide of lead dissolved in caustic soda), 
then rectify. 

2. — Digest litharge in a strong solution 
of soda, and shake the benzine up with 
this. 

3. — The Scientific American states that 
the disagreeable odor of benzine can be 
removed by shaking repeatedly with plum- 
bate of soda, made by dissolving oxide of 
lead in caustic soda, and rectifying. Sim- 
ply shaking with charcoal, and filtering, 
will partially remove the odor. 

4.— To 1,750 parts of water add 250 
parts of sulphuric acid, and when it has 
cooled down add 30 parts of potassium 
permanganate and let dissolve ; add this 
solution to 4,500 parts of benzine, stir 
well together, and set aside for 24 hours. 
Now decant the benzine, and to it add a 
solution of 7% parts of potassium per- 
manganate and 15 parts of sodium hy- 
drate, in 1,000 parts of water, and agi- 
tate the substances well together. Let 
stand until the benzine separates, then 
draw off. 

5. — Dissolve 3 parts of litharge and 18 
parts of sodium hydrate in 40 parts of 
water; add this to 200 to 250 parts of 
benzine, and agitate well together for 2 



[939 1 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Benzine) 



minutes ; then let settle, and draw off 
the benzine. Rinse the latter by agitating 
it with plenty of clear water, let settle, 
draw off the benzine, and, if necessary, 
repeat the operation. Either process re- 
quires considerable work, and unless large 
quantities of benzine are used it will be 
found a good deal more profitable to buy 
the commercial deodorized article. 

6. — Benzine, 7 gal. ; fusel oil, 3 gal. ; 
shake, and set to one side. This becomes 
milky, but clears in a day or so. To 
each barrel of benzine add 1 tablespoonful 
of powdered fresh chloride of lime, and 
shake gently. Now add acetic acid, 1 oz. ; 
water, 1 oz. Mix together -, roll barrel ; 
next day add 2 qt. of benzine and fusel 
oil mixture. 

7. — Remove the bung from a barrel and 
put in 1 tablespoonful or so of sharp chlo- 
ride of lime and a like amount of vinegar 
or acetic acid. Shake the barrel occa- 
sionally, and in 36 hours or so the con- 
tents are well deodorized. 

8. — Benzine, 20 oz. ; oil of lavender, 1 
fl.dr. ; potassium dichromate, 1 oz. ; sul- 
phuric acid, 1 fl.oz. ; water, 20 fl.oz. Dis- 
solve the dichromate in the water, add 
the acid, and, when the solution is cold, 
the benzine. Shake every hour during the 
day, allow to stand all night, decant the 
benzine, wash with 1 pt. of water, and 
again decant ; then add the oil of laven- 
der. 

9. — Perfumes for Deodorized Benzol. — 
a. — Oil of lavender, 1 fl.dr. to 1 pt. 

b. — Coumarine, 2 gr. ; vanilline, 2 gr. ; 
heliotropine. 1 gr. ; absolute alcohol, 1 
fl.dr. to each pint. 

10. — Odorless Benzoline. — Petroleum 
spirit, 50 gal. ; cotton oil, 5 gal. Mix 
well, and distil at a low heat till 45 to 
48 gal. come over. Put by for use. Distil 
over the remaining few gallons, which will 
have more odor with them, and use for 
common purposes. Use the cotton oil for 
soap making or mixing with paraffine mix- 
tures. This gives an almost odorless 
spirit benzine or benzoline, as the case 
may be, which may be used for any pur- 
pose to which benzine or benzoline is ap- 
plicable — cleaning clothes, gloves, making 
hair regenerators, adultering turpentine, 
thinning paints and varnishes, etc. This 
method is very successful, the smell be- 
ing absorbed by the cotton oil, and not re- 
appearing again to any greatly appreci- 
able extent in the spirit. To be on the 
safe side, it should be used as nearly 
cold as possible, as under some conditions 
of heating it evolves its peculiar scent. 

Gelatinized Benzine. — Boiling water, 4 
oz. : cocoanut-oil soap, 4 dr. Dissolve, 



(Boilers) 



and when cool add ether and ammonia 
water, each 2 dr. ; glycerine, 1 dr. Mix 
the two solutions, and to 10 drops of 
the mixture in a bottle add about % dr. 
of benzine, and shake until it gelatinizes. 
More benzine is gradually added, with 
constant shaking, until the mixture soon 
assumes the appearance of boiled starch. 

Green, To Color Benzine. — Probably 
the simplest and cheapest, as well as the 
best method of coloring benzine green is 
to dissolve in it sufficient oil-soluble ani- 
line green of the desired tint to give the 
desired shade. As regards "the addition 
of poisonous substances" to benzine to 
make it serve as a "bug killer," the pure 
benzine is deadly to every insect it 
touches. The writer has used it, in the 
form of a spray, for a number of years 
as a cockroach and bedbug exterminator, 
and no more instantaneously deadly agent 
could be imagined. 

Infiammahility of Benzine, The Preven- 
tion of the. — Brodtmann says that he pre- 
pared mixtures of benzine and carbon 
tetrachloride in various proportions of 
volume, and found that a mixture of 7 
volumes of tetrachloride and 3 volumes 
of benzine was still inflammable upon the 
approach of a match. The liquid burned 
with a strongly shooting flame under de- 
velopment of hydrochloric acid fumes. 
Only when the proportion reached that 
of 9 parts of tetrachloride to 1 part of 
benzine did the liquid require heating to 
inflame, but the flame soon became extin- 
guished by itself. 

Bladders, To Prepare. 

Soak them for 24 hours in water to 
which a little chloride of lime or potassa 
has been added, then remove the extra- 
neous membranes, well wash them in 
clean water, and dry them. 

Bluing. See Cleansing {Laundry). 
Boilers. 

Boiler Covering. — The following table 
gives the results of a series of experi- 
ments by Mr. C. E. Emery for the New 
York Steam Company : 

Non- 
conductivity, 
Material. per cent. 

Hair felt 100 

Mineral wool No. 2 83.2 

Mineral wool No. 2 and tar. ... 71 

Sawdust 68 

Mineral wool No. 1 67.6 

Charcoal 63.2 

Pine wood, across grain 55.8 

Loam 55 

Glassworks lime, slaked 48 



[940] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Boilers) 



Non- 
conductivity, 
Material. ' per cent. 

Asbestos 36.3 

Coal ashes 34.5 

Fuel coke 27.7 

Air space, 2 in. deep 13.6 

Non-conducting Coverings for Steam 
Pipes. — We give the following tests of 
Mr. G. B. Dumford, of Hamilton, Ont. 
These may be found superior in some 
cases to tests of Mr. C. E. Emery : 

Per 
cent. 
Combination of asbestos, hair felt, 

air space and wood 100 

Asbestos and hair felt and chopped 

straw, the straw mixed with lime 

putty 87 

A plastic cement manufactured by 

parties at Troy, N. Y., with .i/^ 

in. hair felt outside 86.6 

Paper pulp mixed with lime putty, 

1 in. covered with sheeting of 

wood pulp 85 

Mineral wool cased with wood. ... 81 
Mineral wool cased with sheet iron 79 

Charcoal 60 

Sawdust 41 

Loam and chopped straw sealed 

with wood 32 

Asbestos 29 

Coal ashes 24 

Air space 20 

Fire brick 15 

Red brick 12 

Sand 9.3 

Incrustation of Boilers, Remedies for. — • 
Remedies that have been adopted with 
more or less success for boiler incrusta- 
tion : 

1. — Potatoes, 1-50 weight of water, pre- 
vent adherence of scale. 

2. — Salt, 12 parts ; caustic soda, 2% 
parts ; extract of oak 'bark, % part ; pot- 
ash, % part. 

3. — Pieces of oak wood suspended in 
boiler, and renewed monthly, prevent de- 
posit. 

4. — Muriate of ammonia, 2 oz., in 
'boiler, twice a week, prevents incrustation 
and decomposes scale. 

5. — ^Coating of blacklead, 3 parts; tal- 
low, 18 parts ; applied hot to the inside 
of a boiler every few weeks, prevents 
scale. 

6. — Molasses, 13 lb., fed occasionally 
into an 8-horse boiler, prevented incrusta- 
tion for 6 months. 

7. — Mahogany or oak sawdust, in lim- 
ited quantities. The tannic acid attacks 
the iron, and should, therefore, be used 
with caution. 



(Boilers) 



8. — Slippery elm bark has been used 
with some success. 

9. — Carbonate of soda. 

10.— Chloride of tin. 

11. — Spent tanners' bark. 

12. — Frequent blowing off. 

13. — ParaflSne oil has been used with ex- 
cellent results in locomotive boilers. 

14. — Marine boilers are sometimes pro- 
tected from corrosion by a very thin wash 
of Portland cement inside. 

15. — M. E. Asselin, of Paris, recom- 
mends the use of glycerine to prevent in- 
crustation in steam boilers. It increases 
the solubility of combinations of lime, and 
especially of the sulphate. It forms with 
these combinations soluble compounds. 
When the quantity of lime becomes so 
great that it can no longer be dissolved, 
nor from soluble combinations, it is depos- 
ited in a gelatinous substance, which nev- 
er adheres to the surface of the iron 
plates. The gelatinous substances thus 
formed are not carried with the steam 
into the cylinder of the engine. M. Asse- 
lin advises the employment of 1 lb. of 
glycerine for every 300 or 400 lb. of coal 
burnt. 

16. — For a 5-hp. boiler, fed with water, 
which contains calcic sulphate, take 
catechu, 2 lb. ; dextrine, 1 lb. ; crystallized 
soda, 2 lb. ; potash, i^ lb. ; cane sugar, 
'^/2 lb. ; alum, i/^ lb. ; gum arable, % lb. 

17. — For a boiler of the same size, fed 
with water which contains lime : Tur- 
meric, 2 lb. ; dextrine, 1 lb. ; sodium bi- 
carbonate, 2 lb. ; potash, % lb. ; molasses, 
1/2 lb.; alum, 1/2 lb. 

18. — For a boiler of the same size, fed 
with water which contains iron: Gam- 
boge, 2 lb. ; soda, 2 lb. ; dextrine, 1 lb. ; 
potash, % lb. ; sugar, % lb. ; alum, i/^ lb. ; 
gum arable, % lb. 

19. — For a boiler of the same size fed 
with sea water : Catechu, 2 lb. ; Glau- 
ber's salt, 2 lb. ; dextrine, 2 lb. ; alum, % 
lb. ; gum arable, % lb. 

20. — Boiler Incrustations, To Prevent. 
— For 'boilers of 100 hp., fed with river 
water, use the following, which should be 
renewed whenever the boiler is emptied : 
Crystallized soda, 18 lb. ; dextrine, 18 lb. ; 
alum, 6 lb. ; sugar, 6 lb. ; potash, 3 lb. 

21. — For the same sized boiler, fed with 
sea water : Soda, 24 lb. ; dextrine, 24 lb. ; 
sugRr, 12 lb. ; alum, 3 lb. ; potash, 3 lb. 

When these preparations are used add 
1 qt. of water, and in ordinary cases 
charge the boiler every month, but if the 
incrustation is very bad charge every two 
weeks. 

Boiler Incrustation. Corrosion, Scale, 
etc., and the Use of Compounds and Sol- 



[941] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Brickwork) 



vents for the Prevention of Same : See 
the Scientific American Supplement Num- 
bers 1108, 1384, 1549, 1567 and 1790. 

Bones and Ivory, To Clean and Prepare. 

1. — The curators of the anatomical mu- 
seum of the Jardin des Plantes have 
found that the spirits of turpentine is 
very efficacious in removing the disagree- 
able odor and fatty emanations of bones 
or ivory, while it leaves them beautifully 
bleached. The articles should be exposed 
in the fluid for 3 or 4 days in the sun, 
or a little longer if in the shade. They 
should rest upon strips of zinc, so as to 
be a fraction of an inch above the bottom 
of the glass vessel employed. The tur- 
pentine acts as an oxidizing agent, and 
the product of the combustion is an acid 
liquor, which sinks to the bottom, and 
strongly attacks the ivory if allowed to 
touch it, 

2. — Make a thick paste of common 
whiting in a saucer. Brush well with a 
toothbrush into the carved work. Brush 
well out with plenty of clean water. Dry 
gently near the fire. Finish with a clean, 
dry, hard brush, adding one or two drops 
(not more) of alcohol. 

3. — Mix about a tablespoonful of oxalic 
acid in % pt. of boiling water. Wet the 
ivory over first with water, then with a 
toothbrush apply the acid, doing one side 
at a time, and rinsing, and finally drying 
it in a cloth before the fire, but not too 
close. 

Bows, Violin, Rosin for. 

1. — For violin rosin, boil down Venice 
turpentine with a little water until a 
drop, cooled on a piece of glass, is of 
proper consistency. During the boiling, 
cold water must be added from time to 
time. When sufficiently thick, pour into 
cold water, knead well, and when cold 
break into pieces. Expose to sun until 
dry and transparent. 

2. — Select the best clear brown rosin, 
melt it in a clean basin, to merely a boil, 
which will clear it of turpentine or other 
volatile oils. Pour in paper molds. 

Brickwork, Efflorescence on. 

This white coating, which is such a dis- 
figurement, can usually be prevented by 
adding oil to the mortar at the rate of 
1 gal. to the cask of lime. Linseed oil, 
or any oil not saline, will do. If cement 
is used, an extra gallon of oil must be 
used. When incrustations are once 
formed nothing can be done except to 
wash with dilute hydrochloric acid. 



(Camphor) 



Calcium Sulphide. 

1. — Camion's Phosphorus. — Calcine 
clean oyster shells to whiteness in a cru- 
cible, separate the clearer portions, reduce 
these to a fine powder, and place in lay- 
ers with intermediate layers of flowers 
of sulphur in a crucible, cover, and heat 
to dull redness for about half an hour. 
Cover the crucible tightly, and let the 
mixture cool slowly in the crucible. An- 
other method of preparing this phosphor- 
escent sulphide is to heat bisulphide of 
lime — obtained by boiling lime in a little 
water with twice its weight of sulphur — 
in a covered crucible at a low red heat for 
one hour. 

2. — Calcium and Antimony Sulphides. 
— Calcined oyster shells, 3 parts ; flowers 
of sulphur, 10 parts ; antimonic acid, 1 
part. Mix intimately in fine powder, and 
heat for half an hour in a covered crucible 
at low redness. 

3. — Calcium sulphide, as used in the 
manufacture of luminous paint, may be 
prepared upon the small scale by the fol- 
lowing process : Boil for one hour 2^4 
oz. of^ caustic lime, recently prepared by 
calcining clean white shells at a strong 
red heat, with 1 oz. of sulphur and 1 qt. 
of soft water. Set aside in a covered 
vessel for a few days, then pour off the 
liquid, collect the clear orange-colored 
crystals which have deposited, and let 
them drain and dry on bibulous paper. 
Place the dried sulphide in a clean graph- 
ite crucible provided with a cover. Heat 
for % hour at a temperature just short 
of redness, then quickly for about 15 
minutes at a white heat. Remove cover, 
and pack in clay until perfectly cold. A 
small quantity of pure calcium fluoride 
is added to the sulphide before heating 
it. It may be mixed with alcoholic copal 
varnish. Sulphides of barium and stron- 
tium also give phosphorescent powders 
when duly heated. Each sulphide has a 
predominant color, but the temperature 
to which it is heated has a modifying 
effect on the color. Calcine in a covered 
crucible, along with powdered charcoal, 
sulphate of lime, sulphate of barytes, or 
sulphate of strontia ; there is produced in 
each case a grayish-white powder, which, 
after exposure to strong light (either sun- 
light or magnesium light), will be phos- 
phorescent, the color depending on the 
sulphate used and the degree of heat em- 
ployed. 

Camphor. 

A concrete essential oil obtained from 
distillation from the camphor laurel of 
China, It is crystalline in form, though 



[942] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



( Carbolineum ) 



it is also obtained in a liquid form from 
Borneo. 

Factitious. — Pass dry hydrochloric 
acid gas through pure oil of turpentine, 
cooled by a freezing mixture. A white 
crystalline mass is soon formed, which 
is dried between blotters, and purified 
by solution in alcohol. 

Naphthaline. — Melt on a steam bath 
100 parts of camphor and 300 parts of 
naphthaline, and pour into molds. If a 
perfumed preparation is desired, add 0.2 
part of coumarine, 0.2 part of neroline, 
and 1 part of nitrobenzol. 

Poivdering. — According to The Pharma- 
cist, the most efficient substance to keep 
camphor in a finely divided condition is 
glycerine : Camphor, 6 oz. ; alcohol, 5 
fl.dr. ; glycerine, 1 fl.dr. Mix the glycer- 
ine with the alcohol, and triturate it with 
the camphor until reduced to a fine pow- 
der. 

Powdered Camphor in Permanent 
Form. — 1. — Powder the camphor in the 
usual manner, with the addition of a lit- 
tle alcohol. When it has nearly reduced 
to the proper degree of fineness add a 
few drops of fluid petrolatum, and imme- 
diately triturate again. In this manner 
a powder as fine as flour is obtained, 
which does not cake together. This pow- 
dered camphor may be used for all pur- 
poses except for solution in alcohol, as 
it will impart to the latter a faint opa- 
lescence, owing to the insolubility of the 
petrolatum. 

2. — A similar method, recommended 
some years ago by John K. Williams, an 
English pharmacist, consists in taking 
equal parts of stronger ether and alcohol 
to reduce the camphor to powder, the 
claim for this method being that it only 
takes one-half of the time required when 
alcohol alone is used, and the camphor 
dries quicker. Befoi-e sifting add 1% of 
white vaseline and 5% of sugar of milk. 
Triturate fairly dry, spread out in the 
air, say 15 minutes, then pass through a 
moderately fine wire sieve, using a stubby 
shaving brush to assist in working it 
through. 

The manufacturer of Camphor is con- 
tained in our Scientific American Sup- 
plement Nos. 852, 908 and 1455. Syn- 
thetic Camphor 1669 and 1817. 

Candles. (See Chapter on Soaps and 
Candles. ) 

Carbolineum. 

1. — Raw, light coal tar, 95 parts, heat- 
ed with 5 parts of asphalt (from coal 
tar) and thoroughly mixed. The coal- 



( Chalk) 



tar oil may also be replaced with wood- 
tar oil. 

2. — Heavy coal-tar oil, 1 part ; light, 
raw wood-tar oil, 2 parts ; heavy rosin 
oil, % part. The coal-tar and wood-tar 
oils must be freed from carbolic acid and 
creosote, which is to he effected by wash- 
ing with caustic lye, and distillation. 

3. — Light wood tar is mixed with some 
crude carbolic acid. 

5. — Sodium hydrate, 100 grams ; borax, 
200 grams ; carbolic acid, 400 grams ; 
shellac, dissolved in alcohol, 900 grams ; 
boiling water, 8,000 grams. An excellent 
wood preservative. 

Casein. 

This substance constitutes the chief ni- 
trogenized substance in milk. It is used 
occasionally in the arts, as for the manu- 
facture of case in cements. 

The making, uses, etc. of Caseine are 
treated of in our Scientific American 
Supplement No. 1649. 

(See Cements, Paints, Varnishes, 
etc. Also consult the Index.) 

Catgut Manufacture 

Is treated of in our Scientific Amer- 
ican Supplement No. 1717. 
Cements. (See special chapter.) 
Chalk for Tailors' Use. 

Knead together ordinary pipeclay, 
moistened, and ultramarine for blue, 
finely ground ocher for yellow, burnt 
ocher for red, etc., until they are uni- 
formly mixed ; roll out into thin sheets, 
cut, and press into wooden or metallic 
molds, well oiled to prevent sticking, and 
allow to dry slowly at ordinary tempera- 
ture, or at a very gentle heat. 

Chalk, Precipitated. 

This is prepared by adding a solution 
of carbonate of soda to a solution of chlo- 
ride of calcium (both cold), as long as 
a precipitate forms. This last is well 
washed with pure water, and dried out 
of the dust, as the last. The refuse, "sul- 
phate of lime' of the soda water makers, 
which is poisonous in quantity, is often 
sold for it by the druggists. Pure chalk 
is wholly soluble in vinegar, and in di- 
lute acetic, hydrochloric and nitric acids, 
with effervescence. Sulphate of lime is 
insoluble in these menstrua. 

Prepared Chalk. — Syn. Creta. Rub 1 
lb. of chalk with suflScient water, added 
gradually, until reduced to a very fine 
powder; then put this into a large vessel 
with water, agitate well, and, after a 
short interval, pour off the supernatant 
water, still turbid, into another vessel, 
and let the suspended powder subside. In 



[^943] 



Miscellmieous Formulas 






(Compositions) 



the same way, shells are prepared, after 
being first freed from impurities and 
washed with boiling water. 

Charcoal, How to Make. 

To make charcoal readily on a small 
scale, place small pieces of wood in a 
clay crucible, cover it with wet clay, and 
heat in an ordinary fire for about an 
hour ; thus all the volatile matter is 
driven off, and on cooling the charcoal 
will be found in the crucible. On ttie 
large scale, charcoal is made by burning 
wood in large heaps or piles, covered with 
earth or clay, or in ovens or kilns to 
which only a limited supply of air is al- 
lowed access. Any kind of wood may be 
used, but the hard woods, such as oak, 
beech and fir, produce the best and dens- 
est charcoal. Charcoal is also produced 
by heating wood in iron retorts, the vol- 
atile products, such as wood tar, creosote 
and acetic or pyroligneous acid, being 
condensed in receivers, and utilized. 

Chewing Gum. (See Ice Creams, etc.) 
Cleansing. (See special chapter.) 
Colored Fires. (See Pyrotechny below.) 
Coloring of Metals^ ( See special chapter. ) 
Compositions. 

Alcarezzas, Composition for. — 1. — 
Sandy marl, 2 parts ; brine, q. s. ; then 
knead in common salt, in fine powder, 1 
part. Bake the pieces slowly and lightly. 

2. — Good clay, 2 parts ; fine siliceous 
sand, 3 parts ; brine, q. s. ; common salt, 
1 to 2 parts, as before. Avoid overfiring. 

Asbestos Mass, Moldahle and Plastic. — 
The asbestos is reduced to a powder, from 
which, by an admixture of water, a uni- 
fonn mixture is produced : then, while 
stirring, more water is added, so that a 
paste is formed, which is allowed to stiffen 
by drying until the mixture attains the 
required plasticity. Out of this mass 
objects may be formed, especially filter 
material for the filtration of wine, vine- 
gar, acids, and other fluids, which, after 
being dried for a time, can be burned out 
in a furnace. 

Billiard Ball Composition. — Set 80 
parts, by weiight, of bone gelatine (Rus- 
sian glue) and 10 parts of Cologne glue 
to steep with 110% of water. Heat it 
in a water bath and add 5,000 parts of 
heavy spar, 4,000 parts of chalk, and 
1,000 parts of boiled linseed oil. Small 
rods, formed from the same material, are 
dipped into the mixture, and the quantity 
that remains attached to the rod is al- 
lowed to dry; the dripping and drying 
is repeated until finally a rough shaped 



(Compositions) 



ball is obtained. When, after 3 or 4 
months, it is dry, after being properly 
turned off, it is placed in a bath of red 
liquor for an hour, allowed to dry, and 
polished again, like an ivory ball. 

Cm-ton Pierre. (See Carton Pierre, 
in Index.) 

Castings, Composition to Fill Holes in. 
' — 1. — Dry clay, 6 parts; borax in solu- 
tion, 11/^ parts. Mix. 

2. — Make a thick paste of pulverized 
binoxide of manganese and a strong solu- 
tion of silicate of soda. 

Clark's, for Coating the Sheathing of 
Cables. — Mineral pitch, 65 parts ; sand, 
30 parts ; tar, 5 parts. 

Door Plates, Composition for. — The 
composition is merely sealing wax run on 
the plates when they are hot, and then 
scraped off with a scraper. 

Flowers and Fruits, Mass for Artificial. 
■ — ^Mix bread crumbs, magnesia and finely 
powdered starch. When fermented it can 
be formed and colored to any pattern. 
tFse the lakes to color, and a solution 
of gamboge in alcohol for a varnish. 

Gutta Percha Composition. — A hard 
composition is made of the following :. 
Gutta percha, 6 parts ; ivory or bone dust, 
2 parts ; pipeclay, 1 part. It has a light 
color. 

Insulating Compound (Chatterton's) 
for Joining the Layers of Gutta Percha 
in Cable Gore. — ^This compound is em- 
ployed for uniting the different coatings 
of gutta percha cores, and for cementing 
gutta percha to wood, etc. It is sold in 
rolls about 1 in. thick and 7 to 8 in. long. 
It should soften readily at 38° C. (100° 
P.), and become firm again when cooled 
for a few minutes. Its freshly cut sur- 
face should be smooth and compact ; _ it 
should not break, but bend easily with 
slight elasticity ; its specific gravity is 
about 1.020; it should not become hard 
or brittle on exposure to the air. The 
following process is adopted for its manu- 
facture : One-fifth, by weight, of Stock- 
holm tar, and about the same weight of 
rosin, are put into a jacketed vessel, heat- 
ed by steam, strained when melted, and 
intimately mixed, with three fifths, by 
weight, of cleansed gutta percha, in shreds 
or thin pieces. The whole is worked to- 
gether by horizontal stirrers, fixed on a 
vertical shaft. 

Insulating Mass, Flexible. — Shellac, 40 
parts, by weight ; dry, finely pulverized 
asbestos, flax, cotton, wood or paper, 40 
parts ; wood tar, 25 parts ; mineral wax 
(paraffine, ozocerite), 1% parts. Mix 
these ingredients together in a vessel at 
100 to 200° F. Stir constantly. If a 



[944] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Compositions) 



harder mass is desired, use less tar. For 
a very tiard mass, put in less asbestos, 
and leave out the wax. Add about 30 
parts of ground slate or clay which does 
not contain iron. 

MoldaUe Mass. — According to the 
Deutsche Drogisten Zeitung, a plastic 
mass is produced from wood dust, 17 
parts ; levigated calcic carbonate, 27 
parts; sodium silicate (sp. gr. 1.3 to 1.4), 
56 parts. The hardening sets in rapidly, 
and the mass possesses great tensile and 
transverse strength and a relatively low 
specific weight. It can be worked in 
every manner, and dyed, and is suitable 
for the production of toy building blocks 
and ornamented pieces for children, etc. 

Ornaments from Wood Mass. — 1. — To 
produce a cheap composition for molding, 
mirror and picture frames, rosettes, etc., 
take whiting, ]2 parts; fine sifted saw- 
dust, 6 parts ; linseed-oil cake, 1 14 parts. 
Knead tMs mass to a paste with a strong 
solution of glue. 

2. — Pulverized litharge, 8 parts ; white 
lead, 16 parts ; fine sawdust, 2 parts ; 
plaster of paris, 20 parts ; stir these in- 
gredients into 26 parts of glue dissolved 
in water, q. s. 

3. — Melt black pitch, 2 parts, in oil of 
turpentine, 4 parts ; liquefy glue, 4 parts, 
in linseed oil, 4 parts. Mix the two to- 
gether, add 4 parts of fine sifted saw- 
dust, 4 parts of whiting and 4 parts of 
colcothar. The molds should be oiled, and 
the mass pressed carefully into them. 

Patterns, Composition for. — The fol- 
lowing composition is commonly used : 
Soften 12 lb. of good glue in water enough 
to cover it, then heat until the glue is 
dissolved. Melt 7 lb. of rosin, % lb. of 
pitch and 2% pt. of linseed oil together. 
Stir the hot glue solution into this and 
add enough whiting to thicken. It should 
be mixed in small quantities, and used at 
once ; otherwise, it will require steaming 
before it can be used. 

Pegamoid. — The following receipt for 
the mixture of a coating for bookbinder's 
pasteboard is said to be very similar to 
the composition of pegamoid : Camphor, 
100 parts ; mastic, 100 parts : bleached 
shellac, 50 parts ; guncotton, 200 parts ; 
acetone, 200 parts ; acetic ether, 100 
parts ; ethylic ether, 50 parts. 

Plastic Composition. — Mixing pounded 
fragments of mica with a proper propor- 
tion of shellac forms a composition which 
can be molded with ease. 

Plastic Compositions, and Cements for 
Forming Counterpart Rollers or Plates 
Used for Embossing Paper, As'bestos, or 
Similar Impressible Fabrics in Holloxo 



(Cork) 



Relief. — Oxidized or solidified oil, 70 lb. ; 
kauri gum, 10 lb. ; rosin, 10 lb. ; litharge, 
2^2 lb. ; heated in a steam-jacketed pan 
and agitated. To render the cement more 
adhesive, from 2 to 5% of castor oil 
should be added while mixing. Of this 
cement, 20 lb. are compounded with 18 
lb. of cork dust or wood flour, 18 lb. of 
asbestos or whiting, and ^4 lb. of driers. 
The plastic composition may be made of 
varying degrees of hardness by varying 
the proportion of gum, rosin and driers, 
and is applied hot. 

Rubber Composition. — Cooper's best 
glue, 8% oz. ; extra syrup, 2 gal. ; glycer- 
ine, 1 pt. ; Venice turpentine, 2 oz. Steep 
the glue in rain water until pliant, and 
drain it well. Then melt it over a mod- 
erate fire, but do not "cook it." This 
will take 15 to 25 minutes. Next put in 
the syrup, and boil for three-quarters of 
an hour, stirring it occasionally, and 
skimming off impurities rising to the sur- 
face. Add the glycerine and turpentine 
a few minutes before removing from the 
fire, and pour slowly. Slightly reduce or 
increase the glue as the weather becomes 
colder or warmer. 

Toys, Composition for. — Fine ground 
argillaceous slate, 50% : rag-paper waste, 
20% ; burnt plaster, 30% ; mixed with 
the necessary volume of water to form a 
paste, which is then cast in molds, the 
molds having been previously daubed with 
finely ground slate, powdered plaster or 
fat. A sufficiently thick crust will form 
in a few minutes, when the residuum of 
the mixture must be poured out of the 
mold. The mixture, which is unbreak- 
able, hardens very rapidly. The castings 
thus produced may be immersed in par- 
afiine or stearine, or they can be japanned. 
In the latter case it is desirable, so as not 
to consume too much paint, to first apply 
a coat of quick-drying boiled oil, and when 
the oil has become hard the article is to 
be painted. 

Unclassified Composition. — Five parts 
of sifted whiting, mixed with a solution 
of one part of glue, together with a lit- 
tle Venice turpentine to obviate the brit- 
tleness, makes a good plastic material, 
which may be kneaded into figures of any 
desired shape. It should be kept warm 
w'hile being worked. It becomes as hard 
as stone when dry. 

Confectionery. (See Ice Creams, etc.) 

Cork. 

Corh, To Work. — To work cork into 
symmetrical shapes, as pen handles, etc., 
cut approximately to shape with a wet 



[945] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



1 



(Dragon's Blood) 



knife, using a drawing cut, and finish 
with a coarse emery wheel. 

Artificial Cork. — Phellosene, or arti- 
ficial cork, is made by grinding cork bark 
to an impalpable powder, and making it 
into a dough with a solution of nitro- 
cellulose in acetone. This is molded, 
compressed, and allowed to dry. The ma- 
terial contains from 10 to 12% of nitro- 
cellulose, and is claimed by its French in- 
ventor to be but very slightly more com- 
bustible than cork itself. 

Bleaching Corks. — The effect of the 
usual bleaching agents upon corks is not 
what one would expect ; in many cases 
these cause corks to become darker, and 
not lighter, in color. Chlorine, however, 
will render the corks paler, but will im- 
part to them a yellow color, and if used 
in large quantity will destroy the mate- 
rial and render it rotten. Oil of vitriol 
is not suitable for bleaching purposes, 
since it is never entirely washed out of 
the corks, and, being a non-volatile and 
powerful acid, it blackens them when 
they are dry, should they be submitted 
to a slight heat. Try a solution of chlo- 
ride of lime (bleaching powder), followed 
by a solution of hydrochloric acid, both 
slightly warm, and finally wash with wa- 
ter. A good white can also be obtained 
by dipping in hard white spirit varnish 
which has been ground with a little zinc 
white and thinned with methylated spirit. 

Boring Corks. — If the corks are bored 
by hand, they are held by the left hand 
while the cutter (a steel tube sharpened 
at one end) is pressed with a rotary mo- 
tion through them vrith the right hand. 
A pair of gas pliers may be used to hold 
them, but the less pressure employed the 
■better, as it interferes with the passage 
of the cutter. 

Powdering and Pulping Cork. — Passing 
cork between corrugated or roughened 
rollers will reduce it to a powder ; heat- 
ing it in a boiler, under pressure, w'ith 
water, will reduce it to pulp. 

Reducing Size of Bottle Corks. — To 
make a large cork fit a small bottle, it 
is the common practice to trim the sides 
of the cork. Often the knife is dull,_ and 
the cut irregular. A simpler v/ay is to 
cut a wedge-shaped piece out of the cork 
across its lower end. If the cork is very 
large, cut out an additional piece at right 
angles to the first. This will make a per- 
fect non-spilling stopper. 

Dragon's Blood, Factitious. 

Red Sanders, 7 parts ; yellow rosin, 9 
parts ; castor oil, 2 parts ; benzoic acid, 



(Enamel Colors) 



3 parts ; oxalate of lime, 1 part ; phos- 
phate of lime, 2 parts. Mix, with heat. 

Dyeing. (See special chapter.) 

Electrometallurgy. (See special chapter.) 

Embalming Fluids. 

The following is a formula for the em- 
balming fluid approved by a committee of 
the National Funeral Directors' Associa- 
tion of the United States : Solution of 
formaldehyde, 11 lb. ; glycerine, 4 lb. ; so- 
dium borate, 2^2 lb. ; boric acid, 1 lb. ; po- 
tassium nitrate, 2i/2 lb. ; solution of eosin, 
1%, 1 oz. ; water, enough to make 10 gal. 
The sodium borate, boric acid and potas- 
sium nitrate are dissolved in 6 gal. of 
W'^ater; the glycerine is added, then the 
solution of formaldehyde, and lastly the 
solution of eosin, and the necessary 
amount of w^ater. 

MorelVs Antiseptic Liquid. — Arsenious 
acid, 14 oz. ; caustic soda, 7 oz. ; water, 
20 oz. ; carbolic acid, sufficient to render 
the fluid, after stirring, opalescent ; then 
add water enough to make 100 oz. Mix 
well. 

Modern Formulas. — 1. — Salicylic acid, 

4 dr. ; boric acid, 5 dr. ; potassium car- 
bonate, 1 dr. ; oil of cinnamon, 4 dr. ; 
oil of cloves, 3 dr. ; glycerine, 5 oz. ; alco- 
hol, 12 oz. ; hot water, 12 oz. Dissolve 
the first three ingredients in the water 
and glycerine, the oils in the alcohol, and 
mix the solutions. 

2. — Thymol, 15 gr. ; alcohol, % oz. ; 
glycerine, 10 oz. ; water, 5 oz. 

3. — Potassium nitrate, 40 grams ; potas- 
sium carbonate, 40 grams ; glycerine, 
1,000 e.c. Success in the use of any em- 
balming fluid depends largely on manipu- 
lation, an important part of the process 
being the thorough removal of fluid' from 
the circulatory system before undertak- 
ing the injection of the embalming fluid. 

Enamel Colors. 

Millway Vanes says {8ci. Am. Supp., 
No. 387) : "I place little importance on 
these, as they might be had in any quan- 
tity. When in a powdered state, and well 
ground, they are ready for mixing with 
the proper vehicles on the color slab. 
These vehicles are raw turpentine, the oil 
of turpentine and the oil of tar. The 
turpentine is placed in a gallipot, which 
is again placed in a saucer. The turpen- 
tine, in time, fattens, and creeps over the 
edge of the gallipot into the saucer, and 
'fattens' into the oil of turpentine, which 
can be thinned by raw turpentine for use. 
To this should be added another gallipot 
and saucer, containing tar oil. Now here 



[946] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Enamel Colors) 



comes the technical use of these vehicles. 
The colors should not be made too fat, 
or left too raw. I have said that the 
lights in enamel painting are taken out 
by the pencil — 'always a camel's-hair one. 
If the color be too fat, this cannot be 
cleanly done ; or if it be too raw, a simi- 
lar evil is encountered. To perfect the 
color, in use, a little tar oil is mixed with 
it, and occasionally used in taking out 
the lights. This was the manipulation, 
or modus operandi, of one of the greatest 
painters — one of the finest wild-flower 
painters in the world ; and in my experi- 
ence I have followed the same practice 
"with the best results. To the camel's- 
hair pencil should be added the stick, or 
holder, which performs some of the most 
important work in the art of enamel 
painting. It should be made of alder 
wood, and sharpened at iihe end away 
from the pencil. With this the artist 
takes out the sharpest and most brilliant 
lights of the picture, occasionally cleaning 
the end of the pencil stick on the front 
of his working coat, and then wetting on 
the tip of his tongue for a cleaner touch. 
There are no art materials, possibly, so 
diversified in quality as enamel slabs for 
painting on, and enamel colors for use 
in enamel pictures. All these colors, be- 
ing of a mineral character, require the 
best chemical mixing and the finest grind- 
ing. Rose colors and purple, having bases 
of gold, are sometimes tampered with in 
the use of a baser material in the manu- 
facture of these colors ; and blues and 
reds are difficult of obtaining for pure 
art purposes. A great enamel artist used 
in his blues a little chloride of sodium, 
or common salt; and his rose colors and 
purples were generally of the first make. 

"Having secured an unblemished porce- 
lain slab or other porcelain article, the 
subject might be sketched in with a little 
Indian ink, rubbed up in water ; then the 
work is commenced for the first firing. 
The work can either have a background, 
or can be painted Avithout one ; and here 
the skill of the artist is first tried. The 
background in the first coloring might be 
bossed in with a small dabber, and then 
the subject taken out, and arranged, of 
course, according to the lights knd darks 
and colors of the picture. First, second, 
third, and perhaps a fourth firing, may 
be required as the work goes on, shadows 
darkening, tints brought out, and the 
background receiving the most beautiful 
and effective stippling, until at last this 
work of art stands mxt before the admir- 
ing gaze of the beholders a finished work 
of technical ability, gorgeous in colors, 



(Enamel Colors) 



most deep and rich in tone, and defying 
all the power of time in permanency of 
hues. But even here a few other touches 
might be required and another firing 
given. To this end the artist before al- 
luded to used a little white enamel, mixed 
in water, giving the finest dots, as it 
were, for seed pearls, and the work was 
finished. Enamel colors are prepared 
from the oxides of different metals with a 
vitreous flux. The principal colors are 
oxides of lead, platinum, chromium, ura- 
nium. Oxides of tin and antimony give 
opacity." 

Black. — Crystal glass, 30 grams ; borax, 
8 grams ; cupric oxide, 4 grams ; ferric 
oxide, 3 grams ; cobaltic oxide, 4 grams ; 
manganic oxide, 4 grams. 

Blue. — 1. — Flint glass, 64 oz. ; red lead, 
20 oz. ; pearlash, 4 oz. ; white enamel, 8 
oz. ; common salt, 4 oz. ; best blue calx, 
6 oz. To be run down in the glost oven, 
then grcfund, and add 4 oz. of red lead ; 
then grind it, and it will be fit for use. 

2. — Zaffer, 26 oz. ; pearlash, 18 oz. ; 
charcoal, 1 teaspoonful. 

3.— Dark Blue. — Crystal glap<=!, 30 
grams ; borax, 6 grams ; cobaltic oxide, 4 
grams ; bone black, 4 grams ; arsenic acid, 
2 grams. 

4.— Flux for Blue.— Flint, 16 lb. ; lead, 
2 lb. ; borax, 2^^ lb. ; pearlash, 1 lb. 

5. — Transparent Blue. — Crystal glass, 
34 grams ; borax, 6 grams ; cobaltic oxide, 
4 grams. 

6. — Violet Blue. — a. — Tartar, 4 oz. ; red 
lead, 2 oz. ; flint, 5 oz. ; magnesia, % oz. 

b. — Glass, 14 parts ; red lead, 5 parts ; 
white enamel, 1 part; blue calx, 2 parts. 
Good. 

c. — Glass, 10 parts ; red lead, 5 parts ; 
niter, 2 parts ; calcined white enamel, ^ 
part ; blue calx, l^ part. Good. 

Crystal Enamel. — Dissolve 1 oz. white 
lac in 10 oz. of warm alcohol. Let the 
mixture stand for some weeks, then de- 
cant the clear portion for use. 

Gold on an Enameled Surface, To 
Stamp. — Use thin gold size and a hot 
brand. 

Green. — 1. — ^Dark. — 'Crystal glass, 30 
grams ; borax, 8 grams ; cupric oxide, 4 
grams ; bone black, 4 grams ; arsenic acid, 
2 grams. 

2. — Transparent. — Crystal glass, 80 
grams ; cupric oxide, 4 grams ; borax, 2 
grams. 

Pfy?7>;.— Oxide of tin, 100 lb. ; chloride 
of lime, 50 lb. ; oxide of chrome, 5 lb. ; 
10 lb. of the foregoing to 1 lb. of flint. 

Red. — 1. — Carnelian Red. — a. — Chro- 
mate of iron, 1 part ; flux, 3^^ parts. 

b. — Flux. — Red lead, 3 parts ; glass, 1 



[947] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Enamel Colors) 



part; flint, 1 part. No other flux would 
do for this. The flux must be highly cal- 
cined until it forms a davk glass. 

2. — Enamel Red. — a.— Litharge, 3 
parts ; antimony, 2 parts ; iron scales, 1 
part. 

b. — Litharge, 1 part ; antimony, 1 part ; 
iron scales, red and yellow, i/^ part, to 
be spread on plates in -glost oven. 

3.— Flux for Red.— Red lead, 6 oz. ; 
borax, 4 oz. ; flint glass, 2 oz. To be run 
down over common fire. 

4. — Transparent. — Cassius gold-purple, 
65 cgm. ; crystal glass, 30 grams ; borax, 
4 grams. 

Rose Colors. — 1. — Gold, 1 gr., dissolved 
in aquaregia ; block tin, 4 gr., dissolved 
in same ; pour each separately into a 
basin of cold water, then drop in the tin, 
when dissolved, and stir with a feather ; 
then let stand 6 hours until precipitated ; 
then wash it in hot water, after which 
add the following : Borax, 3 parts ; flint, 
1 part ; calx, 1 part. 

2. — Rose Flux, — Glass, 14 parts ; red 
lead, 5 parts. 

Violet. — Crystal glass, 30 grams ; borax, 
4 grams ; manganese, 4 grams ; cobaltic 
oxide, 12 decigrams. 

White. — 1. — Crystal glass, 30 grams ; 
stannic oxide, 6 grams :,oorax, 6 grams; 
arsenic acid, 2 grams. 

2. — Crystal glass, 30 grams ; sodium an- 
timonate, 10 grams. 

The finely pulverized colored enamel is 
npplied with a brush and lavender oil on 
the white enamel, already fused in, and 
then only heated until it melts. For cer- 
tain purposes, the color compositions may 
also be fused in without a white ground. 
The glass used for white. No. 2, must be 
free from lead, otherwise the enamel will 
be unsightly. 

Yelloiv. — 1. — Litharge, 8 parts ; flint, 6 
parts ; antimony, 3 parts ; ocher, 2 parts ; 
glass, 4 parts. 

2. — Litharge, 3 parts ; powdered brick, 
4 parts ; oxide of iron, 1 part ; antimony, 
3 parts ; to be calcined in glost oven and 
spread on glost plates. 

3. — Enamel Yellow. — White lead, 6 lb. ; 
flint, % lib. ; tin ashes, % lb. ; to be mixed 
well together, run down in an enameling 
heat, and poured into warm water. 

4.— Flnx for Yellow.— Red lead, 3 oz. ; 
flint, 1 oz. 

For information on the Art of Enamel- 
ing (Vitreous) Cast Iron for Industrial 
Purposes, Hollow Ware, Signs, etc.. Many 
Details of the Processes, from the Prep- 
aration of the Metal and Enamels to the 
Finished Product, see our Scientific Amer- 
ican Supplement Numbers 1349, 1350, 



(Etching) 



1351, *1352, *1353 and 1792. (*) Indi- 
cates illustrations of furnaces, grinding 
mills, etc. 

Engraved Plates. (See Plates, En- 

graved. ) 

Etching. ( For etching in photo-engraving 
see Photography.) 

Aluminum. — Alcohol, 4 oz. ; acetic 
acid, 6 oz. ; butter of antimony, 4 oz. ; wa- 
ter, 40 oz. 

Brass. — 1. — Alcohol, 4 oz. ; chromic 
acid, 4 oz. ; water, 40 oz. 

2. — Nitric acid, 16 parts (sp. gr. 1.40) ; 
add to 160 parts of water ; dissolve 6 pt. 
of potassium chlorate in 100 parts of wa- 
ter. Mix the two solutions. 

3. — Many of the etching receipts for 
copper apply here : Nos. 1, 2 and 3 par- 
ticularly. 

4. — For surface printing on brass in 
the lithographic manner, Roret's Manual 
gives : Gum arabic, 8 parts ; nutgalls, 2 
parts ; nitric acid, 1 part ; phosphoric 
acid, 4 parts ; water, 30 parts. 

Brass Signs. — Paint the sign with as- 
phalt varnish, leaving the parts to be 
etched unpainted, raise a border around 
the outside, made of soft beeswax or as- 
phalt, to hold the acid. Use nitric acid 
diluted with 5 times the quantity of wa- 
ter. Pour the dilute acid on to the sign 
about % in. deep. When the letters are 
cut deep enough, which must be found by 
trial, the acid may be poured off and the 
plate cleaned by heating and wiping, and 
finally with turpentine. 

Bronze. — For etching bronze the follow- 
ing is given in Roret's "Manual du Gra- 
veur" : Pure nitric acid at 40°, 100 
parts ; muriatic acid at 20°, 5 parts. Also 
try any of the copper etching formulas. 

Copper Etching. — 1. — Nitric or sul- 
phuric acid, 1 part ; potassium bichromate 
saturated solution, 2 parts ; water, 5 
parts. 

2. — Callot and Piranesi. — Strong vine- 
gar, 8 parts ; verdigris, 4 parts ; ammo- 
nium chloride, 4 parts ; salt, 4 parts ; 
alum, 1 part ; water, 16 parts. 

3. — Dutch Mordant. — Hydrochloric acid 
(fuming, sp. gr, 1.90), 10 parts; water, 
70 parts; then add boiling solution of 
potassium chlorate ; dilute. 

4, — Fielding. — Nitrous acid, 1 part; 
water, 5 parts. Used for aquatints, 

5, — Lalanne. — Nitric acid, 40°, mixed 
with an equal amount of water; add 
pieces of scrap copper. 

6,— Relief Etching.— Nitrous acid, 30°, 
1 oz. ; silver acetate, 3 dr. ; nitric ether 
(hydrated), 8 oz. To prepare nitric ether, 
mix 1 oz. of alcohol, 1 oz. of nitric acid, 



[948] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Etching) 



and stop reaction by adding 4 oz. of piure 
water. 

7. — Roret's. — Distilled vinegar, 1 1. ; 
ammonium chloride, 60 grams ; sodium 
chloride, 60 grams ; pure verdigris, 40 
grams. Grind up the solids and boil in 
the vinegar. Acetic acid (at 3°) may be 
used in place of vinegar. 

8.— Tint Etching ( Roret's ) .—Bay salt, 
2 parts ; ammonium chloride, 1 part ; ver- 
digris, 1 part. Grind up with old honey 
(syrup). 

Film for Tracing with a Needle. — Mr. 
H. Trueman Wood sends the follovs^ing to 
the Photographic News: There are many 
purposes in photography for which an 
opaque film capable of being etched with 
a sharp point might be useful. Such a 
film can be obtained by use of the follow- 
ing formula : Negative collodion, % oz. ; 
ether, 6 dr. ; alcohol, 6 dr. ; shellac, 30 
gr. ; aurine, 2 gr. ; Judson's mauve dye, 30 
drops ; water, 30 drops. 

Lead. — Alcohol, 4 oz. ; tin bichloride, 
2l^ oz. ; water, 40 oz. 

Resists. — 1. — White wax, 30 parts ; 
gum mastic, 30 parts ; asphaltum, 15 
parts. 

2. — White wax, 30 parts ; gum mastic, 
15 parts ; asphaltum, 15 parts. 

3. — White wax, 60 parts ; gum mastic, 
30 parts ; asphaltum, 60 parts. 

4. — White wax, 3 parts ; block pitch, 1 
part ; asphaltum, 4 parts ; rosin, 1 part. 

5. — Callot's ground linseed-oil varnish 
and mastic ; heat until the wax is melted, 
filter, apply with brush, and heat plate 
until varnish stops smoking. 

6. — TS'Tiite wax, 2 oz. ; black and Bur- 
gundy pitch, of eac-h l^ oz. ; melt togeth- 
er; add by degrees, powdered asphaltum, 
2 oz., and boil till a drop taken out on 
a plate will break when cold by being 
bent double two or three times ; pour 
into warm water and make into small 
balls. 

Silver. — Proceed as for copper or brass, 
but great care must be used in preparing 
a proper ground and in stopping out. 

Steel. — Nitric or hydrochloric acid, or 
mixtures of the two, are employed as the 
"acid" in marking or etching on steel. The 
following are among the methods em- 
ployed : 

1. — Glacial acetic acid, 4 parts; abso- 
lute alcohol, 1 part ; nitric acid (sp. gr. 
1.28), 1 part. Allow the acetic acid and 
alcohol to remain for half an hour, then 
add nitric acid carefully. Etch from 1 
to 15 minutes. The parts you wish to 
protect from corrosion must be covered 
with beeswax, tallow, or simi"'\r sub- 
stance. 



(Etching) 



2. — The first step to be careful about is 
to have the print heavily inked and then 
powdered up with dragon's blood several 
times before starting to etch. To do this 
properly, every operator has noticed that 
after powdering, and slightly heating, ad- 
ditional powder will stick, and will form 
a heavy coating in two or three opera- 
tions with the powder. Before proceeding 
to heat up good the plate should receive 
a light etching in a weak solution of the 
acid described later on. By giving this 
etching the print is cleaned up, and will 
not thicken up the lines, as would be the 
case without this etching. Then a good 
strong heating should be given. On top 
the dragon's blood plumbago may be used 
in addition. For etching, use nitric acid 
mixed with an even amount of acetic acid. 
Some operators use vinegar, based on the 
same theory. When commencing the etch 
ing, start with a weak solution, and in- 
crease as soon as the plate is deep enough 
to allow a^i other powdering. If the opera- 
tor is familiar with lithography, and un- 
derstands to roll the print up with a litho- 
roller, the etching of steel is not harder 
than etching on zinc. 

3. — Iodine, 16 parts ; iron filings, 1 
part ; water, 64 parts. Digest until the 
iron is dissolve' Keep well stoppered 
until required fo' use. 

4. — Fuming hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 
1.190), 1 part; distilled water, 19 parts; 
solution potassium chlorate, 1 : 50, 1() 
parts. 

5. — Copper sulphate, 2 oz. ; alum, % 
oz. ; salt, % oz. ; mixed with % pt. of 
vinegar and 40 drops of nitric acid, can 
be used for frosting the steel, 

6. — Alcohol, 3 parts ; distilled water, 5 
parts ; nitric acid, 8 parts ; silver nitrate, 
8 parts. Wash the plate with very dilute 
nitrate acid, then apply the solution for 
3 minutes, and wash with 6% solution of 
alcohol. Repeat if necessary. 

7. — (Deleschamp's, for vertical bite.) — » 
Silver acetate, 2 parts ; rectified spirits, 
125 parts ; distilled water, 125 parts ; 
jQitric acid, 65 parts; nitric ether (see 
No. 5 of copper etching above), 16 parts ; 
oxalic 5,cid, 1 part. 

8. — J odine, 4 parts ; potassium iodide, 
10 parts ; water, 80 parts. This is very 
highly recommended. 

9. — No. 3 of copper etching, above. 

10. — (Roret's.) — Nitric acid, 62 parts; 
water, 125 parts ; alcohol, 187 parts ; cop- 
per nitrate, 8 parts. 

11. — Cover the surface with a thin coat 
of asphaltum varnish of fine quality, then 
cut the design through to the surface of 
the steel, and etch with a weak solution 



C949J 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Etching) 



of nitric acid in water; finally, wasli 
with hot water and remove the asphaltum 
with hot turpentine. 

12. — For steel. — Iodine, 1^^ oz. ; iron 
filings, % dr. ; water, 6 oz. Digest until 
the iron is dissolved. 

13. — For fine touches, take 6 parts each 
of verdigris, sea salt and sal ammoniac ; 
dissolve in 12 parts of vinegar, add 24 
parts of water, boil a minute, and allow 
to cool. 

14. — Clean the steel, and cover evenly 
with wax ; cut the lines with a steel point 
through the wax, and pour on the follow- 
ing etohing fluid : Pyroligneous acid, 4 
oz. ; alcohol, 1 oz. ; nitric acid, 1 oz., by 
measure. Or, use iodine, 1 oz. ; iron fil- 
ings, 'Y'i dr. ; water, 4 oz. Etching fluid 
is removed as soon as the metal is suffi- 
ciently etched. 

15. — Cutlery. — a. — For etching on cut- 
lery a ground wax is required, composed 
of equal parts of asphaltum, Burgundy 
pitch and beeswax, melted together, and 
thoroughly incorporated. In applying it, 
use a dabber, or ball of cotton covered 
with silk. Warm the piece of cutlery so 
that a stick of the wax will readily melt 
by touching. Smear a small quantity of 
the wax on the blade or articles, and dab 
it evenly all over the surface. When 
cold, scrat(?h the required design or name 
on the surface, and touch the parts with 
acid (nitric acid, 1 part; water, 4 to 6 
parts), using a camel's-hair pencil to 
cover the surface and bring the acid into 
contact with all the lines. In a few min- 
utes the biting is done. Dip in hot wa- 
ter to wash off the acid, and the surface 
may be cleaned by wiping with benzine. 
Another way is to make a varnish of as- 
phalt and turpentine, with a few drops 
of linseed oil to make it tacky. Have a 
rubber stamp made of the required de- 
sign, with a border, so as to stop off 
around the design. Stamp the goods, and 
with some of the varnish, thinned down 
with turpentine, and a brush, stop off the 
surrounding parts ; or surround the de- 
sign with a small rim of beeswax, and 
apply the acid as above. 

b. — For etching brands and marks on 
polished steel surfaces, such as saws, 
knifeblades and tools, where there are 
many pieces to be done alike, procure a 
rubber stamp with the required design, 
made so that the letters and figures that 
are to be bitten by the acid shall be de- 
pressed in the stamp. Have a plain bor- 
der around the design, large enough to 
allow a little border of common putty to 
be laid around the edge of the stamped 
design to receive the acjd. For ink, use 



(Fish Bait) 



rosin, lard, oil, turpentine and lampblack. 
To 1^ lb. of rosin put 1 teaspoonful of 
lard oil ; melt, and stir in a tablespoonful 
of lampblack ; thoroughly mix, and add 
enough turpentine to make it of the con- 
sistency of printer's ink when cold. Use 
this on the stamp, in the same manner 
as when stamping with ink. When the 
plate is stamped, place a little border of 
common putty around and on the edge of 
the stamped ground. Then pour within 
the border enough acid mixture to cover 
the figure, and let it stand a few mo- 
ments, according to the depth required ; 
then pour the acid off. Rinse the surface 
with clean water, take off the putty bor- 
der, and clean off the ink with turpen- 
tine. Use care not to spill the acid over 
the polished part of the article. For the 
acid, 1 part nitric acid, 1 part hydrochlo- 
ric acid, to 10 parts of water by meas- 
ure. If the effervescence seems too active, 
add more water. 

Tools, Marking. — ^To mark tools, warm 
them slightly, and rub the steel with Fax, 
or hard tallow, until a film gathers. Then 
scratch the letters on the M'ax, cutting 
through to the steel. A little nitric acid 
poured on the writing will quickly eat 
out the letters. Wash off the acid and 
remove the wax with a hot rag, and the 
letters will be securely etched. 

Files, To Sharpen by Chemical Means. 

Boil the files in strong soda and water 
to clean off all grease, oil or gum. Then 
dip for a few minutes in a bath of nitric 
acid, 1 part ; water, 4 parts ; the length 
of time being less on fine files, as your 
experience may suggest. 

To Resharpen Old Files. — Wash the 
files in warm potash water to remove the 
grease and dirt, then wash in warm wa- 
ter, and dry by heat. Put li/^ pt. of 
warm water in a wooden vessel, put in 
the files, add 3 oz. of blue vitriol, finely 
powdered, and 3 oz. of borax. Mix well, 
and turn the files so that every one may 
come in contact with the mixture. Add 
10l^ oz. of sulphuric acid and % oz, of 
cider vinegar. Remove the files after a 
short time, dry, rub with olive oil, wrap 
in porous paper. Coarse files should be 
kept in the mixture for a longer time 
than fine ones. 

Fish Bait. 

In "The Complete Angler," Izaak Wal- 
ton says that of pastes to catch fish there 
are almost as many sorts as there are 
remedies for toothache. In his directions 
for taking fish he gives a number of 



[ 950 I 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Flowers and Plants) 



pastes, the following being tJiose he con- 
siders the most efficient: 

1. — Cheese made into a paste with tur- 
pentine. 

2. — Rabbit's flesh, cut fine, 1 part; 
bean flour, 1 part ; honey, enough. Pound 
these well in a mortar. 

3. — Make a tough paste of brown-bread 
crumbs and honey. 

4. — Beat into a paste, in a warm mor- 
tar, sheep's tallow and soft cheese, 

5. — White-bread crumbs, worked up be- 
tween the fingers until tough. 

More modern pastes may be made ac- 
cording to the appended formulas : 

6. — Asafetida, in tears, 1 part; white 
wax, 1 part. Melt together, strain, and 
stir until cool. 

7. — Graham flour, 1 oz. ; juice of lovage 
root, enough. Beat into a tough paste. 

To make these pastes less liable to be 
washed from the hook, shreds of wool or 
cotton are often incorporated in the mass. 

8. — Fish Food for Trout and Carp. — 
Mix meal flour, 65 parts ; gold pleasure 
seed or linseed, ground, 3 parts ; powdered 
rape seed, 2 parts ; maize or beans, 
crushed, 10 parts ; peas, crushed, 10 
parts ; coarsely ground grain (preferably 
wheat), 10 parts. This mixture is kneadsd 
with 10 parts of common salt and suffi- 
cient water, into a stiff paste, and by 
means of a syringe, with an opening as 
large as a lead pencil, spread on a board, 
strewed with flour, and left to dry. 

9. — Preparation, for Luring Fish and 
Game. — Oil of rhodium, 3 parts ; oil of 
cumin, 2 parts ; tincture of musk, 1 part. 
Mix. Put a drop or two on the bait, or 
rub trigger of trap with same. 

10. — Production of Scented Fish Bait. 
— For moistening the bait, we need, ac- 
cording to the Pharmazeutische Rund- 
schau, the following preparations: (1) 
Peruvian balsam, 1; oil of mirbane (ni- 
tro-benzol), 1; anhydrous alcohol, 4. (2) 
Musk, .05; civet, .25: Preruvian balsam, 
4; oil of aniseed, 1.5. (3) Extract of 
fresh "broad bean" leaves, 10 to 150, 
mixed with 10 of nitric ether, and 1 drop 
of volatile animal oil. (4) Especially 
for trout: civet with redwood oil. 

Flowers and Plants. 

1. — Blue Roses. — The Scientific! Ameri- 
can publishes a recipe for blue roses, 
which are simply white roses whose stems 
have been submerged in the following so- 
lution : Water, 100 c.c. ; aniline methyl- 
ine dye, 2 grams; potassium nitrate, 2 
grams. This color scheme, representing a 
little less than % pt. of water and a lit- 
tle over % oz. each of aniline dye and 



(Flowers and Plants) 



saltpeter, is worth trymg for the sake of 
novelty, 

2.— Color, To Preserve.— a.— The fol- 
lowing varnish is recommended for coat- 
ing the stalks of flowers for the preserva- 
tion of their color and general character : 
Isinglass, 11 oz. ; concentrated glycerine, 
9 oz. Tihe isinglass is to be softened by 
first soaking it in eold water, and then 
dissolving it in the glycerine by diges- 
tion and agitation, with the latter heated 
to 212° F. over a water bath. When 
properly prepared, this varnish is color- 
less, and when cold resembles rubber in 
all but color. 

b. — Another varnish recommended for 
this purpose is prepared from bleached 
gutta percha, 1 oz. ; deodorized benzole, 7 
oz. The gutta percha is cut into fine shreds 
and gradually added to and agitated with 
the solvent, kept hot (or warm) over a 
sand bath, away from the fire. The whole 
flower may be dipped into this varnish, 
shaken, and exposed to the air to dry. 
Another preparation suggested for this 
purpose is plain collodion diluted one- 
third, and mixed with 2% of camphor, 
also dissolved in a small quantity of ether 
and alcohol. 

c. — Dissolve 1 pt. of salicylic acid in 
600 parts of alcohol, heat the solution up 
to boiling point in an evaporating vessel, 
and draw the plants slowly through it. 
Shake them to get rid of any superfluous 
moisture, and then dry between sheets of 
blotting paper under pressure in the or- 
dinary manner. Too prolonged immersion 
discolors violet flowers, and in all cases 
the 'blotting paper must be frequently re- 
newed. The novelty appears to be the 
salicylic acid. 

d, — A. F. Woods describes a method of 
preserving the green color of plants for 
exhibition purposes which appears to be 
similar in principle to the coppering of 
green peas. Air is removed as completely 
as possible from the surface and inter- 
cellular spaces of the plants by immer- 
sion in 90 to 95% alcohol, or an air pump 
may be employed. The plants are next 
immersed in dilute glycerine (5%) to 
which a bluish tint has been imparted by 
means of copper sulphate or acetate. The 
copper combines with the chlorophyl, 
forming copper phyllocyanate, which is 
practically insoluble in any ordinary pre- 
servative medium except strong alcohol, 
and is not affected by light. Any excess 
of copper salt may be dissolved out by 
a mixture of dilute glycerine and forma- 
line, which may also be employed with 
advantage as the preservative medium. 

e. — A method of preserving the natural 



[951] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



{Flowers and Plants) 



4 



colors of flowers, recommended by R. 
Hegler, in the Deutsche Botanische Mon- 
ntsnefte, consists in dusting salicylic acid 
on the plants as they lie in the press, 
aud removing it again with a brush when 
the flowers are dry. Red colors, in par- 
ticular, are well preserved by this agent. 
Another method of applying the same pre- 
servative is to use a solution of 1 part of 
salicylic acid in 14 parts of alcohol, by 
means of blotting paper or cotton wool 
soaked in it and placed above and below 
the flowers. Powdered boracic acid yields 
nearly as good results. Dr. Schonland, in 
the Gardeners^ Chronicle, recommends, as 
an improvement in the method of using 
sulphurous acid for preserving the color, 
that in the case of delicate flowers they 
might be placed loosely between sheets of 
vegetable parchment before immersion in 
the liquid, so as to preserve their natural 
form. 

f . — Insert their stems in water in which 
25 gr. of ammonium chloride (sal am- 
moniac) have been dissolved. Flowers 
can be preserved in this way for 15 to 
30 days. To preserve them permanently 
for several months, dip them into per- 
fectly limpid gum water and then allow 
them to drain. The gum forms a complete 
coating on the stems and petals, and pre- 
serves their shape and color long after 
they have become dry. 

g. — Flowers in Water. — Any kind of 
flower can be well preserved for at least 
two weeks by putting a little saltpeter or 
carbonate of soda in the vs^ater in which 
the flowers are left standing. 

h. — The usual method of preserving cut 
flowers in a condition of freshness is to 
dissolve small amounts of ammonium 
chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium car- 
bonate or camphor in the water into 
which the stems are inserted. The pres- 
ence of one or the other of these drugs 
keeps the flowers from losing their tur- 
gidity, by stimulating the cells to action 
and "by opposing germ growth. Flowers 
that have already wilted are said to 
quickly revive if the stems are inserted 
in a weak camphor water. 

i. — Dr. Dixon states that tincture of 
nux vomica added to the water in which 
cut flowers are kept exercises a stimu- 
lant effect upon the flowers. The chrys- 
anthemums on which he tried it held their 
freshness for an unusually long time. 

Leaves, Preserving. — 1. — ^They may, 
after pressing, be dipped in melted bees- 
wax; the same may be applied solid to 
the surface and be melted with a hot 
smoothing iron ; or they may be varnished 
with dammar varnish or Canada balsam. 



(Flowers and Plants) 



Varnishing is objectionable on accouijt of 
the time required for drying. 

2. — It depends somewhat upon the sea- 
son when the leaves develop their great- 
est beauty and variety of tints. Sumac, 
and the leaves of similar plants or trees, 
are usually gathered early in October. Ma- 
ple, alder, oak, linden, etc., are then at 
their best. To preserve the leaves, they 
should be thoroughly dried as soon as pos- 
sible after gathering and trimming. A 
sirnple method of drying the leaves expe- 
ditiously is the following : Spread the 
leaves, and press in a suitable pan with 
alternate layers of fine sifted dry sand 
heated as hot as the hand can bear, and 
set aside to cool. When the sand has 
cooled the leaves may be removed, 
smoothed under a hot iron, dipped for a 
moment in clear French spirit varnish, 
and allowed to dry in the air. 

3. — Melted paraffine and wax are some- 
times preferred to the varnish. 

4. — The following is another way : 
Spread several thicknesses of fine wrap- 
ping paper on the ironing table ; arrange 
the leaves of the spray, picking off those 
which do not add to its beauty, and lay 
it out smooth. Pass a warm flatiron over 
a cake of wax, and then over the leaves, 
first on one side and then on the other. 
Then place the sprays between sheets of 
bibulous paper, and put under pressure 
between two flat boards for several weeks, 
changing the paper several times. 

Leaves, Skeleton, To Make. — Place the 
leaves in a little rain water to which a 
trace of yeast has been added. Allow 
the fermentation to proceed until the 
membranous portion becomes soft and 
easily washed away in a stream of water. 
They are bleached by dipping for a few 
minutes in a strong aqueous solution of 
sulphurous acid gas, or exposing them, 
while moist, in a box filled with the vapor 
of burning sulphur. 

Leaves, To Copy. — Take a piece of thin 
muslin, and wrap it tightly around a ball 
of cotton wool as big as an orange. This 
forms a dabber, and should have some- 
thing to hold it by. Then squeeze on to 
the corner of a half sheet of foolscap a 
little color from a tube of oil paint. Take 
up a very little color on the dabber, and 
work it about on the center of the paper 
for some time, till the dabber is evenly 
covered with a thin coating. A little oil 
can be used to dilute or moisten the color, 
if necessary. Then put your leaf down 
on the paper and dab some color evenly 
over both sides. Place it then between 
the pages of a folded sheet of paper (un- 
glazed is best), and rub the paper above 



[952] 



Mis c ellaneous Fo rniulas 



(Foundry Facings) 



it well all over with the finger. Open the 
sheet, remove the leaf, and you will have 
an impression of each side of the leaf. 
Any color may be used. Burnt or raw 
sienna works the most satisfactorily. 

Foundry Facings. 

The description of facing sand which 
Mr. H. F. Frohman gives in the paper 
which he read before the Western Foun- 
drymen's Association, is just about as 
clear an explanation as could be desired 
by any one seeking to know the rationale 
of certain operations in the ironfounder's 
craft. It is free of all chemical terminol- 
ogy, which too frequently serves to con- 
fuse and obscure simple phenomena. It 
explains in the simplest language exactly 
that which working founders want to 
know. He tells how the most common 
facing to mix with the sand is coal dust, 
and gives the reason for it. The crushed 
coal is mixed with the sand which is near- 
est to the surface of the mold, in order 
to break up the particles of sand, so that 
when the molten metal comes into the 
mold it does not fuse the sand to a hard 
mass similar to glass, but allows the coal 
to burn away, thus leaving the sand in a 
separated condition, so that when the 
casting has cooled these separated parti- 
cles of sand will readily drop off. This 
can be verified by putting a small quan- 
tity of silica sand into a heated vessel so 
that the temperature will just about fuse 
the sand. It will melt and run together 
into a solid mass. There is another rea- 
son for the use of coal dust, and that is 
that it will help materially to vent the 
mold and allow the gases to escape. Coal 
dust for facing sand should be made from 
the best quality of soft or bituminous 
coal, containing neither slate nor phos- 
phorus, but high in hydrocarbon gases and 
volatile matter, and the best gas coal 



(Freezing) 



Freezing Mixtures. 



makes the best dust for facing. This is 
the only kind of facing that is mixed with 
the sand. There are other facings, such 
as charcoal blacking, but these are either 
dusted on the mold or applied wet with 
a brush, as the class of work requires. 

Freezing, To Prevent. 

Non-freezing Fluids for Central Heat- 
ing Plants, Machines, etc. — ^For such pur- 
poses glycerine and alcohol are used. A 
solution of 28% of chloride of calcium in 
water, which will withstand a tempera- 
ture of 22° below zero Fahrenheit with- 
out freezing, and does not attack metals, 
is cheaper. Other recipe : In 100 parts 
are contained 1 part of chloride of mag- 
nesia, 10 parts of chloride of calcium, 20 
parts of chloride of alumina. *'Tektrion," 
a charging fluid for central heating plants, 
consists of a 25° B6. solution of chloride 
of calcium that boils at a little over 212° 
F., and resists cold of 5° F. For heat- 
ing plants that are not so liable to be 
frozen up, a chloride of calcium lye of 
15° Be,, which resists freezing to 17i^° 
F., may be used. The addition of glycer- 
ine to the solution is not advisable. 

Incongealahle Liquid. — In numerous in- 
stances a fluid is required which does not 
freeze. For many machines, and in ar- 
tillery, glycerine, which is quite expen- 
sive, is employed for this purpose. An 
admixture of alcohol increases the cost 
still more. The Revue Technique recom- 
mends in place thereof a 28% solution of 
calcium chloride, which is very cheap, and 
remains liquid up to a temperature of 32° 
C. It does not attack any metals, which 
is of especial importance. In lieu thereof, 
one may also employ the somewhat dearer 
solution of calcium chloride, 10 parts ; 
aluminum chloride, 20 parts ; magnesium 
chloride, 1 part. 

Actual 
Thermometer reduction of 
sinks, temperature, 

degrees F. degrees F. 
. . to — 5 



1. Snow or pounded ice, 2 parts ; sodium chloride, 1 part 

2. Snow or pounded ice, 5 parts; sodium chloride, 2 

parts ; ammonium chloride, 1 part. From any 

temperature . . to — 12 

3. Snow or pounded ice, 24 parts ; sodium chloride, 10 

parts ; ammonium chloride, 5 parts ; potassium 

nitrate, 5 parts. From any temn^rature . . to — 18 

4. Snow or pounded ice, 12 parts ; sodium chloride, 5 

parts ; ammonium nitrate, 5 parts. From any 

temperature '. . to — 25 

5. Sodium phosphate, 3 parts ; ammonium nitrate, 2 

parts ; diluted mixed acids, 4 parts from — 34 to — 50 

6. Snow, 8 parts ; dilute sulphuric acid. 10 parts " — 68 to — 91 

7. Snow, 1 part ; crystallized calcium chloride, 3 parts . . " — 40 to — 73 

[953] 



16 
23 
33 



MisceUa7icous Formulas 



(Gelatine) 



(Gelatine) 



Freezing Mixtures— Continued 



9. 

10. 

11. 
12. 
13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 
17. 

18. 
19. 

20. 
21. 



22. 

23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 



Sodium phosphate; 5 parts ; ammonium nitrate, 3 

parts ; dilute nitric acid, 4 parts 

Ammonium nitrate, 1 part ; water, 1 part 

Ammonium chl'oride, 5 parts ; potassium nitrate, 5 

parts ; water, 16 parts 

Snow, 1 -part ; dilute sulphuric acid, 1 part 

Snow, 3 parts ; dilute nitric acid, 2 parts 

Snow, 8 parts ; -dilute sulphuric acid, 3 parts ; dilute 

nitric acid, 3 parts 

Ammonium chloride, 5 parts ; potassium nitrate, 5 

parts ; sodium sulphate, 8 parts; water, 16 parts. . 
Sodium sulphate, 5 parts ; dilute sulphuric acid, 4 

parts 

Sodium nitrate, 3 parts ; dilute nitric acid, 2 parts. . 

Snow, 2 parts ; calcium chloride, 3 parts 

Snow, 3 parts ; dilute sulphuric acid, 2 parts 

Ammonium nitrate, 1 part ; sodium carbonate, 1 

part ; water, 1 part 

Snow, 8 parts ; hydrochloric acid, 5 parts 

Sodium sulphate, 6 parts ; ammonium chloride, 4 

parts ; potassium nitrate, 2 parts ; dilute nitric 

acid, 4 parts 

Sodium phosphate, 9 parts ; dilute nitric acid, 4 parts 

Snow, 7 parts ; dilute nitric acid, 4 parts 

Snow, 1 part ; crystallized calcium chloride, 2 parts 

Snow, 3 parts ; calcium chloride, 4 parts 

Snow, 4 parts ; calcium chloride, 5 parts 

Snow, 2 parts ; crystallized calcium chloride, 3 parts 

Snow, 3 parts ; potash, 4 parts 

Sodium sulphate, 6 parts ; ammonium nitrate, 5 

parts ; dilute nitric acid, 4 parts 



Actual 
Thermometer reduction of 
sinks, temperature, 

degrees F. degrees F. 

Oto— 34 34 
40 to 4 36 

50 to 10 40 

' —20 to —60 40 

to —46 46 

' —10 to -^6 46 

50 to 4 46 



50 to 3 


47 


50 to— 3 


53 


—15 to —68 


53 


32 to —23 


55 


50 to— 7 


57 


32 to —27 


59 


50 to —10 


60 


50 to —12 


62 


32 to —30 


62 


to —66 


66 


20 to —48 


68 


32 to —40 


72 


32 to —50 


82 


32 to —51 


83 


50 to —40 


90 



Gall. 

Gall, To Decolorize.— To 1 pt. of gall, 
boiled and skimmed, add 1 oz. of alum, 
and leave the mixture on the fire until 
the alum is dissolved. When cold, pour 
into a bottle, and cork loosely. Next 
treat another pint of gall in the same 
way, only substituting salt for alum. In 
about 3 months these preparations will 
deposit a sediment, then decant the fluid 
portion and mix them. A precipitate is 
immediately formed, which takes down the 
coloring matter and the fluid portion is 
removed. 

Oxgall, To Clarify. — Let the gall of a 
newly killed ox settle for 12 hours ; ponr 
off the liquor and boil until somewhat 
thick. Then spread it upon a dish until 
almost dry ; place in jelly pots covered 
with paper. When desired for use, dis- 
solve a small piece in 1 tablespoonful of 
water. 

Gelatine. 

Bichromated Gelatine. — Make a hot sat- 
urated solution of bichromate of potash 
in water, and in another vessel make a 
strong solution of gelatine. Then pour 



them together, stir well, and allow to 
cool. The proportion of bichrome solu- 
tion which is added varies according to 
the nse. On exposure to the light it be- 
comes insoluble, which is useful in many 
ways. 

i^ on-setting Gelatine. — ^There are many 
purposes for which a non-setting gelatine 
is of considerable value, the direct carbon 
or pigment printing being one. Long, 
long ago, so long as to be almost forgot- 
ten. Maxwell Lytte, we think, introduced 
a method of producing one, under the 
name of "meta gelatine," but the follow- 
ing, recommended by Dr. F. Mallmann, 
will be found both simpler and better : 
Water, 1,000 parts; chloral hydrate, 250 
parts ; gelatine, 400 parts. Soak the gela- 
tine in the water, and apply a gentle heat 
till dissolved, and then add the chloral. 

Gelatine Sheets. — Dissolve fine glue or 
isinglass in. water so that the solution, 
when cold, may be consistent. Pour it 
hot on a plate of glass (previously 
warmed with steam, and slightly greased), 
fitted in a metallic frame whose edges are 
just as high as the wafer should be thick. 
Lay on the surface a second glass plate. 



[954] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Grease Proofing) 



also hot and greased, so as to touch every 
point of the gelatine while resting on the 
edges of the frame. By its pressure the 
thin cake is rendered uniform. When the 
glass plates have cooled, the gelatine will 
be solid, and may be removed. It can 
then be cut into disks by punches, etc. 
It can, of course, be colored by adding 
suitable coloring material, aniline colors, 
for instance. 

To Make Gelatine Iridescent. — A. Pou- 
solle has received a patent for a process 
for giving to gelatine the appearance of 
mother of pearl. In his specification he 
describes the process as consisting of 
treating an aqueous solution of gelatine 
with ammonium bromide, drying, and im- 
mersing in an aqueous solution of silver 
nitrate. After contact for a certain time 
the gelatine is again dried, and immersed 
in a clear solution of collodion, and final- 
ly dried. 

Glass. (See special chapter.) 
Gold, Acid Test for: Touchstone. 

The ordinary ready method of ascer- 
taining whether a piece of jewelry is 
made of gold consists in -touching it with 
a glass stopper wetted with nitric acid, 
which leaves gold untouched, but colors 
base alloys blue from the formation of 
nitrate of copper. The "touchstone" 
sometimes used in testing is said to be a 
species of black basalt, obtained chiefly 
from Silesia. If a piece of gold be drawn 
across its surface a golden streak is left, 
which is said to be not affected by moist- 
ening with nitric acid ; while the streak 
left by brass or other base alloy would 
be rapidly dissolved by the acid. Expe- 
rience enables an operator .to determine 
by means of the touchstone pretty nearly 
the amount of gold present in an alloy, 
comparison being made with the streaks 
left by alloys of known composition. It 
is claimed that the fitness of the stone 
for this use arises from its easily abrad- 
ing the metal, not being itself affected 
by nitric acid, and presenting a dark, 
smooth ground adapted for exhibiting the 
shades of color. 

Grease-proof Boxes. 

The following is the composition of a 
preparation used for painting the inte- 
rior of cardboard or wooden boxes to 
make them greaseproof : Fish glue, 1 lb. ; 
rosin, i/4 oz. ; litharge, % oz. ; glycerine. 
V2 oz. ; kaolin, i/^ oz. ; water, 40 oz. Boil 
the glycerine, litharge and part of the 
water together to dissolve, then mix in 
the other ingredients. The liquid is ap- 
plied to the inside of the boxes with a 



(Insulating Material) 



brush, and allow to dry, the applica- 
tion to be repeated if necessary. 

Guncotton. 

It may be prepared in small quantities, 
as follows : Mix 4% oz. of pure dry ni- 
trate of potash with 30 fl.dr. of sulphuric 
acid, sp. gr. 1.845, and after cooling thor- 
oughly stir into this mixture, carefuWy, 
120 gr. of best carded cotton. As soon 
as saturation is complete, in about 1 
minute — if proper care has been used — • 
throw the cotton into a tubful of clean 
rain water, and change the water repeat- 
edly until litmus ceases to show the pres- 
ence of acid, then squeeze it in a cloth, 
and after being well pulled out, dry it 
cautiously at a temperature not exceed- 
ing 140° F. It is now explosive, and too 
much caution cannot be observed in hand- 
ling it. 

Honey, Artificial. 

For artificial honey there are several 
good formulas. The following is one : 
Sugar, 10 parts ; rain water, 3 parts. 
Bring to a boil over a slow fire, and let 
boil gently for 15 minutes, skimming all 
the while. Let cool, and add 3 parts of 
good old strained honey and 5 drops of 
oil of peppermint for every gallon of prod- 
uct. The best imitation is made with loaf 
sugar. If this be used, the article cannot, 
by the taste alone, be told from the genu- 
ine. If common brown sugar be used, it 
will be necessary to boil the syrup a lit- 
tle longer and to skim with care. The 
addition of 20 gr. of cream of tartar 
to the gallon is said to improve the arti- 
cle. Caution : Beware of misbranding 
this as "Honey." 

Household Formulas. (See special chap- 
ter.) 

Ice Powder. 

Ammonium chloride, in coarse powder, 2 
oz. : potassium nitrate, in coarse powder, 
2 oz. Mix. 

Insecticides. (See special chapter.) 
Insulating Material. 

1. — Linseed oil, 2 parts ; cotton-seed oil, 
1 part ; heavy petroleum, 2 parts : light 
coal tar, 2 parts ; Venice turpentine. i/> 
part ; spirits or turpentine, 1 part ; gutta 
percha, 1-6 part; sulphur, 2 parts ; heat 
the oils separately to about 300°^ F., cool 
to 240°, and mix in the other materials^ 
the sulphur last. Heat to 300° F. for 
an hour, or until the mixture becomes 
pasty, and on cooling is soft and elastic. 

2. — Flexible Insiilating Material for 



I 955 J 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



C Kerosene) 



(Lard) 



Electric Conductors. — Mineral wax, par- 
affine, ozokerite, each 1 part ; wood tar, 
29 parts ; shellac and asbestos, flax or 
cotton, wood or paper, 32 parts, in a dry, 
finely pulverized corfdition ; mixed at 100 
to 212° F. in a kettle, arrd continuously 
stirred. K a harder mass is required, 
the proporti'on of wood tar is reduced. To 
obtain a particularly hard mass the wax 
may be omitted, a?bout 24 parts of crushed 
slate, infusorial earth, or clay, free from 
iron, added, and the quantity of asbestos, 
etc., to be added reduced. 

3. — Insulating Sheets for Electric Con- 
ductors. — The insulating material consists 
of 768 parts of rubber, 166 parts of sul- 
phate of antimony, 58 parts of sulphur, 
which may also he omitted, 195 parts of 
lime (chalk), 130 parts of magnesite, 922 
parts of carbonate of magnesia. The p'ro- 
duction \>t insulating sheets, -tablets, or 
rolls from this mass, which may also be 
mixed with Chinese gum lac, the acidity 
of which is neutralized by boiling with 
carbonate of potash, consists in placing 
a suitable number of plates made from 
this substance between sheets of zinc, one 
on the other, and then vulcanizing them 
at a temperature of 250 to 300° F., and 
under a pressure of 132,000 to 220,000 
lb. The gum lac may be replaced by veg- 
etable fibers. During vulcanization at an 
augmented temperature (of 300 to 340° 
F.) the rollers may be doisted with tal- 
cum powder or the like. 

4. — Insulating Wood. — a. — Wood for 
battery jars, etc., is also rendered insu- 
lating by steeping it in or brushing it 
with melted paraflBne. 

b. — An insulator of 2 parts by weight 
of Greek pitch and 2 parts of burnt plas- 
ter of paris is used for electric light work 
in France. The plaster is pure gypsum, 
highly heated, and plunged in water. The 
compound is applied hot, with a brush. 
(See also Compositions, above.) 

Ivory. (See Bone and Ivory; also 

chapter on Lapidary Arts.) 
Kerosene, Masking Odor of- (See also 

Petroleum.) 

Various processes have been recom- 
mended for masking the odor of kerosene, 
such as the addition of various essential 
oils, artificial oil of myrbane, etc., but 
none of them seems entirely satisfactory. 
The addition of amyl acetate in the pro- 
portion of 10 grams to the liter (1%) 
has also been suggested, several experi- 
menters reporting very successful results 
therefrom. Some years ago Beringer pro- 
posed a process for removing sulphur I 
compounds from benzine, which would | 

[956 



presumably be equally applicable to kero- 
sene. The process is as follows : Potas- 
sium permanganate, 1 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 
% pt. ; water, SVz pt. Mix the acid and 
water, and when the mixture has become 
cold pour it into a 2-gal. bottle ; add the 
peemanganate, and agitate until it is dis- 
solved. Then add 1 gal. of benzine, and 
thoroughly agitate. Allow the liquids to 
remain in contact for 24 hours, frequently 
agitating the mixture. Separate the ben- 
zine, and wash in a similar bottle with 
a mixture of potassium permanganate, % 
oz. ; caustic soda, % oz. ; water, 2 pt. 
Agitate the mixture frequently during sev- 
eral hours, then separate the benzine and 
wash it thoroughly with water. On agi- 
tating the benzine with the acid pennan- 
ganate solution an emulsion-like mixture 
is produced, which separates in a few sec- 
onds, the permanganate slowly subsiding, 
and showing considerable reduction. In 
the above process it is quite probable that 
the time specified (24 hours) is greatly 
in excess of what is necessary, as the 
reduction takes place almost entirely in 
a very short time. It has -also been sug- 
gested that if the process were adopted 
on a manufacturing scale, with mechani- 
cal agitation, the time could be reduced 
to an hour or two. 

Kieselguhr. 

Kieselguhr is an infusorial earth, which 
is principally used in the manufacture of 
dynamite. It is a white powder, and, as 
it consists of the skeletons of diatoms, 
is of a siliceous character, and well adapt- 
ed for making polishing soap. 

Lampblack. 

For processes for the Manufacture of 
Lampblack, Boneblack and Carbon-black 
from Coal, Natural and Acetylene Gases, 
see our Scientific American Supplement 
Numbers *866, *980 and 1263. (*) in- 
dicates illustration of soqt chamber. 

Lapidary Art. (See special chapter.) 

Lard. 

Lard, To Prepare. — In preparing lard 
for the market it should first be cut into 
pieces about the size of a walnut, and 
these should be allowed to stand in water 
for half an hour. Then work the mate- 
rial with the hands in 5 or 6 successive 
portions of water. Next pour off the wa- 
ter, melt the lard in a water bath, and 
strain through fine linen. In the first 
straining it will be impossible to get rid 
of all the water, so that after cooling and 
draining it will be necessary to remelt the 

] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Magnesia) 



lard and finally to filter it through paper 
in a warm closet. 

Lard, Making. — 1. — Cut the fat up into 
pieces 2 in. square ; fill a vessel holding 
about 3 gal. with the pieces ; put in 1 pt. 
of boiled lye, made from oak and hickory 
ashes, and strained before using ; boil 
gently over a slow fire, until the crack- 
lings have turned brown ; strain, and set 
aside to cool. By the above process you 
will get more lard, a better article, and 
whiter, than by any other process. 

2. — Cleanliness is the great point in 
treating lard. The fat is freed from all 
adhering fleshy or discolored matter by 
cutting. It is then cut tfp into small 
pieces, and washed until the water runs 
off clear. It is next melted by direct fire 
or steam coil until it becomes perfectly 
clear. It is run through close linen filters 
into the barrels, in which it is stirred un- 
til white and opaque, but only thickly 
fluid. The great point is when to cease 
stirring. It is then cooled and tightly 
covered. Air makes it rancid. 

Lard, To Keep Stoeet. — Even during 
the warmest weather lard can be kept 
sweet by the following plan : When ren- 
dering (melting) it, throw into each ket- 
tle a handful of fresh slippery elm bark. 
No further preparation is necessary. No 
salt must be added t-o it at any time. 
The jars in which the lard is to be kept 
must be thoroughly cleansed. 

Leather. (See special chapter.) 
Lime, Vienna. 

This is used for polishing. It is pre- 
pared from dolomite. The dolomite is 
burned, slaked and glowed. For use, rub 
the articles with alcohol, and apply the 
lime. Keep the lime in a well stoppered 
bottle. 

Lubricants. (See special chapter.) 
Magnesia, Citrate of. 

1. — Magn'esium carbonate, 4 oz. ; citrie 
acid, 8 oz. ; sugar, 12 oz. ; water, 9 pt. 
Flavor with essence of lemon, then dis- 
solve and filter, fill bottles immediately, 
and add to each 30 gr. of potassium hy- 
drogen carbonate, and cork securely. Bot- 
tles must not be filled any higher than 
the shoulder. The receipt is sufficient for 
12 bottles. 

2. — Cafrbonate of magnesia, 4 oz. ; citric 
acid, 8 oz. ; oil of lemon, 25 drops ; sugar, 
14 oz. ; water, q. s. Eirop the lemon oil 
on 4 oz. of carbonate of magnesia, scrape 
it, and place, together with the citric acid 
and 6 parts of water, in a wide-mouthed 
bottle. In the course of a few hours the 
solution will be effected. Add the sugar, 



(Matches) 



and dissolve by frequent agitation. Filter 
through paper, and divide the clear liquid 
into 12 suitable bottles. Lastly, these 
bottles must be nearly filled with filtered 
water, and to each of them is added, im- 
mediately before corking, 40 gr. of chem- 
ically pure bicarbonate of soda. 

Matches. 

Manufacture of Matches. — Each fac- 
tory uses its own methods and chemical 
mixtures, though in a general way the 
latter do not vary greatly. It is impos- 
sible here to give a full account of the 
different steps of manufacture, and of all 
the precautions necessary to turn out 
good marketable matches. However, in 
the manufacture of the ordinary safety 
match, the wood is first comminuted and 
reduced to the final shape, and then 
steeped in a solution of ammonium phos- 
phate (2% of this salt with 1 or 1%% 
of phosphoric acid), or in a solution of 
ammonium sulphate (2i/4%), then drained 
and dried. The object of this application 
is to prevent the match from continuing 
to glow after the match has been burned 
out. Next the matches are dipped into 
a paraffine or stearine bath, and after that 
into the match bath proper, which is best 
done by machines constructed for the pur- 
pose. Here are two formulas for the 
"composition" : 

1. — Potassium chlorate, 2,000 parts ; 
lead binoxide, 1,150 parts ; red lead, 2,500 
parts ; antimony trisulphide, 1,250 parts ; 
gum arabic, 670 parts ; paraffine, 250 
parts ; potassium bichromate, 1,318 parts. 

2. — Potassium chlorate, 2,000 parts ; 
lead binoxide, 2,150 parts ; red lead, 2,500 
parts ; antimony trisulphide, 1,250 parts ; 
gum arabic, 670 parts ; paraffine, 250 
parts. 

Rub the paraffine and antimony trisul- 
phide together, and then add the other 
ingredients. Enough water is added to 
bring the mass to a proper consistency 
when heated. Conduct heating operations 
on a water bath. The sticks are first 
dipped in a solution of paraffine in ben- 
zine and then are dried. For striking sur- 
faces, mix red phosphorus, 9 parts ; pul- 
verized iron pyrites, 7 parts ; pulverized 
glass, 3 parts ; gum arabic or glue, 1 
part ; water, q. s. To make the matches 
water or damp proof, employ glue instead 
of gum arabic in the above formulas, and 
conduct the operations in a darkened 
room. For parlor matches, dry the splints 
ar>d immerse their ends in melted stearine. 
Then dip in the following mixture, and 
dry : Red phosphorus, 3 parts ; gum ara- 
bic or tragacanth, 0.5 part ; water, 3 



[957] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



( Matches ) 



parts ; finely ground sand, 2 parts ; lead 
binoxide, 2 parts. Perfume by dipping in 
a solution of benzoic acid. 

Match-MaJcing Machinery. — Illustrated 
articles on this subject are contained in 
our Scientific American Supplement Nos. 
*1240, *1241 and *1704. 

Chlorate Matches. — Chlorate of potassa, 
30 gr. ; flowers of sulphur, 10 gr. ; pow- 
dered lump sugar, 8 gr. ; powdered gum 
arable, 5 gr. ; vermilion, enough to color. 
Reduce the chlorate to fine powder in a 
marble or Wedgwood ware mortar, then 
place it on a stone slab, add the other 
ingredients, and mix them all together 
with a wooden or bone knife, adding just 
suflBcient water to make a paste. Into 
this mixture the points of matches, made 
of slips of thin wood or pasteboard, are 
to be dipped, and afterward carefully 
dried in a moderately warm situation. 

English Matches.— 1. — Fine gnie, 2 
parts, soaked in water till quite soft ; wa- 
ter, 4 parts ; heated together in a water 
bath till quite fluid. Remove the vessel 
from the bath and add ll^ to 2 parts of 
phosphorus, agitating the mixture briskly 
and continually with a stirrer having 
wooden pegs or bristles projecting be- 
neath. When the mass is uniform, 4 or 
5 parts of chlorate of potash, 3 or 4 parts 
of powdered glass, and sufficient coloring 
matter in the form of red lead, smalts, 
etc., are cautiously added, and the whole 
is stirred till cool. 

2. — Red or amorphous is substituted for 
yellow phosphorus in match heads. The 
composition of the igniting paste is given 
as follows: Soaked glue (1 to 5 of wa- 
ter), 37; powdered glass, 7.5; whiting, 
7.5 ; amorphous phorus, pure, 10 ; par- 
affine wax, 4 ; chlorate of potash, 27 ; 
sugar of lampblack, 7. Silicate of soda 
may be substituted for the glue, bichro- 
mate of potash added for damp climates, 
and sulphur for large matches. 

Friction Matches. — 1. — Ordinary kinds 
are small slips of wood which have been 
dipped in sulphur and afterward tipped 
with a paste capable of ignition by fric- 
tion. This paste contains common phos- 
phorus, 4 parts ; niter, 16 parts ; red lead, 
3 parts ; strong lead, 6 parts. 

2. — Ordinary phosphorus, 9 parts ; ni- 
ter, 14 parts ; binoxide of manganese, 14 
parts ; gum or glue, 16 parts. Melt the 
glue at 212° F., gradually add the phos- 
phorus, which must be well stirred into 
the liquid ; then add the niter and color- 
ing matter. Keep the paste at a regular 
temperature of about 97° F. by means of 
hot water under the marble or cast-iron 
slab on which it is spread while the 



(Matches) 



matches are being dipped. If gum is used 
all the operations may be more easily 
performed, as the materials can be mixed 
cold ; but the matches made with gum are 
easily spoiled by damp. 

3. — Fine glue, 2 parts ; water, 4 parts ; 
phosphorus, 1% to 2 parts; potassium 
chlorate, 4 to 5 parts ; powdered g»lass, 3 
to 4 parts. Red or white lead or smalt 
sufiicient to color. 

4. — The following is a match which 
may be lighted by friction upon any sur- 
face whatever, and which possesses the 
advantages of being free from danger and 
of emitting no unpleasant odor. The 
mixture into which the splints are first 
dipped consists of chlorate of potash, 6 
parts ; sulphide of antimony, 2 parts ; 
gum, 1% parts; powdered clay, 1^^ parts. 
The inflammable compound consists of 
chlorate of potash, 2 to 3 parts ; amor- 
phous phosphorus, 6 parts; gum, 1% 
parts ; aniline, l^/^ parts. 

5. — The following, although containing 
no white or yellow phosphorus, may be 
ignited by friction against any substance. 
Powdered glass, 80 parts ; amorphous 
phosphorus, 10 parts ; sulphur, 10 parts. 
These are mixed, then is added a solution 
of 850 parts of potassium chlorate in 300 
parts of water and 70 parts of glue. Last- 
ly, there is added to the paste finely pow- 
dered potassium ferrocyanide, 50 parts. 

Parlor. — Dry the splints, and immerse 
the ends in melted stearine. Then dip in 
the following mixture and dry : Phos- 
phorus, red, 3 parts ; gum arable or trag- 
acanth, 0.5 part ; water, 3 parts ; finely 
ground sand, 2 parts ; binoxide of lead, 
2 parts. Perfume by dipping in a solu- 
tion of benzoic acid. 

Safety Matches. — a.^Chlorate of po- 
tassium, 2,000 ; binoxide of lead, 1,1.50 ; 
red lead, 2,500 ; trisulphide of antimony, 
1,250; gum araJbic, 670; paraflfine, 250; 
bichromate of potassium, 1,318. 

b. — Chlorate of potassium, 2,000 ; bi- 
noxide of lead, 2,150; red lead, 2,500; 
trisulphide of antimony, 1,250 ; gum ara- 
ble, 670; parafline, 250. 

Rub the parafline and antimony togeth- 
er, and then add to other ingredients. 
Enough water is added to bring the mass 
to a proper consistency when heated. Con- 
duct heating operations on a water bath. 
The sticks are first dipped in a solution 
of paraflSne in benzine, and then dried. 
For striking purposes, mix red phospho- 
rus, 9 parts ; pulverized iron pyrites, 7 
parts ; pulverized glass, 3 parts ; gum, or 
glue, 1 part ; water, q. s. 

2. — Dip the splints in a paste composed 
of chlorate of potash, 6 parts ; sulphide 



[958] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Matches) 



of antimony, 2 to 3 parts ; glue, weighed 
dry, 1 part. The paste for the rubbing 
surface is amoi*phous phosphorus, 10 
parts ; oxide of manganese, or sulphide of 
antimony, 8 parts ; glue, 3 to 6 parts, 
weighed dry. The ingredients must be 
thoroughly mixed, and care must be taken 
not to mix the chlorate of potash in the 
dry state with the other materials ; it 
should be mixed first with glue dissolved 
in warm water. The paste for the rub- 
bing surface may be spread with a brush 
or spatula on the side of the box. 

3. — Glue, 16 parts ; chrome yellow, 2 
parts ; oxide of iron, 2 parts ; peroxide of 
manganese, 24 parts ; hyposulphite of 
lead, 8 parts ; chlorate of potash, 36 parts. 
Composition for the box : Hyposulphite 
of lead, 260 parts; chlorate of potash, 14 
parts ; oxide of iron, 7 parts ; powdered 
glass, 8 parts ; finest glue, 4 parts ; amor- 
phous phosphorus, 24 parts. Glue is dis- 
solved in water ; other ingredients being 
in powder, are afterward mixed with it 
.to the consistency of paint, and applied 
with a brush to the surface of the box. 

Silent Matches. — 1. — Dissolve 16 parts 
of gum arabic in the least possible quan- 
tity of water, triturate in 9 parts of pow- 
dered phosphorus, and add 14 parts of 
niter, 16 parts of vermilion or binoxide 
of manganese, and form the whole into 
a paste. 

2. — Six parts of glue soaked in a little 
cold water for 24 hours, and liquefied by 
trituration in a heated mortar ; add 4 
parts of phosphorus, and rub down at a 
heat not exceeding 150° F. (66° C.) ; 
mix in 10 parts of powdered niter and 
then 5 parts of red ocher and 2 parts of 
smalts, and form the whole into a uni- 
form paste. 

3. — Instead of phosphorus, lead sulpho- 
cyanate, mixed with precipitated anti- 
mony sulphide, is treated in the moist 
state with an oxygenous substance, such 
as potassium chlorate, with indifferent 
coloring and rubbing agents, such as 
glass, quartz, pumice powder, ultrama- 
rine, etc., and with glutinous substances, 
such as glue, gum and dextrine. The 
mixture is used in place of the materials 
employed for igniting sulphur matches, 
wax lights, etc. 

4. — Weigh out 30 parts of powdered 
chlorate of potash, 10 parts of powdered 
sulphur, 8 parts of sugar and 5 parts of 
gum arabic, with a little cinnabar to com- 
municate color. The sugar, gum and salt 
are first rubbed together into a thin paste 
with water. The sulphur is then added, 
and the whole having been thoroughly 
beaten together, small brimstone matches 



( Matches ) 



are dipped in, so as to retain a thin coat 
of the mixture upon their sulphured ends. 
When quite dry they are fit for use. 

Swedish. — 1. — Matches from Sweden 
were found to be tipped with an igniting 
composition made up of the following sub- 
stances, in 100 parts : Glass, 8.77 ; glue, 
7.12; potassic bichromate, 5.59; potassic 
chlorate, 46.76; ferric oxide, 4.09; man- 
ganese, 13.07; sulphur, 7.41. It is sup- 
posed that the following proportions were 
employed in the manufacture of the com- 
position : Glass, I14 lb. ; glue, 1 lb. ; po- 
tassic bichromate, 4-5 lb. ; potassic chlo- 
rate, 6% lb, ; ferric oxide, % lb. ; manga- 
nese, 2 lb. ; sulphur, 1 lb. In consequence 
of the small proportion of oxygen yield- 
ing substances to sulphur, a large quan- 
tity of sulphurous acid is evolved on ig- 
niting the mass. 

2. — In another composition, likewise 
from Sweden, Wiederhold found to 1 of 
sulphur 21 of potassic chlorate. This 
composition yielded no free sulphurous 
acid, the sulphur being wholly oxidized 
to sulphuric acid. 

Vestas. — Vestas are tipped with simi- 
lar ingredients, but the taper being less 
rigid than wood, a larger proportion of 
phosphorus is added. 

Vesuvians. — The heads of vesuvians are 
made up principally with powdered char- 
coal and saltpeter in some such propor- 
tions as the following : Saltpeter, 18 
parts ; charcoal, 19 parts ; powdered glass, 
7 parts ; gum arabic, 5 or 6 parts ; to 
these ingredients are added a little scent, 
in the form of satinwood, lignumvitae 
dust, cascarilla bark or gum benzoin, 
which renders them fragrant while burn- 
ing. The igniting composition is identi- 
cal with safety matches. 

Without Phosphorus. — 1. — For the pro- 
duction of these lucifers a mixture of 
from 4 to 6 parts of chlorate of potash 
and 2 parts each of bichromate of potash 
and oxide of iron or lead, with 3 parts 
of strong glue, is used. For the igniting 
surface a mixture of 29 parts of sulphate 
of antimony, 2 to 4 parts of bichromate 
of potash, 4 to 6 parts oxide of either 
iron, lead or manganese, 2 parts of glass 
powder and from 2 to 3 parts of strong 
glue or gum. These matches will ignite 
only on the friction surface thus prepared. 

2. — For the match heads a mixture of 
chlorate of potash and a compound of 
hyposulphurous acid with soda, ammonia 
and oxide and su'boxide of copper. This 
compound is formed by dividing a solu- 
tion of copper into two equal parts, su- 
persaturating one of them with ammo- 
nia and the other with hyposulphate of 



[959] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Mica) 



soda ; then mixing the two solutions and 
stirring the mixture well ; a violet powder 
precipitates. One part of it is to be mixed 
with 2 parts of the chlorate of potash 
and a small quantity of pounded glass. 
Lucifers made in this way are, however, 
objectionable from the fact that they will 
ignite on any rough surface, even more 
easily than the common kind. 

3. — The following is one of the best re- 
ceipts for composition match tips without 
phosphorus. It is the same as that used 
in preparing the well-known U. and P. 
matches, and does not require a separate 
rubber or prepared surface : Potassium 
chlorate, 26 oz. ; manganese, black oxide. 
25 oz. ; potassium bichromate, 20 oz. ; lead 
cyanide, 20 oz. ; antimony oxysulphide, 20 
oz. ; glass powder, 4 oz. These substances 
are first powdered separately, and then 
gradually mixed into a solution of 1 lb. 
of gum in 4 lb. of water, to form a thick, 
smooth paste ; with this paste the dry 
wood splinters are tipped, and after about 
18 hours' exposure to the air in a drying- 
room, kept at about 80° F., the matches 
are ready for boxing. To render the 
matches non-absorbent of moisture, or 
waterproof, they are momentarily dipped 
into a liquid composed of best white shel- 
lac, 1 I'b. ; alcohol, or wood naphtha, 1 
qt. ; digested together in a closed vessel 
for several days, with occasional agitation, 
then strained through fine linen cloth. 

Without Sulphur. — Char the ends of 
the splints with red hot iron, dip them 
into a thin layer of stearic acid or wax, 
melted in a flat-bottomed tinned copper 
pan. The dipping paste for these matches 
is ordinary phosphorus, 3 parts ; strong 
glue, 3.5 parts ; water, 3 parts ; fine sand, 
2 parts ; coloring matter, 0.1 to 0.5 part ; 
chlorate of potash, 3 parts. These matches 
burn readily, with a bright flame, and 
have no unpleasant smell. Amorphous 
phosphorus not being poisonous, or liable 
to accidental ignition, is preferable to or- 
dinary phosphorus. The paste used is 
amorphous phosphorus, 3 parts ; chlorate 
of potash, 4 parts ; glue, 2.5 parts ; water, 
5 parts ; pounded glass, 2 parts. 

Mica, To Pulverize. 

When mica is heated to redness for 
some time in a muflle, and then allowed 
to cool rather quickly, the laminae become 
distorted, and the sheets present a silvery- 
white appearance by reflected light, the 
mineral losing much of its flexibility. The 
dust of this whitened mica is used to some 
extent by the French as silver bronze 
powder. Mixed with a weak solution of 
gum arable, it makes a good silver ink. 



(Natural History Specimens) 

The powder is sometimes variously tinted 
by washes of very dilute colored solutions 
of gums or varnishes. To prepare the 
glistening powder the sheets of whitened 
mica are simply crushed, not ground, 
boiled in hydrochloric acid, rinsed, dried, 
and assorted to size of laminae. The finer 
filaments have a pearly luster, and are 
made to adhere to semi-softened gelatine 
and wax to imitate pearl. The silvery 
powder is used on metals, glass, wood, pa- 
per, plaster, tapestry and furniture. It 
has also been used in calico printing in 
place of the heavy bronze and glass dust 
of Lyons fabrics, and for the decoration 
of china and glassware. 

Naphthalene. 

One of the secondary products of the 
gas manufacture, or of the destructive 
distillation of coal. When pure it forms 
thin, white flakes, of a pungent taste. It 
is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily 
in alcohol, ether, and in acetic and oxalic 
acids. It melts at 79° F., and has the 
sp. gr. 1.045. It is not readily inflam- 
mable, and burns with a smoky flame. 

Deodorization of Naphthalene. — Naph- 
thaline has such a disagreeable odor that 
its use in medicine and surgery is con- 
siderably retarded thereby, and it has 
been found that the mixture of camphor 
and other deodorants with it is only of 
temporary benefit. But if the naphtha- 
line be mixed with some benzoin, and then 
sublimed, the sublimate of naphthaline is 
free from tarry odor and is pleasant to 
smell ; moreover, it retains this pleasant 
odor, although this is not the case when 
the naphthaline is simply mixed with 
tincture of benzoin or benzoic acid. 

Natural History Specimens. 

Preserving Fluid. — 1. — Nearly saturate 
water with sulphurous acid and add a lit- 
tle creosote. 

2. — Dissolve chloride of lime, 4 parts, 
in water, 100 parts, to which 3% of hy- 
drochloric acid has been added. 

3. — Dissolve corrosive sublimate, 1 
part, and sodium chloride, 3 parts, in 
water, 100 parts, to which 2% of hydro- 
chloric acid has been added, 

4. — Ammonium chloride, 1 part ; water, 
10 or 11 parts. For muscular parts of 
animals : Zinc sulphate, 1 part ; water, 
15 to 25 parts. Used for muscles and 
cerebral masses. 

5. — Formaldehyde solution, 40%, 60 
parts ; glycerine, 120 parts ; alcohol, 30 
parts ; water, 1,000 parts. Mix. Glycer- 
ine is necessary only when the specimen 
is to be kept soft. The fluid can be made 



[960] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Paper) 



perfectly colorless and as limpid as dis- 
tilled v/ater by filtering through animal 
charcoal. In dense, massive objects, such 
as liver, lung:, etc., incisions should be 
made to allow the liquid to penetrate to 
the interior. It is better to use more 
formaldehyde solution — 90 to 100 parts — 
in preparing very dense objects. 

Fossils, To Take Casts of. — Clear the 
edges of the fossil of the limestone, etc., 
it may be imbedded in, and paste all 
around its circumference a piece of smooth 
note paper, thus making a mold, say half 
an inch deep. Before, however, pasting 
the paper, well blacklead the surface of 
the fossil and rub it with grease. Then, 
after pasting, pour into mold some melted 
wax, suflScient to make a mold, say, half 
an inch thick. When cool remove tlie pa- 
per and wax, trim up, if ragged in any 
part, and then paste another piece of 
paper around the wax, making the mold 
to receive the plaster of paris for casts. 
The plaster of paris should be very fine, 
and should be mixed with water contain- 
ing a little albumen, then poured into a 
mold and allowed to harden, afterward 
removing and sharpening up with a fine 
pointed needle. The cast may now be 
painted, so as to imitate original fossil. 

Oil. 

Lamp Oil. — Refined rape oil, 20 gal. ; 
water-white petroleum, 5 gal. 

Cyclists' Lamp Oil. — 1. — Camphor, 1 
oz. ; castor oil, 2 oz. ; petroleum, 4 oz. ; 
olive oil, 20 oz. Dissolve the camphor 
in the oils. 

2. — ParaflSne oil, 1 oz. ; colza oil, 7 oz. 

3. — Camphor, 1 oz. ; petroleum, 4 oz. ; 
colza oil, 20 oz. 

Railways, Burning Oil for. — Sweet cot- 
ton, 4 parts ; refined rape, 1 part ; extra 
refined Arctic sperm, 1 part ; mineral 
colza, 15%. 



Paints and Varnishes. 

chapter.) 



(See special 



Paper. (See also chapter on Writing 
Materials. ) 
Canoes. — Sheets of stout manila passed 
through a hot bath of aqueous solution 
of zinc chloride at 75° B., pressed strong- 
ly together, and then soaked in dilute 
aqueous soda solution containing a small 
amount of glycerine, cohere to form a 
strong, stiff, waterproof board admirably 
adapted to the construction of small boats. 
Single sheets of paper passed quickly 
through the zinc chloride bath, pressed 
and washed and dried, are waterproof, 



(Petroleum) 



and may be otherwise joined to form wa- 
terproof boards by any suitable cement. 

Powder. — 1. — Sometimes called pollen 
powder. Boil the paper for a number of 
hours, strain, and reduce to fine powder 
in a mortar. Sift this powder through 
a fine sieve. The powder is used to give 
the bloom to artificial fruit and is also 
used by taxidermists. 

2. — Boil white paper, or paper cuttings, 
in water for 5 hours. Pour off the wa- 
ter, pound the pulp in a Wedgwood mor- 
tar, and pass through a fine sieve. This 
powder is employed by the bird stuffers 
to dust over the legs of some birds and 
the bills of others, to give them a pow- 
dery appearance ; also to communicate the 
downy bloom to rough-coated artificial 
fruit, and other purposes of a similar na- 
ture ; it makes excellent pounce. 

Waxing Soap Papers. — Ordinary waxed 
paper is prepared by placing cartridge or 
other paper on a hot iron, and rubbing it 
with beeswax, or by brushing in a solu- 
tion of wax in turpentine. On a large 
scale, it is prepared by opening a quire 
of paper flat upon a tahle and rapidly 
ironing it with a very hot iron against 
which is held a piece of wax, which, melt- 
ing, runs down upon the paper and is 
absorbed hy it. Any excess on the top- 
most layer readily penetrates to the lower 
ones. 

Paraffins (Deodorized). 

" Put into a tank, and treat cold with 2% 
dry chloride of lime and 1% of glacial 
acetic acid, diluted with an equal quan- 
tity of water, well agitating until all the 
chlorine has come off ; then wash well 
with cold water, adding at the rate of 
1 lb. of permanganate potash dissolved in 
hot water to each ton. Allow to settle, 
and draw off liquor, and again wash with 
fresh water and salt (1 lb. to each 112 
lb.), after which allow to settle, and 
decant. This process removes nearly all 
the smell, and improves its burning prop- 
erties. 
Perfumes.. (See Toilet Preparation 

Chapter.) 
Petroleum. (See also Kerosene.) 

Deodorizing Petroleum. — 1. — Petroleum 
oil, 1 gal. ; chloride of lime, 3 oz. ; slaked 
lime, 3 oz. ; spirits of salts, suflBcient. Mix 
the chloride of lime with the oil, and add 
spirits of salts until chlorine gas ceases 
to be given off, mixing thoroughly.^ Then 
pour on to the slaked lime, contained in 
another vessel, and allow it to remain a 
couple of days. Then well mix up. Al- 
low the lime to subside, and draw off the 
petroleum. 



[9613 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Petroleum) 



2. — Pass petroleum refuse from 8 to 10 
times over heated animal charcoal, and 
filter very slowly. This has a specific 
gravity of .809 to .814. 

3. — Permanganate of potash, 1 lb. ; 
water, 8 gal. Heat the oils to 120° F., 
and keep at this heat ; then add the above 
fluid, about 21/2 to 3 gal. to every 1,120 
lb. of oil, and agitate for three-quarters 
to one hour, bringing the fluid in contact 
with every part of the oil. Sample, and 
if result is satisfactory, allow to settle, 
and draw off by siphon ; and if not, add 
more fluid and proceed as above until the 
desired result is attained. Heated by 
open steam. 

4. — Digest the parafBne oil with sweet 
cotton oil, by heat and agitation, and 
blow steam through it. Introduce sufii- 
cient caustic soda or potash to saponify 
the cotton oil. Decant the oil from the 
soap solution, say, after 3 or 4 hours' 
settling. Paraffine oil, 50 gal. ; cotton 
oil, 5 gal. Soda or potash lye of any 
moderate strength suflicient or rather in 
excess to saponify the cotton oil after 
well agitating the parafBne ; either heavy 
or burning oil will separate as a nearly 
odorless fluid. The residue of soda can 
be salted out, and sold as paraflBne cleans- 
ing soap, etc., as, if potash can be boiled 
with other materials into soft soap. The 
odor is absorbed and retained by the cot- 
ton-oil soap, but we have reason to be- 
lieve the petroleum regains its peculiar 
smell after a time ; at any rate, the 
process is expensive for any but a soap- 
maker, as paintmakers' oil boilers are not 
clean enough for this process. 

5. — According to the Revue Scientifi- 
ique, petroleum may be deodorized by 
shaking it first with 100 grams ol chlo- 
rinated lime for every 4.5 1., adding a 
little hydrochloric acid, then transferring 
the liquid to a vessel containing lime,, and 
again shaking until all the chlorine is re- 
moved. After standing, the petroleum is 
decanted. 

6. — To mask the unpleasant odor of pe- 
troleum, etc., an addition of 1% of amyl 
acetate is recommended. To destroy the 
nasty smell of benzine, and at the same 
time render the benzine colorless, Bernin- 
ger proceeds as follows : To a mixture of 
1^ 1. of sulphuric acid and 1.75 1. of water 
add, after cooling, 30 grams of potassium 
permanganate ; next mix with 4.5 1. of 
benzine, and allow to stand for 24 hours, 
shaking occasionally. After this period 
the benzine is lifted off and agitated for 
several hours with a solution of 7.5 grams 
of potassium permanganate and 15 grams 
of sodium carbonate in 1 1. of water. 



(Petroleum) 



The separating benzine is said to be odor- 
less and colorless, without having to be 
again distilled. 

7. — Deodorized Petroleum. — Under this 
name may be included a large number of 
so-called turpentine substitutes, many of 
which claim to be highly rectified ben- 
zine. They may be used in varnish mak- 
ing or in cases where cutting is neces- 
sary. Take 2 oz. of fresh, dry chloride 
of lime and mix with 1 to 2 oz. (accord- 
ing to strength) of acejtic acid; stir well 
together, and throw into a full barrel 
of the petroleum it is desired to deodor- 
ize. Shake it up well by rolling for a 
few minutes, and then leave with the 
bung out for 24 hours. 'It is »'best then 
to draw off the oil, as it will be clear, 
the lime and acid being at the bottom 
of the barrel. With the clear oil now 
mix 4 oz. of fusel oil ; shake up well, al- 
low to settle, and the oil will be found 
quite deodorized. Where time is an ob- 
ject, the fusel oil may be added direct, 
without the lime treatment, tout the above 
gives the best results. 

8. — Agitate 4 1. of petroleum with 100 
grams of zinc chloride, and pour the mix- 
ture into a vessel containing burnt lime. 
After mixing well allow to settle, and 
decant the petroleum. 

9. — To a mixture of 25 1. of sulphuric 
acid, 1.75 1. of water and 30 grams of 
potassium permanganate add 4l^ 1. of 
benzine, and mix well. Next allow to set- 
tle for 24 hours, and diligently shake the 
skimmed off benzine with a solution of 
potassium permanganate, 7.5 grams, and 
soda, 15 grams, in 1 1. of water. 

10. — Mix 100 kgm. of petroleum with 
1% kgm. of litharge, 9 kgm. of potash and 
20 kgm. of water. The dark color of this 
petroleum is due to the presence of either 
light or heavy hydrocarbons. In the for- 
mer case, ozope is used for bleaching the 
petroleum. Where heavy hydrocarbons 
are present, or for such oils as are 
darkened by the action of light, this 
method is not available, since it would 
make them still darker. In this case, the 
petroleum is treated with reducing agents, 
such as zinc dust, sodium hyposulphite or 
stannic chloride. Filtering with bone 
charcoal is likewise said to give good re- 
sults. In order to reduce expenses, the 
charcoal may be cleaned again with ace- 
tone, and thus recovered for further use. 

11. — Deodorized Petroleum, Rosin, 
Spirit, Wood Naphtha, etc. — Mix glacial 
acetic acid, 50°, 1 part; water, 1 part. 
Use equal parts of above with chloride 
of lime or bleaching powder, 1 lb. of 
each to 112 lbs. (reckoning 8 lb. of oil 



[962 1 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Pharaoh's Serpents) 



to the gallon). Put 'in the •lime first 
(dry). To remove any further smell, use 
washing soda, dissolved in water, 1 lb. 
to 112 lb. 

12. — Deodorized Petroleum Spirit. — Use 
21/^% lime and 2^^% acettc acid on the 
weight of the spirit. Wash with air and 
water (cold), after standing overnight. 

Pharaoh's Serpents. 

1. — These are little cones of sulphocy- 
anide of mercury, which, when lighted, 
give forth a long, serpent-like, yellowish- 
brown body. Prepare nitr.ate of mercury 
by dissolving mercury dioxide in strong 
nitric acid as long as it is taken up. Pre- 
pare also sulphocyanide of ammonium by 
mixing 1 volume of sulphide of carbon, 
4 volumes of a strong solution of ammo- 
nia and 4 volumes of alcohol. This mix- 
ture is to be frequently shaken. In the 
course of about 2 hours the bisulphide 
will have been dissolved, forming a deep 
red solution. Boil this until the red color 
disappears and the solution becomes of a 
light yellow color. This is to be evapor- 
ated at about 80° F., until it crystallizes. 
Add, little by little, the sulphocyanide to 
the mercury solution. The sulphocyanide 
of mercury will precipitate ; the superna- 
tant liquid may be poured off, and the 
mass made into cones of about % in. in 
height. The powder of the sulphocyanide 
is very irritating to the air passages, and 
the vapor from the burning cones should 
be avoided as much as possible. To ig- 
nite them, set them on a plate, or the like, 
and light them at the apex of the cone. 

2.-^0ne grain of dry mercury sulpho- 
cyanide is mixed with some gum trag- 
acanth which has previously been soaked 
in hot water. When the gum is complete- 
ly softened it is transferred to a mortar 
and the mercury sulphocyanide (in fine 
powder) is mixed with it by aid of a lit- 
tle water, so as to turn out a somewhat 
dry pill mass. This is then formed and 
cut into pellets of the desired size, which 
are dried on glass. These are very poison- 
ous, and must be handled with care; do 
not inhale the fumes. 

3. — Potassium bichromate, 2 parts ; po- 
tassium nitrate, 1 part ; white sugar, 3 
parts. Pulverize each ingredient sep- 
arately, then mix them thoroughly. Make 
small paper covers of the desired size and 
press the mixture into them. 

4. — This toy, as originally made, con- 
sisted of pellets of a very poisonous mer- 
curial compound, which gave off danger- 
ous fumes when heated. The "eggs" may 
be made of comparatively safe material by 
the following formula : Potassium bichro- 



( Plasters) 



mate, 2 parts ; potassium nitrate, 1 part ; 
.white sugar, 2 parts. Powder each in- 
gredient separately, mix, and press into 
small paper cones. These must be kept 
from light and moisture. Of course, nei- 
ther this nor other chemical toys contain- 
ing substances in the slightest degree 
harmful if swallowed, should be placed 
in the hands of children not old enough 
to fully understand the danger of eating 
or even tasting unknown things. 

Photography. (See special chapter.) 

Pitch. 

Burgundy. — 1. — Impure rosin prepared 
from the turpentine of the Norway spruce 
fir. 

2. — Imitation of. — Melt common rosin 
with linseed oil, and color the mass with 
annatto or palm oil. 

3. — Melt 100 lb. of good yeilow robin 
with linseed oil, 1 gal. ; palm oil, bright, 
q. s. to color. The mixture is allowed to 
partially cool, when it is pulled with the 
hands. It is usually sold in bladders. 

Canada. — Pitch from the hemlock 
spruce fir. 

Pitch, Chasing. — Use a mixture of 1 
part of beeswax with 2 parts of rosin, 
with sufficient sweet oil to soften the com- 
position to fancy. 

Plasters. 

Plasters are external applications that 
possess sufficient consistency not to ad- 
here to the fingers when cold, but which 
become soft and adhesive at the tempera- 
ture of the human body. They are chiefly 
composed of unctuous substances united 
to metallic oxides, or powders, or to wax 
or rosin. Plasters are usually formed 
while warm into %-1'b. rolls, about 8 or 9 
in. long, and wrapped in paper. 

Composition for. — Burgundy or Canada 
pitch, 90 parts, are mixed with yellow 
wax, 10 parts, and melted together. Glue, 
mixed with glycerine equal to one-tenth 
the weight of the dry glue, may be used. 

Adhesive Plaster, in Sticks or Rolls. — 
1. — Lead plaster, 100 parts ; strained yel- 
low wax, 10 parts ; sticking plaster mass, 
20 parts ; gum dammar, 10 parts ; coloph- 
ony, 10 parts ; larch turpentine, 2 parts. 
Melt the first three articles together in 
the steam bath. While this is being done, 
in another vessel, over the free fire, melt, 
with constant stirring, the gum dammar, 
continuing the heat until the gum no 
longer foams, then add the rosin, stir in, 
and remove from the fire. After cooling 
down somewhat, stir in the turpentine, 
and add the whole to the molten mass in 
the steam bath and stir until bomogene- 



.[9'63J 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Plates, Filling for) 



ous. Remove from the bath, stir until 
the mass begins to stiffen, then pour on 
damp parchment paper and roll out. 

2. — Litharge, 5 oz. ; olive oil, 12 oz, ; 
water, 8 oz. Put the water and litharge 
into a copper pan. Mix together with a 
spatula ; add the oil, and boil, stirring 
constantly. This process takes from 4 
to 5 hours, but it can be hastened to 20 
or 30 minutes by adding 1 oz. of colorless 
vinegar. To make rosin or strapping plas- 
ter, used in retaining the lips of recent 
cuts and wounds in contact : Mix by a 
moderate heat 1 oz. of rosin to 5 oz. of 
litharge plaster (as given above), and 
spread upon muslin. 

Plates, Filling Engraved. 

^ 1. — A cheap wax filling for small brass 
plates is shoemakers' heelball, used plen- 
tifully. Warm the plates, and rub the 
heelball well into the cuts, scraping off 
the superabundant heelball with the 
straight edge of a card, and put the plates 
aside to harden. Then polish oflE with a 
piece of coarse flannel and a drop or two 
of oil. 

2. — Another filling is best black sealing 
wax, ground up fine and placed in the 
cuts, filling them well up to the surface 
of the plate and then pressing down, tak- 
ing care that very little of the powdered 
wax is left upon the surface of the plate. 
Then the plate is gradually warmed un- 
til the wax in the whole of the work is 
melted, then placed aside to get cool, 
rubbed with a hone to remove any wax 
left on the surface of the plate, and pol- 
ished with flannel and oil. 

3. — Some engravers prefer grinding up 
their sealing wax with gold size, then fill- 
ing the work, putting it away to set, and 
cleaning off with alcohol or spirit of 
wine. This composition requires time to 
harden, and sets bright. 

4. — Dissolve enough best black or red 
sealing wax in alcohol to make a thick 
solution, of the texture of thick cream, 
and fill the engraved lines with it ; when 
the alcohol is evaporated the solution will 
gradually harden. Finish as above. 

5. — A solution made in the same way 
as No. 4, but considerably thinner, is a 
good filling for xylonite, ivory, and pearl, 
filling the cuts, and letting the solution 
harden for 12 hours, then "dollying" off 
with a small quantity of whiting in a 
lathe. 

6. — In dealing with red and other wax 
of a light color, the greatest cleanliness 
must be observed, as, for instance, in- 
stead of holding the plate over the flame 
of a gas jet, it is much better to, use a 



( Py rotechny ) 



gas stove, thus obviating smoke. Then 
grind up the wax very fine, fill the letter- 
ing, warm the plate to the melting point 
of the wax, and press into the cuts with a 
clean, cold, flat piece of iron. Then rub 
off the greater surface of the wax with 
a rasp, taking care not to scratch the 
surface of the plate ; follow with pum- 
ice stone, ground flat, and finish with a 
hone. The polishing can be done with 
rotten stone, jewelers' rouge, and com- 
mon oil mixed together to form a red li- 
quid, using 2 or 3 folds of thick cloth 
wrapped around a large piece of cork or 
wood as a rubber. As the brilliancy of 
the red depends greatly on the quality 
of the wax, it is advisable to procure the 
best. 

Potatoes, To Solidify. 

Make a solution of 4 parts of sulphuric 
acid in 50 parts of water. Treat peeled 
potatoes with this solution for 36 hours. 
Dry the mass between blotting paper, and 
subject to great pressure. By using very 
strong pressure, billiard balls have been 
made closely resembling ivory. The ma- 
terial can be carved, and doubtless could 
be used for large types. 

Pounce. 

Powdered gum sandarac generally 
passes by this name. Powdered cuttlefish 
bone is also used. It is used to prepare 
parchment for writing. The colored pow- 
ders are used in stamping. 

Pouncing Designs. — Prick the outline 
through the paper, and after placing over 
the sheet to be marked, dust the back 
with a bag containing powdered char- 
coal. 

Preserving. (See special chapter.) 

Pyrotechny. 

Colored Lights. — These fires serve to 
illuminate, hence intensity of light with 
as little smoke as possible is aimed at. 
In the preparation of such mixtures the 
ingredients, which should be perfectly 
dry, must be reduced separately, by 
grinding in mortar or otherwise to very 
fine powders, and then thoroughly but 
carefully mixed together on sheets of 
paper with the hands or by means of 
cardboard or horn spatulas. 

The mixtures are best packed in cap- 
sules or tubes about one inch in diameter 
and from six to twelve inches long, made 
of stiff writing paper. Greater regularity 
in burning is secured by moistening the 
mixtures with a little alcohol and pack- 
ing them firmly down in the cases by 



[964] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Printing Rollers) 



means of a wooden cylinder, then drying. 
To facilitate ignition a little powder 
(quick match) composed of mealed 
powder 16 parts, niter 2, sulphur and 
charcoal each 1, loosely twisted in thin 
paper, is inserted in the top. The tubes 
are best tied to sticks fastened in the 
ground. 

Blue ' Lights. — Chlorate of potash, 3 
oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz. ; ammonio-sulphate of 
copper, 1 oz. For colored fires, where the 
mixtures are ignited in shallow pans and 
maintained by additions of the powders, 
the compositions are somewhat different. 

Bengal Fire. — Sulphur, 4 oz. ; mealed 
powder, 4 oz. ; antimony, 2 oz. ; lamp- 
black, 16 oz. 

Blue Fire. — Niter, 8 oz. ; sulphur, 2 
oz. ; sulphate of copper, 4 oz. 

Green Fire. — Niter, 24 oz. ; sulphur, 
16 oz. ; nitrate of baryta, 48 oz. ; lamp- 
black, 1 oz. 

Green Lights. — '(1) Chlorate of baryta, 
2 oz, ; nitrate of baryta, 3 oz. : sulphur, 
1 oz. (2) Chlorate of potash, 20 oz. ; 
nitrate of baryta, 21 oz. ; sulphur, 11 oz. 

Red Lights. — Nitrate of strontia, 25 
oz. ; chlorate of potash, 15 oz. ; sulphur, 
13 oz. ; black sulphide of antimony, 4 oz. ; 
mastic, 1 oz. 

Pink Lights. — Chlorate of potash, 12 
oz. ; saltpeter, 5 oz. ; milk sugar, 4 oz. ; 
lycopodium, 1 oz, ; oxalate of strontia, 
1 oz. 

Yellow Lights.— (1) Chlorate of pot- 
ash, 4 oz, ; sulphide of antimony, 2 oz, ; 
sulphur, 2 oz, ; oxalate of soda, 1 oz. (2) 
Saltpeter, 140 oz. ; sulphur, 45 oz. ; 
oxalate of soda, 30 oz. ; lampblack, 1 oz. 

White Lights. — Saltpeter, 4 oz. ; sul- 
phur, 1 oz. ; black sulphide of antimony, 
1 oz. 

Red Fire. — Niter, 5 oz. ; sulphur, 6 
oz. ; nitrate of strontia, 20 oz. ; lamp- 
black, 1 oz. 

Yellow Fire.— Niter, 2 oz. ; sulphur, 4 
oz. ; nitrate of soda, 20 oz. lampblack, 
1 oz. 

White Fire. — Niter, 16 oz.^ noiealed 
powder, 4 oz. ; sulphur, 8 oz. 

Printing Rollers, Ink, To Clean. 

1. — Rollers should not be washed imme- 
diately after use, as they will become dry 
and skinny, but they may be washed half 
an hour before using again. In cleaning 
a new roller, a little oil rubbed over it 
will looser* the ink, and it should, be 
scraped clean with the back of a knife ; 
it should be cleaned this way for about 
a week, when lye may be used. New roll- 
ers are often spoiled by washing too soon 
with lye. 



(Roller Compositions) 



2. — To Renew a Hard Roller. — Wash 
carefully with lye, then apply a thin layer 
of molasses. Let it stand all night, then 
wash with water, and let it hang until 
dry enough to use. 

Printing Roller Compositions. 

Rollers for transferring ink to types 
have to possess special properties, which 
have reference both to the nature of the 
ink and that of the type to which it is 
to be transferred. They must be as lit- 
tle liable as possible to changes of tem- 
perature. They must be sticky, but only 
just sticky enough, and must have elastic- 
ity enough to exert a uniform pressure 
over the varying surface with which they 
meet in the form. Originally, the com- 
position was one of glue and treacle in 
varying proportions, and the only prac- 
tical improvement that has been made is 
the addition of glycerine. This being 
slightly hygroscopic, helps to keep the 
roller at the right degree of softness, and 
being practically unfreezable, it is of 
great assistance in keeping the rollers 
from hardening in cold weather. The 
invention of this composition, like many 
other valuable discoveries in connection 
with printing, is of very uncertain his- 
tory. As late as 1813 Bacon and Don- 
kin included a mixture of treacle and 
glue for printing rollers in a patent, but 
they expressly admit that the composi- 
tion was at the time employed in print- 
ing on porcelain, and it is incredible that 
the discovery should be centuries poste- 
rior to the invention of metallic types. 
The recipes given in technical works for 
printing-roller compositions are very nu- 
merous, and very different. All, without 
exception, contain glue and treacle, and 
it is the practice to put a larger propor- 
tion of glue in rollers to be used in the 
summer than in those intended for win- 
ter use. The following is a selection of 
recipes : 

1, — Soak 8 lb, of glue in as much wa- 
ter as it will absorb. When there is no 
visible water, treat the glue till melted, 
and add 7 lb. of hot molasses. 

2. — Glue (summer), 8 lb.; glue (win- 
ter), 4 lb.; molasses, 1 gal, 

3.— Molasses, 12 lb. ; glue, 4 lb. 

4. — Molasses, 24 I'b. ; glue, 16 lb. ; Paris 
white, 2 lb. 

5. — Glue or gelatine, 64 lb. ; water, 48 
lb. ; linseed oil, 96 lb. ; molasses or sugar, 
64 to 96 lb. ; chloride of calcium, 3 lb. ; 
powdered rosin, 8 lb. 

Soak the glue in the water, and then 
liquefy by heat. Then stir in the oil, 
first heated to 150° F. Then add the 



[965] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Roller Compositions) 



molasses and the chloi'ide of calcium, and 
finally the fused rosin. The latter in- 
gredient is only to be added when very 
tough rollers are required. This recipe 
is interesting from the inclusion in it 
of the hygroscopic salt, chloride of cal- 
cium, the object of which is obviously to 
keep the rollers moist. 

6. — Molasses, 2 gal.; glue (summer), 8 
lb.; glue (winter), 7 lb.; glycerine, 1 pt. 
Boil the molasses first, by itself, for 
about % hour, with constant skimming. 
Then add the hot glue, and boil another 
1/4 hour. Then add the glycerine, and 
boil for 5 to 10 minutes longer. This 
rule of boiling should be observed in all 
such compositions. 

7. — Soak glue in as much water as it 
will absorb ; then liquefy by heat, and add 
a weight of glycerine about equal to that 
of the dry glue. 

8. — Best glue, 168 lb. ; black molasses, 
or honey, 4() gal. ; india-rubber, dissolved 
in turpentine, 16 lb. ; Venice turpentine, 
2 lb. ; glycerine, 12 lb. ; vinegar, 4 lb. 

9. — Glue, 10 lb. ; sugar, 10 lb. ; glycer- 
ine, 12 lb. 

The composition is always cast in metal 
molds, greased inside to prevent adhesion. 
The best glue should always be used, as 
a great deal depends upon its quality. A 
finished roller is tested, after the com- 
position has been applied to the core, by 
drawing the fingers lightly over it. It 
should cling to them a little, and an ex- 
perienced person can judge by the degree 
of adhesion sufficiently well for all prac- 
tical purposes. This rule, however, does 
not apply in the case of a patent compo- 
sition, in which the property of chromic 
acid to make gelatine insoluble in water 
when the two are exposed together to 
daylight is utilized. This composition is 
made by adding bichromate to the usual 
ingredients. The finished roller is var- 
nished with an oil varnish. It is said that 
such rollers can be inked more quickly 
than ordinary ones, and can be run at 
higher speeds. Another patent roller is 
the felt roller. In this, felt is wrapped 
over a backing of woolen cloth, on a 
wooden or metal core, being separated 
from the backing by means of some im- 
pervious fabric, such as oilcloth. The 
felt itself is soaked with a mixture of 
tallow and ordinary copal varnish. 

10. — To 8 lb. of transparent glue add 
as much water as will just cover it, and 
occasionally stir it during 7 or 8 hours. 
After standing 24 hours, and all of the 
water is absorbed, submit it to the action 
of heat on a water bath until the glue 
is all dissolved. Remove from the fire 

[9 



(Quicklime) 



as soon as froth is seen to rise, and mix 
with it 7 lb. of molasses, previously made 
tolerably hot. Stir the composition weli 
together while heating, but do not allow 
to boil. After being thus exposed to the 
heat for half an hour, and frequently well 
stirred, it should be withdrawn, from over 
the fire and allowed to cool a short time, 
previous to pouring it into a cylindrical 
mold made of tin, tinned sheet iron or 
copper, having a wooden cylinder pre- 
viously supported in its center by means 
of its end pivots or gudgeons. After re- 
maining in the mold at least 8 or 10 
hours in winter, and a longer time in 
summer, the roller is to be taken out of 
the mold by means of a cord fastened to 
one of the gudgeons, and passed over a 
stone pulley fixed to the ceiling. Old 
rollers are recast in th« same manner, 
first taking- care to wash them with a 
strong alkaline lye, and adding a small 
quantity of water and molasses. The best 
mode, however, of making use of the old 
composition is by mixing it with a fresh 
batch made of 2 lb. of glue and 4 lb. of 
molasses. 

11. — ^Take an equal quantity of good 
glue and concentrated glycerine ; soften 
the former by soaking it in cold water, 
then melt it over a water bath, gradually 
adding the glycerine. Continue the heat 
until the ex-cess of water has been driven 
off, meantime constantly stirring. Cast 
in brass or bronze molds, well oiled. 

12. — Strong, medium weather rollers : 
Cooper's best glue, 8^4 llJ- : extra syrup. 
2 gal. ; glycerine, 1 pt. ; Venice turpen- 
tine, 2 oz. Steep the glue in rain water 
until pliant. Drain it well. Then melt 
it over a moderate fire, but do not "cook" 
it. This step in the process takes from 
15 to 25 minutes, when the syrup is add- 
ed, the mixture boiled for % hour, stirred 
occasionally, and the impurities arising 
to the surface skimmed off.^ Add the 
glycerine and Venice turpentine a few 
minutes before removing from the fire, 
and pour into the molds slowly. Slightly 
reduce or increase the glue as the weather 
becomes colder or warmer. 

Purple of Cassius. 

Purple precinitate, cassius do., gold 
purple, crystallized protochloride of tin, 
1 part ; crystallized perchloride of tin, 2 
parts ; dissolve each separately, mix, and 
add it to a solution of crystallized ter- 
chloride of gold, 1 part ; wash, and dry 
the precipitate. Very fine. 
Quicklime, To Preserve. 

First put down a layer, 6 to 8 in. thick, 
of lime that has been reduced by moisture 

5] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Rouge) 



to powder, on the floor of a bin protected 
from moisture. On this layer pile lumps 
of lime, and with suitable pieces of wood 
ram them as closely together as possible. 
Then cover this heap, somewhat sloped 
toward the edges, with a layer of lime 
moistened on top. The latter, crumbling 
to powder, will fill up all the interstices 
between the burned lime, and enclose it 
so that the unmoistened lime will be pro- 
tected against the entrance of air and 
moisture. 

Razor Strop Paper. 

1. — Mix the finest emery and finely 
powdered glass with paper pulp, and 
make into sheets in the ordinary way. 
Glue to a strip of wood. 

2. — Smooth, unsized paper is rubbed 
over, after dampening, with a mixture of 
calcined peroxide iron and emery. 

3. — Paper prepared after the following 
recipe is said to render the use of the 
razor strop unnecessary. By merely wip- 
ing the razor on the paper to remove the 
lather after shaving, a keen edge is main- 
tained without further trouble. The ra- 
zor must be well sharpened at the outset. 
First, procure oxide of iron (by the ad- 
dition of carbonate of soda to a solution 
of persulphate of iron), well wash the 
precipitate, and finally leave it of the con- 
sistency of cream. Spread this over soft 
paper very thinly with a soft brush. Cut 
the paper into pieces 2 in. square, dry, 
and it is ready for use. 

Rouge. 

Red Oxide of Iron.-—l. — It is prepared 
as follows : Make a boiling solution of 
iron sulphate, filter it, and add to it a 
concentrated solution of oxalic acid ; this 
throws down yellow oxide of iron. Wash 
the precipitate, and heat it, while still 
moist, upon an iron plate, over a charcoal 
fire. At a temperature of 400° F. the 
salt is decomposed, and brownish-red pe- 
roxide of iron, or rouge, is formed. 

2. — The rouge used by machinists, 
watchmakers and jewelers is a mineral 
substance. In its preparation, crystals of 
sulphate of iron, commonly known as cop- 
peras, are heated in iron pots, by which 
the sulphuric acid is expelled and the ox- 
ide of iron remains. Those portions least 
calcined, when ground, are used for pol- 
ishing gold and silver. These are of a 
bright crimson color. The darker and 
more calcined portions are known as cro- 
cus, and are used for polishing brass 
and steel. For the finishing process of 
the specula of telescopes, usually made 



(Seidlitz Powders) 



of iron or of steel, crocus is invaluable ; 
it gives a splendid polish. 

3. — Others prefer for the production of 
rouge the peroxide of iron precipitated by 
ammonia from a dilute solution of sul- 
phate of iron, which is washed, com- 
pressed until dry, then exposed to a low 
red heat and ground to powder. 

4. — A rouge suitable for fine work may 
be made by decomposing a solution of 
sulphate of iron with oxalic acid, also in 
solution ; a precipitate of oxalate of iron 
falls, which must be well washed and 
dried ; when gently heated, the salt takes 
fire, leaving an impalpable powder of ox- 
ide of iron. 

Rouge, Stick. — Stick rouge, as used by 
the jewelers, is supposed to be made with 
parafiine^ as. a cementing element, as lit- 
tle as will hold the rouge together. 

Rubber. (See special chapter) 

Screen, Opaque. 

Prepare a mixture of gum arable, 1 
part ; powdered magnesia, 4 parts ; water, 
80 parts. In this soak your cotton or 
linen sheet. On drying, it has a matt and 
very reflecting surface. In place of mag- 
nesia, whiting can be used. If the screen 
is to be a fixture, all that is necessary is 
to stretch it on a wooden frame. If it 
is to be rolled, the upper edge must be 
nailed to a stout roller, a^d the lower to 
a heavy curtain rod. The mixture for 
the roller screen should contain a little 
glycerine to give the fabric the necessary 
supleness, and to prevent the pigment 
scaling off when the screen is rolled and 
unrolled. 

Seidlitz Powders. 

Pulveres Effervescentes Aperientes. — 1. 
• — Potassio-tartrate of soda (Rochelle 
salts), 2 dr. ; bicarbonate of soda, 40 gr. ; 
mix, and put in a blue paper. Tartaric 
acid, 35 gr. ; to be put in a white paper. 
For about i/^ pt. of water. Laxative. 

2. — In one bottle : Potassio-tartrate of 
soda, 12 oz. ; bicarbonate of soda, 4 oz. ; 
tartaric acid, 3% oz. ; white sugar, 1 lb. 
(all in fine powder) ; dry separately by 
a gentle heat, add essence of lemon, i-- 
dr. ; mix well, pass the mixture through a 
sieve, and put it at once in clean, dry 
bottles. A dessertspoonful or more to a 
tumblerful of water. 

3. — Limonated Seidlitz Powders. — This 
is a highly approved and very palatable 
form of Seidlitz powder. Powdered tar- 
trated soda, 12 oz. ; bicarbonate of soda, 
4 oz. ; powdered tartaric acid, 3% oz. ; 
powdered white sugar, 16 oz. ; essence of 



[967] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Show Bottles) 



lemon, 30 drops. The powders should 
each be carefully dried on separate plates, 
or sheets of paper, and all reduced to a 
very jfine powder. A little gentle heat 
may be used in drying. Rub the essence 
of lemon with the sugar, in a mortar, and 
then pass it through a sieve. First, mix 
the tartrated soda with the lemon-flavored 
sugar, then add the bicarbonate of soda, 
and well mix, and then the tartaric acid, 
and mix the whole well together in a mor- 
tar, and pass once or twice through a 
sieve to insure a thorough mixture, and 
bottle in perfectly clean and dry bottles ; 
securely cork, and, if not for immediate 
use, seal. Perfect dryness is necessary, 
or the whole will become a solid lump. 
For use, stir a dessertspoonful in about 
1 tumblerful of spring water. 

Show Bottles. 

Any color can be deepened by omitting 
water ; i.e., stopping the addition of wa- 
ter when the desired shade is reached. 
On the contrary, the colors may be light- 
ened by adding more water. Distilled 
water should be used, and the solutions 
must not be filtered through paper. It 
is best to let them deposit ; then decant ; 
or, if filtration is desired, then plug the 
neck of a funnel with glass wool, and 
strain through that. Organic colors rap' 
idly fade ; this applies to aniline colors 
as well. Rosaniline, magenta, violet and 
green make pretty shades of solutions, and 
if one does not object to renewing them 
once a fortnight, they cannot be improved 
upon. 

Amier. — 1. — Dragon's blood, in coarse 
powder, 1 part ; oil of vitriol, 4 parts. 
When thoroughly dissolved, dilute with 
cold distilled water till the required tint 
is obtained. 

2. — Dragon's blood, 1 part ; sulphuric 
acid, 4 parts ; distilled water, 3,629 parts. 
Powder the dragon's blood, and macerate 
in the acid for 20 or 30 minutes, then add 
the distilled water, and filter. 

Blue. — 1. — Distilled water, 920 parts ; 
blue vitriol, 30 parts ; alum, 30 parts ; sul- 
phuric acid, 20 parts. 

2. — Sulphate of copper, 28 parts ; alum, 
28 parts ; sulphuric acid, 26 parts ; dis- 
tilled water, 946 parts. Dissolve the alum 
and blue vitriol in the water, cautiously 
add the sulphuric acid, and filter. 

3. — Dark Blue. — Sulphate of copper, 10 
parts ; water of ammonia, 40 parts ; dis- 
tilled water, 950 parts. Dissolve the sul- 
phate of copper in the water, add the am- 
monia, and filter. 

4. — Pale Blue. — Distilled water, 880 
parts ; sulphate of copper, 120 parts. 



(Show Bottles) 



5.— Purple Blue.— Distilled water, 930 
parts ; aqua ammonia, 64 parts ; sulphate 
of copper, 6 parts. 

Critruson. — 1. — Iodine and iodide of pot- 
ash, of each, 30 gr. ; hydrochloric acid, 1 
dr. ; water, 1 gal. 

2. — Alkanet root, 1 oz. ; oil of turpen- 
tine, 20 oz. 

3. — Solution of chloride of iron, 40 
parts ; water of ammonia, 27 parts ; acetic 
acid, 59 parts ; alcohol, 186 parts ; dis- 
tilled water, enough to make 7,258 parts. 
Add the solution of chloride of iron to 
the water, then add the alcohol, acetic 
acid and water of ammonia, and filter. 

Garnet. — Bichromate of potash, 1 lb. ; 
sulphuric acid, 16 oz. ; water, 2 gal. Dis- 
solve the bichromate in the water, then 
add the acid gradually, stirring all the 
time. 

Green. — 1. — ^Copper sulphate, 2 oz. ; so- 
dium chloride, 4 oz. ; water, 1 pt. 

2. — 'Solution of verdigris (distilled) in 
acetic acid, diluted with water. 

3. — Dissolve blue vitriol in water, and 
add nitric acid until it turns green. 

4. — Emerald Green. — Nickel, 85 parts ; 
hydrochloric acid, 132 parts ; nitrous acid, 
55 parts ; distilled water, enough to make 
4,000 parts. Dissolve the nickel in the 
hydrochloric acid, and add the water ; 
finally add the nitrous acid, and filter. 

^5. — Grass Green. — Sulphate of copper, 
35 parts ; sal ammoniac, 35 parts ; water, 
930 parts. Dissolve the sulphate of cop- 
per first in the water, and then dissolve 
in the solution the sal ammoniac, and 
filter. 

6. — Sea Green. — Acetate of copper, 4 
parts ; acetic acid, 36 parts ; distilled wa- 
ter, 960 parts. Add the acetic acid to 
the acetate of copper, and triturate with 
the water, in a mortar, till dissolved ; 
filter. 

7. — Olive Green. — Sulphate of copper, 
70 parts ; hydrochloric acid, 32 parts : 
subcarbonate of iron, 8 parts ; distilled 
water, 890 parts. Dissolve the sulphate 
of copper in the water; dissolve the iron 
in the hydrochloric acid ; mix the two 
solutions, and filter. 

Magenta. — Acetate of rosaniline, dis- 
solved in water. 

Olive. — Dissolve equal weights of iron 
sulphate and sulphuric acid in water, and 
add copper nitrate, q. s. to strike the 
color. 

Opalescent. — Oil of pimento, % dr. ; 
rectified spirit, 2 oz. ; water, 2 gal. Mix, 
and expose to the air for a week or so ; 
then filter. 

Orange. — 1. — Dissolve gamboge in li- 



[968] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Show Bottles) 



quor of potassa ; dilute, and add a little 
water. 

2. — Bichromate of potassium, 32 parts ; 
nitric acid, 8 parts ; distilled water, 960 
{•arts. Dissolve the bichromate of po- 
tassium in the distilled water, add the 
nitric acid, and filter. 

Pink. — 1. — ^To a solution of cobalt ni- 
trate or chloride, in water, add sesquicar- 
bonate of ammonia, q. s. to dissolve the 
precipitate at first formed. 

2. — From madder (washed with cold 
water), 1 oz. ; sesquicarbonate of ammo- 
nia, 1 oz. ; water, 3 pt. 12 fl.oz. ; digest, 
with agitation, for 24 hours ; then dilute 
with more water, and filter. 

3. — Oxide of cobalt, 1 part ; nitric acid, 
49 parts ; distilled water, 950 parts. Add 
the nitric acid to the oxide of cotoalt, let 
stand till dissolved, then add the distilled 
water, and filter. 

Purple. — 1. — Sulphate of copper, 2 dr. ; 
water, 2 oz. ; French gelatine, 1 dr. ; boil- 
ing water, 2 oz. ; solution of potassa, 2 
pt. Dissolve the copper salt in the wa- 
ter, and the gelatine in the boiling wa- 
ter. Mix the two solutions, and add the 
liquor of potassa. Shake the mixture a 
few times during 10 hours, after which 
decant, and dilute with water. 

2. — A solution of copper sulphate, 1 
oz., in water, 1 qt., with the addition of 
l^i oz. of sesquicarbonate of ammonia. 

3. — To the last add a suflScient quan- 
tity of the first pink, above, to turn the 
coilor. 

4. — To an infusion of logwood add car- 
bonate of ammonia, q. s. 

5. — Lead acetate, 3 oz. ; cochineal, 1 
dr. ; water, q. s. 

6. — Add sulphate of indigo, nearly neu- 
tralized with chalk, to an infusion of 
cochineal till it turns purple. 

Red. — 1. — Solution of percliloride of 
iron, 10 drops ; sulphocyanide of potas- 
sium, 10 gr. ; water, 1 gal. 

2. — Dissolve carmine in ammonia, and 
dilute with water. 

3. — Dissolve cochineal in a weak solu- 
tion of ammonia ; or in 

4. — Sal ammoniac, and dilute with wa- 
ter. 

5. — Add 4 oz. of sulphuric acid to 1 gal. 
of water, and digest 8 oz. of red rose 
leaves in the solution for 24 hours. 

6. — Dissolve madder lake in sesquicar- 
bonate of ammonia, and dilute with 
water. 

7. — Take water in which red cabbage 
has been boiled ; add sulphuric acid to 
bring out the color ; dilute with water to 
the desired tint, and filter. 

8. — Cochineal, 6 parts ; bitartrate of po- 

[ 



(Soda, Silicate of) 



tassium, 4 parts ; sulphuric acid, 20 
parts ; distilled water, 970 parts. Boil 
the cochineal and bitartrate of potassium 
in water until exhausted ; allow to cool, 
add the sulphuric acid, and filter. 

9. — Dark Red. — Alum, 10 parts ; iodide 
of potassium, 10 parts ; distilled water, 
980 parts. Dissolve the alum and iodide 
of potassium in the distilled water, and 
filter. 

Rose. — Cudbear, 2 oz. ; water, 10 oz. 
Macerate for a day or two, filter, and add 
to the water till the required shade is 
produced. Then add to each gallon strong 
solution of ammonia, i^ oz. 

Violet. — 1. — Mix together solutions of 
nitrate of cobalt and sesquicarbonate of 
ammonia, adding a suflSciency of ammo- 
nio-sulphate of copper to strike the re- 
quired color. 

2. — Distilled water, 950 parts ; ammo- 
nia, 40 parts ; cudbear, 10 parts. 

Yellow. — 1. — 'A solution of sesquioxide 
of iron (ferric oxide), % lb., in 1 qt. of 
hydrochloric acid, diluted with water. 

2. — To a strong decoction of French 
berries add a little alum. 

3. — A simple solution of potassium 
chromate or potassium bichromate. 

4. — ^A solution of equal parts of niter 
and potassium chromate. 

5. — ^A solution of potassium bichromate. 

Snow, Sham. 

The cotton frequently used on Christ- 
mas trees to give the effect of snow is 
extremely dangerous. The very best sub- 
stance to be used for this purpose is pure 
white "mineral wool" — i.e., asbestos, when 
this can be obtained. Otherwise, the cot- 
ton should be rendered incombustible ; 
and this object, it is said, can be attained 
by saturating the cotton with the solu- 
tion below, and drying : Ammonium sul- 
phate, 8 grams ; ammonium carbonate, 2.5 
grams ; borax, 2 grams ; boric acid, 3 
grams ; gelatine, 9.4 grams ; water, 100 
grams. The solution should be kept at a 
temperature of about 39° C. 
Soaps. (See special chapter.) 
Soda, Silicate of. 

1. — Silicate of soda (or soluble glass) 
is prepared by fusing together carbonate 
of soda and sand, or by boiling flints in 
caustic soda under great pressure. It is 
not soluble in cold water, but dissolves in 
5 or 6 times its weight of boiling water. 
It is employed in the manufacture of 
soap, in fixing colors, in preserving stones 
from decay. In admixture with other 
silicates, silicate of soda occurs in glass ; 
and it, equally with silicate of potassa, 
969 ] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Steel, Burnt) 



imparts the property of viscidity before 
fusion to such mixtures, which is of great 
value in the working of glass. 

2. — Mix well 200 gr. of fine sand and 
600 gr. of fine carbonate of potassa ; fuse 
in a crucible capable of holding 4 times 
as much. Carbonic acid escapes ; the 
silica and potassa combine and form 
glass. Pour out the glass, which is com- 
monly termed silicated potassa, on an 
iron plate. The compound fonned in this 
manner is pure silica soap. 
Solders.: (See special chapter.) 
Staff. 

"Staff," which is so extensively used at 
all expositions, is a composition of plaster 
of paris and fiiber with some other mate- 
rials, as alumina, glycerine, dextrine, etc., 
according to the special casting which is 
to be made, or the kind of model to be 
employed. To prevent brittleness, the 
material is cast ajround coarse cloth back- 
ing, open, and wire cloth is embedded in 
it for many purposes. The material was 
first used in the Paris Exposition build- 
ings, in 1878. Its natural color is a 
murky white, but other colors may be 
produced by external washes, while the 
castings may be made to accurately rep- 
resent cut stone, rock-faced stone, mold- 
ings, and the most delicate designs of 
every kind. For the lower patterns of 
the walls the material is mixed with ce- 
ment to make it hard. GelatinG molds 
are usually used, although where there is 
no undercut, plaster, wax or sulphur 
molds may be employed, or wood or metal 
forms. 

Stamping Powder. 

Pigment, 1 oz. ; sandarac, 1 oz. ; white 
rosin, 2 oz. The mixture should be passed 
through a very fine sieve. The pigments 
preferably employed are Prussian blue, 
vermilion, chrome green and yellow, white 
lead. 

vSteam Pipes. (See Boilers.) 
Steel, Burnt, To Restore. 

1. — To 4 lb. of fine white pulverized 
sand add % lb. of sal ammoniac, ^ lb. 
of copperas and i/^ lb. of rosin, all pul- 
verized. Mix well. When the steel is 
hot, sprinkle, and let cool. This process 
will restore any burnt steel. 

2. — Sal ammoniac, 1 lb. ; borax, 3 lb. ; 
prussiate of potash, % lb. ; rosin, 2 ozl 
Pulverize; add 2 gills each of water and 
alcohol, boil to a stiff paste in an iron 
kettle. The burnt steel is dipped, while 
hot, in the composition, and hammered 
slightly. 

[ 



(Sweeping Compound) 



3. — Horn filings, 3 parts ; tallow, 15 
parts ; sal ammoniac, IV2 parts ; pulver- 
ized charcoal, ll^ parts; soda, l^/^ parts. 
Pulverize the hard materials, mix with 
the tallow ; heat the burnt steel to a 
cherry red, and plunge in the mixture ; 
when the steel becomes cold it may be 
hardened in the usual manner. 

Storm Glasses. 

Dissolve 10 grams of camphor, 5 grams 
of saltpeter and 5 grams of sal ammoniac 
in 105 grams of alcohol, 90%, and 45 
grams of distilled water. After filtering, 
fill glass tubes 2 c.c. wide and 50 c.c. 
long with this solution, cork up well be- 
low and above, seal, and fix on boards 
by means of wire, similar to "barometers. 
The changes of the solution signify the 
following : Clear liquid, •'bright weather ; 
crystals 'at bottom, thick air, frost in win- 
ter ; dim liquid, .rain ; dim liquid, with 
small stars, thunder storms ; 4arge flakes, 
heavy air, overcast sky, snow in winter ; 
threads in upper portion of liquid, windy 
\yeather ; small dots, damp weather, fog ; 
rising flakes, which remain high, wind in 
the upper air regions ; small stars in win- 
ter on bright, sunny day, snow in one or 
two days. The higher the crystals rise in 
the glass tube in winter the colder it will 
be. 

Stumps of Trees, To Destroy. 

In the fall bore a hole in the center of 
the stump, about 18 in. deep and 1 to IV^ 
in. in diameter. Put in about 2 oz. of 
saltpeter, and fill the hole with water ; 
plug it up tight. In the spring take out 
the plug, pour in 8 or 10 oz. of petroleum, 
ignite, and the stump will smolder, but 
not blaze, to the extremities of the roots, 
leaving only ashes. Dynamite is also ex- 
tensively used. 

Sweeping Compound. (See also CJleans- 

ING.) 

There are several patented compounds 
for sweeping. They are largely composed 
of sawdust and silicious material, togeth- 
er with some bonding medium, such as 
rosin, oil or tar. Bran and sand are also 
usual ingredients. The following is per- 
haps as good a formula as any : Melt 
2 oz. of paraffine wax in 2 qt. of paraffine 
oil, over a water bath ; then add 6 oz. of 
coarse salt, 5 lb. of sea sand, 10 lb. 0^ 
sawdust, and finally add 1 oz. of oil of 
eucalyptus. It is impossible to see what 
the oil of eucalyptus is added for, except 
possibly to give a clean smell. 
970] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Textile Fibers) 



Tapes, Saturating. 

Stockholm pitch, 8 parts ; wax, 2 parts ; 
tallow, 1 part. 

Taxidermy, Preparations for. 

Arsenical Soap. — White arsenic, 2 lb.; 
white soap, 2 lb. ; powdered sugar, 12 oz. ; 
salt of tartar, 12 oz. ; powdered chalk, 6 
oz. ; camphor, 5 oz. Slice the soap, and 
melt in an earthen vessel, with water, 
over a gentle fire, keeping it stirred with 
a wooden spatula. When melted, put in 
the sugar, salt of tartar and chalk. Re- 
move from the fire, and well stir, and mix 
in the arsenic. This soap should be kept 
in a well closed glass or earthen vessel. 

Corrosive Sublimate Solution. — Corro- 
sive sublimate, .1 dr. ; spirit of salt, 2 
dr. ; spirits of camphor, 6 oz. Dissolve 
the sublimate in the spirits of camphor, 
and then add the hydrochloric acid. ^ This 
solution is chiefly used for the skins of 
quadrupeds, to the inner side of which it 
is to be applied with a brush or sponge, 
before stuffing. 

Preservative Powder. — White arsenic, 2 
dr. ; corrosive sublimate, 2 dr. ; nutgalls, 
1 oz. ; capsicum, in powder, _ % oz. ; sal 
ammoniac, % oz. ; camphor, in powder, 6 
dr. ; well nuxed together. 

Textile Fibers, Distinction Between. 

A. Remont communicates a short proc- 
ess to detect or separate these fibers, 
which may suffice for ordinary purposes. 
The fabric to be examined is first dipped 
for 15 minutes in boiling water contain- 
ing 5% of hydrochloric acid, for the pur- 
pose of removing coloring matter and siz- 
ing; it is then washed and dried. If at 
all possible, the woof is then to be sep- 
arated from the warp, and- each examined 
separately, according to the following 
scheme: 

A. — Burn a few fibers. 

An odor of burnt urine is devel- 
oped. If this is the case, heat a few 
fibers with solution of soda, and examine 
the vapor given off ; if ammonia is pres- 
ent, this indicates the presence of an 
animal fiber. 

B. — Dip a few fibers into a boiling so- 
lution of basic chloride of zinc. 

a. — The fiber dissolves completely. — 
Silk, 

b. — On the addition of hydrochloric 
acid an abundant flocculent precipitate is 
produced. — Silk mixed with wood or veg- 
etable fiber. 

e. — The chloride of zinc does not dis- 
solve it. Remove the fibers to a boiling, 
moderately dilute solution of soda. 

[ 



( Tobacco ) 



It dissolves completely. — Wool. 

It dissolves partially. — Wool and cot- 
ton. 

2, — No odor of burnt urine is developed. 
— Vegetable fiber. 

Thread Sewing, Dressing for. 

1. — For colored thread : Irish moss, 3 
lb. ; gum arable, 2% lb. ; Japan wax, i/^ 
lb. ; stearine, 185 grams ; borax, 95 grams. 
Boil together for ^4 hour. 

2.: — For white thread : Irish moss, 2 
lb. ; tapioca, ll^ lb. ; spermaceti, % lb. ; 
stearine, 110 grams ; borax, 95 grams ; 
boil together for 20 minutes. 

3, — For black thread : Irish moss, 3 lb. ; 
gum Senegal, 2i/^ lb, ; ceresine, 1 lb. ; 
borax, 95 grams ; logwood extract, 95 
grams ; blue vitriol, 30 grams ; boil to- 
gether for 20 minutes. Soak the Irish 
moss, in each case, overnight in 45 1, of 
water, then boil for 1 hour, strain, and 
add the other ingredients to the result- 
ing solution. It is of advantage to add 
the borax to the Irish moss before the 
boiling. 

Tobacco. 

Cigarettes, Scenting. — Take lign. santal 
flav., 1 oz. ; cort. cinnamonis, 1 oz. ; flor, 
lavand., 2 oz, ; caryophylli, ^4 oz. ; mix. 

Cigars. — 1, — Artificially Matured. — 
Boxes of cigars are laid on a grating or 
gridiron over a trough or vessel contain- 
ing calcium chloride in powder, or fer- 
rous chloride, or other substance possess- 
ing a strong attraction for water. A 
few sheets of blotting paper are placed at 
the bottom of the trough to absorb the 
moisture, and the boxes are closed. The 
damp air in the boxes draws the moisture 
out of the cigars, which are quickly ma- 
tured by this process. 

2. — Flavors for,— a. — For flavors, the 
following are tho^e most generally em- 
ployed : Orris, 4 dr, ; vanilla, 4 dr, ; 
tonka, 4 dr. ; alcohol, 8 fl.oz. ; water, 4 
fl.oz. Make a tincture. 

b. — Cascarilla, 12 dr. ; valerian, 4 dr. ; 
alcohol, 8 fl.oz. ; water, 4 fl.oz. Make 
a tincture. 

c. — Cascarilla, 4 dr. ; orris, 4 dr. ; ele- 
campane, 4 dr. ; alcohol, 8 fl.oz. ; water, 
4 fl.oz. Make a tincture. 

d. — Tonka, 4 dr. ; orris, 4 dr. ; valerian, 
4 dr. ; alcohol, 8 fl.oz. ; water, 4 fl.oz. 
Make a tincture. 

e. — Havana stems, 1 troy oz. ; orris, 4 
dr. ; tonka, 4 dr. ; alcohol, 8 fl.oz. ; water, 
4 fl.oz. Make a tincture. 

To use these tinctures, dilute them with 

a mixture of 1 part of water and 2 parts 

of alcohol, using 3 parts of the diluent 

to 2 parts of the tincture. The liquid is 

971] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Tobacco) 



applied as a spray ; 1 oz. of the tincture 
should suffice for 5 lb. of tobacco leaves. 

3. — Spots on. — The imitation of the 
spots which are natural to Cuban leaf 
tobacco seems to be a piece of informa- 
tion very much in demand, probably from 
the scarcity of the genuine article. Into 
an earthen or enameled vessel put 3 parts 
of sodium carbonate ; pour over it 8 parts 
of boiling water, let boil until solution 
takes place, and then add 1 part of cal- 
cium chloride ; let cool, and pour into 
earthen or stoneware jugs, cork tightly, 
and seal securely, to prevent the escape 
of gases. Keep in a cool place. Either 
Labarraque's solution or javelle water of 
commerce answers the purpose admirably. 

Havana Flavor for American Tobacco. 
— In the government factories of France, 
where tobacco in all of its forms is a 
monopoly of the state, the following is 
the method of treating common American 
tobacco to give it a Havana flavor : The 
tobacco is first soaked from 6 to 12 hours, 
according to its rankness, in tepid or hot 
water. This is to dissolve out and re- 
move a gummy substance that gives the 
tobacco its offensiveness. While macer- 
ating, the leaves are frequently stirred, 
or gently squeezed by suitable machinery, 
and the water is changed as often as may 
be necessary to facilitate the process. 
After soaking, it is gently pressed out, 
rinsed and dried. After drying, it is 
treated with an infusion of the stems and 
ribs of genuine Havana tobacco, either 
by sprinkling or by immersion and macer- 
ation, according to the uses to which the 
finished product is to be put. If it is to 
be used for cigars, it is treated with one 
or the other of the following formulae : 

1. — Fluid extract of valerian, 1 part ; 
tincture of tonka bean, 8 parts ; 94% al- 
cohol, 23 parts. Mix. 

2. — Tincture of valerian, 3 parts ; bu- 
tyric aldehyde, 4 parts ; tincture of va- 
nilla, 2 parts ; ethyl nitrite, 1 part ; S4% 
alcohol, 40 parts ; water, q. s., 128 parts. 
Mix. 

Tobacco Leaf, To Spot. — Finely pow- 
dered ammonium carbonate, 2 av.oz. : so- 
lution of hydrogen peroxide, 16 fl.oz. Place 
the ammonium carbonate in a shallow 
dish, and pour upon it the hydrogen per- 
oxide solution ; effect a solution of the 
salt by stirring, and by the use of a small 
whisk broom scatter the mixture upon the 
leaf, and let dry. Care must be taken 
that the hydrogen peroxide solution is of 
full strength. 

Tobacco, its manufacture, chemistry, 
curing, etc., are treated of in our Scienti- 



(Wax) 



fie American Supplement, Nos. 954, 1344, 
1345 and 1560. 

Toilet Preparations. (See special chap- 
ter.) 
Touch Paper. 

Soak blotting paper, or other unsized 
paper, in a 10% solution of potassium 
nitrate. Drain, and dry perfectly. 

Turpentines, Substitutes for. 

1. — Best refined rosin spirit, 1 part ; 
heavy benzoline, 1 part; turpentine, 2 
parts. 

2. — Naphtha (coal tar), 1 part; petro- 
leum spirit, sp. gr. 0.790, 2 parts; tur- 
pentine, 1 part. 

3. — Turpentine, 1 part; petroleum 
spirit, sp. gr. 0.790, 1 part; rosin spirit, 
1 part ; coal-tar naphtha, 1 part. 

4. — Venice Turpentine. — a. — Rosin, 17 
oz. ; boiled linseed oil, 12 oz. ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 8 oz. Mix. 

b. — Rosin, 12 lb.; oil of turpentine, 1 
gal. Mix. 

Tutty Powder. 

Impure oxide of zinc. A substance 
which collects in the chimneys of the fur- 
naces in which the ores of zinc are 
smelted. 

Violin Strings. (See Catgut.) 

Valuable data on the Utilization of 
Many Industrial Wastes is contained in 
our Scientific American Supplement Nos. 
1402, 1403, 1404, 1405, 1540, 1591, 1610, 
1626, 1655, 1657, 1660, 1671, 1672, 1685, 
1687, 1690, 1723, 1724, 1736, 1742 and 
1765. 

Waterproofing. (See special chapter.) 
Wax. 

Bees wax bleaching, testing, etc., are 
treated of in our Scientific American 
Supplement, Nos. 867, 942 and 1145. 

Dentists' Molding Wax. — Stearine, 25 
parts ; half soft copal, 25 parts ; talc, 50 
parts; carmine, 0.5 parts; oil of rose 
geranium, 2 drops to 1 oz. Melt the rosin 
by the heat of a sand bath, and when 
slightly cooled add the stearine, stirring 
constantly. When this has melted add 
the other ingredients, previously intimate- 
ly mixed, and stir so that a homogeneous 
product may be obtained. The adhesive- 
ness of the composition may be increased 
or diminished by modification of the 
amount of copal. A more thorough blend- 
ing of the color may be insured by dis- 
solving the carmine in a little potash so- 
lution before mixing with the chalk. 

Sealing wax. (See Writing Ma- 
terials, ) 



[972 1 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



( Whalebone ) 



Sheet Wax.—l.—Dv. H. E. Beach, 
Clarksville, Tenn., says : Take of pure, 
clean wax, anywhere from 1 to 5 lb., put 
in a tin bucket or any deep vessel, with 
clear water sufficient to fill it within 2yo 
in. of the top. Set on the stove till thor- 
oughly melted, then set aside until par- 
tially cooled ; skim all the air bubbles off. 
Then fill a smooth, straight bottle with 
ice-water, a bucket of which you should 
have by you. Soap the bottle, and dip it 
deliberately in the solution two or three 
times, according to the thickness you de- 
sire your wax. After the last dip, as 
soon as the wax hardens to whiteness, 
cut a line through it and remove it from 
the bottle as quickly as possible. Spread 
to cool, and straighten out smooth while 
warm. Continue this process until all the 
wax is made into sheets. 

2. — Melt scrap wax in hot water, and 
add sulphuric acid, 30 minims to each 
pound of wax. Boil for 2 or 3 minutes. 
Cool, and remove impurities from base of 
cake ; boil again, and add a few drops of 
turpentine. When the liquid ceases to 
foam the wax is ready for rolling into 
sheets. Stretch wires of suitable thick- 
ness across a glass plate to form molds 
of desired size. Wet a glass rollingpin, 
and coat with soapstone. Pour the melt- 
ed wax into the molds and pass the roller 
firmly over the wires. 

Whalebone. 

To polish whalebone it is scraped with 
steel scrapers, or pieces of window glass, 
rubbed with emery paper, and then with 
woolen cloth supplied with tripoli or rot- 
ten stone. The polishing lathe is also 
used for whalebone, which is then treated 
like horn or tortoiseshell. 

Artificial Whalebone. — 1. — This mate- 
rial is easiest made from raw animal 
skins. These are first treated with sul- 
phide of sodium and the hair removed. 
The skin thus prepared is placed for 24 
to 36 hours in a weak solution of bichro- 
mate of potash. To dry the skin thus 
prepared, it can be stretched or tacked 
on a frame, a flat plate, or any similar 
contrivance, so that in drying the skin 
cannot shrink, and to insure its drying 
as flat as possible. On these frames the 
skin, exposed to the effect of daylight, is 
dried, at first slowly, and then exposed 
to a temperature of 122 to 140° F. The 
action of the daylight, in combination 
with the bichromate of potash the skin 
now contains, makes the glue present in 
the skin cells insoluble in water,^ and pre- 
vents the occurrence of putrefaction, while 
the vigorous drying removes the mois- 



( Whalebone) 



ture from the innermost core of the 
leather. The dried skin is then compressed 
under very heavy pressure, and the ma- 
terial thus obtained possesses a hard- 
ness and elasticity closely approaching 
that of the genuine whalebone. This ma- 
terial, before or after drying, can, by 
coating, or immersion in a bath of color, 
be colored as desired in order to impart 
to it the color of the natural whalebone. 
It is made better capable of resisting 
moisture by coating or impregnation with 
rubber, varnish, lacquer, or similar sub- 
stances. Where rubber is used, it can be 
either applied directly or in the form of 
a casing or covering, drawn over each 
piece or rod. The separate rods may also 
be protected from moisture by inclosure 
in watei-proof paper or waterproof fab- 
ric. This artificial whalebone can also 
be made from more or less tanned leather, 
which, for this purpose, is treated like 
the untanned .-kin. When the artificial 
whalebone is completed it is cut into 
plates of any desired length and width. 
The product may also be given a rounded 
form by pressing. 

2. — Ordinary rattan is freed from its 
smooth, glazed exterior covering in a spe- 
cial machine, and by means of a decoc- 
tion of Campeachy wood and an iron 
stain, dyed black. When dry it is satu- 
rated with a solution of caoutchouc, gutta 
percha and sulphur in coal-tar oil. After 
this the rods are steamed in a steaming 
apparatus under a pressure of 2 atmos- 
pheres, whereby the mixture with which 
the cane is impregnated is thoroughly 
hardened (vulcanized), and finally they 
are passed between rollers whereby they 
are made absolutely dense and highly elas- 
tic. 

3. — Caoutchouc, 1 part ; shellac, 0.2 
part ; magnesia, 0.2 part ; sulphur, 0.25 
part ; golden sulphur, 1.25 parts. The 
caoutchouc (india-rubber) must be cut up 
very fine and then kneaded in with the 
other ingredients at a steadily rising tem- 
perature, which, however, must not be 
allowed to rise above 284° F. Rattan, 
split into fine strips, is treated in the hot 
mixture for several hours. 

4. — Cane strips, saturated with a so- 
lution of nitrate of iron, Campeachy wood 
and vitriol, treated with linseed-oil var- 
nish, and finally T)olished. 

5. — Suitable fibers, such as piassara, 
alfa, Mexican fiber, etc., are saturated 
with a solution of silicate of soda, either 
alone, or mixed with baryta, felspar or 
chalk, or with any glue, cement, gum, etc. 
The mass is cut into strips and dried. 
Hereupon it is covered with a coating that 



{973 ] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Wood Preservation) 



dries in the air, such as glue, shellac, 
celluloid, etc., also with caoutchouc solu- 
tion, copal, etc. ; finally it is wound spi- 
rally with a covering of silk, cotton, flax, 
etc. For brushes or brooms, the thin, 
short fibers are used, which are saturated 
with a rosin solution. 

Whisky. 

Whisky Making, Pot Stills, etc. See 
our Scientific American Supplement No. 
1624. 

Wood, Preservation of. 

1. — The improved French method of 
preserving wood by the application of 
lime is found to work well. The plan 
is to pile the planks in a tank, and to 
put over all a layer of quicklime, which 
is gradually slaked with water. Timber 
for mines requires about a week to be 
thoroughly impregnated, and other wood 
more or less time, according to its thick- 
ness. The material acquires remarkable 
consistency and hardness, it is stated, on 
being subjected to this simple process, and 
the assertion is made that it will never 
rot. Beechwood prepared in this way for 
hammers and other tools, for ironwork, 
is found to acquire the hardness of oak, 
without parting with any of its well- 
known elasticity or toughness, and it also 
lasts longer. 

2. — Nicholson, noting that railway 
sleepers lying on ground which ha-d for- 
merly been the bed of a salt lake, in Ne- 
braska, retained their power to resist de- 
cay for an unusually long time, and 
showed an excess of alkaline salts in their 
ash, suggests that here is a cheap and ef- 
fective preservative. 

3. — Lostal, a French railway contrac- 
tor, recommends the use of quicklime for 
preserving timber. He puts the planks 
in tanks, and covers them with quick- 
lime, which is gradually slaked with wa- 
ter. Timber such as is used in mines 
takes about a week to become thoroughly 
impregnated. The wood acquires a re- 
markable hardness and toughness, and, it 
is said, will never rot. Beechwood has 
been prepared in this way for hammers 
and other tools in several ironworks, and 
is reported to have been as hard as oak; 
without losing its peculiar elasticity. 

4. — Wood will be effectually preserved 
from the .action of the air if it is cov- 
ered by a paint brush with a solution of 
persulphate of iron, marking 2 to 2l^° 
B. The blue tint which is developed by 
drying changes to brown when a coat of 
linseed oil is laid on. 

5. — Lay timber up, when perfectly dry. 



(Wood Preservation) 



in an airy place, that it may not be ex- 
posed to the sun or wind, and taking care 
that it does not stand upright, but let it 
be laid along, one piece upon another, 
interposing here and there some short 
blocks, to prevent that moldiness which 
is usually contracted when planks sweat. 
Lay the planks in a stream of running 
water for a fortnight, and then sot them 
up in the sun and wind, so that the air 
may freely pass between them, and turn 
them frequently. Boards thus seasoned 
will floor much better than those which 
have been kept in a dry place, for many 
years. Elm, felled ever so green, if kept 
for four or five days, obtains a good sea- 
soning, and is rendered fit for immedi- 
ate use. This water seasoning is not only 
a remedy against the worm, but also pre- 
vents distortions and warping. Where 
huge massy columns are to be used, it is 
a good plan to bore them through from 
end to end, as it prevents their splitting. 
Timbers occasionally laid in mortar, or 
any part contiguous to lime, have some- 
times been capped with melted pitch as 
a preserver from the destructive powers 
of lime ; but it has been found to be rather 
hurtful than otherwise. 

6. — For the purpose of preserving tim- 
ber for mines, Koug packs the timber, 
cut in proper lengths, in a vertical posi- 
tion in an iron reservoir, provided with a 
tight-fitting cover. The vessel is then 
filled to about three-quarters of its capac- 
ity with a solution of the carbonate of 
soda. Into this he leads live steam, which 
speedily brings the liquid to the boiling 
point. The access of the steam is con- 
tinued until by its gradual condensation 
it has filled the vessel to its full capacity. 
The wood is then allowed to remain in 
the hot liquid some hours; this is drawn 
off, and the wood washed off with a dry 
steam jet. 

7. — Hock dissolves paraffine in ligroin, 
so-called petroleum ether, kerosene, or 
other convenient substances, and im- 
merses the wood to be preserved in the 
solution, care being taken that the wood 
is as dry as possible. After impregna- 
tion the saturated wood is heated in a 
large retort, provided with a condensing 
arrangement, whereby the volatile solvent 
is expelled and condensed for use over 
again, while the paraffine is left in the 
pores of the timber. Crude paraffine (con- 
taining much liquid hydrocarbons) may 
be employed. 

8. — At Bellagio, on the lake of Como, 
where olive wood is used in large quanti- 
ties for the formation,of various articles 
of turnery, the plaa adopted for season- 



[974] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Wood Preservation) 



ing the wood is to boil it for about 10 
minutes and then let it dry gradually for 
months before using it. 

9. — A good preservative against dry 
rot is the following : Oil of cassia, 1 
part ; wood tar, 1 part ; train oil, 1 part. 
Apply three coats on the reverse sides 
and on the ends of planks, floors, etc. 
In all probability, oil of cassia plays the 
chief role as preservative. 

10. — During the excavation of a canal 
in Berlin the workmen struck upon 12 
perfectly preserved coffins, which lay ap- 
parently in 4 graves, each containing^ 3 
superimposed coffins. The site of the dis- 
covery corresponds with the cemetery 
that existed even as late as 1620 in con- 
nection with the poor house and pesti- 
lent hospital. The corpses must, in con- 
sequexice, have been in the earth for at 
least 260 years. Notwithstanding this 
long period, the coffins, as well as their 
contained bones, were in a perfect state 
of preservation ; articles of clothing were 
even found still clinging to some of the 
bones. Professor Virchow found, upon 
investigation, that the coffins were coated 
on both sides with a thick layer of tar, 
the wood itself appearing to be young oak, 
1 in. in thickness. A silicious crust was 
likewise found on the inner side of the 
coffins. The wood was so hard that axes 
and saws were broken in an attempt to 
cut it. 

11. — Jacques first impregnates the tim- 
ber thoroughly with a simple solution of 
soap mixed with an acid — preferably 
phenic acid. This causes the formation 
in a few days, within the wood, of a fatty 
acid, which is insoluble in water, and im- 
pregnates the remotest fibers. The reac- 
tion of the acid on the soap does not 
take place until a portion of the water 
has evaporated. It is claimed that more 
perfect impregnation can be had in this 
way than with creosote, and there is no 
danger of the washing out of the preserva- 
tive from the exposed surfaces, as when 
sulphate of copper is used. ^ The govern- 
ment commission on technical railroad 
operation in .France is said to favor this 
process. 

12. — Card impregnates the wood with 
a solution of zinc chloride or other anti- 
septic soluble mineral salt, then dries the 
outer layers of the wood by heated air 
currents, and finally saturates with hot 
creosote oil. The creosote oil is to pre- 
vent the soluble antiseptic from being 
washed out. 

13. — Richard uses common salt in a 
chemically pure crystallized form, as the 
most efficacious preservative of timber. 



(Wood Preservation) 



In combination with alum, absolute in- 
combustibility, it is said, can be insured 
by its use. 

14. — Muller employs for the preserva- 
tion of wood the phosphate of baryta 
formed within the filter. The wood is 
first steeped in a solution of the phos- 
phate of soda containing 7% of the salt. 
When dry, the wood is again treated with 
a solution of chloride of barium contain- 
ing 13%. 

15. — Leech takes 1 lb. of arsenious acid 
and dissolves it in 4 gal. of water; to this 
he adds 1 lb. of carbonate of soda, stir- 
ring the mixture till it is thoroughly dis- 
solved. In a separate vessel he makes a 
solution of 16 lb. of sulphate of copper 
in 16 gal. of water, mixes the solutions 
together, and places them in a wooden 
or lead-lined vat. The timber is placed 
in this bath, and the solution heated by 
means of steam to the boiling point. A 
few hours' soaking is said to be sufficient, 
but when heat is not applied the wood 
must remain for at least 2 or 3 days. 
These solutions are applicable to wood 
that is already in permanent position, as 
telegraph poles, fences and gates. In 
these, and similar cases, one solution 
should be painted on, and allowed to dry 
before the other is applied. When pos- 
sible, they should be laid on hot. 

16. — Mewburn's process, so far as oak 
is concerned, consists simply in boiling 
the wood in a solution of gallo-tannic 
acid, the proportions of the respective 
ingredients being apparently immaterial. 
The result is the formation of an insolu- 
ble substance in the pores of the wood. 
One solution only is necessary for oak, 
on account of the tannin naturally pres- 
ent in that wood, the endurance of which 
in moist situations is proverbial. A con- 
sideration of this fact led Hatzfeld to try 
the effect of impregnating timber with 
tannin, and afterward with acetate of 
iron, a process which is both cheap and 
useful, and which is at present being test- 
ed by a telegraph company in France. 

17. — Posts and pier piles can be ren- 
dered nearly indestructible by boring one 
or more holes, larger or smaller, in the 
center of the butt, the whole length, if 
desirable ; then fill with boiling coal tar 
and close the aperture with a long taper 
wedge, well driven home, which will give 
pressure to force the antiseptic into the 
inner heart pores of the mold. Were 
posts thus preserved, and the exterior sur- 
face dressed with rosin varnish, they 
would last for centuries. Wood exposed 
to the air should not be dressed with coal 
tar, but Stockholm tar or resinous var- 



[975] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Wood Preservation) 



nish ; the former will rot the fibers when 
exposed to sun and air. Mark the posts 
at 6 or 8 in. above the depth they are 
to be placed in the earth, and bore the 
hole up to the mark. Then fill in with 
boiling coal tar, plug up the hole, and 
the base of the post will outlast the upper 
part. The writer has also had occasion 
to stand posts under floor joists, as a 
support, when by making a clay puddled 
hole, and pouring into it 1 gal. of boiling 
coal tar as a bed for the post to stand in, 
it would never decay. 

18. — Wood is rendered extremely dur- 
able and weatherproof by covering it with 
hot linseed-oil varnish, several coats be- 
ing applied, each one after the preceding 
one is dry ; finally oil colors are applied 
as required. The drying requires a longer 
time than the ordinary process of paint- 
ing. 

19. — Melsens impregnated blocks of 
wood with tar by alternate heatings and 
coolings ; they were then kept two years 
in a corner of a garden, in earth satu- 
rated with the products of a urinal, and 
were unaltered ; on breaking across it was 
found that lines were noticeable where 
the tar had not penetrated completely ; 
the one set of split halves were kept some 
years in ordinary earth, the others care- 
fully preserved ; they were then steamed 
at 212° F. (100° C.) for 12 hours, quick- 
ly cooled in water, frozen, and left out 
in the open air all winter, at the end of 
which time they were unaltered. They 
were then placed in a wet situation in 
a garden, then on an isolated building, 
and then in a sandy soil under a rain- 
water tub. Finally, after 20 years' ex- 
posure to varied deteriorating agencies, 
no change whatever was produced in 
them. By utilizing the mechanical force 
of condensing steam, or of the atmosphere, 
wood may be wholly or partially injected 
with tar, or, other preservative agents ; 
when not preserved, the natural course 
of decay is along the direction of growth, 
and not across it ; the direction in which 
the preservative body is forced into the 
wood is the same. When the wood is only 
superficially injected it is desirable that 
it should be shaped into the required form 
before applying the preservative process. 

20. — The value of creosote as a wood 
preserver is generally recognized, but the 
direct injection requires great quantities 
of heavy oil and a desiccation of the in- 
jected pores. The high boiling point of 
creosote does not permit its employment 
in vapor. Blythe formed the idea of sat- 
urating a jet of steam with creosote in 
minute division, forming, so to speak, a 



( Wood Preservation ) 



gaseous emulsion. The apparatus com- 
prises a high-pressure steam boiler ; an- 
other boiler containing creosote, in which 
the steam is saturated ; a vat, filled with 
creosote, to be pumped into the boiler ; 
sheet-iron cylinders, for the pieces which 
are to be injected ; and a system of tubing 
connecting the several parts. In this way 
Blythe completely fills the heart of oak, 
pine, or red beech ; he uses 4 to 6 lb. of 
creosote for a crosstie, and 4 lb. of brown 
phenic acid per cubic yard of saturated 
wood, or crossties. The apparatus can 
prepare 500 ties per day. The wood comes 
out softened, so that it can readily be 
bent or shaped, but it rapidly hardens. 
At first it shrinks, but after a few weeks 
it becomes seasoned, and resists the in- 
fluence of moisture. Finally, the fibers 
are greatly strengthened. 

21. — Ants and Insects in Woods, To 
Destroy. — a. — Corrosive sublimate is an 
effectual poison to them. 

b. — Oils, especially essential oils, are 
good preventives. 

c. — Cajeput oil has been proved effect- 
ual for destroying the red ant. 

d. — Payne's, Bethell's and Burnett's 
processes are said to be proof against the 
white ant of India. 

e. — Dust the parts with pounded quick- 
lime, and then water them with the am- 
moniacal liqtior of gas works, when the 
ammonia will be instantly disengaged by 
the quicklime, and this is destructive to 
insect life. 

f. — For the black ant, use powdered 
borax; or smear the parts frequented by 
them with petroleum oil ; or syringe their 
nests with fluoric acid or spirits of tar, 
to be done with a leaden syringe ; or pour 
down the holes boiling water to destroy 
their nests, and then stop up the holes 
with cement. Ants dislike arsenic, cam- 
phor and creosote. 

22. — Burnettizing. — A solution of 1 lb. 
of chloride of zinc to 4 gal. of water, for 
timber, and 1 lb. of chloride of zinc to 
5 gal. of water for canvas, cordage, etc., 
in a wooden tank. These were the pro- 
portions originally specified; 1 lb. of the 
salt to 9 or 10 gal. of water are now 
more frequently used. Timber requires 
to be immersed for about 2 days for each 
in. in thickness, and afterward taken 
out and left to dry for about 14 to 90 
days. Canvas, ropes, etc., require to be 
immersed in the solution for about 48 
hours, then taken out and dried. The 
process on wood may be more expedi- 
tiously performed by forcing the solution 
into the pores with a pressure of 150 lb. 
to the square inch. The advantage of 



[976] 



Miscellaneous Formulas 



(Wood Preservation) 



this process is that it renders the mate- 
rial to which it is applied incombustible. 

23. — Dampness, To Preserve Woods 
that Are Exposed to. — a. — For those of 
an extensive nature, such as bridges, etc. 
The Hollanders use for the preservation 
oif their sluices and floodgates, draw- 
bridges and oither huge beams of timber 
exposed to the sun and constant changes 
of the atmosphere, a certain mixture of 
pitch and tar, upon which they strew 
small pieces of shell, broken finely — al- 
most to a powder — and mixed with sea 
sand and the scales of iron, small, and 
sifted, which incrusts and preserves it 
effectually. 

b. — A paint composed of sub-sulphate 
of iron (the refuse of the copperas pans), 
ground up with any common oil, and 
thinned with coal-tar oil, having a lit- 
tle pitch dissolved in it, is flexible, and 
impervious to moisture. 

c. — Linseed oil and tar, in equal parts, 
well boiled together, and used while boil- 
ing, rubbed plentifully over the work 
while hot, after being scorched all over 
by wood burnt under it, strikes ^ in. or 
more into the wood, closes the pores, and 
makes it hard and durable either under 
or out of water. 

d. — For fences, and similar works, a 
coating of coal tar, sanded over ; or boil 
together 1 gal, of coal tar and 2^^ lb. of 
white copperas, and lay it on hot. 

24. — Dry Rot, To Preserve from. — a. — 



(Wood Preservation) 



The best way to preserve a timber ex- 
posed to the action of the weather is to 
force into the pores of well seasoned wood 
as much carbolic acid, or creosote, as 
possible. This soon resinifies, and most 
effectually prevents the timber from dry 
rot and decay. On a large scale, as for 
railway sleepers, expensive appliances are 
needed ; but for barns or outbuildings it 
may be applied to considerable advantage 
by the use of a paint brush. 

b. — The following recipe is said to be 
a cure for dry rot : Melt 12 oz. of rosin 
in an iron pot ; add 3 gal. of train oil 
and 3 or 4 rolls of brimstone ; when it 
is thin add Spanish brown, or red and 
yellow ocher, or whatever color preferred ; 
put on the wood hot, and thin with a 
brush ; give two coats. 

c, — To cure incipient dry rot, if very 
much affected, remove the timber and re- 
place with new. 

d. — A pure solution of corrosive subli- 
mate in water, in the proportion of 1 oz. 
to 1 gal., used hot, is considered a very 
effectual wash. 

e. — A solution of sulphate of copper, % 
lb. per gal. of water, laid on hot. 

f. — A strong solution of sulphate of 
iron. T5iis is not so good as sulphate of 
copper. 

g. — A strong solution of sulphates of 
iron and copper, in equal parts, % lb. of 
the sulphates to Vz gal. of water. 



[9771 




Chemical Operations are Best Carried on With Proper Equipment 




A Modern Laboratory Equipped for Analytical AVork 
£978] 



CHEMICAL MAISTIPULATIOI^S 



The proper preparation and manipulation of chemical and other substances 
is of paramount importance and much of the non-success of amateurs may be 
laid to this lack of knowledge. Much of the apparatus required can be con- 
structed at home, but glassware of convenient shapes should be purchased from 
dealers in chemical apparatus. It will pay in the long run to have good supplies 
from reliable houses. A fairly good little laboratory for making various articles 
given in the formulas would cost from $50.00 to $100.00. Of course, where the 
manufacture of an article is to be carried on commercially a special plant is 
needed, much of which can be supplied by the chemical supply houses noted 
above. A request to the publishers of this book wiii bring a list of dealers in 
such lines. Addresses must necessarily be excluded in a work of reference 
which is of permanent value. A catalogue of chemicals should be at the right 
hand of all experimenters. The number of rare things hard to get at the ordi- 
nary drug store which they carry is very considerable, such as agar agar, 
alizarin, aloes, amber, aniline colors, animal charcoal, aqua regia, asbestos, 
Canada balsam, banana oil, barium, Brunswick black, Burgundy pitch, etc., to 
only enumerate a few titles out of the first two letters of the alphabet. The prices 
of a few are noted a little further on. So far as possible always strive to deal 
with these chemical houses, as this will insure good materials, without which no 
success is possible. Until you wish to make an article on a commercial scale 
always buy the most expensive and best materials; after success has been 
obtained it is fairly safe to use cheaper materials if the skill which has been 
attained is sufficient to make a superior product with more economical raw 
materials. 

The entire subject of manipulation has been divided as follows: 



LABORATORY 



COMMINUTION 

SLICING 

RASPING 

CONTUSION 

GRINDING 

PULVERIZING 

TRITURATION 

PORPHYRIZATION . 

SIFTING 

LEVIGATION 

GRANULATION 

ELUTRIATION 

PULVERIZATION BY INTERVEN- 
TION 

II 
SOLUTION AND EXTRACTION 

EXPRESSION 

MACERATION 

DECOCTION 

INFUSION 

DIGESTION 

DESSICATION 



OPERATIONS 

III 
VAPORIZATION 
EVAPORATION 
DISTILLATION 

IV 
PRECIPITATION AND SEPARA- 
TION 
PRECIPITATION 
STRAINING 
CLARIFICATION 
CENTRIFUGATION 
WASHING 
DECANTATION 
PERCOLATION 
FILTRATION 
PRECIPITATION 
CRYSTALLIZATION. 
GRANULATION 
DIALYSIS 
DECOLORIZATION 
EMULSIFICATION 



Always consult the Index when using this book. 

[979] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Classification) 



HEAT TREATMENT OF SOLIDS 
IGNITION 
FUSION 
CALCINATION 
ROASTING 
DEFLAGRATION 
DECREPITATION 



(Technical Substances) 



CARBONIZATION 

REDUCTION 

TORREFACTION 

INCINERATION 

SUBLIMATION 

VI 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 



The following list, which numbers 
about 800 substances, is intended to an- 
swer the myriad of questions of price 
which have been so often asked the editor. 
The list does not take in either the ordi- 
nary or extraordinary chemicals of com- 
merce, either medical or technical, more 
or less complete lists of which can be con- 
sulted at any druggist's, but the list does 
take up the flotsam and jetsam of tech- 
nology, and it is thought that it would 
be handy to have prices on articles such 
as agar agar, aniline colors, essences, bay 
leaves, fluorspar, fusible metal, nickel 
anodes, oyster shells, pipe clay, mineral 
wool. Every user of this book is earnestly 
requested to obtain a full list of drugs and 
chemicals issued by any one of four or 
five prominent dealers in chemicals. The 
lists include many thousand articles and 
they are so valuable that the catalogues 
of all the dealers should be bound together 
for reference. Most dealers expect 5 or 
10 cents for postage on their catalogues. 
It should, of course, be remembered that 
fluctuations in the price of articles listed 
are apt to be quite considerable, yet no one 
will be seriously misled if catalogues of 
dealers are kept on file as suggested. 
These fluctuations will hardly take away 
from the value of the list. The list was 
compiled from five catalogues and con- 
tains perhaps a wider range of subjects 
than can be found in any one of them. 
Of course a list of acids in any one of 
them, for instance, is very extensive, as 
is also all of, say, the sodium preparations, 
which may easily number over 150 differ- 
ent chemicals and states of purity. The 
same might be said of almost any impor- 
tant chemical. 

It should be noted that all bottles, cans, 
and in fact all containers, are charged 
for, as well as packing cases if any are 
required. The postal laws exclude from 
the mail poisons, glass, explosives, spon- 
taneously combustible chemicals or any 
other matter liable to injure or deface the 
contents of the mail. Strong acids, phos- 
phorus, potassium, sodium or other ar- 
ticles considered dangerous by the carriers 
OD account either of inflammability or 



liability to cause injury to other freight 
are refused conveyance by the express 
companies, but can be shipped by freight 
lines. 



Agar agar 

Threads 

Powder . 

Sticks 

Albolene : 

Solid 

Liquid 

Albumen : 

From eggs 

From blood 

Alizarin : 

Paste, 20% 

Assistant (Turkey red oil). 

Alkanet root 

Almonds : 

Bitter 

Sweet 

Jordan 

Flour 

Aloes, Socotrine 

Alum, burnt or calcined 

Aluminum : 

Bars 

Foil 

Sheet 

Wire 

250-leaf book— $1.25. 

Leaf bronze 

Amalgam : 

Electric 

Copper 

Of sodium 

Tin-zinc 

Zinc 

Amber : 

Crude 

Clear 

Ambergris, black, $3.50 dram ; 
gray, $4.50 dram. 

Amyl acetate 

Aniline oil 

Aniline C. P. 



Per Per 

oz. lb. 
$0.10 SO-75 


.20 
.10 


.85 
1.85 
1.00 




.40 
.40 


.10 
.10 


.90 
.35 


.10 
.10 


.GO 
.50 
.25 


.10 


.37 
.35 
.35 
.40 
.40 
.15 


.20 
.20 


.75 
1.50 


•• 


1.15 


.12 
.25 
.20 
.30 


.75 

2.85 

1.50 

4.80 

.60 


.06 


.50 
1.25 


.05 
.10 


.80 

.30 

1.00 



[980] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Technical Substances) 



Aniline Colors : 

Black, soluble in water 
(Nigrosine) 

Blue, soluble in water 

Blue, red shade 

Blue, gentian 

Blue, Lyons 

Blue, methyl 

Blue, methylene 

Blue, navy 

Brown, Bismarck 

Chrysoidine, orange 

Coralline 

Green, emerald 

Orange 

Red, Congo 

Red, eosin 

Red, eosine, blue shade 

Red, f uchsine 

Red, rose bengal 

Red, rubin 

Red, saffranine 

Red, scarlet 

Vesuvan 

Violet, gentian 

Violet, Haffman's 

Violet, purpurin, benzo.... 

Violet, purpurin, delta 

Yellow, mandarin 

Yellow, metaniline 

Yellow, naphthol 

Yellow, primuline 

Animal charcoal : 

In grain— 10 lb., .07 

Powder 

Purified 

Annatto 

Anthracene, subl. 90% 

Antimony : 

Meljallic 

Liver of 

Butter of 

Aqua Jlegia 

Argols 

Arrowroot : 

Bermuda 

St. Vincent 

Arsenic, metallic 

Asbestos : 

White, short fiber 

Washed in nitric acid 

Washed and ignited 

Wool 

Asphaltum, true 

Babbitt metal 

Balsam : 

Canadian (fir), true 

Copaiba 



Per 
oz. 



.20 
.15 
.15 
.40 
.25 
.20 
.35 
.20 
.20 
.15 
.20 
.15 
.20 
.20 
.30 
.25 
.20 
.75 
.20 
.20 
.15 
.15 
.25 
.25 
.25 
.25 
.25 
.25 
.20 
.20 



.10 
.10 
.15 



.10 



.25 
.30 

•io 



.10 
.15 



Per 
lb. 



1.25 
1.50 
1.75 



1.75 

1.75 
1.00 
1.25 
1.75 
1.25 
1.50 
1.75 
2.25 
2.25 
1.50 
6.50 
2.00 
2.25 
1.25 
1.25 

2.66 



1.50 
1.75 

.10 
.10 
.50 
.40 



.35 
.50 
.26 
.50 
.16 

.75 
.17 
.40 

.40 
1.50 
2.25 
.40 
.30 
.35 

.30 
.90 



(Technical Substances) 



Per Per 
oz. lb. 

Balsam (continued) 

Fir , 30 

Peru $0.35 

Tolu 10 $0.45 

Banana oil (Lacquer) — qt. .50. 

Barium, metallic — Gram, $12. 

Per 

Barks : lb. 

Angostura (Galipea cusparia) . . $0.60 
Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) . . . .35 

Bay berry (Myrica cerifera) 25 

Birch (Betula lenta) 20 

Butternut (Juglans cinerea) 25 

Cinnamon (Cassia cinnamonum) .25 
Ceylon (Cinnamonum zeylanic). .40 
Clove (Cassia Caryophyllata) . . .40 
Elder (Sambucus canadensis) .. . .30 
Elm, slippery elm (Ulmus fulva) .30 
Lemon peel (Citrus limonum) . . .20 

Oak, black 20 

Oak, red 20 

Oak, white 20 

Orange peel 20 

Orange peel, cut 20 

Orange peel, ground 20 

Orange peel, powdered 25 

Orange peel, Curacao 20 

Orange peel, ground 20 

Pomegranate (bark of root of 

Punica granatum ) 40 

Sassafras ( Sassafras variifo- 

lium) 25 

Spicewood (Lindera benzoin) 25 

Wild cherry (Prunus serotina) . .20 

Bauxite 30 

Bay leaves 15 

Bay rum— Gal. $2.75. 

Beans : 

Vanilla 4.00 

Tonka 1.90 

Beeswax : 

White 60 

Yellow 45 

Berlin Blue 10 .40 

Berries : 

Elder (Sambucus nigra) $0.25 

Huckle (Vaccinium myrtillus) . . .40 
.Juniper (Juniperus communis) . .15 

Poke (Phytolacca decandra) 30 

Raspberries (Rubus idaeus) 60 

Sumach (Rhus glabra) 15 

Winter cherry (Physalis Alke- 

kengi) 50 

Bismuth, metallic .35 3.90 

Bitumen 25 

Black lead 10 

Bleaching powder 10 



explanation on page 980 
[981] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Technical Substances) 



Bole: 

Armenian 

White 

Bone ash — Finest quality, by 

51b., .09 lbs 

Bone black, powdered 

Brazil wood 

Bromine 

Solidified 

Brunswick black 

Burgundy pitch 

Butter cacao 

Cadmium : 

Metallic sticks 

Metallic shells 

Metallic granulated 

Calcium carbide — ^2-lb. cans, 

.30. 
Caoutchouc 

For dissolving, pure ....... 

Caramel — Gal., .75. 
Carbon : 

Ground, for pyrotechny .... 

Tetrachloride 

Willow, mealed — 10-lb. lots. 

Animal, in grain 

Carborundum 

Casein 

C. P 

Cassius : 

Purple, of 5% 

Purple, of 15% 

Catechu 

Ceresine : 

White 

Yellow 

Black 

Chalk : 

In lump — 10-lb. lots 

Precipitated — 10-lb. lots. . . . 

Red— 10-lb. lots 

French, in tablet — 10-lb. 

lots 

Charcoal : 

From blood 

From meat 

From sponge 

From wood 

Chrome gray, orange or yel-, 

low 

Chromium powder, 95% 

Cinnabar, pure 

Clay : 

Fire 

Potters'— Cake, .05 ,. 

Cobalt : 

Blue 

Ultramarine 

Foil 

Metallic ... 

See 



Per 

oz. 

.05 



.10 



Per 

lb. 

.20 
.15 





.12 




.10 




.15 


.25 




.25 




.10 


.70 




.20 


.10 


.70 


.12 


1.55 


.25 


3.85 


.35 


3.85 


.15 


1.50 


.35 


3.50 




.06 




.25 


.20 


.25 


. . 


.10 




.40 


.10 


.55 


.25 


3.50 




3.50 


. . 


7.00 


.05 


.15 




.30 


. , 


.25 


.. 


.12 


.04 


.05 


.10 


.12 


.12 


.15 



.20 .25 

.20 2.25 
.25 3.25 



.85 
.10 



.. .12 

. . 1.50 

.20 1.50 



.05 
.05 

.25 

.20 



(Technical Substances) 



1.35 
.50 

explanation on page 980 
-[082^] 



Per Per 
oz. lb. 

Cochineal 10 .75 

Cocoa butter 70 

Collodion 10 .95 

Collodion cotton 35 3.25 

Colophony, yellow or white 10 

Congo red 20 1.75 

Test paper, in sheets — Per 
doz., .50; each, .05. 

Copper : 

Metallic, turnings 60 

Foil 60 

Granulated 10 .60 

Powder 20 2.35 

Wire 10 .86 

Coral : 

White, prepared 30 

Red 35 

Corallin 1.25 

Cotton : 

Absorbent 30 

Non-absorbent 35 

Crab apple salt 15 

Creosote, white 75 

Crocus martis 05 .20 

Composition . . .08 

Crysolite— Gal., $1. 

Cudbear 25 

Cumarin 35 

Curare— Gram, $1.25. 

Curcumin — Gram, .25. 

Cuttle fish bone : 

Powdered . . .40 

Jewelers' 1.00 

Dextrin : 

Canary yellow — 10-lb. lots, 

.10 15 

Domestic, white (imported, 

white, lb., .18) 15 

Dextrose : 

Glucose, lump 10 

Glucose, crystals 15 

Diamond inks 45 4.00 

Diamond powder, $1.50 per 
carat, packed in quarter- 
carat packages. 

Diastase 75 

Distilled water — 5 gals., .50. 

Dolomite 30 

Dragon's blood : 

In reed 10 .80 

Powder 85 

Dutch leaf— Book, .10. 

Elaterium, % oz., .25. 

Emery flour .. .10 

Medium 10 

Coarse . • .10 

-Ether : 

Acetic, rectified 10 .60 

Amylic ....1.60 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Technical Substances) 



Per 

oz. 
Ether (contimied) 

Butyric, domestic 15 

Butyric, chem. p., absolute, .35 

Citric 1.70 

Formic, concentrated, do- 
mestic 22 

Nitric (ethyl nitrate) 95 

CEnanthic (oil of cognac), 

rectified, white 3.75 

CEnanthic (oil of cognac), 

nat. green 3.25 

CEnanthic (oil of cognac), 
artific, chemically pure. .65 

Sebacylic 75 

Succinic 60 

Valerianic 40 

Fehling's solution 10 

Feldspar 

Fibrin, from blood 60 



Per 
lb. 

1.25 
4.40 



1.80 



7.50 

7.i5 

5.00 

1.00 

.10 



Pint. 



Essences : 

Allspice $0.75 

Almond, artif 75 

Anise 1.00 

Bergamot 1.00 

Cinnamon , 75 

Clove 75 

Cognac, artif 3.00 

Gin 1.50 

Ginger , 70 

Jasmine 2.75 

Lemon 75 

Orange 75 

Orrisroot 1.00 

Peach 1.00 

Pear 75 

Peppermint 1,25 

Rose . 1.50 

Rum flavor 2.25 

Sarsaparilla 75 

Sassafras 75 

Spearmint .90 

Waldmeister 1.25 

Whiskey : 

Bourbon 3.00 

Rye 3.00 

Wintergreen 1.00 

Lh. 

Ferro-Bor $7.00 

Chrome, 70% 30 

Copper 1.20 

Manganese, 85% 30 

Molybdan 3.20 

Nickel, 30% 1.40 

Nickel, 50% 1.50 

Silicon, 36% 25 

Silicon, 75% 50 

Titan 1.50 

Tungsten, 67.9% 75 



(Technical Substances) 



Vanadium, 10%. 
Vanadium, 25%. 



Fire Clay 

Fish glue, liquid— Gal., $1.50. 

Fruit sugar 

Fluorescein 

Fluorspar 

Flux: 

Black, Plattner's 

Black, substitute 

Bismuth 

Boracic acid 

Lead No. 1 — 5 parts potas- 
sium carbonate, 6^^ parts 
sodium bicarbonate, 2% 
parts flour, 2^/^ parts 
ground borax glass, .25 
per lb. ; 100 lb. or more, 
.20. 
Lead No. 2 — 6i/^ parts po- 
tassium carbonate, 5 
parts sodium bicarbonate, 
1 part flour, 21/^ parts 
ground borax glass, .25 
per lb. ; 100 lb. or more, 
.20. 
Lead No. 3 — 8 parts potas- 
sium carbonate, 2 parts 
sodium bicarbonate, 1 
part flour, 1 part ground 
borax glass, .25 per lb.; 
100 lb. or more, .20. 
Lead No. 4 — 2 parts potas- 
tassium carbonate, 2 
parts sodium bicarbonate, 
1 part flv.ur, 1 part pow- 
dered borax, .20 per lb. ; 
100 lb. or more, .15. 

Fuller's earth, powdered 

Fusible metal : 

Rose's, melts about 201° F. 
Woods', melts about 141° F. 

Galena c. . . . 

Gall nuts , . 

Gamboge 

Gelatin : 

In sheets, white. No. 1, 

finest 

Cooper's 

Red 

For photographic emulsions. 
In sheets, 18 x 18 in., col- 
ored, red, blue, green, yel- 
low, orange and purple, 
per sheet, .25. 

Glass, powdered 

Glass wool : 

Coarse 

Fine 



Oz. 

... $0.40 
. . . .60 
Per Per 
oz. lb. 
.. $0.05 

.35 3.60 
.75 
.. .09 

.15 1.40 

.. .20 

.25 2.40 

.15 1.25 



.10 



.80 


3,50 


30 


3,50 




.15 


05 


.50 


.15 


1,25 


10 


.65 


.10 


.75 


. , 


1,00 




1.25 



.. .20 

.50 6.00 
.65 8.00 



Bee explanation on page 980 
[983] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Technical Substances) 



Glucose (grape sugar) : 

White, solid 

Crystallized, pure 

Syrup 

Glue: 

Red, best 

Ground 

White, No. 1 

Buffalo 

Liquid 

Cologne 

Fish liquid— Gal., $1.50. 

Marine, hard 

Marine, liquid 

Marine, liquid (colorless).. 
Gluten, pure — % oz., .40. 

Goat's blood 

Gold, metallic— Gram, $2. 
Gold leaf— Book, about .40; 
varies. 

Graphite : 

In lumps 

Powdered 

Lubricating 

Lubricating, prepared for 

electrotyping 

Gum : 

Ammoniac 

Arabic, No. 1 

Benzoin 

Copal 

Damar 

Elemi 

Euphorbium 

Galbanum 

Gamboge 

Guiac 

Kauri 

Kino 

Mastic 

Myrrh 

Olibanum 

Sandarac 

Senegal 

Seed lac 

Shellac, orange 

Shellac, powdered 

Shellac, bleached 

Spruce 

Thus (turpentine) 

Tragacanth, No. 1 

Tragacanth, second grade.. . 
Guncotton, soluble 

Gutta percha : 

In chips for dissolving 

Tissue — Yard, .55. 

Thin sheets for dissolving, 

brown 

See 



Per Per 

oz. lb. 

.. .10 

.. .15 

.. .10 

.. .25 

.. .20 

.. .40 
.40 

.. .50 

.. .18 

.20 2.50 

.20 1.75 

.30 1.90 



.10 
.10 
.10 
.05 

.10 
.10 



.10 
.10 
.10 
.10 
.10 
.05 
.10 
.10 



.35 



.10 
.20 
.25 



.10 .50 



.60 
.65 
.60 
.45 
.35 
.50 
.40 
.60 
15 1.25 
.. .30 
.60 
.55 
.75 
.50 
.35 
.35 
.35 
.80 
.75 
.80 
.85 
.25 
.12 
1.00 
.80 
.25 2.50 

.20 1.75 



.25 2.00 
explanation 



(Technical Substances) 



Solution, in chloroform. , . . 

Gypsum, lump 

Hide powder 

Honey 

Clarified 

Of roses 

Hops 

Iceland spar, crystals 

Indigo : 

Bengal 

Madras 

Indol (indulin), Yg oz., .25... 

Infusorial earth 

Insect powder 

Invert sugar — Gram, .75. 

Iodine 

Iron : 

Filings 

Powder 

Wire, pure 

Pyrites 

Isinglass : 

American 

Russian . . . 

Shredded 

Kaolin : 

White— By 10 lb., .05 

Washed 

Kefir fungi 

Kieselguhr 

Kryolite, selected, white 

Lacquer— Gal., H to $5. 

Lactose powder 

Lampblack— 14 lb., .05; 1/2 

lb., .10 

Lead : 

Bars 

Foil 

Granulated 

Shot 

Levulose 

Lime: 

Marble 

Burnt 

Slaked or unslaked 

Vienna 

Chlorinated 

Water— Gal., .35. 

Litmus, best, in cubes 

Loadstone 

Logwood 

Extract of 

London purple 

Luminous paint 

Magnalium 

Magnesium : 

Metallic 

Ribbon or wire 

Maltose, pure, cryst 

on page 980 



Per 
lb. 



Per 
oz. 

.35 

.. .10 

.40 4.00 

.. .20 

.. .30 

.. .50 

.05 .45 

.20 2.00 

.10 1.25 

.10 .65 
1.35 

.10-.15 
.25-.35 

.30 2.90 

. . .10 

.. .35 

.10 .50 

.. .10 

.15 1.20 

.40 4.75 

.20 1.00 



.95 



.10 
2.25 



.10 
.20 

.lo-.is 

.25 

.22 

.12-.15 

.13 
.20 
.24 
.15 



.10 
.10 
.10 
.25 
.10 



.10 



.30 

.. .75 

.. .10 

.. .25 

. . .25 

.35 3.60 

. . 1.50 

.35 3.50 

.55 6.50 

.60 5.50 



[984] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Technical Substances) 







Per 


Per 






oz. 


lb. 


Manganese, 92% 


. . . 


.20 




Marble, dust, chips or lumps. . 


. , 


.10 


Mercury 






.85 


Redistilled 






.94 


Mica: 








Powdered 




, . 


.20 








50 up 


Microcosmic salt, C. P. . . . 




.10 


.50 


Mineral wool 




.:L5..20 


Monazite 






.40 


Mosaic gold (bisulphide 


of 






tin) 




*^5 




Moss: 








Irish 




.05 
.05 


.9,0 


Iceland 




.20 


Musk: 








Genuine — Grain, .10. 








Artificial 




.60 


. . 


Naphthalene : 








Tapers 






.15 


Balls 






.Ih 


"MpGolpr'^ fpst snlntimi . ... 




15 


1.10 


Nickel : 








Metallic, 90% 




.10 


1.00 


Foil 




.20 
.20 


1 95 


Wire 




^00 


Anodes (of cast nickel) 




1.20 


Anodes (of cast nickel) 


, 16 






lb. or more 




. , 


1.10 


Anodes (of cast nickel) 


, 50 






lb. or more 




^ ^ 


I.OO 


Anodes (of cast nickel), 






100 lb. or more 


. . . 




.90 


1% X 4 X 3-16 inches, 1/2 
3 X 8 X 5-16 inches ; 


lb.; 






2V4 






lb. ; 4 X 8 X % inches. 


41/2 






lb. ; 8 X 16 X 1/2 inches 


, 18 






lb. (Weights are 


ap- 






proximate.) Add 10 cts. 






per lb. for these small 






sizes. Larger sizes 


fur- 






nished to order. 








Nutgalls (powdered, lb. .50) . 


.05 


.40 






.10 


.40 


Oakum 




.13 


Ocher 






.05 


Oil: 








Almond 




.60 


6.50 


Artificial 






1.00 


Amber, crude 




.10 


.50 


Amber, rectified 




.05 


.35 


Anise .............. 




.20 


9 00 


Asphaltum 




4.25 


Bay 




.04 


4.70 


Bergamot 




.40 




Cedar 




.10 
.20 


1 10 


Cloves 




1.75 


Coconut 


See 


.25 

explt 


matio 



(Technical Substances) 



Oil (contiiiued) 

Cognac ..... 

Cottonseed — Gal., .75. 

Fish— Gal., .50. 

Fusel— Qt., .50 ; pt„ .30. 

Lard 

Lavender 

Lemon 

Linseed, raw 

Linseed, boiled 

Myrbane 

Neatsfoot- GJal., $1. 

Neroli (ora^^e flowers), bi- 
garade, % oz., .75. 

Olive 

Orange, finest 

Orris, % oz., .75. 

Palm 

1 araffine— Gal., .40 

Peach kern Is 

Peanut 

Pear (amyl-acetate) , pt., .75. 

Peppermint 

Petroleum, crude — Gal.. .35. 

Rose (Kezanlic), % oz., 
$1.25. 

Rosin — Gal., .45 

Sandalwood 

Sassafras 

Sesame— Gal., $1.75. 

Sperm 

Tar 

Tobacco 

Turkey red 

Turpentine (rectified) .... 

Wax 

Whale 

Wintergreen 

Ylang-Ylang 

Orpiment 

Oxgall 

Oyster shells 

Ozokerite 

Paper: 

Emery — Quire, .35. 

Paraflane — Quire, .25. 

Parchment — Quire, .35. 

Sand — Quire, .25. 

Wax — Quire, .35. 

Litmus, blue, in sheets, each 
.05; doz., .50. 

Turmeric, in sheets, each 
.05 ; doz.. .50. 
Paraffine : 

Pure white, hard, melting 
point. 130° F. or 55° C. . 

Liquid 

Paris green, pure 

Paris white 

Pearlash 



Per 
oz. 
6.00 



.20 



.30 



.50 
.10 



1.40 
.10 
.25 
.25 



.20 
6.20 

.25 



Per 
lb. 



.20 
1.75 
1.50 
.15 
.15 
.20 



.40 



.25 

.10 
.40 
.40 



.40 5.00 



.10 

5.00 

.75 

.20 
.15 

.50 



.20 
1.90 

.25 

.is 

.30 



.15 
.20 
.40 
.05 
.10 



[985] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Technical Substances) 



Petrolatum : 

Yellow 

White 

Phosphorus, yellow sticks .... 

Pipe clay 

Pitch : 

Black 

Burgundy 

Plaster of paris 

Platinum foil wire. etc. — 
Gram, $1.27-$1.50; fluc- 
tuates. 
Plumbago : 

In lumps 

Powdered 

Fine powder for electrotyp- 

ing 

Potassium, metallic 

Potter's clay — Cake, .05. 

Powdered 

Primuline 

Prussian blue 

Soluble in water 

Pumice stone — 10 lb., .08. ... 

Powdered, fine, 10 lb., .07. . 
Purple of Cassius. C. P., % 
oz., $1.75. 

Putty powder 

Pyroxylin 

Quartz, powdered 

Realgar 

Red lead 

Rennet 

Resin, white or yellow 

Resorcin, cryst., white, pure. . 

Retinol 

Rhodium — 5-grain vial, $2.50. 

Rice flour 

Rock salt 

Rosin : 

By 5 lb., at .05 

Powdered 

White— By 5 lb., at .08 

Rotten stone 

Powdered 

Rouge : 

Jeweler's, best French 

Soft gold 

Sof4: gold, 50 lb. or more. . 

Hard nickel 

Hard nickel, 50 lb. or more. 

Soft nickel 

Soft nickel, 50 lb. or more . . 

Soft silver 

Soft silver, 50 lb. or more. . 

Hard silver 

Hard silver, 50 lb. or more 
Rush, scouring 



Per 



.24 



Per 

lb. 

.15 

.25 

1.25 

.10 

.10 
.20 
.10 



.20 
.20 



.10 .50 
1.70 22.50 



.20 
.10 
.10 



.05 
1.75 
.55 
.60 
.10 
.10 



.25 


2.90 


.25 


2.50 




.10 




.25 




.10 


• • 


.i() 


.15 


, . 


.70 


.. 




.25 


•• 


.10 




.06 




.18 




.15 




.10 


. . 


.15 



.13 
.10 

.io 
.16 
.io 

.10 



1.20 
.95 
.90 
.27 
.25 
.55 
.50 
.95 
.90 
.90 
.85 
.25 



(Technical Substances) 



Salt : 

Sea 

Sorrel 

Schlippe's 

Scheele's green 

Sealing wax : 

Fine red, in sticks 

Common, bottle wax . . . 

Selenium, sticks 

Sienna, raw or burnt 

Silex 

Silica : 

In fine powder 

Precipitated, pure 

Silver : 

Granulated 

Foil 

Leaf— Book, .20 

Anodes 

Soapstone, powder 

Sodium, metallic 

Soot 

Spar, heavy (barite) 

Spermaceti 

Stains — $1 gal. up. 
Starch : 

Corn 

Iodized 

Potato 

Wheat 

Stearine 

Steel filings 

Sugar : 

Cane, C. P 

Grape 

Sugar milk : 

Crystallized 

Powdered 

Sulphur : 

Roll— By 25 lb., lb. .05. 

Sublimed (flowers), by 
25 lb., lb. .07. 

Precipitated 

Washed 

Sumac 

Talc 

Powdered, in quantity 

Tallow 

Tar: 

Barbadoes— Gal., .60. 

Strained — Pint can, .25 ; 
2-gal. can, $1. 

Terebene. pure 

Terra alba 

Test paper, litmus paper, blue 
and red, turmeric, Brazil- 
wood, Congo, lead acetate, 
per sheet, .05 ; per doz., 



Per Per 
oz. lb. 



.25 
.10 



.10 
.25 

.75 



.. .75 

.. .10 

1.80 22.00 

.. .08 

.. .04 



.10-.12 

.10 .75 

1.25 
1.25 

1.20 

.. .04 

.15 1.20 

.. .20 

.. .10 

.. .45 



.25 



25 



.04 



.10-.15 

.lo-.is 

.15 
.35 
.15 

1.00 
.10 

.35 
.35 

.08 



.20 
.15 
.15 
.15 
.10 
.25 



.10 .65 
.. .10 



explanation on page 980 
[&86] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Technical Substances) 



Test paper, etc. (continued) 
.50; per book, .05; per 
box (10 books), .25; nar- 
row books (24 in box), 
per box, ,30. 
Thermit : 

Black 

Red 

Thymol, cryst., pure, white. . 

Tin: 

Bars 

Granulated 

Foil, thin 

Foil, heavy 

Foil, pure 

Amalgam 

And zinc amalgam 

Tripoli powder 

Tungsten : 

Metallic, pure — Gram, .20. 

For steel manufacture 

Turmeric : 

Powdered 

Paper — see Test paper. 

Turpentine : 

Spirits— Gal., .80 ; pt., 15. 

Spirits, refined— Gal., $2; 
pt., .40. 

White, hard, select. . o 

Venice 

TJltraniarine, artificial. ...... 

Vanillin 

Varnish : 

Amber— Gal., $8. 

Asphaltum — Pt., .20 ; gal., 
$1.25. 

Black, for iron— Pt., .20. 

Bronzing liquid — Gal., $1.35. 

Copal, best— Pt., .50. 

Dammar — Pt., .35 ; gal., 
$1.75. 

Flowing— Gal., $2.50. 

Gold size— Gal., $4. 

Negative, photographers', 
8-oz. bottle, .50. 

Picture— Gal., $1.25. 

Spar— Gal., $4. 

White enamel— Gal., $2.75. 

Verdigris : 

Powdered 

Recryst., pure 

Vermillion : 

Chinese 

English 

Vesuvin 

Vienna lime, lump or pow- 
dered 

See 



Per Per 
oz. lb. 



.. .90 
.. .75 
.30 3.25 



.10 
.10 



.55 

.75 

.37 

.31 

.. .70 

.45 5.60 

.30 4.00 

.10 



.15 1.10 
.. .20 



.. .15 
.25-.40 
.. .25 
.60 



.05 
.10 

.15 
.12 
.15 



.50 
.70 



1.50 
1.25 

.20 



(Laboratory Apparatus) 



Wax: 

Beeswax, yellow, technical 
(by 5 lbs., .45) ; 

Beeswax, pure (by 5 lb., 
.60) 

Beeswax, white (by 5 lb., 
.60) 

Carnauba (Brazil) (by 51b., 
.50) 

Japan 

Myrtle 

Ozokerite 

Paraffine 

Sealing wax, bottle wax . . . 

Sealing wax, fine, sticks. . . 
Water, distilled (by 5 gals., 

.50) ; gal., .10. 
Water : 

Almonds, bitter 

Caraway 

Cherry laurel 

Cinnamon 

Cologne 

Dill 

Elderflower 

Javelle— Gal., .50 

Lavender 

Lime — Gal., .50 

Orange flower— <GaL, $1.50. 

Peppermint 

Raspberry 

Tar 

Wintergreen 



Per Per 
oz. lb. 



.05 

.10 
.10 
.10 



.50 

.65 

.60 

.55 
.30 
.50 
.18 
.15 
.10 
.75 



White acid in ceresine bottlo. 

White lead 

Whiting (by 25 lb., lb. .O21/2). 
Wool: 

Glass 

Mineral 

Steel— Fine, lb., .80 

Zaffre 

Ziuc : 

S^ps 

SY jets 

Granulated 

Powdered 

Amalgam 



$1.00 
.25 
.30 
.20 
1.00 
.20 
.50 
.10 

40 

10 

25 

25 

30 

20 

. . . . .25 

Per Per 

oz. lb. 

.. .70 

.. .10 

.. .05 



75 



.10 



.15 
.65 
.75 

.15 
.20 
.22 
.25 
.60 



LABORATORY APPARATUS 

Wire Apparatus for Laboratory Use. 

For most of the apparatus shown, some 
oxidizable \Ave should be selected, such 
as brass or tinned iron, and the tools for 
forming these articles of wire consist of 
a pair of cutting pliers, a pair of flat and 
a pair of round-nosed pliers, a few cy- 



ewplanation on page 980 
[987] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Laboratory Apparatus) 



lindrical mandrels of wood or metal, made 
in different sizes, and a small bench vice. 
Any or all of the articles may be in differ- 
ent sizes, and of different sizes of wire 
for different purposes. 




Wire Apparatus for Laboratory Use 

A shows a pair of hinged tongs, which 
are useful for handling coals about the 
furnace, for holding a coal or piece of 
pumice for blowpipe work, and for hold- 
ing large test tubes and flasks, when pro- 
vided with 2 notched corks, as shown in 
B and O. These tongs are made by first 
winding the wire of one half around the 
the wire of the other half to form the 
joint, then bending each part at right 
angles, forming on one end of each a 
handle, and upon the other end a ring. 
By changing the form of the ring end the 
tongs are adapted to handling crucibles 
and cupels and other things in a muffle. 

C shows a pair of spring tongs, the con- 

[1 



( Laboratory Apparatus ) 



struction of which will be fully under- 
stood without explanation. It may be 
said, however, that the circular spring at 
the handle end is formed by wrapping the 
wire around any round object held in the 
vice ; the rings at the opposite end are 
formed in the same way. The best way 
to form good curves in the wires is to 
bend them around some suitable mandrel 
or form. 

D shows a spring clamp for holding 
work to be soldered or cemented. It may 
also be used as a pinch cock. 




Wire Apparatus for Laboratory Use. 

E represents a pair of tweezers, which 
should be made of good spring wire flat- 
tened at the ends. F is the clamp for 
mounting microscope slides, and for hold- 
ing small objects to be cemented or sol- 

n 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Laboratory Apparatus) 



dered. G is a pinch cock for rubber tub- 
ing ; its normal position is closed, as in 
the engraving, but the end a is capable 
of engaging the loop 6, so as to hold the 
pinch cock open. H shows a clamp or 
pinch cock having a wire c hooked into 
an eye in one side, and extending through 
an eye in the other. This wire is bent 
at right angles at its outer end to engage 
a spiral d, placed on it and acting as a 
screw. The open spiral is readily formed 
by wrapping 2 wires parallel to each other 
on the same mandrel, and then unscrew- 
ing one from the other. The handle will 
of course be formed by aid of pliers. 
I shows still another form of pinch cock. 
It is provided with 2 thumb-pieces, which 
are pressed when it is desired to open the 
jaws. K is a tripod stand, formed by 
twisting 3 wires together. This stand is 
used for supporting various articles, such 
as a sand bath or evaporating dish, over 
a gas flame. It is also useful in support- 
ing charcoal in blowpipe work. 

L shows a stand adjustable as to height 
for supporting the beak of a retort, or for 
holding glass conducting or condensing 
tubes in an inclined position. The retort 
or filter stand, represented in M, is shown 
clearly enough to require no explanation. 
Should the friction of the spiral on the 
standard ever become so slight as to per- 
mit the rings to slip down, the spirals 
may be bent laterally, so as to spring 
tightly against the standard. N shows an 
adjustable test tube holder, adapted to 
the standard shown in M, and capable of 
being turned on a peculiar joint, so as to 
place the tube in any desired angle. The 
holder consists of a pair of spring tongs, 
having eyes for receiving the notched cork, 
as shown in O. One arm of the tongs 
is corrugated to retain the clamping ring 
in any position along the length of the 
tongs. The construction of the joint 
by which the tongs are supported 
from the slide on the standard is clearly 
shown in O a. It consists of 2 spirals 
g h, the spiral h being made larger than 
the spiral g, and screwed over it, as 
shown in O. This holder is very light, 
strong and convenient. 

P represents a holder for a magnifier, 
which has a point f, similar to the one 
just described. The slide k is formed of 
a spiral bent at right angles and off-set to 
admit of the two straight wires passing 
each other. This holder may be used to 
advantage by engravers and draughtsmen. 
Q shows a holder for a microscope con- 
denser, the difference between this and P 
being that the ring is made double to re- 
ceive an unmounted lens. 



(Laboratory Apparatus) 



R shows a Bunsen burner, formed of a 
common burner, having a surrounding 
tube made of wire wound in a spiral, and 
drawn apart near the top of the burner 
to admit the air, which mingles with the 
gas before it is consumed at the upper 
end of the spiral. 

S represents a connector for electrical 
wires, which explains itself. The part 
with a double loop may be attached to a 
fixed object by means of a screw. An- 
other electrical connector is shown in T, 
one part of which consists of a spiral 
having an eye formed at each end for 
receiving the screws which fasten it to 
its support, the other part is simply a 
straight wire having an eye at one end. 
The connection is made by inserting the 
straight end in the spiral. To increase 
the friction of the two parts, either of 
them may be curved more or less. 

A microscope stand is shown in U. The 
magnifier is supported in the ring o. The 
ring p supports the slide, and the double 
ring q receives a piece of looking-glass or 
polished metal, which serves as a re- 
flector. 

V shows a set of aluminum grain 
weights in common use. The straight wire 
is a 1 gr. weight, the one with a single 
bend is a 2 gr. weight, the one having two 
bends and forming a triangle is a 3 gr. 
weight, and so on. W and X are articles 
now literally turned out by the million. 
It is a great convenience to have one of 
these expensive little corkscrews in every 
cork that is drawn occasionally, thus sav- 
ing the trouble of frequently inserting and 
removing the corkscrew. The cork puller 
shown in Y is old and well known, but 
none the less useful for removing corks 
that have been pushed into the bottle, and 
for holding a cloth or sponge for clean- 
ing tubes, flasks, etc. 

Z shows a stand for test tubes. The 
wire is then formed into a series of loops, 
and twisted together at r to form legs. 
A very useful support for flexible tubes 
is shown in J. It consists of a wire 
formed into a loop, and having its ends 
bent in opposite directions to form spirals. 
A rubber tube suported by this device can- 
not bend so short as to injure it. Most 
of the articles described above may be 
made to the best advantage from tinned 
wire, as it possesses suflScient stiffnsss to 
spring well, and at the same time is not 
so stiff as to prevent it from being bent 
into almost any desired form. Besides 
this the tin coating protects the wire from 
corrosin, and gives it a good appearance. 
— George M. Hopkins. 



[989] 



Chemical Manipulations 



( Laboratory Apparatus ) 



Wash Bottle. 

By this simple device tlie washing of 
precipitates and the cleansing of ves- 
sels used in the process of analysis, 
which before required the use of the 
ordinary wash bottle, can now be done 
with much more facility and in a 
shorter time. It consists essentially of 
a thin glass flask C, placed about 3 ft. 
above the level of the working desk, and 
closed by a 3-hole rubber stopper. 
Through one of the holes issues a rubber 
tube D (or glass with rubber connec- 
tions), descending to the desk and ending 
in a glass nozzle. Connection is made by 
a second hole in the stopper with a reser- 




Laboratory Table Showing Wash Bottles. 

voir bottle A, placed above the top of the 
wash bottle. In the third hole is placed 
a glass tube bent at an angle to keep out 
dust. On filling the flask from the reser- 
by a pinch cock placed conveniently to 
the hand, the height of the water flask 
voir — the flow being stopped by a pinch 
cock — the water is started by suction 
from below, and the stream through the 

[990] 



(Laboratory Apparatus) 



nozzle can be regulated or stopped at will 
furnishing the pressure, which is sus- 
tained by the syphon. 

A Bunsen burner H is placed under- 
neath the flask, and the water can be 
heated when it is so desired. Hot water 
as well as cold can thus be used in treat- 
ing precipitates. Other solutions can be 
employed equally as well as water. (See 
bottle F.), 

The advantages of the system are : 

1. — The saving of much time and con- 
sequent labor attending the use of an or- 
dinary wash bottle, especially where sev- 
eral analyses are carried on at the same 
time, the exertions required by the mouth 
and lungs being thereby avoided. 

2. — No air exists in the tube, as in an 
ordinary wash bottle, and consequently 
the full force of the liquid is utilized im- 
mediately. 

3. — When used with a wash solution 
of ammonia water, no trouble is expe- 
rienced with free ammonia, which ordinar- 
ily is quite hurtful to the mouth and eyes. 

The large bottle E with the accompany- 
ing tube shows a convenient arrangement 
for holding any solution and delivering 
the same. 

The shelves of a laboratory should be 
widest at the bottom and should become 
of less depth at the top to accommodate 
smaller bottles. The large acid bottles 
should be put on the bottom shelves. 
Reagent bottles with the names and sym- 
bols blown in are very convenient. 

A wash bottle is easily constructed with 
the aid of a couple of glass tubes and a 
flask or any bottle of convenient size. 
One of the glass tubes should be drawn 
out to the fine point, and the other should 
be inclined so that it is easily introduced 
into the mouth. Any -desired quantity 
of water may be forced through the fine 
powder by moderate blowing. In some 




Wash Bottle. 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Syphons) 



the wash battle is more efficacious 
when warm. For fine chemical work still 
water should preferably be used. 

Syphons. — Our engravings show handy 
glass syphons adapted for small opera- 
tion, the former being without, the latter 
with stop cock c for regulating the flow. 




Glass Syphons. 



The current is started in these by apply- 
ing the mouth to the end a of the tube, 
and employing it as an air pump to ex- 
haust the air till the fluid rises into the 
bulb 6. With harmless liquids, a simple 



r 


a 


\ 






n 


^^= 
9 







Improved Syphon. 

bent glass tube may suffice as a syphon ; 
but suction with the mouth at the end of 
the longer arm is somewhat inconvenient. 
The arrangement shown above is simple, 
and presents certain advantages : A glass 
tube fir, % in. wide, and 12-16 in. long, 
contracted at the lower end, has, at its 
upper end, a cork stopper, in which the 
mouthpiece M and the syphon h h' are 
fixed air-tight. The shorter arm h of the 
syphon reaches nearly to the bottom of 
the tube, and limits the play of a glass 
ball Tc, which acts as a valve. The di- 
ameter of the ball is about % in., that of 
the syphon 14 in. The instrument thus 
arranged, being dipped into the vessel to 
be discharged, th** tubes g and h become 



(Cork Work) 



filled with liquid to the surface N N. In- 
stead of now sucking, as with the common 
syphon, one blows into the mouth-piece 
M ; and in consequence of the compression 
of air, the lower opening is shac by the 
ball k, while the liquid rises in h, and be- 
gins to flow through 7i' in the usual way. 
If the vessel to be emptied is not full, or 
the column of liquid is a small one, it 
is necessary before blowing into the 
mouthpiece, to suck it slightly, in order 
to obtain a larger volume of the liquid in 
g; as one condition for the right action of 
the instrument is that h h' should be filled 
before the column of liquid in g sinks to 
the mouth of the syphon at h, when one 
blows through M. 

Cork Work. 

Corks are of the greatest possible use 
in all laboratories. Boxes of corks may 
be had of all drug companies and a plenti- 
ful supply should be kept at all times. 
It would probably be necessary to buy 
larger corks separately. It is frequently 
necessary to perforate corks, and for this 
purpose a set of cork borers should be 
bought ; they come in sets. An iron rod 
passes through the small holes, forming 
a handle. A rotary motion should be 
given to the hand at the same time pres- 
sure is applied. There is considerable 
knack in boring corks, but it is soon at- 
tained. After the glass tubes have been 
passed through the corks the corks can 
be swelled to insure a firm joint. Files 
and rasps are convenient for altering the 




Cork Puller. 



shape of corks. Rubber corks are very 
expensive, but are better for many pur- 
poses. They may be purchased already 
perforated. The ordinary cork borer may, 
however, be used, wet with dilute am- 
monia. Pieces of rubber tube of various 
sizes, and also pieces of hog's bladder for 
joints, and heavy linen thread for tying 
the same, should always be at hand. 



[991] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Stands) 



A cork press will save its cost in a 
short time. The form shown in our en- 




Cork Press. 

graving is very effective. Corks which 
have been compressed give better results 
than those which are used dried. In the 
type of press shown, the cork is revolved 
at the same time it is being compressed, 
thus giving a uniform compression. Corks 
having a taper should be selected. 

Stands, Clamps, etc. 

The amateur who has a shop at his 
disposal will have little difficulty in con- 
structing all necessary supports, which 




Clamps for Various Purposes. 



will tend to materially assist his labors. 
To those who have no natural mechani- 
cal ability, or who have no facilities, are 
recommended to purchase such apparatus 
ready prepared of dealers in chemical 
supplies. A good retort stand is of prime 
importance, aud one of our engravings 
shows how a retort stand may be used 
for several purposes at once. Iron re- 
tort stands are better than the wooden 
ones, and there should be at least 4 or 5 
rings. The base should be of sufficient 
weight to make the stands firm at all 
times. If the base of the retort stand is 
too light it can be filled with lead. Our 
engravings also show a variety of clamps 
which are very useful for a great num- 
ber of purposes ; at least 2 or 3 such 
clamps should be provided. Nearly every 



(Stands) 



dealer in chemical apparatus lists 15 or 
20 different types at all prices. Where 
rubber tubes are used, pinch cocks will 




Simple Retort Stand. 

be found of value in cutting off the sup- 
ply of the gas. They can be readily 




Many operations can be carried on at 
once with a good retort stand. 



made by the amateur according to the 
designs given under Wire Apparatus 
in this section. 



[992] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Measuring Liquids) 



-^4—&— ^ g) g> tJ -^&- 



1 — rif 



Simple Filter Holder. 




A Triangular Holder. 

Measuring Liquids. 

Liquids may be measured in dishes or 
containers, of which there are a large 
number of patterns. The writer recom- 
mends the Swedish white enameled ware 




Carboy Tilting Stand. 



as indicating at once if there is any dirt 
in the article. Almost any large dealer 
in household furnishings would be able 
to supply a large number of vessels for 
measuring liquids required by technolo- 
gists and chemists. Copper measures last 
a long time, but are very hard to keep 
clean. They are good for alcoholic liq- 
uors. A porcelain measure with gradua- 
tions inside is very useful. An article of 
this kind will save its cost in a short 



(Measuring Liquids) 



time for much work that is done in a 
laboratory. 

Glass graduates form an essential part 
of the equipment of all laboratories, no 
matter how small or for what purpose. 




Graduate with Rubber Foot. 

Glass graduates of 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 oz. 
are recommended. The chemical grad- 
uates are easier to get clean than the 
cylindrical ones. Glass graduates having 
a beaker shape lessen the liability of 




Graduate Suspended from Wire Hook. 

breakage and are especially good for 16 
and 32-oz. sizes. Some graduates have 
a double Bcale, both apothecary's and 
metric; these are specially recommended 
where mixed formulas are used calling for 



[993] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Scales) 



both systems. Their use will save much 
time and calculations, and are specially 
useful in photographic work where many 
of the formulas are now given exclusive- 




Graduate Slung under Shelf. 

ly in metric system. A graduate is "no 
stronger than its foot," and this is the 
most vulnerable part of the glass meas- 
ures. Rubber feet with the screw socket 
into which the top of the graduate screws 
have come into quite general use, and are 
recommended as they tend to decrease the 
breakage to a considerable extent. When 
graduates are not in use they should be 
hung up by the foot, as illustrated in one 
of our engravings. 

For beginning with small quantities of 
liquids the pipette is recommended, and 
the simplest form is like the well-known 
fountain pen filler. Small pipettes can be 
obtained shaped like a fork so that they 
can be used as such in small bottles. For 
volumetric work and for other accurate 
determinations, graduated pipettes are 
sold, but they are comparatively high in 
price. Small drops of liquid can be 
readily drawn out of a bottle and dis- 
tributed with the aid of the pipette. The 
drop, however, is different from almost 
every substance, and the number of drops 
a minim varies from 60 to 250. An ex- 
cellent table showing the number of drops 
in a fluid dram of different weights with 
the weights in grains and grams will be 
found in Remington's Practice of Phar- 
macy. 

Scales. 

A good ordinary scale costing from $6 
to $10 is recommended. Scales should have 
a capacity of at least 10 lb. Any sensitive 
weighing such as required in analytical 
work, assaying, etc., should not be at- 
tempted with scales of this kind. Where 



(The Balance) 



corrosive substances which would corrode 
metal scale pans are in use, the glass 
tanks should be used, or the substance 
should be weighed in glass bottles or other 
containers. 



/K 



r 



Pipettes. 



The Balance is simply a pair of scales, 
made and adjusted so carefully as to show 
very small differences in weight of two 
substances. 

The beam is supported in the middle by 
a wedge of hard steel, or of agate — a 
"knife-edge" — resting in a very shallow 
groove, also of steel. A similar arrange- 
ment is used for supporting the scale pins, 
but in this case the knife-edge is on the 
end of the beam. The steel should be 
protected by a very thin coating of vase- 
line. 

By turning the screw placed outside the 
balance case, the beam may be raised so 
as to allow it to swing, or lowered so 
as to prevent any motion. When not in 
use it should always be lowered. 

A pointer is fixed to the middle of the 
beam, and when the beam is swinging, 
the end of this pointed moves over a white 
graduated scale. When the two pans 
balance, the pointer will move over the 



[ 994] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(The Balance) 



same number of divisions on each side of 
the zero position. 

The weights to be used range from 50 




Balance 



Precision. 



grams to 1 milligram. The weights below 
1 cgrm. may be made of aluminum wire. 
Each weight should have a separate place 
in the box. The weights are arranged as 
follows : 



ams. 


grams. 


grams. 


grams. 


grams 


50 


5 


0.5 


0.05 


0.005 


20 


2 


0.2 


0.02 


0.002 


10 


2 


0.1 


0.01 


0.001 


10 


1 


0.1 


0.01 


0.001 



Rules to be Observed in Weighing : 

a. — Put the weights on the right-hand 
pan of the balance. 

b. — Never put anything on the balance 
pans, or take anything off, while the bal- 
ance is free to swing. 

c. — Always use the forceps provided for 
lifting the weights. 

d. — On commencing to weigh, find a 
weight which is too great, then, after 
removing this, try the succeeding weights 
in order. Never pick out weights at ran- 
dom. 

e. — Do" not put the small weights in a 
heap. Arrange them in order round the 
larger weights, which should be in the 
center of the balance pan. 

f. — Place yourself opposite the center of 
the graduated scale while weighing. 

g. — Do not remove any weight from the 
balance pan until the values of all have 
been written down, and check your result 
as the weights are replaced. 



(A Simple Balance) 



h, — Be careful to put the weights back 
in their proper place. 

i. — Never kttempt to weigh anything 
which is not quite cold. In addition to 
injuring the balance, the weighing will 
not be accurate. 

This mode of pulverization, though par- 
ticularly applicable to fibrous substances, 
is sometimes u«sed for metals and hard 
materials. In the latter case the files 
may have finer and sharper teeth, and 
in both instances be particularly clean, 
and free from grease and dust. 

To Make a Balance. — A balance suit- 
able for weighing small articles can be 
made easily and cheaply. Such a balance 
can be made sensitive to the weight of 
one-quarter of a postage stamp, and capa- 
ble of sustaining a weight of several 
ounces. It is made chiefly of wood. All 
the parts are common articles, and only 
ordinary tools are required. Only certain 
features require careful attention ; in oth- 
er respects, rough work is permissible, 
says "School Exercises in Plant Produc- 
tion," by D. J. Crosby, in Farmer's Bul- 
letin No. 408. The essential parts of a 
balance (see cut) are the base (a), 
the pillar (6), the beam (c), and the 
trays or pans, as they are usually called 
(d, d). The beam is balanced by means 
of the balancing nuts (e, e). The pointer 
(f) indicates on the scale (g) the effect 
of weights on the trays. A screw-eye (h) 
encircling the pointer serves to hold the 




A Simple Balance 

beam at rest, or permits it to swing, as 
desired, according as the screw-eye is 
turned. Four screws (i) at the corners 
of the base serve to level the balance. 

In making the balance thoroughly dry, 
soft pine wood is preferable. Screws are 



[995 3 



Chemical Manipulations 



(A Simple Balance) 



preferable to nails. The base is 12 or 14 
in. long by 7 in. wide and 1 in. thick. 
The pillar is 1 in. square and about 9 in. 
high. It can be set in an inch hole in 
the center of the base. Care should be 
taken to have it stand perpendicular to 
the base. The upper end of the pillar is 
beveled on the right and left sides, as 
shown at k. A slot is sawed in the end 
to receive a knife edge, as shown at I. 
The beam is made from a stick 1 in. 
square and about 10 in. long. Its lower 
face is left straight ; the other faces are 
beveled from the center to the ends, which 
are left % or ^ in. square. A notch 1 
in. wide and % in. deep is accurately cut 
in the center of the flat or bottom face. 
This receives the central bearing (m) of 
the beam. An inch from each end of the 
beam a notch % in. deep is cut to re- 
ceive the tray bearings. Each end is 
rounded to receive the balancing nuts. 
The nuts should cut well defined threads 
in the wood and move easily and smooth- 
ly. Applying a little soap to the threads 
helps this. A strong pointer (/) is firm- 
ly fastened to the beam by two or more 
screws. Its lower end is provided with a 
needle, colored black so as to be readily 
seen. The screw-eye (h) is placed near 
the end of the pointer and in the center 
of the pillar. It should turn easily and 
smoothly. When the balance is otherwise 
completed, turn the screw-eye so as to 
hold the pointer firmly, then paste to the 
pillar back of the pointer a strip of white 
paper (g) bearing scale marks, 1-16 in. 
apart, with the mark of the scale di- 
rectly back of the needle. 

The three bearings of the beam are the 
most exacting features of the construc- 
tion. Each consists of a knife edge, act- 
ing within a groove formed of bent tin. 
The knife edge (l) for the central bear- 
ing may be made of a pocket or case 
knife blade, or of a piece of hard brass 
filed to a straight, sharp edge. The 
knife edges for the end bearings are 
made by filing the lower side of 
the tray wires where they cross the 
beam, producing a straight, sharp edge 
(n) about % in. long. The tins forming 
the grooves of the bearings are made of 
thin tin, such as is used in oyster and 
vegetable cans. Bright pieces are select- 
ed. The central bearing requires a strip 
1 in. wide and 2 in. long (m). It is bent 
across at the middle, the bend being light- 
ly hammered flat on a flatiron. The ends 
are then separated. The halves of the 
strip curve somewhat, leaving a narrow 
angle at the bend. This tin is firmly 
held in the central notch of the beam by 



(Fuels), 



four small screws. The tin strips for the 
end beaBings are about i/^ in. wide. They 
are bent in the same way as the other. 
One end of the strip is longer than the 
other, and is punched to receive a single 
screw holding it to the beam, as shown 
at o. The bending of the tin strips rough- 
ens the surface of the groove. It must 
be polished by -rubbing the back of the 
point of a knife blade back and forth in 
the groove for some time. To insure suc- 
cess, the grooves must be very narrow to 
prevent side slipping, yet not so narrow 
as to bind on the knife edge. The highly 
polished groove and sharp knife edge pro- 
duce the least friction, and increase the 
sensitiveness of the balance. 

The trays are made of common No. 12 
wire. The trays are 3 by 3 in. and % in. 
thick. Two holes near opposite edges 
receive the wires, which are bent in op- 
posite directions beneath the trays, there- 
by holding them firm and level. If the 
trays tend to swing from front to back 
of the balance, the tins of the bearings 
may be slightly twisted by inserting a 
knife blade under them. 

The balance can now be tested for use. 
When in working condition the pointed 
will slowly swing back and forth many 
times, and finally come to rest at of the 
scale. It probably will not do this at the 
first trial. Set the balancing nuts at 
atoout equal distances from the ends of 
the beam, then stand tacks along the 
lighter beam arm until the two arms 
nearly balance. The tacks are then driven 
in permanently. If tacks are too light, 
use brads or screws. The final balancing 
can then be done by properly moving one 
or both of the nuts. The proper adjust- 
ment of the balancing nuts should be 
tested each time the balance is used. 

Weights, and objects to be weighed, can 
be held on the trays by cardboard dishes 
(;■) . A pair of forceps can be made from 
a strip of spring brass, or even of hick- 
ory wood, the points being properly sharp- 
ened. 

A set of metric weights ranging from 
20 grams to 1 centigram, and suitable for 
use with this balance, can be had for $1 
or less. 

Fuels. 

The technologist has a wide choice of 
fuels at the present day. In certain lo- 
calities wood is plentiful and is well 
adapted for various processes. It is, 
however, very sooty and cannot be used 
for many purposes. Charcoal is much in 
use and is not expensive. It can be used 
freely when a quick, strong heat is re- 



[996] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Fuels) 



quired. Coal is an excellent fuel for gen- 
eral purposes. Anthracite coal is better 
now for general use than bituminous coal, 
although the latter makes the hotter fire. 
The deposit of soot is often very objec- 
tionable. Coke may be had almost any- 
where and affords a clean, hot fuel. It 
is easily kindled. Gas rs perhaps the best 
all-round medium for the production of 
heat, except where manufacturing opera- 
tions are to be carried on. A large num- 
ber of devices calling for the use of gas 




A Convenient Alcohol Lamp. 

are illustrated in the present book. The 
Bunsen burner is perhaps the most gen- 
erally used type of burner. The flame 
should be blue, and the air regulation is 
usually accomplished by a ring at the 
bottom. There are scores of types of 




The Blowpipe Flame. 

Bunsen burners. For very intense heat 
the multiple Bunsen burners are recom^ 
mended. Radio burners using the Bun- 
sen principle are largely used in all of the 
mechanical arts. Gas can also be used to 

[997] 



(Fuek) 




Multiple Bunsen Burner. 




Improved Bunsen Burner. 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Fuels) 



drive a small hot-air engine for small 
power laboratories. There are many ap- 
paratus which give increase by stirring or 
agitating where a small caloric engine, 
or water or electric motor, can be used to 
advantage. All of the dealers in chemical 
apparatus furnish petroleum, gasoline and 
benzine burners as well, so that those who 
are away from large cities or towns will 
find their wants very well supplied. 

Where considerable quantities of hot 
water are required, a hot water heater 
run preferably by gas should be provided. 
They are not so expensive, and produce 
large volumes of hot water at moderate 
cost. Perfect control and safety of gas 
has a great deal to recommend it. 

Electricity, though well adapted for all 
classes of technical work, is very little 
used owing to the great expense of the 
initial apparatus and the cost of current, 
and the length of time which is also re- 
quired to Jieat up the hot plate or other 
device militates against the use of elec- 




Burner for Slow Heat. 

tricity. The writer has used electrical 
stoves for heating purposes, and he can- 
not see that they are of any advantage 
over hot plates heated by gas. Should 
it be desired, however, to install electrical 
apparatus, great care should be taken when 



<=G\ 




A Good Type of Burner for Evaporation 

ordering the equipment that the voltage 
is the same as the feed mains, as other- 
wise the electrical apparatus will surely 
be destroyed. 

The blowpipe and charcoal are very use- 
ful things to have about the laboratory 
in connection with the Bunsen burner. 
Numerous small operations can be con- 
ducted with their aid. Blowpipe analysis 



(Contusion) 



is a very valuable means of determining 
minerals and other substances. 



COMMINUTION OR DIVISION OF 
SUBSTANCES 

This operation is a mechanical process, 
by which the surface and points of con- 
tact of solid bodies are multiplied, thus 
diminishing the force of cohesion, and con- 
sequently promoting greater access to its 
particles, and enabling a more ready and 
rapid action of reagents upon solid mat- 
ter. The means by which the division 
of solid matters is accomplished are man- 
ifold, and those who are using technical 
formulas will often have to resort to 
methods which are not in use even by 
pharmacists. 




Draw Knife Slicer 

Slicing. 

This process applies to fibrous matters, 
and is largely practiced with a lever knife 
similar to that used by tobacconists for 
cutting tobacco. This slicing renders the 
substance in better form for maceration, 
and, moreover, admits of readier desicca- 
tion, a necessary process when it is re- 
quired to be further reduced under the 
pestle or by being grated on a coarse rasp. 
On a large scale, rotary cutters are in 
use, but they are far beyond the reach 
of the amateur. 

Contusion. 

This is a bruising operation, which is 
very frequently resorted to to reduce a 
substance to particles, by striking a plu- 
rality of blows. A mortar and pestle 
is perhaps the most used apparatus for 
this purpose. Corrosive or caustic mat- 
ter should never be pulverized in metal- 
lic mortars, and such substances as chlo- 
rate of potash should only be reduced 



[998] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Contusion) 



with the greatest possible care. Mortars 
are made of various materials, such as 
glass, wedgewood ware, wood and mar- 
ble. Marble mortars are only recom- 
mended where the manufacture of toilet 
preparations, etc., is to be conducted on 
a considerable scale. Wooden mortars 
are useful in many cases. Boxwood mor- 
tars are the best wooden mortars. A 
?heepskin conical cover, with a hole in 
the center for the passage of the pestle, 
is recommended. It should be fastened 
around its rim and over its morfth with 
a string. Circular pasteboard and wooden 
covers are often substituted for the sheep- 
skin cover. All substances of an organic 
nature should be previously dsied, so as 
to afford greater facility for pulveriza- 
tion. A previous reduction of ores and 
coarse, hard substances into lumps, by 
concussion with a hammer upon an anvil, 
and of roots and like substances into 
slices or bits with a lever knife, are pre- 
liminary processes which greatly facili- 
tate their pulverization. The substance 
to be struck upon the anvil can be 
rt^rapped in strong brown paper before 
crushing. 

Silicious stones are pulverized much 
more readily after having been heated 
to redness in a crucible, and in that state 
thrust into cold water. This increased 
friability is occasioned by the unequal 
cooling of the mass. 'Metals, alloys, and 
the like, which are pulverized with diffi- 
culty while cold, may be readily crushed 
when heated to redness. When it is re- 
quired to reduce the substance into small 
frgaments only, it can be broken down 
by a succession of blows with the pestle. 
If the substance is very hard, the force 
of the arm should be added to the de- 
scending weight of the pestle, so as to 
impart power to the blow. A subsequent 
circular, grinding motion of the pestle, 
continued for a length of timfe, will fur- 
ther reduce these fragments to fine pow- 
der, and consequently this movement must 
be avoided when only a comminution is 
desired. The mortar should always rest 
on a sound foundation, and should be oc- 
casionally shaken during the operation 
of pounding, in order that the coarser par- 
ticles which mount to the sides may be 
forced back to the center of the mortar 
so as to receive the full effect of the de- 
scending pestle. It should never be al- 
lowed to strike the sides of the mortar. 
If the substance is to be reduced to a 
fine powder, the process is greatly fa- 
cilitated by operating upon only a small 
portion at a time, as the pestle is less 
liable to become clogged. 



(Grinding Mills) 



Grinding and Pulverizing. 

These terms refer to the reduction of 
substances, by mechanical means, to 
coarse particles, this being usually re- 
ferred to as grinding, while the word 
"pulverizing" is used to distinguish the 
reduction to fine particles. These proc- 
esses are of great technical importance, 
and grinding mills are modified for the 
various purposes for Jsvhich they are used. 




Fine Rock Hand Crusher 



and are manufactured by many concerns. 
Burr stones, roller mills, chaser mills, 
pebble mills, and mills having autagoniz- 




Bucking Board and Muller for Reducing 
Ores 

ing grinder plates, and also various crush- 
ing and disintegrating mills, and machin- 
ery almost too numerous to mention. 
Hand mills, on the principle of the cof- 
fee mill, are of a great deal of use. The 
drug-mill type is recommended. For cer- 
tain classes of grinding, the ordinary 
meat chopper will answer, such as for 
the cutting up of herbs. 

Grinding Mills. 

Grinding mills may be purchased for 
all purposes. It is impossible to recom- 
mend any one mill which will be of uni- 
versal application. If work is to be car- 
ried on on a large scale, an a.ppropriate 
mill will prove an economy, even at first. 
The pebble mill is particularly recom- 
mended for general use. It consists of 
a porcelain jar, made of imported porce- 
lain ; these jars are im»pervious to the 
action of heat and such materials as ink. 



[999] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Grinding) 




Abbe Porcelain Jar Mill 

The effect is produced largely by friction : 
the sliding, tumbling and rolling inside 
of the mill of flinty pebbles or balls, 
which are mixed with the substances to be 
ground. The movement is caused by re- 
volving tne mill at a regulated speed. The 
type of mill which we illustrate will han- 
dle material up to 5 lb. in weight, and 




Interior of Jar Mill, Showing Porcelain 
Balls 



is turned at about 60 revolutions per 
minute. It weighs about 120 lb. Those 
who are going to manufacture on a large 
scale will find a large variety of mills 
of this type. The action is very well 
shown by our section of the mill. The 
mills referred to are particularly adapted 
for hard substances. Articles of a vege- 
table origin may be ground in a drug 
mill, which may be had of any size. A 
spatula is absolutely essential ; in fact, 



(Trituration) 




Hand Power Sample Grinder 

two or three of them will not come amiss. 
A steel spatula, and one of horn or rub- 
ber should be provided. Strange to say, 
the spatula is one of the most convenient 
implements to have in the kitchen. 




Braun Type of Pulverizing Mill 

Trituration. 

This mode of manipulating with the 
pestle is applicable to those substances 
which are friable and fall to powder by 
being merely rubbed up by a circular or 



[ 1000 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Sifting) 



grinding motion of the pestle, and which 
would soften and become obstinate by be- 
ing pounded. Chalk and the like, and 
most of the salts, are in the first cate- 
gory, the rosins and gum rosins in the 
second. The pestle is given a circular 
or spiral motion, accompanied by down- 
ward pressure. The operation is con- 
tinued until pulverization is effected. Sand 
is added to facilitate the reduction of the 
rosins and similar substances, which cake 
under the pestle, only when they are in- 
tended for maceration or solution. Un- 
der other circumstances the medium 
would be an adulterant, on account of 
the impossibility of separating it. The 
process of trituration is also often per- 
formed with the aid of spatulas or flex- 
ible steel blades attached to handles, and 
is useful in the kitchen as in the labo- 
ratory, It is possible to get spatulas 
made of hard rubber for making prepa- 
rations which contain corrosive sub- 
stances. 

Porphyrization. 

This means of pulverization is only 
employed when it is desired to give the 
comminuted substance the greatest pos- 
sible fineness, and takes its name from 
that of the material of which the vessels 
in which it is practiced were formerly 
made. A small porphyry mortar, hemi- 
spherical interiorly, or preferably a slab 
and miller, is the apparatus employed. 
Flint, and even glass, which are equally 
as hard as porphyry, form economical sub- 
stitutes for that material. Porphyriza- 
tion is usually effected by rubbing the 
coarse powder between a flat slab and 
muller until reduced to an impalpable 
state. The circular motion of the muller 
disperses the powder over the slab, ren- 
dering it frequently necessary to collect 
it together in the center with a spatula, 
so as to keep it uniformly under the ac- 
tion of the muller. When the substance 
under operation is unaffected by water it 
may be moistened with that liquid, which, 
by converting it into a paste, facilitates 
its reduction, and prevents any waste by 
the escape of dusty particles. The pow- 
dered paste is easily dried by being 
dropped in dots upon a porcelain plate 
exposed to warmth. Those matters which 
are soluble in, or affected by, water, must 
be porphyrized in a dry state. 

Sifting. 

The impossibility of reducing the whole 
of a substance at once to a uniform state 
of fineness by any of the preceding proc- 
esses renders necessary an occasional sep- 



( Sifting) 



aration, during the progress of pulveri- 
zation, of the more comminuted portions 
from the grosser particles. This is ef- 
fected by means of a sieve, of which 
there should be several in the laboratory. 
A wooden cylinder of about 4 in. depth, 
with an accompanying ring of the same 
materials, constitutes the frame, over 
which can be stretched a cloth of any re- 
quired fineness. For coarser articles, fine 
brass wire is the best material for the 
cloth, but when the powder is to be im- 
palpable, bolting cloth (raw silk), or 
gauze, is requisite. Sieves are also cov- 
ered with haircloth, buckram, book mus- 
lin, and iron wire of different sized 
meshes, each of which has its appropriate 
application. The metallic sieves should 
have their cloths permanently fitted to 
them. For all the rest, two frames, as 
above described, one of much larger di- 
mensions than the other, will serve, as it 
is only necessary to remove the ring when 
it is desired to substitute one kind of 
covering for another. The sieve of cloth, 
of graduated fineness, can be kept in some 
secure place, and withdrawn as wanted, 
and thus we have the economical means 
of possessing a full suite of sieves, from 
the metallic wire, through all the grades 
of fineness, up to the closest wrought 
bolting cloth. After the separation of 
the finer portions by the sieve, the coarser 
particles are again subjected to grinding 
and sieving as often as is necessary to 
convert the whole into the requisite state 
of uniform fineness. Where a more ex- 




ir-^ j uiJiiiiiiliiiiiiuiiiMliiuiiiiiiil 



Home-made Sifter 

tensive sifter is necessary, the one shown 
in our engraving can be used. Its con- 
struction will be readily seen by referring 
to the engraving. Horn scoops, or por- 
celain spoons or ladles, are the proper 
implements for transferring the contents 
of the mortar to the sieve. In some cases 



[ 1001 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Levigation) 



a stiff pasteboard card, being more pli- 
able, is a convenient substitute. The 
use of the hand for this purpose should 
always be avoided, as a slovenly practice. 
A platinum, horn or bone, or — less pref- 
erably — steel spatula, may be used to de- 
tach the particles adherent to the sides of 
the mortar. A round jarring motion will 
force through some of the coarser parti- 
cles, and thus destroy the uniformity of 
the powder, and hence the common prac- 
tice of tapping it frequently against the 
side of the mortar should be abandoned, 
unless the state of fineness is immaterial. 
Some substances, however, as magnesia, 
etc., which obstruct the pores of the cloth, 
must be forced through in this manner, 
and even if necessary by a circular mo- 
tion of the fingers over the interior sur- 
face of the cloth. This manipulation 
frees the meshes of the cloth from ob- 
structions, but it must be carefully done, 
othei-wise the safety of the cloth will be 
endangered. A sieve is also useful for 
the admixture of powders of uniform fine- 
ness. 

Levigation. 

Is that mode of mechanical reduction 
which is practiced by first rubbing the 
substance into a smooth paste, and then 
separating the finer from the coarser por- 
tions by agitating the bruised matters 
with water. After a suflBcient repose the 
grosser and heavier portions subside, leav- 
ing the lighter particles still suspended 
in the water. This water, after decan- 
tation, gives a second deposit of an in- 
creased state of tenuity. The third or 
fourth decantation yields the powder of 
impalpable fineness. The time of repose 
between the decantations, unless great im- 
palpability is required, should be limited, 
and only long enough to allow the de- 
position of the heavier portions. The 
coarse precipitates are collected together 
a second time, and as many more times as 
necessary, rubbed up as before, and treat- 
ed with water until all the lighter por- 
tions have separated. This process ap- 
plies only to substances unalterable by 
water. When uniformity of fineness is 
not at all important, one washing even 
suflaces, and can be accomplished in the 
mortar without the use of glasses. Alter- 
nate poundings and washings will eventu- 
ally reduce and remove the whole con- 
tents of the mortar. In washing over 
gold and other metallic ores, where only 
the heavier portions are to be reserved, 
the water may be allowed to flow directly 
into the mortar, which, being held in an 
inclined position, permits its exit, togeth- 



( Granulation) 



er with the fine dusty portions, which are 
kept in suspension by trituration with 
the pestle. 

This process of levigation is founded 
upon the different specific gravities of the 
coarse and fine bruised matters, and is, 
therefore, not only applicable for the sep- 
aration of the particles of homogeneous 
matters, but also of equally fine matters 
of unequal densities. In the latter case 
it takes the name of elutriation. 

All minerals for analysis which have 
to undergo ignition with alkalies should 
be previously levigated, in order that de- 
composition may be complete ; for if the 
powder is not uniform, the larger parti- 
cles will escape decomposition. 

Pulverization in this manner, by uni- 
formly comminuting the particles, pro- 
motes their equal expansion and the es- 
cape of contained moisture, and thus pre- 
vents the decrepitation of substances 
when heated. 

The deposited powder must always be 
dried, by exposure, previous to subject- 
ing it to any other process. 

Reduction by Granulation. 

The reduction of metals to a pulveru- 
lent state is effected by fusing them in 
a crucible, and pouring the melted mat- 
ter, from an elevation, in a thin stream, 
very gradually, into a bulk of cold water, 
which is, during the process, kept in con^ 
stant agitation with a stirrer. The fine- 
ness of the resultant granules is propor- 
tional to the slowness with which the 
fused metal was poured into the water. 
It is more convenient to transfer the 
metal from the crucible into a ladle, and 
project it into the water from that more 
handy vessel, which enables a frequent 
change of the position of the descending 
stream, and thus prevents the formation 
of clots instead of smaller and more solid 
granules. The fusion of zinc for granu- 
lation must be in a covered crucible, oth- 
erwise it becomes oxidized while hot, and 
partially sublimes by exposure in an open 
vessel. Zinc may also be finely divided 
by being beaten, while hot, in a heated 
mortar. The process of fusing metals 
and then agitating the melted matter in 
a wooden box until cool, reduces them 
to a state of minute division, but at the 
same time promotes their oxidation. For 
general purposes, however, it is not ob- 
jectionable, and the particles of charred 
wood with which it becomes mixed can be 
separated by elutriation. The sides of 
the box are generally well chalked, to 
prevent any adherence of the metal ; this 
also is separable by elutriation. 



[ 1002 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Solution) 



Elutriation. 

Elutriation is a process of obtaining 
substances in a very fine powder by the 
aid of water. The heavier particles fall 
to the bottom first, and the lighter parti- 
cles follow. Advantage may be taken of 
this principle in constructing an elutriat- 
ing apparatus, which may consist of a 
large iron pan having 4 or 5 openings and 
valves, so that a portion of the liquid 
can be drawn off containing finer or 
coarser particles. Elutriation has been 
aptly called water sifting. It is an ex- 
tremely economical process, especially 
when carried on on a large scale. 

Pulverization by Intermediation. 

This mode is both mechanical and 
chemical, and applies particularly to the 
noble metals, in foil, which are difficult 
of pulverization. Honey, sugar, salts, 
etc., are the most usual media. By bind- 
ing the particles together it assists their 
minute division, and prevents their es- 
cape from the mortar. The addition of 
boiling water solves out the medium with- 
out action upon the metallic powder, 
which then only requires to be throwTi 
upon a filter and dried. Phosphorus may 
be finely divided by fusing it with alco- 
hol over a water bath and shaking the 
contents of the flask until thoroughly 
cooled. The phosphorus subsides at the 
bottom in pulverulent form. Camphor, 
which is obstinate under the pestle, read- 
ily yields to its power when mixed with 
a few drops of alcohol or ether to de- 
stroy its elasticity. 



II 
SOLUTION AND EXTRACTION 
Solution. 

When a substance added to a liquid is 
wholly or partially taken up by that li- 
quid it is said to be soluble therein. The 
liquid employed is termed the solvent, and 
its combination with the dissolved parti- 
cles a solution ; and if the liquid has 
exerted its solvent power to the fullest 
extent, then the solution which it forms 
is said to be saturated, because it can hold 
no more. The variable degree of solubil- 
ity in different liquids serves as a dis- 
tinctive characteristic of bodies, particu- 
larly those which are solid. Solution is 
either wholly mechanical, or else chemico- 
mechanical. In the first case it is a 
molecular division of a body, or, in other 
words, a diffusion of its particles in an 
appropriate liquid without any altera- 
tion of its original properties, save as to 



(Solution) 



form and cohesion. Thus, for example, 
an aqueous solution of sugar or salt yields 
the whole of its charge by evaporation, 
and one of sulphate of lime by addition of 
alcohol, in which it is insoluble. Ethe- 




Agitator for Liquids 

real or spirituous solutions deposit their 
dissolved matter by distillation or crys- 
tallization ; and some other kinds, that 
of gutta percha, in chloroform, for in- 
stance, by precipitation with ether or al- 
cohol. When the dissolved particles are 
thus recoverable again in an unaltered 
state, chemically considered, their solution 
may be styled simple. 

In the second case, chemico-mechanical 
solution, in contradistinction to that which 
is purely mechanical, is a process requir- 
ing the modification of a body by chemi- 
cal action previous to its solution. Thus, 
for example, copper, iron, or any other 
base or acid, insoluble in the ordinary 
solvents, may be readily taken up by li- 
quid acids or bases. But the liquid holds 
in solution a newly formed body entirely 
dissimilar to the original substance in 
properties, as appears when it is sep- 
arated. In this, therefore, consists the 
difference between a simple, or mechani- 
cal, and a chemico-mechanical solution. 
As examples of this latter, iron may be 
dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, but in 
the act is transformed into copperas ; al- 
kalies are taken up by acids, but become 
altered to salts ; and oil, in being dissolved 
by potassa solution, is changed into soap. 
Hence it is that the chemical reaction 
is a preliminary step requisite to promote 
simple solution. The point of saturation 
in chemical solution is that at which the 
two bodies, invariably of opposite prop- 
erties, have combined in proportions ade- 
quate to neutralization. 

Solution is one of the most important 
processes in chemistry ; it not only facili- 
tates chemical reaction, but allows the 
separation of soluble from insoluble bod- 
ies, or parts of the same, and consequent- 



[1003] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Solution) 



ly the purification of the solution by sub- 
sequent filtration, evaporation and crys- 
tallization. 

As regards the power of dissolving the 
greatest number of substances, water is 
the first in the rank of simple solvents, 
alcohol the next, and ether third. Then 
follow spirits of turpentine, pyroxylic 
spirit, the volatile and fixed oils, chlo- 
roform, and a host of other liquids suit- 
able to particular substances. Of the 
alkalies, aqua ammonia, or potassa, are 
most used ; the former preferably because 
of its volatility, and that of most of its 
salts. All of the common acids are em- 
ployed, though some few only are of gen- 
eral application, such as the muriatic, 
nitric, sulphuric, acetic and tartaric. 

A very convenient way of testing the 
solubility of a substance is by means of 
a test tube. If solid, a small portion, in 
powder, is to be introduced, and covered 
with distilled water, or the solvent to be 
used, and repeatedly agitated by the hand, 
the forefinger closing the mouth to pre- 
vent the escape of particles. If the mat- 
ter is wholly soluble, there will be no de- 
posit at the bottom of the tube ; if par- 
tially soluble, the deposit will have de- 
creased in bulk ; if totally insoluble, it 
will occupy the same space as at first. 
To determine as to the two latter results, 
a minute portion of the supernatant liquid 
is decanted and evaporated in a small 
platinum spoon, or strip of window glass, 
over a spirit lamp ; if a residue remains, 
it indicates that matter has been taken 
up. When heat is required, the lamp af- 
fords a convenient means of application. 
The procedure in such cases is the same 
as that above indicated. 

1. — There are certain conditions which 
greatly facilitate the solution of sub- 
stances : First, comminution, which in- 
creases the extent of surface ; second, agi- 
tation, which promotes the frequent con- 
tact of all parts of the surface with fresh 
portions of solvents ; third, the freedom 
from impurity of both the solvent and 
the body to be dissolved ; fourth, it is also 
influenced by the quantity and state of 
dilution of the solvent ; fifth, by the tem- 
perature ; sixth, by the mode in which 
the process is conducted. 

2. — Agitation is effected by stirring 
with glass rods when the containing ves- 
sel is open at the top. The rod should 
be rounded at the end over the blowpipe 
flame, and to prevent its rolling from the 
table or top of the vessel upon which it 
should be placed, may be square, instead 
of cylindrical, as usual. A very conven- 
ient and effective mode of bringing all por- 



( Solution) 



tions of the liquid successively in contact 
with the substance to be dissolved is to 
place the latter in a colandered dia- 
phragm suspended beneath the surface of 
the liquid. The first stratum of liquid, 
in becoming saturated, increases its den- 
sity, and consequently descends, and dis- 




Power Mixer for Liquids 



places a lower and fresher portion, which, 
being in the same way surcharged in its 
turn, gives way to successive strata, and 
so the operation continues until the whole 
of the matter, or so much as can be, is 
taken up. This mode keeps the substance 
in constant contact with new portions of 
liquid, and is, in fact, a kind of displace- 
ment process. When flasks or bottles are 
used, the same effect may be produced by 
repeated shaking. Trituration in a mor- 
tar, and alternate decantation and fresh 
additions of the solvent, greatly facilitate 
the solution of solid substances. 

3. — ^The purity of the solvent is an im- 
portant consideration, for if it contains 
foreign matters they may impart a dis- 
solving power which is not inherent in 
[ 1004 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Solution) 



the pure liquid, or diminish that already 
possessed by it. 

4. — In regard to the quantity and state 
of dilution of a solvent, it must be remem- 
bered that some substances require more 
of it than others for their solution, and 
that it should be in a greater degree of 
dilution. Therefore, in examining the sol- 
ubility of a body, always commence with 
small quantities, and increase both quan- 
tity and strength gradually as may be 
required. 

5. — Temperature exerts a considerable 
influence in the solution of bodies, and 
though in a few instances, as in the solu- 
tion of lime, magnesia and anhydrous sul- 
phate of soda in water, its elevation im- 
pairs the power of the solvent, yet, as 
an almost universal rule, it facilitates its 
action. The temperature must be adapted 
to the nature of the solvent and the sub- 
stance to be dissolved, and of the solu- 
tion formed. 

It may be as well to mention that the 
caloric rendered latent at the moment of 
the liquefaction of a solid, which is be- 
ing dissolved in a liquid, causes a de- 
crease of temperature. Solution in vol- 
atile liquids should be, in most cases, 
performed in the cold, and, when of small 
quantities, in narrow-necked flasks. If 
heat is required, especially when the va- 
pors are inflammable, a retort or covered 
still must be used ; and if the distillate 
is valuable, a recipient may be annexed 
to receive as much as comes over. 

The mode of effecting solution varies 
with the su'bs'tance under process : Macer- 
ation, decoction, infusion, digestion, boil- 
ing and displacement have each and all 
appropriate application. 

In ordinary solution, the solid should 
be added in portions, and suflScient inter- 
val allowed for the solution of those in 
the liquid before fresh are added. In 
case of foaming or effervescence, an addi- 
tional amount of fluid will produce a 
calm. 

Some volatile substances which are in- 
soluble in water under ordinary circum- 
stances are taken up by it in the state 
of vapor. For this purpose both should 
be distilled together. 

When solutions emitting corrosive or 
disagreeable fumes are being made in open 
vessels the operation should be conducted 
under a hood the barrel of which con- 
nects with the chimney flue, so as to in- 
sure their exit. The containing vessels 
should be those which resist the action 
of heat, acid, alkalies and corrosive 
liquids. 

For making saturated solutions of most 



(Maceration) 



substances, ebullition is necessary. For 
this purpose the solid must be boiled with 
the solvent until the latter, on cooling, 
deposits some of its charge. The cooled 
solution is then to be filtered, 




Hand Press 

Expression. 

By expression we are to understand the 
process of separating solids from liquids 
by means of force. Presses are usually 
used for expression, and are divided into 
screw presses, lever presses, hydraulic 
presses, etc. The ordinary screw press 
shown in our engraving is of great use. 
The ordinary meat chopper, with a knife 
in one piece, and costing $1.50, is a valu- 
able aid to expression. Horizontal screw 
presses of the same general appearance 
express as well as cut. 

Maceration. 

The soaking or steeping of a substance 
in a liquid, at the ordinary temperature, 
is termed maceration. It is almost ex- 
clusively applicable to organic substances, 
being most frequently resorted to as a 
means of hastening and facilitating the 
after solution of the extractive parts of 
hard, compact or impervious wood, roots, 
stems and leaves, by the more active 
methods of displacement and ebullition. 
It is employed when the soluble princi- 
ples are alterable by heat, and is also 
made use of to effect the solution of a 
substance containing several principles, 
the solubility of which varies with the 
temperature applied, as it leaves those 
which are not taken up in the cold to be 
acted upon by the aid of heat. Thus, for 
example, in the treatment of most vege- 
table substances, starch, which is gener- 
ally present, and is only soluble at the 
boiling point of water, will remain un- 
touched, while all other principles soluble 
without heat can be separated from it. ' 

The mode of performing the process 
is merely to place the solvent- and the 
Bubstance to be dissolved together in a 



[1005] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Digestion) 



vessel, and allow them to remain a longer 
or shorter time, according to the nature 
of the substance. For ordinary purposes, 
a loosely covered pan of blue stoneware 
is very convenient. In delicate opera- 
tions, a beaker glass, or solution jar, is 
more appropriate. When the solvent is 
volatile, a wide-mouthed, stoppered bot- 
tle may be used. 

Infusion. 

This process is likewise applicable al- 
most solely to organic substances. In- 
stead, however, of the solid remaining in 
contact for a length of time with the 
solvent, the latter is first heated to boil- 
ing and then poured upon the former. 

This mode is used for the exhaustion of 
flowers, leaves, roots, seeds, and other 
substances of delicate texture, which are 
easily penetrable and readily yield their 
soluble matters ; and especially for the 
purpose of extracting volatile ingredients. 
The heat applied to the solvent increases 
its energy ; but as the material is only 
in contact for a limited time, the inter- 
val between the commencement and com- 
pletion of the operation is not suflScient 
to affect the material or solution, even 
thougli one or more of its components are 
alterable by heat. 

Decoction. 

This mode of solution, which is so im- 
portant to the pharmaceutist, is chiefly 
employed for the purpose of exhausting 
those vegetable substances the compo- 
nents of which will not readily yield to 
other means. It is merely an extension 
of the last process, and consists in that 
contact of the material to be dissolved 
with a hot solvent in a covered vessel, 
which is continued until all soluble mat- 
ter is taken up. Most volatile matters 
are epelled by decoction, but those which 
are insoluble, save by prolonged action 
of heat, are dissolved or suspended, as it 
were, by favor of other principles pres- 
ent. Decoction is only used with liquid 
solvents which are not decomposable by 
heat. 

In all of the preceding processes, as 
well also in others in which solid vege- 
table matter is subjected to the solvent 
action of liquids, the colandered ladle of 
tinned wire is most useful for transfer- 
ring the residue to the press, for removal 
of any retained liquid. 

Digestion. 

This mode of solution differs from ma- 
ceration in requiring the assistance of 
heat, and consists in exposing a body to 



(Baths) 



the prolonged action of a liquid in a cov- 
ered vessel, at any temperature between 
90° F. and several degrees less than the 
boiling point of the solvent. The method 
of heating varies with circumstances, and 
can be by a gentle fire, or by the sand, 
steam, water or saline bath, as the nature 
of the operation requires. 

In analysis, glass or platinum vessels 
are used, but in less important operations 
those of other materials are more con- 
venient and economical. 

A very important advantage of diges- 
tion is that it allows the perfect solution 
of all soluble portions of a substance 
without modifying the nature of the sol- 
vent. It is especially useful for the de- 
composition of ores, minerals, and other 
substances with difficulty acted upon by 
acids or other solvents, and also for ef- 
fecting the synthesis of compounds re- 
quiring a long continued heat. Moreover, 
it is very available in preparing alcoholic 
and aqueous solutions, medicinal oils and 
other pharmaceutical products. 

Evaporating Dishes. 

Special evaporating dishes of porcelain, 
glass, or enameled steel, can be purchased 
of all dealers in supplies, and are spe- 
cially recommended. Broad, shallow ves- 
sels should be usually selected. If glass 
evaporating dishes are to be used, they 
should be heated in a sand bath. The 
evaporation is aided by stirring; glass 
rods, or porcelain or wood stirrers, should 
be used. If the reader is going to use 
large quantities of the same materials, 
various means of stirring artificially will 
present themselves. Evanoration of many 
substances should be carried on under a 
hood, which may be of sheet iron or gal- 
vanized iron, like the hood over a black- 
smith's forge, or the work may be car- 
ried on in an evaporating chamber, which 
may be likened to a closet with the lower 
portion boarded up so that the floor of 
the closet is of a convenient heieht to be 
reached with the hands. There should 
be a closed window in the closet, which 
should be well ventilated to the outside 
by galvanized iron or asphaltum painted 
ventilating tight. All the arrangements 
for gas, etc., should be at the front of 
the evaporating chamber, so that it will 
not be necessary to reach over hot plates, 
etc. 

Steam Baths. 

Steam is very largely used in the arts 
for maintaining a steam bath. The stpam 
may or may not be under pressure. Where 
steam without pressure is used, either a 



i: 100^1 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Drying) 



steam jacket is constructed, or the live 
steam may be conducted directly into the 
top. A steam distributor can be readily 
constructed with the aid of pipe or elbow 
Ts, etc., and this tends to distribute the 
heating more equally, and serves to mix 
the ingredients which are being heated. 
If considerable operations are to be car- 
ried on, the use of steam under pressure 
is recommended for many purposes. Su- 
perheated steam, of course, raises the tem- 
perature considerably ; thus, if steam at 
the ordinary atmospheric temperature is 
to be increased, a temperature of 240° 
may be obtained by a pressure of 40 lb. 
to the square inch, while with a press- 
ure of 80 lb. to the square inch a tem- 
perature of 312° can be obtained. It is 
possible to build a water bath with a 
jacket in which steam at high pressure is 
gnerated directly in the water jacket. 

Attemperating Baths. 

There are many substances which have 
to be treated moderately to heat, so as 
to prevent the decomposition or destruc- 
tion of the substance which is being treat- 
ed. This is especially the ease with med- 
ical preparations. Various attemperat- 
ing baths have been devised, many of 
which are extremely ingenious, and are 
fully illustrated in the catalogues of deal- 
ers in chemical apparatus. The sand bath 
is one of the best-known means of pro- 
ducing an even heat without burning. It 
can be readily made by putting sand in 
a pan over the naked fire and putting 
next in porcelain or other vessels as it 
becomes necessary. Oil and paraffine 
baths are used for certain purposes, as 
are also glycerin baths. The water bath 
is perhaps the most widely distributed and 
best-known means of regulating the heat 
which is applied to substances. The wa- 
ter bath may be extemporized, or the 
special baths furnished by dealers in 
chemicals may be used, which are more 
satisfactory, being specially adapted to 
the purpose. Salt-water baths are also 
largely used. The action of salt in the 
water is to raise the boiling point. 

DRYING AND DESICCATING 
Mechanical Methods. 

Foremost among mechanical appliances 
for this purpose ranks the centrifugal 
machine, or hydro extractor. In princi- 
ple, this anparatus consists of an upright 
drum, which can be made to revolve with 
great velocity on a vertical axle. The 
drum may have its sides constructed of 
sheet metal, perforated with a multitude 



(Drying; 



of fine holes, of wire gauze properly sup- 
ported, or of 'basket work, accordmg to 
the nature of the substances to be treated. 
The drum, being charged with material, 
is set in quick rotation. The water pres- 
ent is thus expelled through the perforated 
in the form of a fine shower. This 




^ 
^ 

& 



4 



DDD 




Hood For Chemical Work 

process is exceedingly well adapted for 
removing the greater part of the moisture 
from cloth, yarn, unspun wool, etc. ; also 
from crystalline and granular substances. 
It is not so well adapted for drying wet 
powders, pastes, etc., since in such cases 
a very considerable proportion of the 
solid matter is projected away along with 
the liquid, so the holes may get choked 
up. Thus it has not hitherto been found 
satisfactory for drying sewage mud. Its 
use requires, further, special modifications 
where the liquid to be got rid of is not 
pure water, but holds useful or hurtful 
matters in solution. A recent very sim- 
ple improvement has considerably extend- 
ed the use of the hydro extractor. The 
materials, instead of being put into the 
drum loose, are inclosed in bags of some 
suitable material, thus preventing the dis- 
persion of the solids. This method has 
been very successfully adopted with but- 
ter. It must, however, be remembered 
that no substance, especially if of organic 
nature, can be rendered absolutely dry by 
the use of the hydro extractor. 

Another mechanical agency for desic- 
cation is the press, more especially that 
device known as the filter press, which 



[ 1007 ] 



chemical Manipulations 



(Drying) 



has proved itself invaluable for separating 
solids from fluids when the latter largely 
predominate. This apparatus contains a 
number of cells, each consisting of a cou- 
ple of cast-iron plates, lined, when in use, 
with suitable cloths. The inner surface 
of each plate shows a number of ridges. 
The liquid paste is forced by a pump or 
press into each cell, through an aperture, 
and the water escapes through the cloth, 
and trickles down between the grooves 
formed of the ridges to the pipe at the 
bottom. 

The filter press, like the centrifugal ma- 
chine, only expels a part of the water in 
mud, eic. ; thus, if a sewage mud contains 
at the outset 90 to 95% of moisture, it 
m;)y be reduced by the filter press down 
to 50 to 60%, according to the time dur- 
ing which the pressure is maintained. It 
is only in a few cases that hydraulic 
presses, screw presses, etc., can be em- 
ployed for desiccation. 

Small Hot-Air Baths or Closets for 
Laboratory and Other Purposes. 

(a) The ordinary steam or hot-air 
chambers for laboratory use, although 
meeting the most of the requirements for 
which they are designed, have the dis- 
advantage of being more adapted for ex- 
perimental than manufacturing purposes. 
The want of a cheap and convenient ap- 
paratus induced Maben to bring under 
notice a design, due to Hyslop, ovie of his 
apprentices, who intended it for drying 
photographic gelatine plates ; but, by 
sbght modifications of the interior, it is 
perfectly adapted for the pui-poses of the 
laboratory. 

The chamber consists of a strong wood- 
en box, a, 18 in. high by 18 in. wide, and 
14 in. deep. To the front a door is 
attached, hinged in this instance, but a 
vertical sliding movement would be more 
convenient. To two sides of the box are 
fixed wooden supports, which serve to re- 
ceive teak spars for supporting drying 
trays or evaporating dishes. The bottom 
of the box has a perforation of 3 in. 
diameter, into which a zinc cylinder, 6, 
is securely fitted, and to this is solderel 
the upper end of a copper cone, c, with 
a flat bottom, while into this latter a bent 
tube of 2% in. diameter and 9 in. total 
length is securely inserted in the man- 
ner shown. A corresponding perforation 
is made in the top for receiving a tube 
to answer the purposes of a chimnoy. 

Using a Bunsen burner or a spirit lamp 
as the source of heat, the flame is directed 
to the bottom of the cone, c, with the re- 
sult that the heated air ascends into the 



(Drying) 



chamber, being diffused by means of a 
dispersion board, h, about 4 in. square, 
which is placed over the orifice. At the 
end of the^ tube, d, is fitted a "hit-and- 
miss" regulator, g, which consists of a 
series of triangle-shaped holes, with a re- 




Laboratory Drying Closet 



volving disc behind, so that the size of 
the apertures can be increased or dimin- 
ished, thus enabling the amount of air 
entering to be under partial control. The 
highest temperature to which the air in 
the chamber has been raised is 180° F. 
(82° C.) which is suflBciently high for most 
operations. If a uniform temperature of 
say 100° F. (38° C.) be required, the 
admission of air must be regulated ac- 
cordingly by means of the regulator, g, 
accuracy being insured by the insertion of 
a thermometer, m, into a perforated cork 
fitted into a %-in. aperture on the top 
of the chamber. By this means there is 
no diflBlculty in keeping within 2%° less 
or more of the desired temperature. 

If a rapid current of warm air is de- 
sired, this can be had by placing an angu- 
lar tube, k, on the top of the chimney, e: 
by heating the angle of the tube a draught 
is quickly created. 

It is desirable in some cases to filter 
the admitted air ; this can be done by 
stretching a piece of lint or other suitable 
material between the regulator, g, and the 
tube, d, by which means dust particles 
are effectually excluded. 



[ 1008 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Drying) 



The metallic parts of the apparatus be- 
ing made to screw off and on, they can be 
detached at will, so that we can thus 
have a series of wooden chambers suited 
to different purposes. In this instance, 
the chamber being intended for drying 
gelatine plates, it was of course con- 
structed so that the light would effectually 
shut out, but it is obvious that a small 
glass window would add greatly to its 
value for most other purposes. The ad- 
vantages of this chamber are its simplici- 
ty, its perfect security against overheat- 
ing, and its small cost — it can be made 
for a few shillings. It is light and easily 
handled, and is always ready for work, a 
current of pure hot air being obtained in 
a very few minutes after the application 
of the Bunsen flame. It is specially 
adaptable in the preparation of granular 
and scale compounds, for drying precipi- 
tates, hardening pills previous to coating, 
and in other operations requiring a cur- 
rent of hot air. 

(h) A writer describes his drying 
closet as being made of teak 1 in. thick, 
with light-tight door in front ; the ends 
project beyond the bottom to form legs ; 
the top and bottom are both double (4 in. 
apart), and the air enters through a slit 
3 in. wide, and reaching right across the 
box. This slit is at one end, and the air 
has then to pass along the double bottom 
to the other end, where it gets into the 
box through a similar slit, thus keeping 
out the light ; and it gets out at top in a 
similar way. Over the exit at top is 
fitted a tin or copper chimney 3 ft. high, 
in which burns a Silber lamp, giving a 
good draught, and drawing a large quan- 
tity of air through. Inside the box are 
brackets (each having a leveling screw 
through it, with the point upward), pro- 
jecting from the ends, on which are laid 
plate-glass shelves cut the width of the 
box, but 3 in. shorter, so that when the 
shelves are in place, if one is pushed close 
to the right end of the box and the next 
to the left, and so on, the air has to pass 
backwards and forwards over the plates. 
His box has 3 shelves, 13 in. wide and 
32 in. long, and will dry 6 photographic 
plates 15 in. by 12 in., or, of course, any- 
thing less that will lie in the same space. 
Some have an arrangement for drying and 
warming the air before it enters the box ; 
but this sometimes induces blisters and 
frilling. Shelves should be far enough 
apart to get the hand in easily, say 6 in. 
Our next engraving shows a sectional 
view of another form of photographic 
drying box. a are shelves on which to 
put plates. In the drawer, b, are placed 



(Drying) 



some lumps of calcium chloride. This 
absorbs moisture very rapidly, and the 
air in passing through it is thoroughly 
dried. In the flue, d, is a small gas 
burner, and below is a light trap, c, made 
of tin. The gas jet is for the purpose of 
causing an extra current of air to pass 
over the plates. It is better to confine 
the plates as much as possible to the 2 
middle shelves, as there they are sure to 
be safe. At e is a sketch showing how 




IINC 

Photographic Drying Box. 

the door of the box should be rebated into 
the side. 

(c) England's drying closet is simply 
a light-proof box with wires stretched 
across the interior to suport the articles 
to be dried ; e.g., photographic plates. 
Through the center runs a 1-in. gas pipe, 
open at both ends, with a small gas jet 
burning inside at the lower end. At the 
top and bottom of the box 2 draught holes 
are cut, to which a tin tubing of about 
3 in. diameter is attached. The gas tube 
gets warmed with a very small jet of gas 
burning in it, a mere pin-hole being suffi- 
cient exit for the gas. This warms the 
air in contact with the tin tube, and also 
slightly the air inside the cupboard. The 
consequence is, that a current of slightly 
warm air is set up, and circulates among 
the plates while supported on the wires, 
and the drying of the films takes place 
rapidly. Some 5 to 6 hours is a sufficient 
time in which to dry the plates, while 
without the gas jet it would take 24 hours 
or more. In the inside of the cupboard, 
and near the top and bottom, are placed 
2 cardboard discs to stop the possibility 
of any stray light entering, and as the 
whole affair is placed in the dark room, 
the chances of any such access even with- 
out it would be small. Inside the cup- 
board door is a thermometer, and the jet 
is regulated so that a temperature of 
about 70° F. is indicated — 80° would do 
no harm to the plates ; beyond that tem- 
009] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Drying) 



perature it might not be safe to go. The 
small gas jet used is the same as seen in 
tobacconists' shops ; the hole in the end is 
plugged up, and a very small hole drilled 
at the side. 




England's Drying Closet. 

id) A photographer adopted a large 
zinc case with a lid of the same material. 
He cut a long opening at one end of the 
bottom, and had another bottom soldered 
inside with an opening at the opposite 
end. He then had a Russian iron chimney 
fastened on one of the sides, and fitted 
this with a gas flame placed as shown, 
so that it might produce the necessary 
current of air. To make the cover fit 
air and light-tight was rather more diffi- 
cult. This, however, he managed in the 
following manner. He had a rim soldered 




(Drying) 



feet closure. This box has been in use 
ever since, and, with the addition of a 
wooden tray, and of an iron vessel full 
of calcium chloride, has done very good 
service. In the figure, a is the zinc case ; 
&, gutter filled with shot ; c, wooden tray ; 
d, calcium chloride vessel ; e, Russian 
chimney. 

(e) The usual form of hot-air baths 
used in laboratories are, almost without 
exception, affected by drawbacks, particu- 
larly the following : 

1. — Either the temperature in the upper 
and lower parts is different ; or 

2. — The temperature differs with the 
duration of heating ; or 

3. — It can only be raised to a moderate 
degree ; or 

4. — Finally, it can be kept up only by 
a relatively large consumption of gas. 

Meyer proposes to remove these defects 
in the following manner : 

Equality of temperature may be at- 
tained by applying the heat at the side — • 
never below — and by taking care that the 
flame never comes in actual contact with 
the metal. The space to be heated is to 
be surrounded with the hot products of 
combustion of the flame mixed only with 
the smallest possible excess of air, in 
such a manner that a triple layer of 
heated gases, proceeding from without in- 



Calcium Chloride Drying Box. 

all round in the shape of a gutter, the j 
edge of the lid sinking into the bottom of I 
the gutter, and then filled the latter with j 
small shot, and thus obtained a most per- • 

[1010] 




W 



Fig. h 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Drying) 



ward, surrounds the inner mantle. Be- 
sides, the outer, or hottest layer, must be 
protected from too rapid cooling by apply- 
ing a suitable coating of bad conductibili- 
ty for heat. 

Equality of temperature for any length 
of time may be best attained by a regu- 
lator constructed on the principle of An- 
drea's, which contains, in a small, con- 
fined space a small quantity of a liquid 
having a boiling point a trifle below the 
degree of temperature to be maintained. 
The author prefers the modified form sug- 
gested by Kemp, and improved by Bunsen, 
which is wholly constructed of glass ex- 
cept the lower end of the gas tube, this 
being made of perforated sheet platinum. 

In order to fill it, the gas tube, a, Fig. 
a, is temporarily replaced by a tube, h, 
drawn out at both ends and reaching 
down into the reservoir of the regulator 
(top of Fig. 6). The lateral branch, c, 
is now connected with the vacuum pump, 
the whole inverted (as in Fig. 6), and 
contracted end dipped, first into the liquid 
to be used as regulator, and then into 
mercury, until the chamber is almost, 
but not quite, full. The apparatus is now 
turned over, a little more mercury poured 
in, and the gas tube, c, is inserted. When 
using the apparatus, the gas tube is first 
drawn upwards, and, when the proper 
temperature has been reached, pushed 
down into the mercury, until the supply 
of gas is reduced to a minimum. By 
cautious adjustment, it is easy to find the 
position at which the tension of the vapor 
developed in the tube raises the column 




Drying Chamber. 



(Drying) 



of mercury sufficiently to just close the 
orifice of the tube, c, at the proper tem- 
perature. As the air bath cools off very 
slowly, but heats up rapidly, it is of ad- 
vantage to adjust the regulator to a slight- 
ly lower temperature than actually re- 
quired. 

It is best to have a series of such 
regulators, charged with substances, the 
boiling points of which are about 30° C. 
apart, and to keep them in a proper re- 
ceptacle for use. Suitable substances are, 
for water baths : ethyl chloride, ether, 
carbon disulphide, mixtures of ether and 
alcohol, benzole ; for air baths : water, 
toluol, xylol or amylic alcohol, cymol or 
oil of turpentine, aniline or phenol, naph- 
thaline, diphenyle or diphenylmathane, 
diphenlyamine, and perhaps also anthra- 
cene. It is not at all necessary to use 
these in a pure state, particularly those 
which are solid at ordinary temperature, 
since they melt more easily when impure. 
Only very little of solid substances should 
be introduced, for the excess distils off, 
and may clog up the gas tube. 

The annexed engraving shows an ap- 
proved air bath. 




Drying Air Chamber Arranged for Dis- 
tillation. 



It consists of 4 concentric walls of sheet 
copper, 2 of which are attached to the 
upper plate, and the others to the bottom 
plate. It can be arranged for the dry 
distillation of substances which should not 
be heated beyond a certain point (for in- 
stance, citric acid in the preparation of 
aconitic acid, etc.). 

[ 1011 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Drying) 




Drying Chamber Arranged for Dry Dis- 
tillation. 

The innermost cylinder* surrounds the 
space, a, to be heated, which is closed 
from below by a double bottom, &, fas- 
tened by a bayonet-clamp. The upper 
cover also double (the 2 walls being kept 
parallel by inner supports, of which one 
is shown at h) , has 2 tubulures, one, I, 
for the insertion of a thermometer, an- 
other, *, for the regulator, and another 
for the escape of the heated vapors. To 
this cover the 2 cylinders, d and f, are 
attached, while e and c are soldered to the 
bottom piece, which is also provided with 
3 legs. The heating is done by a brass 
ring attached to the legs, with a supply 
of gas controlled by the regulator, i. The 
ring has holes of 2 to 3 mm. bore in in- 
tervals of 3 cm. The little flames thus 
produced burn quietly and may easily be 
regulated. With the same amount of gas 
which is furnished by a gas cock supply- 
ing an ordinary Bunsen's burner, the 
space in a (= about 5 1.) may readily 
be heated to 300° C. and over, even when 
it is not closed below. But in order to 
obtain this result, the intervals between 
the several cylinders, in which the prod- 
ucts of combustion circulate, must not 
exceed 10 mm. Besides, the outer cylinder, 
/, must be protected with a non-radiating 
cover. The best, for this purpose, is a 
layer of asbestos (in sheet), to be applied 
so as to leave a little space between it 

*The air chambers illustrated above are 
not square, but round. The illustrations 
represent a vertical section through the 
center. 



(Drying) 



and cylinder /, which space is to be filled 
out with silicious earth ("kieselguhr") 
or mineral wool. 

If tubes are to be heated, the modifica- 
tion shown herewith may be used. It is 
also here of importance that the channels 
through which the warm air circulates are 
very narrow, scarcely 1 cm. apart. The 
8 iron tubes pass through the narrow 
walls, which latter are not double but 
covered with little flaps hinging upwards 
(one corresponding to each tube), as 
closely as possible fltting to the surface 
of the outer cylinder, but remaining slight- 
ly distant from the ends of the tubes. In 
case a glass tube (inserted in one of 




Drying Chamber Arranged for Tubes. 

the iron tubes, for being heated) should 
explode, its fragments are caught by the 
loosely hanging flaps. Between the iron 
tubes, a Babo's regulator may be inserted. 

For special uses the above forms of 
air baths may be still further modified. 
It is, however, of importance to remember 
that the heated gases should surround the 
space to be heated in a triple layer; that 
the hottest layer should be near the out- 
side, and that the intervals between the 
walls should admit as little excess of air as 
possible. The gases escaping above must 
have the property of extinguishing a glow- 
ing splinter of wood. 

(f ) The air bath ordinarily used in 
chemical laboratories for drying precipi- 
tates, for making determinations of water 
by loss, and for similar purposes, is usual- 
ly a rather expensive piece of apparatus. 
The iron or copper closet, with its door, 
tubulure for thermometer, shelves, stand. 



[ 1012 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Air Baths) 




BtiCN 



Air Baths. 

etc., works no more satisfactorily because 
of its somewhat elaborate or diflficult con- 
struction. In our engravings are shown a 
simple substitute for this apparatus, that 
as regards simplicity cannot well be ex- 
celled, while its other good features cer- 
tainly operate to commend it. It consists 
of an inverted flower pot sustained upon 
an ordinary tin pan or sand bath, the 
whole being carried by a tripod or retort 
stand. The aperture at the top serves to 
receive a perforated cork through which a 
thermometer is passed. An ordinary Bun- 
sen burner is used to heat it. As the sand 
bath directly over the burner becomes 
very hot it is advisable to invert a second 
smaller sand bath within the first as 
shown in B. This prevents too direct a 
radiation of heat from the hot metal. 
Upon this the little stand or bent triangle 
supporting the crucible or watch glass 
containing the substance to be heated may 
be placed. The thermometer should be 
thrust down through the cork until its 
bulb is near the substance to be dried, 
so as to obtain a correct indication of the 
temperature at that point. The entire 
arrangement is shown in external view 
In A. 

To place the vessel in it or to remove 
one, the flower pot is lifted ofE the sand 
baths. It will be observed that its porous 
nature provides a species of ventilation. 



(Air Baths) 



while its composition assures it against 
corrosion. It even protects the plates 
below to a considerable extent, as drops 
of water or other fluid cannot run down 
its sides as it cools. 

_ But convenient as it is in the role of 
air bath for simple drying operations, it 
will be found more so where drying tubes 
or retorts have to be manipulated at con- 
stant temperature. The flower pot can be 
perforated at any place, and holes of any 
size or shape can be drilled and cut 
through it with an old knife, file, or other 
implement. Thus in C it is shown in use 
for drying a substance at constant tem- 
perature in a straight drying tube. The 
holes to receive this tube can be drilled 
in a few minutes. The arrangement as 
shown is of the simplest kind, but if the 
usual bath was used, it would require a 
special tubulation to be introduced or con- 
trived for the tube to pass through. 
Flower pots cost so little that there need 
be no hesitation in preparing them for 
special uses. 

In D a U tube is shown as being 
heated, while in E a retort occupies the 
bath, and is in use for fractional distil' 
lation or other operation requiring a con- 
stant temperature. In all cases it is 
better to use the second bath inverted 
within the chamber. It conduces greatly 
to the maintenance of an even tempera- 
ture throughout the whole space. A hint 
may also be taken from the heavy drying 
plate formerly perhaps more used than at 
present. If for the light metal pans a 
heavy plate of Vz in. or more in thickness 
is substituted, the temperature will not 
be subject to as rapid variations, and less 
diflSculty will be experienced in keeping a 
constant temperature. The tray furnished 
with the next large size of pot may be 
used instead of the sand bath upon which 
to rest the inverted flower pot. This 
gives an absolutely non-corrodible con- 
struction. 

When the bath is in use for drying sub- 
stances, its top, which is at a rather low 
heat, affords an excellent place of drying 
precipitates wrapt in their filter papers. 
It acts in two ways. It is generally just 
hot enough to dry them with reasonable 
quickness without danger of spurting, and 
it also acts by capillarity to absorb the 
water directly. It represents in the last 
respect the porous tile or blotting paper — 
appliances too little appreciated by chem- 
ists here. It must be remembered that 
the drying of a precipitate by evaporation 
leaves all the impurities of the wash water 
concentrated therein, while capillary ab- 
sorption removes a great part of both 



[ 1013 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Air Baths) 



wash water and its impurities, thus con- 
ducing to the accuracy of the work. 

Water-heated Air Baths and Ovens. 

(a) The accompanying sketch of a com- 
bined steam oven and distilled water ap- 
paratus, so arranged as to be left to itself 
for a long period of time without the 
risk of the boiler going dry, may perhaps 
be of interest to many, and a few words 
only are necessary to describe the work- 
ing. The steam oven, a, is of the ordinary 
construction, but is fitted at the side with 
a tube connecting it with the con- 
denser, 6. Heat is applied to a by 
means of a radial burner, connected with 
the gas supply by metallic tubing ; the 
steam generated circulates around the 
drying chamber, escapes through the cop- 
per tube, c, thence through block-tin 
worm, and falls as distilled water in the 
receiver, d. The cistern, e, fitted with a 
Mariotte's tube, holds cold water, which 
falls through the tube, f, enters the con- 
denser, where it rises slowly, absorbing 
heat from the condensing worm, until it 
reaches the tube leading to the boiler at 
a high temperature. For a cistern, an 
18-gaI. ale cask, supported on a stool, has 
been found to answer admirably, having 
the advantage of holding suflScient water 
on the top to secure the 2 corks being air- 
tight. By a suitable adjustment of the 
Mariotte's tube, h, the rate of flow of 
the water can be so regulated that the 
level of water in the condenser is con- 
stant, or, if desired, allowed to drop slow- 
ly into the waste pipe, while the water 
evaporated from a is renewed by water 



(Air Baths) 



^^ n 




apparatus was first fitted up in the labora- 
tory, it was intended to have connected 
the condenser directly with the town 
water supply, but as the waterworks 
authorities would sanction no such con- 
nection, we had recourse to the cistern, 
with the satisfactory result that we are 
in this respect quite independent of the 
caprice of the waterworks turncock. The 
several connections are made by union 
joints, to allow the apparatus to be taken 
to pieces and the boiler freed from scale. 
The whole apparatus may be supported 
upon a strong shelf, which should be pro- 
tected from the heat of the burner by 
means of slates or asbestos millboard. 
With this arrangement, bulky precipi- 
tates may be allowed to remain in the 
steam oven all night and found ready for 
further treatment next morning. 

(6) In the annexed engraving is shown 
a constant water bath, consisting of a 
square box. A, supported over a Fletcher's 
solid flame burner. The top of the box, 
15 X 15.5 in,, is formed by a brass plate, 
ys in. thick, which thus is stiff enough to 



Steam Oven and Distilled Water Appara- 
tus. 

already near boiling. In practice it has 
been found necessary to allow the water 
to waste at the rate of about 2 drops per 
minute, the 18 gal. lasting for over 72 
hours, during which time 10 to 11 gal. of 
distilled water are collected. When this 

[ 1014 ] 




Constant Water Bath. 



Chemical Manipulatiofu 



(Vaporization) 



support a considerable weight without 
yielding, the sides and bottom being sheet 
copper. From the point, B, projects a %- 
in. brass tube, B C, which turns up at 
right angle. At E is a stop cock, which 
is connected by a thick rubber tube with 
the glass tube, D F, which is fastened 
against the adjoining wall. Connected 
with C by a rubber joint is a ^-in. block 
tin tube of 20 ft. length, which extends 
up the wall in the manner shown to the 
highest point, T, and thence returns and 
ends just over the slightly funnel-shaped 
top of the glass tube at D. The bath 
being filled with water to just the level, 
B 6, may he kept constant by boiling for 
many days without appreciable loss of 
water, the steam being condensed in its 
passage up, or, if uncondensed before it 
reaches the point, T, in its passage down 
the block tin tube. In flat-bottomed pla- 
tinum or porcelain capsules, evaporation 
goes on very rapidly when placed on top 
of this water bath. The whole surface 
of the bath is nickel plated. 




Automatic Cut-off for Gas 
Chamber. 



Drying 



III 
VAPORIZATION 

By the term "vaporization" we are to 
understand certain mechanical operations 
by which volatile substances are separated 
from other fixed bodies, or from bodies 

[ 1015 ] 



( Evaporation ) 



which may be less volatile, by the action 
of heat. When a volatile liquid is separ- 
ated from a less volatile liquid, by the 
process of vaporization, we have what is 
known as evaporization. When a volatile 
liquid is to be collected we have what is 
known as distillation. When a solid is 
to be separated from the volatile liquid, 
we have what is known as desiccation, in 
which solid substances are deprived of 
moisture. Excication is the process by 
which a solid, crystalline substance is 
deprived of its water of crystallization, by 
the aid of powerful heat. 

Granulation. 

This is the process by which a powder 
is produced by heating a solution until 
the moisture has evaporated. Many salts 
are treated in this manner. The heat 
which should be applied in this process 
should be strong at first, and then grad- 
ually reduced. The stirring should be 
constant. When vaporization is used to 
separate a volatile solid from another 
body, it is known as sublimination. It 
can also be called a process of distilling 
volatile solids. It is a process which is 
largely used in the manufacture of chemi- 
cals, and is not so largely used in the 
laboratory. 

Evaporation. 

When any liquid is heated for the pur- 
pose of expelling vaporizable matter, and 
the process is conducted solely with a 
view to saving its fixed portion, the opera- 
tion is termed evaporation. It thus far 
differs from distillation, which has for its 
object the preservation of the volatilized 
portion, in most cases, regardless of the 
solid. By its aid we can decrease the 
volume of or concentrate solutions for 
crystallization and chemical reaction, ex- 
pel valueless volatile ingredients from 
those which are more fixed, obtain dis- 
solved matter in a dry state, and prepare 
extracts and other pharmaceutical prod- 
ucts. 

Liquids evaporate more or less at all 
temperatures, those having the lowest 
boiling point yielding the most readily ; 
but there are certain conditions which 
greatly promote this tendency. It must be 
remembered, therefore : 

1. — That evaporation is more rapid in 
dry atmospheres, and that consequently 
the transit of a constant stream of air 
over the surface af the heated liquid 
effects a continual removal of each 
stratum as it becomes saturated with 
vapor. 

2. — That evaporation is confined to the 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Evaporation) 



surface, and consequently that the breadth 
of the evaporating vessel must be extended 
at the expense of its depth. 

3. — That heat greatly facilitates evapor- 
ation by lessening the cohesive force of 
the particles of a liquid, and consequently 
that the evaporating vessel should present 
a broad surface to be heated. 

4. — That a diminution of the atmos- 
pheric pressure also facilitates evapora- 
tion, for the more perfect the vacuum the 
lower the boiling point of a liquid. 

For analytical purposes, capsules of 
Berlin porcelain are by far the best im- 
plements. The capsules should be very 
thin, with steep sides, spout for pouring, 
nearly flat bottomed, and glazed through- 
out. Watch glasses answer for small ex- 
periments, but require to be very cautious- 
ly heated, as they are readily fractured. 

Beaker glasses are also used for evapor- 
ating solutions which would lose by being 
transferred. Broad-mouthed glass flasks 
are of but limited application for evapor- 
ating, and are only employed for slow 
processes with valuable liquids, which are 
liable to alteration by too much exposure 
when ebullition is necessary. 

For the larger operations of the chemist 
or pharmaceutist, vessels of copper, tin, 
enamelled iron, tinned copper, and for 
some purposes very large porcelain cap- 
sules are more suitable. 

Retorts are used when the vaporized 
particles are of suflScient value to be con- 
densed, as in the process of distillation. 

Spontaneous Evaporation. 

Those liquids which are very volatile 
or which become altered by heat, are 
evaporated by mere exposure to the atmos- 
phere at its ordinary temperature. To 
this end they are poured into broad shal- 
low vessels, and placed aside until the 
dissipation of all vaporizable matters, or 
until crystallization ; this mode of evapor- 
ation being also employed for procuring 
large crystals, which are better defined 
than those obtained by rapid evaporation. 
The more dry and hot the atmosphere the 
more rapid is the evaporation. In order 
to maintain a continued contact of the 
face of the liquid with strata of fresh air, 
the vessel containing it should be placed 
in a draught, so that those portions of air 
which become saturated with vapor may 
be displaced. When the air might act 
injuriously, and a vacuum is unnecessary, 
a substance may be evaporated in another 
atmosphere, for instance, of hydrogen or 
carbonic acid. For this purpose it is only 
necessary to adjust the disengagement leg 
of the apparatus to the tubulure of a 



( Evaporation ) 



retort, so that its end may reach nearly 
to the level of the liquid in the latter. 
The generated hydrogen passes into the 
retort heated to the required temperature, 
and promotes the discharge of the vapors 
into a recipient attached to the beak of 
the retort, and fitted with a small tube 
in its other tubulure for the disengage- 
ment of uncondensed portions. 

For the evaporation of solutions of sul- 
pho-bases, of sulpho-salts, and of all 
substances readily oxidizable by exposure, 
this process is better applicable than that 
with the air pump, which is apt to be 
attacked when the eliminated vapors are 
corrosive. 

This process is much used in crystalliza- 
tion, for concentrating alterable solutions, 
and drying precipitates. 

Evaporation in Vacuo. 

We have already referred to the happy 
influence of diminished atmospheric pres- 
sure in facilitating evaporation, and shall 
now speak of the means by which it is 
accomplished, and the particular in- 
stances in which it is employed. 

This mode is resorted to for hastening 
the evaporation of all liquids, but more 
especially of those which are alterable by 
exposure. 

Evaporation by Heat in Open Air. 

Having already noted the effects of 
heat in facilitating evaporation, we pro- 
ceed to make known its modes of applica- 
tion. As the boiling points of solutions 
differ, so accordingly their evaporations 
are effected at varying temperatures. For 
example, aqueous or other solutions of 
unalterable matter may be evaporated 
over the fire ; others which are destructi- 
ble by heat require the intervention of 
baths. In whatever mode the operation 
is performed, the general principles are 
the same, and whether the vessel be a por- 
celain capsule or metallic pan, the greater 
its width in proportion to its depth the 
more rapid is the evaporation. Constant 
agitation with a stirrer is also promotive 
of the process. 

Evaporation Over Water and Saline 
Baths. 

When solutions are alterable at a tem- 
perature of 212° F., the capsule or con- 
taining vessel is heated over the water 
bath. If it requires a higher heat, but 
one not exceeding 300° F., then the water 
must be replaced by a saline bath. 
Evaporation by Steam. 

This mode has many advantages over 
all others, not among the least of which 



[1016] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Evaporation) 



is tJiat with the aid of the generator any 
number of vessels may be heated simul- 
taneously, and in any part of the labora- 
tory, it being only necessary to have con- 
duits of sufficient length to convey the 
steam to them. Moreover, convenient 
stop cocks allow a regulation of the heat, 
and consequently all danger of injury to 
the evaporating solution is avoided. By 
increasing the pressure of the steam, the 
temperature of the solution is also ele- 
vated. 

Steam is applied through metallic coils 
placed at the bottom of the containing 
vessels, and having an exit pipe leading 
into the neighboring flue, or else by means 
of metallic casings. 

Evaporation Over Sand Baths. 

This mode is much used in analyses 
and for careful evaporations, requiring 
temperatures greater than 212°, and yet 
not so high as those given by the naked 
fire. The position and arrangement of 
the vessels are as directed under the head 
Sand Baths. 

Evaporation by Heated Air. 

This mode is admirably adapted for the 
inspissation of the natural juices of plants 
or for preparing dry extracts. It is also 
applicable to the completion of evapora- 
tions which have been carried as far as is 
safe over the naked fire. Porcelain plates 
or panes of window glass are the vessels 
used, and a stove or apartment for their 
reception heated from 95 to 110°, with a 
free draught passing through are the 
means of obtaining the required tempera- 
ture. The juice evaporates either to thin 
scales or else to a spongy mass, as in the 
case of tannin extracted by ether, and as 
soon as it reaches dryness, the plates or 
panes are to be withdrawn, and their con- 
tents removed with a spatula. 

Evaporation Over the Naked Fire. 

The tendency of many substances to de- 
composition over fire, especially organic, 
even when in solution, renders this mode 
inapplicable save when the solvent and 
substance dissolved are both inalterable 
below the boiling point of the former. It 
is resorted to for expediting evaporations, 
but otherwise is far more inconvenient 
than steam, because of its affording less 
facility for the regulation of the heat and 
requiring greater attention. The contain- 
ing vessel should be placed over a furnace 
of small dimensions, and its contents con- 
tinually stirred with a porcelain spatula 
— this precaution preventing decomposi- 
tion or carbonization, provided the tem- 



( Distilling) 

perature is not allowed to exceed the boil- 
ing point of the solvent. 

In analysis and other processes, the 
heating implement is generally the gas or 
spirit lamp. The capsule filled to about 
2-3 its depth with liquid, being placed in 
position, the flame is applied gradually and 
maintained just low enough to prevent 
ebullition ; and in order to facilitate the 
process, and at the same time to allay 
turbulence, it should be frequently stirred 
with a glass rod. The same directions 
apply when the operation is performed in 
a beaker glass, as is done in some analytic 
experiments. A cover of white paper pre- 
vents access of dust without retarding the 
process, but care must be taken that the 
contents of the vessel be not ejected 
against it, thus causing a loss. In evapor- 
ating to dryness, towards the end of the 
process the flame must be so managed as 
to impart a uniform heat to all parts of 
the thickened solution. The interposition 
of a very thin plate of sheet iron between 
the flame of the lamp and the bottom of 
the heating vessel is an additional means 
of preventing spirting. These precautions 
and constant stirring will prevent the loss 
of particles which is liable to occur upon 
disengagement of the last portions of 
liquid. If the liquid drops a powder dur- 
ing the operation, the vessel must be in- 
clined, and in order to prevent spirting, 
heated above the deposit. 

Distilling. 

Small Apparatus for General Purposes. 
— (a) All ordinary distilling apparatus 
consists of 2 parts — one in which the heat 
is applied to the body to be distilled and 
vaporized (called the "still"), and the 
other into which the vapors that are 




:=r=:^^^^ 



A Simple Distilling Apparatus. 



[ 1017 ] 



Chemical M ani'pulations 



(Distilling) 



(DistilUng) 



formed enter in order to undergo the cool- 
ing that condenses them (termed the ''con- 
denser"). One of the simplest forms of 
distilling apparatus used in laboratories 
consists of a still into which is intro- 
duced the liquid to be distilled, and which 
is placed upon a furnace. The neck of 
this fits into that of a sphere whose open- 
ing must be wide enough to allow the 
orifice of the still to reach the spherical 
part of the receiver. Finally, the sphere 
dips into a vessel full of cold water, and 
is cooled on its external surface bj' a 
wet cloth. The heated mixture begins to 
boil, and its vapors, escaping from the 
retort, cool and condense upon the cold 
sides of the spherical receiver. This lat- 
ter serves at once as a condenser and a 
vessel for receiving the distilled product. 
In the beginning, the empty receiver 
weighs less than the volume of water that 
it displaces, and tends to float. This may 
be remedied by using a sufiiciently heavy 
ring of lead into which the neck of the 
receiver may be introduced, and which 
may rest upon the latter's bulge. Upon 
fixing a similar ring under the receiver, 
the latter will be prevented from turning 
laterally and even from getting broken. 




Small Apparatus for General Purposes. 

The water in the external vessel is re- 
newed so as to keep it cold. 

A simple arrangement of this kind is 
not adapted for materials that have a 
low boiling point, since a large proportion 
of the vapor escapes, and makes its exit 
through the neck of a receiver, which is 
kept hot by the vapors coming from the 
still. The following, which is just about 
as simple, is a much more perfect arrange- 
ment. 

The narrow part of the still is fixed 
into the neck of a long, tubular receiver 
by means of a cork which it traverses. 
This annular cork exactly closes the space 
between the neck of the still and that of 
the receiver. On the other side, in the 
tubulure of the receiver, there is fixed by 
means of a cork, perforated and arranged 



like the preceding, a long and narrow 
glass tube. 

When the still has been filled with 
the substance to be distilled, and placed 
upon a furnace covered with wire gauze, 
the receiver is immersed, as above stated, 
in cold water. The vapors that are 
formed become cooled in traversing the 
elongated neck of the receiver, and are 
thoroughly condensed in the immersed 
part, provided the ebullition is not too 
rapid. In this latter case, the narrow 
tube, which presents the only open orifice, 
becomes heated, and indicates to the 
operator that the fire must be moderated. 

The inconvenience of every apparatus 
of this kind is that the vapors which 
enter the receiver are not compelled to 
impinge against the sides, and may go 
directly to the exit-tube, or, in other 
words, the refrigeration is not methodical. 
Moreover, the refrigerating surface con- 
tinues to diminish in measure as the re- 
ceiver fills. Finally, if the receiver 
breaks, the entire distilled product comes 
in contact with the water. Despite these 
disadvantages, the rapidity with which 
such apparatus may be arranged, causes 
them to be frequently employed. 

The use of refrigerators permits of a 
more exact and methodical condensation 
of the vapors. These are arranged as fol- 
lows : The 2 orifices are placed in con- 
tact by means of a rubber tube, 3 to 4 
cm. in length, into one end of which is 
introduced the neck of the retort, a, and 
into the other tube of the refrigerator. 
The latter being held in an inclined posi- 
tion by means of a clamp, a current of 
water traversing it from top to bottom, 
and a bent tube being adapted to its lower 
extremity, the free extremity of the bent 
one is fixed into the flask that is to col- 
lect the product. We may also suppress 
the central tube of the refrigerator in the 
flask, b, kept inclined. To facilitate this 
arrangement, the neck of the retort is 
cut at a point where it has the same ex- 
ternal diameter as the tube of the re- 
frigerator, and is then edged with a flame. 




Type of Laboratory Condenser. 



[ 1018 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Distilling) 



Again, if the difference between the dia- 
meters is considerable, we may, by means 
of a flame, draw out slightly the one of 
the two tubes that is the larger, and cut 
it at the proper point to obtain an 
equality in the diameters. Finally, we 
may solder to the extremity of the re- 
frigerator a cylindrical tube, 2 or 3 cm. 
in diameter and 6 or 7 in. length, into 
which is fitted the neck of the retort pre- 
viously provided with a cork. This latter 
contains an aperture running in the 
direction of its axis, and the whole is 
arranged so as to form a tight joint. 

When the substance distilled attacks 
cork or rubber, the neck of the retort is 
drawn out to a sufficient length to allow 
the tube that terminates it to enter the 
refrigerator to some depth. The rubber 
with which the two parts of the apparatus 
are connected is thus nearly out of the 
range of the vapors. 




Tin Oan Still. 



(b) One of the simplest forms of still 
consists of a tin can or bottle in which 
the water is boiled, and to this a tin tube 
is adapted by means of a cork, one end 
of this tin tube terminating in a coil 
passing through a tub or other vessel of 
cold water. A gas burner, as shown, is a 
convenient source of heat, and in order to 
insure a complete condensation of the 
vapor, the water in the cooling tub must 
be changed now and again. 

(c) Sometimes the vapor is condensed 
by being allowed to play against the in- 
side of a conical cover which is adapted 
to a saucepan, and is kept cool by the 
external application of cold water; and 
in this case the still takes the form repre- 
sented by our next engravings ; the con- 
densed water trickles down on the inside 
of the cone, and flows out at the spout. 

(d) An extemporized arrangement of a 
similar character may be made by passing 
a tobacco pipe through the side of a tin 
saucepan as shown in the engraving, and 
inverting the lid of the saucepan ; if the 



(Distilling) 




Simple Externally-Condensed Still. 

lid is now kept cool by frequent changes 
of water inside it, and the pipe is proper- 
ly adjusted, so as to catch the drippings 
from the convex side of the lid, a con- 
siderable quantity of distilled water may 
be collected in an hour or so. 




(e) The apparatus shown works ad- 
mirably, and is very convenient, a is a 
common tin saucepan, with a small hole 
in the side, for a tobacco pipe ; b, a 
"steamer," on top, with a bottom like an 
inverted cone, 1 in. of wire being soldered 
at the apex. 




Tap-Cooled Still. 

A gas jet (Bunsen's, if possible) boils 
the water in the saucepan ; the ascending 
steam is condensed on the lower surface 
of the steamer, runs down to the point of 



[ 1019 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Distilling) 



the wire, down the pipe into the bottle. 
A small jet of cold water keeps b cool. 




An Old Fashioned But Efficient Still. 

(f ) The arrangement shown is one that 
may readily be adapted to, and is special- 
ly suited for, the old fashioned stills 
which are in frequent use among pharma- 
cists for the purpose of distilling water. 
The idea is extremely simple, but thor- 
oughly efficient in actual practice. The 
still is thin copper, 2 gal. capacity, and 
the condenser is the usual worm sur- 
rounded with cold water. 

Tinctures, Extracts, etc. 

(a) A very convenient and complete 
still is shown herewith. The body holds 




Tincture and Extract Still. 

over 3 gal. ; the condenser has 7 straight 
tubes surrounded with the cold water in- 
troduced by a rubber from a hydrant or 
bucket of water placed higher than the 
still, and carried off as it becomes warmed 
by another tube as indicated by the ar- 
rows. By the siphon arrangement shown 
in the cut, it is possible to feed the still 
from a reservoir while distillation is in 



(Distilling) 



progress, thus using a 3-gal. still where 
a much larger one would have been nec- 
essary. The still may be set into a kettle 
partly filled with water, and thus used 
as a water bath, or a shallow dish, with 
flat rim, which accompanies the still, may 
be placed between the two brass ring 
bands and clamped securely. 

(b) Stevens arranged the apparatus as 
shown for continuous distillation. As 
«oon as the water passes out of the boiler, 




Apparatus for Continuous Distillation. 

a, the float, b, lowers, letting a fresh sup- 
ply 'of water from the condenser, c, 
through d, thereby keeping the water in 
the boiler at a constant level. This avoids 
the necessity of adding a large quantity 
of cold water at once, the effect of which 
would be to reduce the temperature of 
the water below the boiling point. 

Cold water is supplied to the condenser 
through e, and as it becomes heated and 
rises to the top, it is carried off through 
f. The boiler and condenser are joined 
at g. 

By leaving out the float and closing the 
inlet, d, with a cork, it can be used for 
distilling other liquids. 

The apparatus is not patented, and 
should any pharmacist desire to make one 
for his own use, he can do so. 

(c) The distilling apparatus repre- 
sented herewith is intended primarily for 
the use of pharmaceutical chemists or 
druggists, but it possesses features which 
will recommend it to many who have need 
of a trustworthy and quick-acting still. 
The wide delivery tube is a useful feature, 
allowing as it does for the accumulation 
of vapor, and permitting the introduction 
of the hand. The body of the still is of 
wrought iron or copper, with a lid fitting 
on ground edges, and held together^ by 
screw clamps, as seen in the engraving. 
A gauge is fitted to show the quantity of 



1 1020 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Distilling) 



liquid in the still. The cendenser consists 
of a number of glass tubes, which, if they 
are 1 in. diameter and 24 in. long, expose 
a surface of 264 in., while that of the 
surrounding cylinder is only 188^^ in. 
The ends of the condenser tubes are drawn 
together and tapered, as shown in cut, to 
permit, if desired, the collection of the 
distillate in a narrow-mouthed bottle. The 
advantage gained by this apparatus, aside 
from the general one of convenience, is 
thus seen to be in the notable increase 
of condensing surface it exposes, which to 
that extent increases the effectiveness of 
the device, i.e. its rapidity of action. 
Compared with a Liebig condenser of 
similar dimensions, this apparatus ex- 
poses probably 3 times as much condens- 
ing surface. The idea of a tubular con- 
denser, employed in the manner set forth, 
is, in the opinion of the American Journal 
of Pharmacy, an excellent one, that may 
find useful imitation in the chemical lab- 
oratory and elsewhere. The device illus- 




Remington's Still. 

trated and descr'ibed was invented by 
Joseph P. Remington, whose recommen- 
dation of its merits is based upon a con- 
tinuous use of it for years, 

(d) Flowers, Plants or Seeds. — To ob- 
tain the essential oils, from flowers, 
plants or seeds, the oleiferous material is 
placed in an iron, copper or glass still, of 
1 to 1,000 gal. capacity, and is covered 
with water ; superposed is a dome-shaped 
lid, terminating in a coil of pipe, placed 
in a vessel of cold water, and protruding 
therefrom with a tap at the end. On boil- 
ing the contents of the still, the essential 
oil passes over the steam, and is condensed 
with it in the receiver ; the oil and water 
separate on standing. A great improve- 
ment, introduced by Drew, Heywood and 



(Distilling) 



Barron, is the use of a steam-jacketed 
still, as shown. Steam is supplied from 
a boiler by the pipe, a, into the jacket, 
b ; within the head of the still is 
fixed a "rouser," c, a double-branched 
stirrer curved to the form of the pan, and 
having a chain attached and made to drag 
over the bottom, the whole being set in 
motion by means of the handle, d. The 
still is charged, and nearly filled with 




Steam Jacketed Still. 

water; the head is then bolted on, steam 
is admitted into the jackets, the contents 
are well stirred, and soon the oil and 
steam are carried up the pipe, e, con- 
densed in the refrigerator, f, and let out 
at g into the receiver, h. Here the oil 
and water separate, and escape by differ- 
ent taps. In the illustration it is sup- 
posed that the oil obtained is heavier than 
water; it will then sink, and be drawn 
out by the lower tap, i, and as son as the 
water reaches the level of the upper tap, 
k, it will flow into the siphon-funnel, 1, 
and thence into the still. Thus the same 
water is repeatedly used in the still. The 
pipe, m, conveys cold water into the re- 
frigerator f ; the water escapes as it be- 
comes hot by the pipe n. When the oil 
distilled is lighter than water, the taps, 
i k, exchange duties Before commencing 
operations the siphon, 1, is filled with 
water to prevent the escape of vapor. 
Spirit. 

(a) The distillation of spirit is per- 
formed for the purpose of separating the 
alcohol more or less from the water. The 
boiling point of water at the ordinary 



[ 1021 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Distilling) 



standard pressures of the atmosphere, 
equal to 30 in. of mercury, is 212° F. 
(100° C), that of alcohol 173.1° F. 
(7S.5° C). At the sea-level, the press- 
ure of the atmosphere may frequently 
vary between 28.5 and 30.5 in. ; the boil- 
ing points of water corresponding to these 
temperatures are 210° F. and 213° F. In- 
deed, changes in the weather may cause 
the boiling point of water to vary as 
much as 5° F. in our climate. These 
alterations in pressure would cause cor- 
responding changes in the boiling point 
of alcohol. If we gradually raise the 
temperature of alcoholic fluids to a point 
when vapors are freely formed, it is ob- 
served that though there is a continuous 
absorption of heat, yet the liquid does 
not increase in temperature. The heat 
which is absorbed during the first period 
is doing work of a different character 
from that employed subsequently. There 
are two phases in the process, and two 
different kinds of work performed by the 
heat employed in boiling even a kettle of 
water. 

The first phase is indicated by a rise 
of temperature from 60 to 212° F. ; the 
second phase by a change of state, from 
that of a liquid at 212° F. to a vapor 
at the same temperature. The quantities 
of heat required by different liquids in 
these changes varies greatly, but the va- 
riation is greatest when they pass through 
the second phase. Thus 1 lb. of steam at 
212° F., if converted into water at 212° 
F., will give up heat sufiieient to raise 
996 lb. of water from 60 to 61° F. The 
heat rendered up by 1 lb. of alcohol vapor 
at 173° F. during condensation to liquid 
at 173° F., will heat 374.9 lb. of water 
from 60 to 61° F. These figures are suf- 
ficient to show that a small quantity of 
steam will boil a large quantity of alco- 
hol. Stills of improved construction de- 
pend upon this principle. 

When a mixture of alcohol and water 
is distilled, the liquid will not boil con- 
stantly at 173° F. until all the alcohol 
has passed over, but will rise in tempera- 
ture gradually throughout the distillation 
until 212° F. have been reached. The dis- 
tillate, if separated into fractions boiling 
between fixed points, consists of a series 
of mixtures of alcohol and water in defi- 
nite proportions. The mixtures richest 
in alcohol come over first ; that is to say, 
at the lowest temperature. 

The latent heat of the vapor of a liquid 
with a high boiling point can be made 
to boil a liquid with a lower boiling point. 
For instance, steam at 212° F. can bnil 
alcohol at 173° F., and alcohol at 173° 



(Precipitation) 



F. in turn can boil ether at 94.8° F. 
With a simple still, strong alcohol can be 
obtained from wash by repeated distilla- 
tion only. Woulffe realized the fact that 
this wasteful and tedious process could 
be dispensed with by connecting together 
a number of rectifying chambers in such 
a manner that the vapor driven off from 
the chamber nearest the fire should be 
condensed in the second, and by the heat 
given out by its condensation cause the 
more volatile portions of the liquid of 
the second to distil into the third cham- 
ber, and those of the third into the fourth, 
and so on, until a sufficient degree of con- 
centration is attained. 

IV 

PRECIPITATION AND SEPARA- 
TION 
Edulcoration. 

The affusion of water on any substance 
for the purpose of removing the portion 
soluble in that liquid, Edulcoration is 
usually performed by agitating or tritur- 
ating the article with water, and remov- 
ing the latter, after subsidence, by de- 
cantation or filtration. It is the method 
commonly adopted to purify precipitates 
and other powders which are insoluble in 
water. The washing bottle is a most use- 
ful instrument for the edulcoration of 
precipitates. 

Precipitation. 

By precipitation we are to understand 
a process of separating a solid substance 
from a solution by the action of chemi- 
cals, heat, or light. The precipitate easily 
drops to the bottom of the receptacle, al- 
though sometimes it may rise or be held 
in suspension. The solid substance is 
called the precipitate ; the added agent 
which produces the effect is called the 
precipitant, while the liquid which re- 
mains in the vessel is called the superna- 
tant liquid. Precipitation is one of the 
most valuable aids to the analytical chem- 
ist, and is constantly employed, but is 
also of great use in the arts. It is some- 
times used to bring the substance into a 
powdered state; again, it is used for puri- 
fication, or to separate substances which 
are insoluble in the liauid. It is some- 
times necessary to heat the solution in 
order to obtain precipitation. Some prep- 
arations, such as silver salts, are precini- 
tated by the action of light. A special 
precipitating jar is inexpensive, and is 
very convenient. The precipitated matter 
is usually collected with the aid of a fil- 
ter and a filter paper. 



[ 1022 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Colation) 



Straining. 

Straining is best accomplished through 
some textile fabric, as felt, muslin, Can- 
ton flannel, gauze, etc. Felt strainers are 
particularly recommended where chemical 
work is being done, but for the amateur's 
use they are apt to be expensive, as the 
felt takes up a great deal of the odor of 
the material. Canton flannel is cheap, 
and the bleached Canton flannel is recom- 
mended. One or two funnels or tunnels 
should be provided. The white enameled 
ones, which are imported from Sweden, 
are particularly recommended. Hard-rub- 
ber funnels are good for certain purposes ; 
also copper funnels. Special funnels are 
provided for hot filtration, as shown in 
one of our engravings. This is particu- 
larly recommended when we^ deal with 
preparations containing wax, jellies, oint- 
ments, etc. The jacketed hot-water fun- 
nel is perhaps the most convenient means 
of obtaining heat. Steam may also be 
used, if available, and is both cheap and 
handy. 

Colation. 

Colation or straining is a process which 
does not differ from filtration in princi- 
ple, but the term is applied to the re- 
moval of insoluble particles of a relative- 
ly large size by passing the liquid through 
a medium of coarser texture than filter 
paper. The ordinary straining media are 
felt, flannel, muslin and calico, through 
which materials the liquid will flow with 
considerable rapidity. 

A seamless felt straining bag is illus- 
trated. A strainer of this kind is particu- 
larly useful for straining large quantities 
of syrups or liquid extracts. When in 
use it is suspended by means of tapes over 
a suitable receiver, or is supported by a 
frame, as is shown in the figure. 

Our next engraving illustrates a form 
of strainer which is used when bulky pre- 
cipitates are required to be filtered, 
washed and drained. Ferric hydroxide is 
precipitated in large quantities for the 
manufacture of the scale preparations of 
iron, and it is conveniently separated and 
washed on a piece of strong calico 
stretched over, and fastened by means of 
nails, to a rectangular wooden frame sup- 
ported on short wooden legs. In this case 
it should be noted that the precipitate is 
wanted; the filtrate is allowed to run to 
waste. 

Small quantities of liquid — an infusion 
or decoction, for example — ^may be strained 
through a piece of muslin or calico 



(Clarification) 




Straining 




Large Strainer 



stretched over the top of an ordinary fun- 
nel. 

Clarification. 

Clarification is the process of separat- 
ing the suspended matter contained in a 
liquid or semi-liquid substance without 
recourse to filtration. It may be effected 
in a variety of ways. The official method 
adopted for the clarification of honey, the 
viscid nature of which renders ordinary 
filtration somewhat impracticable, is the 
application of heat. The honey is heated 
on a water bath in an open, shallow dish, 
under which treatment it becomes much 



r 1023 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Centrifugation) 



more fluid, and the suspended particles of 
solid matter rise to the surface, or sink, 
according to their specific gravity. By 
skimming, or by straining through flan- 
nel while the honey is still hot, the solid 
foreign particles can be easily separated 
out. In the same way, vegetable juices 
can be clarified by heat, albuminous ma- 
terial forming a coagulum which can be 
separated by filtration. 

Certain liquids which are difficult to 
filter, and which do not yield a satisfac- 
tory filtrate, are sometimes clarified by 
the use of white of egg or of gelatine. 
In the former case a relatively small 
quantity of the white of egg is thoroughly 
mixed with the turbid liquid, and the 
whole is then heated to about 80° C, at 
which temperature white of egg coagu- 
lates. The particles which rendered the 
liquid turbid are enclosed in the coagu- 
lum formed, which is easily removed 
from the liquid by the ordinary process 
of straining. Gelatine is useful, particu- 
larly when the turbidity of a liquid is 
due to tannin bodies, with which the gel- 
atine readily combines to form an insol- 
uble gelatine tannate, which can be read- 
ily removed by filtration through paper or 
by straining through calico. 

Centrifugation. 

By centrifugal force is meant the force 
exerted by any whirling body. A solid 




Water-Drive Centrifuge 

body contained in suspension in a liquid 
can be readily separated by rapid rota- 
tion, the heavier particles of solid always 
tending to fly to the outer rim of the re- 
volving ring of fluid. Centrifugation is 
thus another means of separating a solid 
from a liquid, and is a method especially 
useful when dealing with small quanti- 
ties of liquid which contain in suspension 
minute quantities of a solid body which 
it is difficult to collect satisfactorily on a 
filter paper. 

Centrifugal machines are constructed 
to various patterns, but the simple form 



(Centrifugation) 




Centrifuge 



illustrated will serve to show the prin- 
ciple of their construction. They consist 
essentially of two or four, or sometimes 
more, glass tubes (G) enclosed in metal 
tube holders (F), the tubes themselves 
being constructed with a somewhat coni- 
cal-shaped bottom. The tubeholders are 
swung upon a horizontal axis (E), which 
can be rotated at a rate of from 2,000 to 
3,000 revolutions a minute. The whole 
apparatus is clamped firmly to the labo- 
ratory bench, as shown in the figure. 
When in use, the tubes are filled with the 
liquid so that they are equally balanced, 
and the machine is turned rapidly for a 
few minutes, at the end of which time 
the solid particles will be found compacted 
together at the bottom of the glass tube, 
leaving a clear layer of supernatant li- 
quid, which can be poured off. 

A centrifuge is used in the laboratory 
for the rapid determination of fat in milk. 
A measured quantity of the milk is put 
into a graduated centrifuge tube and a 
little amylic alcohol, hydrochloric acid, 
and some concentrated sulphuric acid are 
added, in order to secure a better separa- 
tion of the fat. A second tube, contain- 
ing a similar quantity of liquid, is placed 



[ 1024 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Separation of Liquids) 



on the opposite side of the machine in 
order to secure a proper balance, and the 
apparatus is then rotated for one or two 
minutes, at the end of which time all the 
fat will have collected in the neck of the 




Separating Funnel 

tube, and the percentage can be directly 
calculated. The centrifuge is also ex- 
tremely useful for collecting for micro- 
scopical examination the deposit in a 
small quantity of liquid, the deposit in a 
sample of urine being best collected in 
this way. 

The Separation of Immiscible Liquids. 

The separation of two liquids which are 
more or less insoluble in one another is 
an operation important in many pharma- 
ceutical and manufacturing processes. 
When relatively large quantities of im- 
miscible liquids have to be separated, a 



(Filtration) 



tubulured jar or a siphon may be used, 
as has been already described under De- 
CANTATION ; but for quantities of a few 
ounces some other means must be adopted. 
The alkaloidal assay of the galenical 
preparations frequently necessitates the 
separation of a layer of ether or chloro- 
form or other organic liquid from a 
watery solution with which it is immis- 
cible. In the assay of opium, for exam- 
ple, a layer of mixed alcohol and ether has 
to be separated from an aqueous layer, 
and in this case the Pharmacopoeia di- 
rects the use of a pipette. A pipette, as 
shown, consists of an elongated bulbed 
glass tube, open at both ends, the lower 
end being drawn out into a narrow ori- 
fice. It is used by dipping the lower end 
under the surface of the top layer of li- 
quid and applying suction with the mouth 
at the upper end of the tube. The bulb 
may be large enough to hold from 5 to 
50 mils, and when as much as possible 
of the layer has been drawn into the 
bulb the moistened tip of the forefinger 
is placed firmly over the upper end of 
the tube, the liquid being thus kept from 
flowing out until the finger is removed. 
A glass syringe may be used for the same 
purpose as a pipette, but it is somewhat 
more clumsy. 

Separating Funnels. 

A more convenient means of separating 
layers of immiscible liquids is by the use 
of a glass separating funnel. An elongat- 
ed pear-shaped separator, as illustrated, 
is a good form by means of which two li- 
quids can be separated with greater ac- 
curacy than with a separator of a cylin- 
drical shape. 

For the separation of two liquids neith- 
er of which is particularly volatile, an 
ordinary glass funnel, the neck of which 
is provided with a stopcock, is sometimes 
used, but a separator of this pattern is 
quite unsuitable for assay processes, since 
it is impossible to shake the two layers 
together before they are set aside to sep- 
arate. 

Decolorization. 

Decoloration is a process of rendering 
colored liquids colorless, and this is ac- 
complished by the aid of animal charcoal 
or bone black. Decolorization may be ac- 
complished in an ordinary filtering funnel 
or in a percolator. 

Filtration and Other Processes of Sepa- 
ration. 

Filtration is a process of separating a 
liquid from solid matter mechanically sus- 



[ 1025 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Filtration) 



pended in it, by passing it through some 
porous medium which does not allow the 
solid particles to pass through. In some 
cases it has for its object the collecbion 
of the suspended matter; in others it is 
used for obtaining the liquid in a clear 
state. Filtration is a simple process in 
principle, but in manufacturing, as well 
as in processes- on a smaller scale, where 
liquids are employed, there is perhaps no 
operation of wider application, hence it 
is of great importance that the process 
shall be carried out in an economical and 
expeditious manner. Among the sub- 
stances which are used as filtering media 
are various kinds of cloth, flannel, un- 
glazed porous paper, engineer's waste, ab- 
sorbent cotton wool, glass wool, asbestos, 
sand and charcoal. For small quantities 
of a liquid which filters easily, and in 
which the suspended matter is in coarse 
particles, a pledget of absorbent cotton 
wool placed in the throat of a funnel is 
often sufficient to produce a satisfactory 
filtrate. For extensive laboratory proc- 
esses, however, the latter simple device is 
seldom of much service, for the small ex- 
tent of filtering surface will soon lead to 
imperfect filtration, or possibly to com- 
plete blocking of the filter. The form of 
filter used, and the character of the filter- 
ing medium, depends not only upon the 
nature of the liquid to be treated, but 
also upon the amount of liquid that is re- 
quired to be filtered. 

Filtering Media. — Of the filtering media 
in common use, fine porous unglazed pa- 
per is the most universal for small opera- 
tions, a piece of paper of suitable size 
being folded into a cone and fitted into 
a funnel. The funnels used for support- 
ing filter papers are made of glass, glazed 
earthenware, or of metal, and those which 
are intended for rapid filtration are usu- 
ally deeply ribbed or fluted on the inside, 
the space between the filter paper and the 
glass permitting a free passage of the fil- 
tered liquid. The same end is sometimes 
attained by placing thin glass rods or 
quills between the filter paper and the 
sides of the funnel. Filtering paper may 
be obtained in many qualities, the best 
quality consisting of practically pure cel- 
lulose. For the majority of purposes, 
white filter paper should be used, and 
this is made from pure flax fiber. The 
gray paper, on the other hand, contains 
a varying amount of wool, and although 
on account of its low cost it is used for 
the filtration of some galenical prepara- 
tions, it is liable to color certain solu- 
tions, particularly alkaline ones, yellow. 
Such paper frequently contains also a 



(Filtration) 



considerable amount of chlorides, calcium 
carbonate, and iron salts, all of which 
are liable to pass into solution. For ana- 
lytical work, particularly in ignition proc- 
esses, a Swedish filter paper of very fine 
quality is necessary ; such filter papers, 
in the course of preparation, are washed 
with hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acids, 
and by this means are rendered practical- 
ly free from mineral impurities, and yield, 
on ignition, a very minute quantity of 
ash. 

The suitability of filter paper for ordi- 
nary pharmaceutical purposes may be de- 
termined by the application of a few sim- 
ple tests. Distilled water which has been 
passed through the paper should leave no 
residue on evaporation, showing that the 
paper contains no soluble mineral sub- 
stances. Similarly diluted hydrochloric 
acid, after passing through the filter pa- 
per, should g'ive none of the reactions of 
the alkaline earths, while the paper should 
not blacken with ammonium sulphide, 
proving the absence of many of the met- 
als ; nor should it be colored by a solu- 
tion of salicylic acid, which would indi- 
cate the presence of iron. 

Methods of Folding Filtering Papers. — > 
Filtering paper is sold cut into circles of 
varying diameter, and since these circles 
merely require doubling for use, they are 
much more convenient than the square 
sheets of paper, which must be trimmed 
after folding. Plain filters are made by 
doubling the circle of paper in half to 
form a semicircle, and then folding it 
again in half, so as to form a triangle, 
with a convex base. This, when opened 
out (Fig. 1), should fit exactly to the 
sides of a properly constructed funnel, 
the sides of which should be inclined at 
an angla of 60°. A filter paper folded 
in this way is good enough for many pur- 




Fig. 1 

poses, but it has the disadvantage of pre- 
senting three thicknesses of paper to one- 
half of the funnel and only one thickness 
to the other half : while, assuming that 
the funnel used has plain and not fluted 
sides, the filtration will not proceed with 



[ 102G ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Filtration) 



The "plaited filter" affords a means of 
furthering rapid filtration, and at the 
same time it overcomes the objection of 
the unequal distribution of the paper on 
as much rapidity, since the sides of the 
paper will fit closely to the glass. 




the sides of the funnel. The method of 
folding a plaited filter can be best ex- 
plained by the help of diagrams. The 
circle of paper must first be folded twice 
as directed for the plain filter, but hav- 
ing made the crease DC (Fig. 2), the pa- 
per is opened out again into a semi-cir- 
cular form. It is next folded so that 
DB lies over the crease DC, and DA is 
likewise made to lie over DC. This oper- 
ation will produce the creases DE and 
DF (as in Fig. 2). Next, DB must be 
folded over to DE and also over to DF, 
and in the same way DA must be folded 
over to DF and DE. In this way, when, 
the paper is flattened out, it will be 
marked by seven creases, radiating from 
the center, D (as shown in Fig. 2), and 
the semicircle will Toe divided by these 
creases into eight segments. Up to the 
present all these creases have been made 
in the same direction, and now, to com- 
plete the filter, each segment must be di- 
vided by another crease made in a direc- 
tion opposite to those already made. To 
effect this, DB is folded back so that it 
lies under DG, on the opposite face of 
the isemicircle ; in other words, the new 
crease DL (Fig. 3) is in an opposite di- 




( Filtration) 




[1027] 



Fig. 4 

rection to any of the other creases pre- 
viously made. In a similar fashion, DG 
is folded back so that it lies under DE, 
producing a new crease, DM (Fig. 3), 
which has the same direction as the crease 
DL, but is in an opposite direction to 
DG or DE. This process is repeated until 
the semicircle is divided into sixteen seg- 
ments by fifteen creases, the eight new 
creases (illustrated by dotted lines) all 
being in an opposite direction to the first 
seven creases. The paper can now be 
opened out, as shown in Fig. 4, and it 
will be found divided into thirty-two seg- 
ments, two of which, situated opposite 
to one another, have both edges in the 
same direction, and in order to prevent 
these two segments from lying flat against 
the glass when the paper is placed in a 
funnel a new crease, pointing inward, 
should be made in each segment so that 
each of these two segments is divided into 
two smaller segments, bringing the total 
up to thirty-four. When placed in a fun- 
nel the paper will not fit closely to the 
glass, and thus a free passage of the fil- 
tered liquid is possible, while at the same 
time the entire surface of the paper will 
be exposed to the liquid. 

When plaiting a filter, care should be 
taken not to crease the paper down to 
the extreme center of the circle (D), oth- 
erwise the apex of the filter may be so 
weakened as to break with the weight 
of the liquid poured upon it. The weak- 
est part of a filter paper, whether plain 
or plaited, is always the extreme apex, 
and various suggestions have been made 
with a view to overcoming this weakness. 
One method is to dip the apex into strong 
nitric or sulphuric acid ; the latter acid 
converts the paper into parchment paper, 
and thus renders it impervious to the pas- 
sage of fluids, but the former treatment 
merely toughens the fiber of the paper. 
In either case care must be taken to wash 
the filter free from all traces of acid. The 
apex of a filter may also be supported by 
a small cone made of platinum foil, or 
more simply by means of a smaller filter 
paper folded and placed in the funnel first, 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Filtration) 



or a pledget of cotton waol may be used 
for the same purpose. When filtering 
large quantities of liquid the paper is 
sometimes supported with calico to avoid 
breakage, the cloth is usually folded up 
with the paper, the double filter being 




Fig. 5 

placed in the funnel in the usual way. 
The fact that the apex of a filter paper 
is always a source of weakness has led 
to the adoption of another method of fold- 
ing filter papers. The circle of paper is, 
as usual, first folded into a semicircle. 
Next, EB (Fig. 6) is folded over, with 
the crease in the position marked by the 
line EH ; the point E, it will be noted, 
is not the center of the circle of filter 
paper. The paper is now turned completely 
over, and DA is folded over in the posi- 
tion marked by the line, DF, the crease, 




DF, being, of course, in the opposite di- 
rection to the first crease, EH. When the 
paper is opened out (Fig. 5), it will fit 
into a funnel having the proper angle of 
60°, while the apex will be strengthened 
by the presence of a double thickness of 
paper. 

A liquid should never be poured in a 
sudden stream on to the apex of a filter 
paper, but should always be poured gently 
against the side of the filter, where, if 
dealing with small quantities, it may be 
conveniently directed by means of a glass 
rod (as shown in Fig. 7). In this fig- 
ure the student should note the small strip 
of paper (A) inserted between the neck 



(Filtration) 




Fig. 7 

of the flask and the funnel tube. This 
precaution is necessary if the end of the 
funnel fits closely into the receiver, in 
order that there may be a free escape 
of air as the filtered liquid enters the 
receiver. A filter paper placed in a fun- 
nel should never reach above the rim of 
the funnel, for, if such be the case, the 
liquid will be sucked by capillary attrac- 
tion into the projecting edges, and there 
will be considerable loss by evaporation 
from the exposed edges. Even when the 
filter paper does not protrude over the 
rim of the funnel there is always some 
loss by evaporation, especially when the 
liquid is a particularly volatile one, and 
the room temperature is high. In order 
to lessen the loss by evaporation during 
a slow filtration, a piece of plate glass 
may be placed on the top of the funnel. 

Continuous Filtration. — It is frequently 
inconvenient for an operator to give con- 
stant attention to a filtration process, 
hence a "self-feeding" filter is of great 
service. On a small scale, the following 
simple method, illustrated in Fig. 8, works 
well. An inverted Winchester quart, con- 
taining the unfiltered liquid, is arranged 



[1028^] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Filtration) 



at sucli a height that the mouth of the 
bottle is in the liquid at the level at which 
it is desired to keep the funnel filled. The 
liquid in the funnel acts as a valve, and 
until air enters the bottle none of the li- 
quid will flow out, since the atmospheric 
pressure is sufficient to support a column 
of water 32 ft. in height. As, however, 
the liquid in the funnel passes through 
the filter, it sinks in due course below the 




Fig. 8 

level of the mouth of the bottle. Air 
will, consequently, enter, and at the same 
time a corresponding amount of the liquid 
will fiow from the bottle into the funnel. 
This process will go on automatically un- 
til the bottle is empty. The method is 
similar to that adopted for obtaining a 
continuous supply of menstrum for per- 
colation, a process which has been already 
described. An arrangement which is simi- 
lar in principle to the above has been 
adopted for the continuous washing of a 
precipitate. In Fig. 9 is shown a spe- 
cially constructed tube fitted into the neck 
of an inverted flask by means of an india- 
rubber cork. As in the case of the in- 
verted Winchester, water will flow out of 



(Filtration) 



the flask at E as soon as the level of the 
liquid in the funnel falls below the level 
of where the side tube joins the main 
tube (C), air entering the flask through 
the open side tube (D). The process is 
continuous so long as any liquid remains 
in the inverted flask. 





Fig. 9 



Asbestos Filters. — In some cases, the 
turbidity of a liquid is due to the sus- 
pension in it of particles of matter so 
minute that their removal is not easily 
effected by the ordinary method of filtra- 
tion through paper. In such cases, a clear 
and bright filtrate can often be obtained 
by shaking up with the turbid liquid some 
substance by means of which the minute 
particles are entangled, and can no longer 
pass through the pores of the filtering 
medium. For this purpose, paper pulp, 
prepared from waste scraps of filter pa- 
per, calcium phosphate, kieselguhr, kaolin, 
French chalk, magnesia, and finely shred- 
ded asbestos, have all been recommend- 
ed. Whichever one of these substances 
is chosen, a small quantity of it is well 
shaken up with the liquid to be filtered, 
or the filter itself is first coated by shak- 
ing up a little of the filtering agent with 
water, pouring the mixture over the filter 
and allowing the latter to drain. Usually, 
with either method, the first few drops 
of the filtrate are not very clear, hence 



[ 1029 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Filtration) 



the first runnings should be returned to 
the filter until the filtrate is obtained 
bright. 

For rapidly filtering turbid liquids, es- 
pecially those which are cloudy from the 
presence of minute globules of essential 
oil, the "Seitz" asbestos filter has proved 
successful. The apparatus consists of a 
conical filter of fine brass-wire gauze, suit- 
ably supported. The turbid liquid is 
thoroughly shaken with a small quantity 
of finely shredded asbestos fiber, and is 
then transferred directly to the gauze fil- 
ter. With most liquids, a rapid fiow of 
bright, transparent filtrate is obtained. 

Hot Filtration. — It is sometimes neces- 
sary to filter through paper substances, 
such as fats and waxes, which are not li- 
quid at ordinary laboratory temperature. 
In such a case, a rough and ready plan 
is to arrange the funnel over a circular 
low-power gas burner (Fig. 10), but a 
better plan is to use a hot-water jacket 
for the funnel. In Fig. 11 a funnel suit- 
able for hot filtration on a small scale 
is illustrated. The jacket is usually con- 
structed of copper ; at some point around 
the top rim there is an opening (A) 
through which water is introduced, and 
this water is kept at the desired tempera- 
ture by means of a Bunsen gas burner 
or a spirit lamp placed under the pro- 
jecting arm. In practice, the substance 
to be filtered is first melted, and is then 
poured into the funnel, which has previ- 
ously been allowed to become properly 
heated in the copper jacket. As the heat- 
ing is continued, some of the water in 
the jacket will be lost by evaporation, 
since the opeaing, A, must not be closed 



(Filtration) 




on account of the pressure which the 
steam would produce if this were done; 
hence from time to time a little more 
water must be poured into the jacket. 
Fig. 12 shows an improved type. 




Fig. 10 



Fig. 11 

Accelerated Filtration. — ^The rapidity at 
which filtration is effected depends upon 
several factors, the chief of which are : 
The extent of the filtering surface, the 
viscosity of the liquid, the porosity of the 
filtering medium, and the pressure or force 
by which the liquid is impelled through 
the pores of the filter. 

In filtration as ordinarily carried out, 
the only pressure exerted is that due to 
the liquid itself resting on the filtering 
medium ; but by increasing the height of 
this column of liquid the pressure is in- 
creased, and filtration is consequently ac- 
celerated. One of the principles of hy- 
drostatics is that the thrust exerted by 
a liquid of given depth on the base of 
the containing vessel is independent of 
the shape of the remaining portion of 
the vessel, hence the column of liquid 
need not be of equal diameter through- 
out in order to produce uniform press- 
ure. 

Acting on this principle, a simple means 
of filtering oils or other liquids has been 
suggested. A filter bag is firmly attached 
to the lower end of a long tube, while 
to the upper end of the tube is fixed a 
funnel, into which is poured the liquid 
that is required to be filtered. Under 
such conditions the pressure exerted is 
that due to the weight corresponding to 
the total height of the column of liquid, 



[ 1030 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Filtration) 



and the filtrate is forced through the fil- 
ter bag and collected. Instead of a filter 
bag an ordinary inverted funnel may be 
used ; the filtering medium is tied securely 
over the broad mouth of the funnel, it 
being necessary always to support filter 
paper between layers of calico. 




Fig. 12 

A Device for Rapid Filtration. 

Glass filter rods with a hooked end set 
over the edge of the ordinary funnel, form 
a corrugated support for filter paper, 
which is unaffected by liquids likely to 




(Percolation) 



Glass Filter Rack 



be filtered through the glass funnel, and 
can be effectually cleaned with a mini- 
mum of labor. 

Percolation. 

This is a kind of filtration, commonly 
called "by displacement," employed for 
extracting the essence from roots, herbs, 
seeds, barks, etc. It is effected in the 
following manner : It is first necessary 
that the articles to be acted upon should 
be ground in a drug mill to the condition 
of a coarse powder ; then moisten the 
mass thoroughly with alcohol, allowing 
it to "macerate" for 12 hours in a vessel 
well covered. Next is required a hollow 
instrument of cylindrical form, having 
one end shaped like a funnel, so that it 
can be inserted in the neck of a glass 
bottle, and having inside, near the lower 
end, a partition pierced with numerous 
small holes, like the strainer of a French 
coffee pot, which is a simple coffee per- 
colator ; in the absence of such a parti- 
tion, soft cotton, or any insoluble sub- 
stance, may be substituted, and being 
placed in the inside at the lower end of 
the instrument, will answer as well as 
the strainer. This instrument is called a 
percolator. Boullay's filter or percolator 
is usually employed. Macerate the in- 
gredients to be acted upon, for the time 
named, introduce them into the perco- 
lator, and slightly press them upon the 
partition. Any portion of the liquid used 
in the maceration not absorbed by the 
powder should be poured upon the mass 
in the instrument, and allowed to perco- 
late. Now gradually pour into the perco- 
lator sufiicient of the alcohol, or other 
liquid to be filtered, to drive before it, 
or "displace," the liquid contained in the 
mass ; the portion introduced must, in 
like manner, be "displaced" by another 
portion, and so on till the required quan- 
tity of filtered liquor is obtained. This 
extract is called a tincture. In case the 
liquor which first passes through should 
be thick and turbid, again introduce it 
into the instrument, being very careful 
not to have the powder too coarse or 
loosely pressed, or it will permit the liquid 
to pass too quickly ; and, on the other 
hand, it should not be too fine or com^ 
pact, or it may offer an unnecessary re- 
sistance. Should the liquor flow too rap- 
idly, return it to the instrument, and 
close it beneath for a time, and thus per- 
mit the finer parts of the powder to sub- 
side, and cause a slower percolation. 

The first portion of liquid obtained by 
the method of displacement is always in 
a state of high concentration. In gen- 
[ 1031 1 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Percolation) 



eral, it is a simple solution of the soluble 
ingredients of the crude drug in the fluid 
employed. But sometimes the solvent, if 
compound, is resolved into its compound 
parts, and the fluid which passes through 
it at any given time is only one of these, 
holding in solution only the most soluble 
parts of the drug. 

Thus, if diluted alcohol be poured over 
the powder of myrrh, in the cylinder of 
the percolator, the fluid which first drops 
into the receiver is a solution of an oily 
consistency, chiefly composed of rosin and 
volatile oil dissolved in alcohol. In like 
manner, when the powder of gallnuts is 
treated in the same way by hydrated sul- 
phuric ether, two layers of fluid are ob- 
tained, one of which is a highly concen- 
trated solution of tannin in the water of 
the ether, and the other a weak solution 
of the same principle in pure ether. In 
all cases, therefore, in which it is not 
otherwise directed, it is absolutely neces- 
sary to agitate the several portions of the 
liquid obtained by percolation together, 
in order to insure a product of uniform 
strength or activity. 

To illustrate the operation of displace- 
ment, and describe an excellent percola- 
tor for making perfume tinctures, we will 
suppose that benzoin is under treatment. 
The apparatus, made wholly of glass, hav- 
ing been arranged, as shown, and a plug 




Percolator for Perfume 

of raw cotton dropped loosely at a, the 
benzoin, in coarse powder, is then poured 
into the portion, b, until it reaches the 
line, c. Alcohol, 95%, is next added until 
it rises to the line, d. As soon as the 
first portion sinks into the benzoin a fresh 
addition must be made ; and thus the suc- 
ceeding relays go on displacing those 
which preceded them without mingling 
with them. Each stratum becomes more 



(Percolation) 



and more charged with soluble matter as 
it descends ; and when it reaches the bot- 
tom of the mass, under the pressure of 
the superincumbent liquor, it runs out 
saturated. When, by successive additions 
of fresh alcohol, the benzoin under treat- 
ment has become exhausted, the liquid 
passes through the mass and falls into 
the receiver, e, as tasteless and colorless 
as when first poured in. This indicates 
the completion of the process. 

As atmospheric pressure is an' impor- 
tant element in the operation, it will "not 
answer to shut it off by closing the top 
of the displacer without making some 
compensation ; and, therefore, a communi- 
cation between the upper and lower ves- 
sels is established by means of a latent 
tube arrangement, f. In this manner the 
apparatus is kept close, and the evapora- 
tion of alcohol prevented, while the press- 
ure produced is distributed throughout the 
apparatus, and rendered uniform. As the 
runnings are clear, filtration is rarely 
necessary. The quantity of alcohol thus 
consumed need not be more than sufficient 
to exhaust the material ; and the result- 
ing tincture must therefore be diluted to 
the proper strength. For perfumes, de- 
odorized alcohol must always be used. 

The method of displacement has the ad- 
vantage of expedition, economy, and yield- 
ing products possessing uniformity of 
strength, but it requires considerable ex- 
perience to adapt it to all substances. The 
art rests in properly packing the ingredi- 
ents in the cylinder, some substances re- 
quiring considerable pressure to be used, 
while others, when even lightly packed, 
scarcely permit the fluid to pass through 
them. An excellent plan, applicable to all 
substances, but especially those of a glu- 
tinous or mucilaginous nature, is to mix 
the powder with an equal bulk of well 
washed sand before rubbing it up with 
the menstruum. The coarseness of the 
powder must also be attended to. Sub- 
stances that readily become soft and pap- 
py when wetted by the menstruum should 
not be used so fine as those that are more 
woody and fibrous. The method of dis- 
placement answers well for the prepara- 
tion of all tinctures that are not of a 
resinous nature, and for most infusions 
of woody and fibrous substances, as roots, 
woods, barks, leaves, seeds, insects, etc. 
It is especially adapted for the prepara- 
tion of concentrated infusions and es- 
sences, as they may thus be obtained of 
any required strength, without loss, or re- 
quiring concentration by heat, which is 
so destructive to their virtues. 

When ordinary tinctures are mcde in 



[ 1032 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Crystallization) 



large quantities, displacement is never 
likely to supersede maceration on account 
of any practical advantages it may pos- 
sess. If the prescribed directions be duly 
attended to, the process of maceration is 
unexceptionable. The process is more sim- 
ple than the other ; the mode of opera- 
tion more uniform ; it is, in fact, always 
the same ; it requires less of skill and 
dexterity in conducting it; it requires less 
constant attention during its progress, 
which, in operating on large quantities, 
is a consideration ; and finally, the appa- 
ratus required is less complicated. When, 
however, only small quantities are to be 
made at a time, and kept in stock, the 
adoption of the process of displacement 
will often be found convenient and advan- 
tageous. It offers the means of making 
a tincture in two or three hours, which, 
by the other process, would require as 
many weeks. 

Dialysis. 

This is a process of separating sub- 
stances which do not crystallize from 
those which do, by means of a porous dia- 
phragm which sets in water. The appa- 
ratus which is used is called a dialyzer, 
which consists of a cylinder over whose 
bottom is secured a sheet of parchment 
paper. This sets in a dish of water. The 
liquid which is to be treated is placed 
in the upper dish, and the whole is put 
away for a time, when the separation will 
be found complete. This process is more 
useful in pharmacy than in the arts. 

Crystallization. 

When a body, in the act of passing 
from a liquid or gaseous to a solid state, 
arranges itself in symmetrical forms, the 
process is termed crystallization, and the 
parts of the body so aggregated are called 
crystals. 

By this process we can separate crys- 
tallizable from amorphous substances dis- 
solved in the same menstrua ; purify crys- 
tals from foreign and coloring matters, 
and in qualitative examinations be en- 
abled to determine the composition of bod- 
ies by a reference to the characteristics of 
figure. 

The modes of crystallization are by 
fusion, suhlimation, solution and chemical 
reaction. 

Crystallisation ly Fusion. — Sulphur, 
lead, bismuth, tin, antimony, silver, nu- 
merous alloys, anhydrous salts, and other 
fusible substances which are unalterable 
by heat, are erystallizable by fusion. To 
this end they are melted at the lowest 
possible temperature, and allowed to cool 



(Crystallization) 



very gradually. As soon as a crust forms 
upon the top, which may be readily seen 
by the surface becoming furrowed, it must 
be pierced with a rod, and the still fluid 
portion decanted with sufficient dexterity 
to prevent it from cooling during the 
process, and at the same time from in- 
juring the crystals coating the interior of 
the vessel. The liquid matter should be 
placed so as to be free from all vibration. 
The greater the mass of the material, and 
the more slowly it is cooled, the more 
voluminous and better defined will be the 
crystallization. 

Crystallization hy Sublimation. — Vola- 
tile solids, as iodine, camphor, several me- 
tallic chlorides and mercurial compounds, 
arsenic, benzoic acid, iodide of lead, etc., 
when heated as directed in sublimation, 
yield vapors which, in cooling, take the 
form of crystals. 

Crystallization from Solution. — When 
it is desired to obtain a substance in crys- 
tals it must first be liquefied, or made into 
a. solution with an appropriate liquid. If, 
after making the solution, there be any 
insoluble residue, it must be separated by 
filtration; and subsequently, if the solu- 
tion is capable of decolorization by such 
means, it should be boiled with a small 
portion of clean bone or ivory black, and 
again filtered. As it is the almost univer- 
sal law that heat increases the solvent 
power of bodies, the solution should gen- 
erally be made and clarified at the boil- 
ing point, so that the excess of matter 
taken up at the high temperature may 
separate, on cooling, in the form of crys- 
tals. So long as a solution is dilute it 
yields no crystals ; these latter are only 
formed when the containing liquid is 
supersaturated ; or, in other words, holds 
more than it can retain ; and consequent- 
ly, in diminishing the quantity of the li- 
quid by evaporation, we increase the den- 
sity of that which remains, and hence, 
upon cooling, it deposits that excess of 
the dissolved substance which it only held 
by virtue of its high temperature. Some 
instances are so easily soluble, and to 
such an unlimited extent, that their so- 
lutions form crystals immediately upon 
cooling ; others, again, are taken up with 
such difficulty, even at high heats, unless 
in large bulks of liquid, that although ex- 
posed to prolonged ebullition they require 
to be evaporated in order to separate what 
has been dissolved. As the mode of evap- 
orating has an important influence upon 
the form and size of crystals, we give 
some hints as to the proper manner of 
performing it. 

If large and w^ell defined crystals are 



[ 1033 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Emulsions) 



required, tlie solution should be subjected 
to spontaneous evaporation, for the more 
slow and uniform the concentration the 
more regular and gradual will be the su- 
perposition of material required to make 
distinct and large crystals. A slight ad- 
dition of solution of gelatine will, in 
some instances, it is said, give the crys- 
tals the form of plates, as in the case of 
boracic acid. The solution should be re- 
moved from the fire as soon as drops, 
withdrawn by a glass rod, and deposited 
upon a watch glass or clean spatula, give 
small crystals upon cooling. If, how- 
ever, a very dense crystallization is re- 
quired, the concentration may be contin- 
ued until a pellicle forms upon the top, 
but then the solidified masses are con- 
fused and less brilliant. These essays in- 
dicate that the liquid is evaporated to a 
point at which it cannot retain all of 
its soluble matter. The vessels are then 
placed aside to cool gradually and uni- 
formly, that the excess may crystallize 
out of the liquid. The temperature should 
be regular, for slight variations may alter 
the form of the crystals. 

Bodies equally soluble in cold and hot 
water, as well as those which are deli- 
quescent, require a prolonged evaporation, 
as they only crystallize from very dense 
solutions. 

When the liquid is to be converted 
wholly into solid, then the process is 
termed granulation, and is practiced by 
concentrating it to a syrupy consistency, 
removing the vessel from the fire and stir- 
ring its contents constantly until the mass 
has cooled into granules. This mode is 
adapted for purifying pearlash and con- 
verting it into sal tartar, and also for 
graining brown sugars. 

Emulsions and Emulsifying. 

To emulsify an oil consists in rendering 
it capable of mixing with water to form 
a uniform milky fluid, by the aid of an 
intervening medium, generally saccharine 
or mucilaginous. 

Milk being the most perfect emulsion 
obtainable, the mixture of fat which 
stimulates this compound most closely 
must likewise be regarded as superior in 
the degree that these qualities are intensi- 
fied. To be sure, an artificial emulsion 
always represents a greater percentage 
of fat than milk, and its preservation is, 
therefore, relatively easier than in that 
obtained from nature ; but this fact mere- 
ly modifies the result, and does not involve 
the principle. The greater proportion of 
water in milk also favors decomposition, 
but on the other hand, the minute, per- 



( Emulsions) 



haps even molecular, division of the fat 
globules renders it possible to withstand 
decomposition longer than an equally di- 
lute artificial emulsion, wherein the oil 
globules are not so thoroughly dissemi- 
nated. 

We, of course, recognize the fact that 
milk contains different animal bodies not 
present in ordinary artificial emulsions, 
which are prone to decomposition, so that 
the similarity drawn between the two is 
based more upon physical characteristics 
than their presenting any features in com- 
mon chemically. 

But it is this attempt at compromising 
its principal physical feature — fluidity — 
with permanency, which makes the prep- 
aration of an emulsion so diflScult. To so 
change a fat as to render it miscible with 
water is a matter of easy execution, but 
when we attempt to embody the desirable 
feature of fluidity then we are thwarted 
by physical laws, and resort to chemical 
means as a compromise. 

Condensed milk is a striking illustra- 
tion wherein by a change of its physical 
condition, complete preservation has been 
attained much more satisfactorily than 
milk in its natural form could be pre- 
served, even with chemical means. It is 
for this reason that consistency is the 
most desirable feature to insure the per- 
manence and preservation of any emul- 
sion, natural or artificial. 

It is well known that a perfect and per- 
manent emulsion can be made with cod- 
liver oil and malt extract, owing to the 
consistency of the preparation solely, as 
we have attempted to use the same agents 
represented in malt extract, namely, dex- 
trine and glucose, and discovered that 
as soon as the consistency was abandoned 
these agents did not possess any advan- 
tage over those usually employed for 
emulsifying fats. To the albumen in milk 
has been ascribed the high degree of and 
most permanent emulsification, and there- 
fore gelatine is employed in artificial 
emulsions, with not much better success, 
however, than other agents, when semi- 
fluid consistency is abandoned. 

We will now consider what should be 
used as emulsifying agents, and also such 
as, while largely used, are not desirable, 
for obvious reasons. 

Unfortunately, the well-worn maxim, 
so justly applied to most classes of phar- 
maceutical preparations, "The sacrifice of 
medicinal value for elegance," has not 
been lost sight of in the prenaration of 
emulsions. Periodically, different sub- 
stances from all the different kingdoms of 
nature have been proposed, enjoyed a 



[ 1034 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Emulsions) 



short, fashionable stay, and then been rele- 
gated to their well merited oblivion. 

The vegetable gums, acacia and trag- 
acanth, have been the longest in use, and 
the first mentioned of these has probably 
answered the purpose of a reliable, con- 
venient, and at least innocuous emulsi- 
fying agent better than the majority of 
latter-day substitutes. 

The late Prof. Wm. Procter announced 
the proportion to be used of gum acacia 
to produce a perfect temporary emulsion. 
His directions were as follows : "Mix 




Emulsifier 



intimately, in a perfectly dry mortar, the 
oil with one-half its weight of powdered 
acacia ; to this add at once one-half as 
much water as the combined weight of 
oil and gum, and triturate briskly until 
the mixture has assumed the color and 
consistency of a thick cream, which pro- 
duces a crackling noise when the pestle 
is moved rapidly around the sides of the 
mortar." This is the emulsion proper, 
and to this can be added any amount more 
of water or other desirable vehicle or 
medicament to bring the finished prepa- 
ration up to the quantity prescribed. 

If perfectly made, this emulsion will 
stand any degree of dilution with watery 
mixtures ; in fact, its quality is proved 
when, by a large addition of water, the 
oil globules will not separate or aggre- 
gate at the top of the liquid. 

Practice has demonstrated that the 
proportion of gum can be varied accord- 
ing to the nature of the oil employed, 
but the constant relation between the wa- 
ter used for the emulsion proper, and 
the mixture of oil and gum, must be 
scrupulously adhered to as insuring in- 
fallible results. 



(Emulsions) 



Fixed oils rich in gum, per se, as co- 
paiba, castor oil, etc., do not require as 
large an amount of gum as cod-liver oil, 
while in the case of ethereal oils, for in- 
stance, oil of turpentine, an equal amount 
of gum, or weight for weight, is neces- 
sary. To prepare an emulsion from tur- 
pentine not unfrequently presents diffi- 
culties, and so much the more is this to 
be guarded against, as it is a powerful 
remedy, and if presented in a merely me- 
chanical mixture will prove irritating, and 
perhaps engender serious consequences. 

But then, if by careful observance of 
this method we can obtain a perfect emul- 
sion, what more is desired? Although 
this emulsion is perfect, it is not perma- 
nent, and to circumvent this negative fea- 
ture is the problem for solution. 

While we have not discovered any 
means or process whereby this problem 
can be solved, yet we have found agents 
capable of preventing this separation in 
a great degree, being guided in their se- 
lection by a knowledge of the constitu- 
ents which are most favorable to this 
separation and those that are not. 

An emulsion should be palpable, and 
for this reason it is always sought to 
make it sweet by the introduction of cane 
sugar or glycerine. These two agents are 
the cause of the most dissatisfaction with 
emulsions. Sugar, owing to its affinity 
for water, and density, favors separation 
very rapidly, precipitating while the emul- 
sified oil forms a compact, creamy and 
gradually diminishing stratum at the top 
of the vessel. Glycerine, probably from 
the same causes, and its incompatibility 
with fixed oils, behaves in a similar man- 
ner, and for these reasons these otherwise 
desirable vehicles cannot be represented 
in an emulsion when permanence is to be 
obtained. 

As no other agents present themselves 
for fulfilling the sweet object in view, we 
have been in the habit of preparing emul- 
sions without attempting to make them 
sweet, and, we believe, without detracting 
from their palatability, while enhancing 
their appearance. 

Now, then, let us consider what agent 
will favor the homogeneity of the emul- 
sion ; that is, prevent separation or pre- 
cipitation, bearing in mind that the prep- 
aration must not be changed physically 
or chemically. 

Gelatine has been used with some sat- 
isfaction, as it retards the separation for 
a considerable length of time ; in fact, it 
answers the purpose so well that for the 
extemporaneous preparing of emulsions it 
leaves nothing to be desired. But in com- 



[ 1035 J 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Ignition) 



mon with other agents used for this pur- 
pose, it gradually loses its power of pre- 
serving the homogeneity of an emulsion, 
and eventually the separation and decom- 
position, so called, alluded to above, take 
place. 

The proportion of gelatine employed is 
about 40 gr. to 1 pt. of the emulsion ; it 
should be dissolved in the water, and add- 
ed at any time of the operation. By in- 
creasing this amount so that a jelly is 
formed of the emulsion, a perfectly per- 
manent and stable preparation is obtained. 
But this result is obtained because the 
physical character of the emulsion has 
been changed — fluidity abandoned for con- 
sistency. Unhappily, we cannot take ad- 
vantage of this condition, and therefore 
"consistency is not a jewel" pharmaceu- 
tically. 

Chemical agents such as change the 
character of an emulsion by saponifying 
the oil, have been largely advocated, and 
to the employment of this class of sub- 
stances is principally due the elegance and 
permanence of ready-made emulsions. 
That this is attained at the sacrifice of 
medicinal value of the preparation we 
have no doubt, but medical authorities 
have also demonstrated it to be a ques- 
tionable procedure to chemically change 
the constitution of a fat intended for in- 
ternal administration by what should be 
a simple pharmaceutical process — emul- 
sification — and now coD'^emn the use of 
alkalies with balsams and rosins. Co- 
paiba is no more exhibited with solution 
of potash, and alkalies are generally con- 
ceded as operating to break up the sen- 
sitive electronegative principles of ros- 
ins, upon which their medicinal value 
chiefly depends. Animal fat, and espe- 
cially cod-liver oil, when rendered alka- 
line, undoubtedly suffers decomposition in 
those very constituents to which its su- 
perior digestibility is due, and thus what 
has been gained on one hand is more than 
lost on the other. The saponiflcation 
which has been produced by the use of 
the alkali renders the preparation very 
prone to rancidity if exposed to the air, 
and even when freshly made it possesses 
inferior palatability ; but then this has 
been of secondary importance to homo- 
geneity or elegant appearance. 



V 
IGNITION 

Substances frequently require to be ig- 
nited to redness, either as the sole proc- 
ess of their preparation, or as a prelimi- 
nary step to subsequent operations. 



(Ignition) 



Ignition of Filters. 

In analyses, the filters containing the 
insoluble or precipitated substances which 
are to be estimated are ignited or "burned 
off," to expel carbonaceous and volatile 
matters, before being weighed. The im- 




Heating Porcelain Crucible 

plements for this purpose are porcelain 
or platinum crucibles, either having their 
appropriate application. 

As it is necessary that the filter should 
be wholly or partially dry, it must be 
carefully removed from the funnel, so as 
not to lose a particle of its contents, com- 
pressed between the folds of bibulous pa- 
per, and, further, dried in a capsule over 
a sand or water bath, or in a drying 
stove (desiccation), at a temperature of 
about 200° F., or less. The dried filter 
is then to be transferred to the crucible, 
which has been previously weighed. The 
transfer must be made without the loss 
of the least particle, and for this purpose 
the crucible may be placed upon a sheet 
of glazed white paper, so that any parti- 
cles that accidentally fall may be pre- 
served. The filter should be placed in the 
crucible with its apex upwards, after hav- 
ing been freed as much as possible from 
the adherent precipitate by gently rubbing 
the sides together between the thumb and 
forefinger. The force used for this pur- 
pose must not be suflScient to abrade the 
paper, otherwise the matter will reach the 
fingers, and a loss thus be occasioned by 
adherence. 

When substances are to be ignited for 
the determination of their hygroscopic, 
volatile, or organic matter, the heat of the 
lamp should be gradually applied without 
the blast, and, for the former purpose, 
only to the production of a dull red heat. 
In these instances, the crucible should be 
weighed first, so that the loss sustained 



[ 1036 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Ignition) 



by a given weight of its contents during 
ignition, may be ascertained in one weigh- 
ing merely by subtracting the weight of 
the crucible and contents after ignition 
from the combined weight of the two be- 
fore the same process. The loss gives the 
amount of the volatile matter. 

In analyses of coals, the moisture can 
be determined by heating the crucible in a 
hot sand bath, or very gently over a low 
flame. After the loss thus occasioned is 
determined by weighing, the amount of 
carbon may be ascertained by subjecting 
the crucible and contents to a much higher 
heat. 

When the substances are to be exposed 
to heat, the crucible and contents must 




Gas Crucible Furnace with Air Blast. 

likewise be weighed separately before ig- 
nition. The loss of weight gives the 
amount of volatile matter driven off. The 
ignited matter can then be removed from 




Assayer's Plant of Gas Furnaces. 



(Fusion) 



the crucible by hot water alone or acidu- 
lated. 

Scoriae may be removed from platinum 
crucibles by covering them with a paste 
of borax and carbonate of soda, heating 
them to redness, and when cold, dissolving 
out the saline matter with boiling water. 
A repetition of the process is necessary 
to brighten the crucible perfectly if it had 
been very dirty. One of our engravings 
represets an assaying plant of gas fur- 
naces as arranged by Walter Lu Brour. 
The furnace to the right is for roasting, 
the middle is for crucible fusions, and to 
the left is one for scorification and cupel- 
lation. 




Gas Crucible Furnace Without Blast. 



Fusion. 

Fusion is a process of liquefying solid 
bodies by heat without a solvent, such as 
wax melting. Gas melting arrangements 
as shown are recommended. With this 
apparatus a sound 2-oz. ingot of gold or 
silver can be molded in 2 min. A crucible 
of molded carbon is supported by a sheet- 
iron slide or plate which is clamped to an 
ingot mold by a clamp which swivels in 
the U-shaped cast-iron stand. The metal 
to be melted is placed in the crucible, and 
the flame of the blowpipe directed on it 
until it is perfectly fused. The whole is 
then tilted over by means of the upright 
handle at the back of the mold. The 
waste heat serves to make the ingot mould 
hot. No flux should be used with the 
carbon crucibles. 

The plate mold will cast an ingot 1% 
xl%x3-16 in. thick; wire mold, 3- 16 
X 3-16x2% in. long. 

For melting up to 2 oz. of gold or sil- 
ver rapidly, without the use of a furnace. 
In this arrangement the two parts of the 
[1037 3 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Calcination) 



ingot mold slide on each other, to enable 
ingots of any width to be cast, and the 
blowpipe is part of the rocking stand. 




Ingot Casting Arrangement. 




Carbon Crucible. 

When the metal is melted in the shallow 
crucible of molded carbon, till the whole 
apparatus over so as to fill the ingot 
mold. 

Calcination. 

The separation (in a dry way) of vola- 
tile from fixed matter, by heat, is termed 
calcination. The process is applicable : 

To the expulsion of water from salts, 
minerals, coals and other substances. 

To the expulsion of carbonic acid from 
certain carbonates. 

To the expulsion of arsenic and sulphur 
from cobalt, nickel and other sulphur- 
etted compounds. 

To the expulsion of bituminous matter 
from coals, and certain minerals and ores. 

To the ignition of quartz and silieious 
minerals to promote their disintegration. 

For the purpose of expelling the com- 
bined water of argillaceous minerals, and 
of thus rendering them more obstinate to 
the solvent action of acids and reagents. 

If the substance under process is or- 
ganic, its calcination in a close vessel by 



(Calcination) 



a medium heat usually effects only partial 
decomposition, the gaseous matter gener- 
ated escaping through interstices and the 
fixed components remaining with a por- 
tion of unaltered carbon. Performed in 
this manner, the process takes tfce name 
of coking, familiar instances of which are 
the formation of coke by distilling coal 
in closed retorts, the manufacture of char- 
coal from wood, and of bone black from 
bones. 

By increasing the temperature and ad- 
mitting the air, the whole of the alterable 
and volatile matter is expelled, the fixed 
matter remaining as ashes. The process 
is then styled incineration, and in this 
way the coke, charcoal and ivory black, 
obtained as above directed, may be en- 
tirely reduced to their incombustible por- 
tions or ashes. 

Calcination is effected in platinum 
spoons or crucibles, in delicate experi- 
ments, over a spirit lamp ; but in large 
operations a furnace is required, and the 
containing vessels are crucibles of either 
metal or earthenware, according to the 
nature of the substance to be heated, 
though the latter are often unsuitable for 
temperatures above a red heat. 

When the operation is finished, the 
crucible should be taken from the fire and 
allowed to cool gradually. The cover is 
then to be lifted off and the contents 
taken out with a spatula, and the portions 
adhering to the sides removed with a 
feather. 

If the substance undergoing calcination 
is fusible, it is necessary v»^hen quantities 
are to be ascertained, to weigh both the 
crucible and contents before ignition, so 
that the amount of volatile matter driven 
off may be expressed by the weight lost 
in heating. Water alone or acidulated, 
with the aid of heat, generally removes 
the calcined matter from the crucible. 

A body decripitating by heat should be 
powdered before being subjected to the 
process of calcination, and the tempera- 
ture should be raised slowly and gradual- 
ly, otherwise when the crucible is not 
covered, a loss may result from the ejec- 
tion of particles. 

To avoid contact with the generated 
vapors or with the atmosphere, which to 
some substances act as reducing agents, 
the crucible should in such cases be 
covered, and if tightly luted perforated 
with one or more small holes for the es- 
cape of vapor. 

Roasting (as the term is generally 
used) is a kind of calcination to which 
many ores are submitted before their final 
reduction to the metallic state, for the 



1 1038 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Deflagration) 



purpose of expelling ingredients which 
would either delay that process or be in- 
jurious to the metal when extracted. In 
this way water, carbonic acid, sulphur, 
selenium, arsenic, and sometimes other 
substances, are driven off from the ores 
containing them. The term is also applied 
to other processes, among the most im- 
portant of which is that of the exposure 
to heat and air by which metals become 
altered in composition. Thus, copper be- 
comes oxidized, and antimony and arsenic 
acidified by union with oxygen. 

Roasting is always effected in broad, 
shallow open vessels, so that the air may 
have free access ; and in order to promote 
the absorption of oxygen or the escape 
of the volatile substances, the surface of 
the body to be heated should be increased 
by previous pulverization, and it should 
be constantly stirred during the operation 
so as to present as many points of con- 
tact as possible. The most suitable ves- 
sel is a baked earthenware saucer or cap- 
sule placed in a muflBe or upon the bars 
of a calcining furnace. Sometimes a 
crucible is used, and then the position of 
the vessel in the furnace should be slight- 
ly inclined on one side. In either case 
the vessels should be heated to dull red- 
ness previous to receiving their charge. 

Deflagration. 

That species of roasting termed defla- 
gration is effected by rapidly heating the 
substance to be oxidized, together with 
some additional body as an oxidizing 
agent, as a nitrate or chlorate for in- 
stance. The powdered mixture is added 
portionwise to the crucible previously 
heated, and maintained at redness during 
the operation. The vivid and sudden com- 
bustion which ensues modifies the com- 
position of the original substance and in- 
creases its amount of oxygen at the ex- 
pense of the addendum. Thus, for in- 
stance, sulphuret of arsenic is deflagrated 
with niter to produce arseniate of po- 
tassa, titanium and certain other metals 
to be transformed into oxides. 

Deflagration is also used as a means of 
detecting the presence of nitric or chloric 
acids. For this purpose the suspected 
substance is to be heated with cyanide of 

fotassium, in a small platinum spoon, 
f deflagration ensues it is a test of the 
presence of one of them, or a compound 
of one of them. 

The crucibles may be of clay or metal, 
according to the nature of the substances 
to be heated. The roasting of substances 
for the expulsion of organic matter may 
be effected in platinum vessels, provided 



(Reduction) 



the heat is not caried sufficiently high to 
produce fusion of the substance being 
roasted. 

The heat must, at first, be very grad- 
ually applied, and at no time be made 
great enough to fuse or agglutinate the 
material, otherwise the process will have 
to be suspended in order to repulverdze 
the matter. Proper care at the com- 
mencement will obviate the necessity of 
this additional trouble. When the heat 
has been cautiously raised to redness and 
all liability of fusion is over, the fire may 
be urged to the production of a yellowish 
red or even white heat, so that the ex- 
pulsion of volatile matter may be com- 
plete. 

Roasting operations which disengage 
deleterious or disagreeable fumes should 
be carried on in the open air or under a 
hood, and when the volatile matters are 
valuable they may be condensed as di- 
rected in Distillation and Sublimation. 

Decrepitation. 

This frequently occurs and occasions 
loss by ejections of particles of the mix- 
ture, owing to the sudden vaporization 
of the water of crystallization, which in 
finding vent scatters the confining sub- 
stances with a crackling noise. To pre- 
vent this loss, the crucible should be 
loosely covered until decrepitation ceases. 

Reduction. 

This operation is employed for the 
separation of metallic bases from any 
bodies with which they are combined; 
but is generaly confined to the extraction 
from an oxide — that being the kind of 
combination most commonly met with. 
The combined action of heat and certain 
reagents is required to effect this result, 
the temperature varying with the nature 
of the substance to be reduced. 

The most usual reducing agents are 
charcoal and hydrogen gas. Tallow, oil 
and rosin are sometimes used, but being 
easily decomposed they are dissipated be- 
fore entire reduction has occurred. Sugar 
and starch are also occasionally employed. 
We shall, however, confine our remarks 
to the two principal articles. 

Reduction by Charcoal. 

Charcoal is used for this purpose in 
two ways, either in powder and directly 
mixed with the substance, or as a lining 
coat to the crucible in which the reduction 
is accomplished. The first mode is ob- 
jectionable, because the excess of coal 
which is required to be used interferes 
with the agglomeration of the particles 



[ 1089 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Sublimation) 



of reduced metal. Whenever it is adopted, 
the quantity of coal dust to be added, 
which must be sufficient to transform all 
the oxygen of the oxide into carbonic 
acid, can be determined by calculation. 
This amount is then mixed thoroughly 
with the oxide previously powdered, and 
is transferred to a crucible, taking care 
to place the charge in the center and to 
cover the contents with a layer of the 
dust. The whole is then to be subjected 
to the heat of a furnace, assisted if 
necessary by a blast. The reduction in 
this way, the most convenient for large 
quantities, is rapid and complete, but the 
metallic residue is often mixed with coal 
dust. 

Incineration. 

This is a process of heating organic 
substances with air until all the carbon 
is consumed, the product sought being the 
ash. 

Carbonization. 

This is a process calling for the heating 
of organic substances without exposure to 
the air until all the volatile products are 
given off and the residue remains as a 
kind of charcoal. Bone black is a good 
example. 

Sublimation. 

When simple compound bodies which 
are either wholly or in part capable of 
assuming the aeriform state are subjected 
to heat, they or their most volatile con- 
stituents, upon reaching the required tem- 
perature, rise in the form of vapor. If 
these vapors, in their transit, are inter- 
cepted by a surface of a lower tempera- 
ture, they condense and take a solid or 
liquid form, according to their nature. If 
the product is a solid, it is termed subli- 
mate, and the process by which it is ob- 
tained is suhlimation. If it is liquid or 
gas, it takes the name of distillate, and 
the operation which yields it that of dis- 
tillation. 

Both of these processes are indispensa- 
bly useful in chemistry, for they afford 
the facility of taking advantage of the 
unequal volatility of bodies for their sep- 
aration. 

As instances of sublimation, we have 
calomel and corrosive sublimate made by 
heating equivalent proportions of sulphate 
of mercury and comon salt; benzoic acid 
evolved from the gum ; pure indigo from 
the commercial article, and camphor from 
the crude material. Iodine is sublimed to 
free it from impurities ; biniodide of mer- 
cury to convert it into crystals ; naph- 



( Specific Gravity) 



thaline to free it from empyreumatic 
matter, and succinic acid to separate 
water. 

Specific Gravity. 

The specific weight of a substance is 
its weight in comparison with weights of 
similar bulks of other substances. This 
comparative heaviness of solids and 
liquids is conventionally expressed in re- 
lation to water ; they are considered as 
being lighter or heavier than w^ater. Thus, 
water being regarded as unity =1, the 
relative weight, or specific weight, of 
ether is represented by the figures .720 
(it is nearly three-fourths, .750, the 
weight of water), oil of vitriol by 1.843 
(it is nearly twice, 2,000, as heavy as 
water). The specific weight of substances 
is, moreover, by generally accepted agree- 
ment, the weight of similar volumes at 15° 
C. (59° F.), except in the case of alcohol 
and wine, which are at present taken 
at 15.6° C, (60° F.), to maintain con- 
sistency with the United States laws and 
regulations ; for the weight of a definite 
volume of any substance will vary accord- 
ing to temiperature, becoming heavier 
when cooled and lighter when heated, dif- 
ferent bodies (gases excepted) differing in 
their rate of contraction and expansion. 
While, then, specific weight — or, conven- 
tionally, specific gravity — is truly the 
comparative weight of equal bulks, the 
numfbers which in America commonly 
represent specific gravities are the com- 
parative weights of equal bulks at 15° 
(59° F.), water being taken as unity. 

The true weight of the body is its 
weight in air plus the weight of an equal 
bulk of air, and minus the weight of a 
bulk of air equal to the bulk of brass or 
other weights employed ; or, in other 
words, its weight in vacuo uninfluenced 
by the buoyancy of the air; but such a 
correction of the weight of a body is 
seldom necessary, or, indeed, desirable. 
Density is sometimes improperly regarded 
as synonymous with special gravity. It 
is true that the density of a body is in 
exact proportion to its specific gravity, 
but the former is more correctly the com- 
parative bulk of equal weights, wiiile 
specific gravity is the comparative weight 
of equal bulks. 

The standard of comparison for gases 
was formerly air, but is now usually hy- 
drogen. 

Specific Gravity of Solids Lighter than 
Water. — ^This is obtained in a manner 
similar to that for solids heavier than wa- 
ter ; but the light body is sunk by help of a 
piece of heavy metal, the bulk of the water 



[ 1040 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 
Tables showing a comparison of the degrees of Baximd, Cartier, and Beck's Areometers, with 
specific gravity degrees. 



For Liquids Lighter than Water. 



Degrees of 
Baum^, 


Baumd. 


Cartier. 


Beck. 


Cartier, 








Beck. 


Sp. Gr. 


Sp. Gr. 


Sp. Gr. 









1.0000 


1 






0.9941 


2 






0.9883 


3 






0.9826 


4 






0.9770 


5 






0.9714 


6 






0.9659 


7 






0.9604 


8 






9550 


9 






0.9497 


10 


1.000 




0.9444 


11 


0.993 


1.000 


0.9392 


12 


0.986 


0.992 


0.9340 


13 


0.979 


0.985 


0.9289 


14 


0.973 


0.977 


0.9239 


15 


0.967 


0.969 


0.9189 


16 


0.960 


0.962 


0.9139 


17 


0.954 


0.955 


0.9090 


18 


0.948 


0.948 


0.9042 


19 


0.942 


0.941 


0.8994 


20 


0.935 


0.934 


0.8947 


21 


0.929 


0.927 


0.8900 


22 


0.924 


0.920 


0.8854 


23 


0.918 


0.914 


0.8808 


24 


0.912 


0.908 


0.8762 


25 


0.906 


0.901 


0.8717 


26 


0.901 


0.895 


0.8673 


27 


0.895 


0.889 


0.8629 


28 


0.889 


0.883 


0.8585 


29 


0.884 


0.877 


0.8542 


30 


0.879 


0.871 


0.8500 


31 


0.873 


0.865 


0.8457 


32 


0.868 


0.859 


0.8415 


33 


0.863 


0.853 


0.8374 


34 


0.858 


0.848 


0.8333 


35 


0.853 


0.842 


0.8292 


36 


0.848 


0.837 


0.8252 


37 


0.843 


0.831 


0.8212 


38 


0.838 


0.826 


0.8173 


39 


0.833 


0.820 


0.8133 


40 


0.829 


0.815 


0.8095 


41 


0.824 


0.810 


0.8061 


42 


0.819 


0.805 


0.8018 


43 


0.815 


0.800 


0.7981 


44 


0.810 
0.806 
0.801 
0.797 
0.792 
0.788 
0.784 
0.781 
0.776 
0.771 
0.769 
0.763 
0.759 
0.755 
0.751 




0.7944 


45 




0.7907 


46 




0.7871 


47 




0.7834 


48 




0.7799 


49 




0.7763 


50 




0.7727 


51 




0.7692 


52 




0.7658 


53 




0.7623 


54 




7589 


55 




0.7556 


56 




0.7522 


57 




0.7489 






0.7456 


EQ 


0.748 
0.744 
0.740 
0.786 




0.7423 


60 




0.7391 


61 




0.7359 


62 




0.7328 



For Liquids Heavier than Water. 



Degrees of 


Baum^. 


Beck. 


Baum^, 
Beck. 






Sp. Gr. 


Sp. Gr. 





1.000 


1.0000 


1 


1.007 


1.0059 


2 


1.014 


1.0119 


3 


1.020 


1.0180 


4 


1.028 


1.0241 


5 


1.034 


1.0303 


6 


1.041 


1.0366 


7 


1.049 


1.0429 


8 


1.057 


1.0494 


9 


1.064 


1.0559 


10 


1.072 


1.0625 


11 


1.080 


1.0692 


12 


1,088 


1.0759 


13 


1.096 


1.0828 


14 


1.104 


1.0897 


15 


1.113 


1.0968 


16 


1.121 


1.1039 


17 


1,130 


1.1111 


18 


1.138 


1.1184 


19 


1.147 


1.1258 


20 


1.157 


1.1333 


21 


1.166 


1.1409 


22 


1.176 


1.1486 


23 


1.185 


1.1565 


24 


1.195 


1.1644 


25 


1.205 


1.1724 


26 


1.215 


1.1806 


27 


1.225 


1.1888 


28 


1.235 


1.1972 


29 


1.245 


1.2057 


30 


1.256 


1.2143 


31 


1.267 


1.2230 


32 


1.278 


1.2319 


33 


1.289 


1.2409 


34 


1.300 


1.2500 


35 


1.312 


1.2593 


36 


1.324 


1.2680 


37 


1.337 


1.2782 


38 


1.349 


1.2879 


39 


1.361 


1.2977 


40 


1.375 


1.3077 


41 


1.388 


1.3178 


42 


1.401 


1.3281 


43 


1.414 


1.3386 


44 


1.428 


1.3492 


45 


1.442 


1.3600 


46 


1.456 


1.3710 


47 


1.470 


1.3821 


48 


1.485 


1.3934 


49 


1.500 


1.4050 


50 


1.515 


1.4167 


51 


1.531 


1.4286 


52 


1.546 


1.4407 


53 


1.562 


1.4530 


54 


1.578 


1.4655 


55 


1.596 


1.4783 


56 


1.615 


1.4912 


57 


1.634 


1.5044 


58 


1.653 


1.5179 


59 


1.671 


1.5315 


60 


1.690 


1.5454 


61 


1.709 


1.5596 


62 


1.729 


1.5741 


63 


1.750 


1.5888 


64 


i.771 


1.6038 



[ 1041 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Specific Gravity) 



which the latter displaces being deducted 
from the bulk displaced by both; the re- 
mainder is the weight of a bulk of water 
equal to the bulk of the light body. For 
instance, a piece of wood weighing 12 
grams (or grains) is tied to a piece of 
metal weighing 22 grams, the loss of 
weight of the metal in water having been 
previously found to be 3 grams. The two, 
weighing 34 grams, are now immersed, 
and the loss in weight found to be 26 
grams. But of this loss 3 grams have 
been proved to be due to the buoyant ac- 
tion of the water on the lead ; the re- 
maining 23, therefore, represent the s'ame 
effect on the wood ; 23 and 12, therefore, 
represent the weights of equal bulks of 
water and wood. As 23 are to 12, so is 
1 to .5217. Or, shortly, as before, divide 
the weight in air by the weight of an 
equal bulk of water ; .5217 is the specific 
gravity of the wood. Another specimen 
of wood may be found to be three-fourths 
(.750) the weight of water, and others 
heavier. Cork varies from .100 to .300. 

The specific gravity of a very minute 
quantity of a heavy or light substance 
may be ascertained by noting the specific 
gravitly of a fluid in which it, being in- 
soluble, neither sinks nor swims, or by 
immersing it in a weighed piece of par- 
aflSne whose specific gravity is known, 
noting the specific gravity of the whole, 
and deducting the influence of the par- 
affine. 

Specific Gravity of Solids in Powder or 
Small Fragments. — Weigh the particles ; 
place them in a counterpoised specific- 
gravity bottle of known capacity, and fill 
up wtih water, taking care that the sub- 
stance is thoroughly wetted ; again weigh. 
From the combined weights of water and 
substance subtract amount due to the sub- 
stance ; the residue is the weight of water. 
Subtract this weight of water from the 
quantity which the bottle normally con- 
tains ; the residue is the amount of water 
displaced by the substance. Having thus 
obtained the weights of equal bulks of 
water and substance, a rule-of-three sum 
shows the relation of the weight of the 
substance to 1 part of water — the specific 
gravity. 

Or suspend a cup, a short tube, or 
bucket from a shortened balance-pan ; im- 
merse in water; counterpoise; place the 
weighed powder in the cup, and proceed 
as directed for taking the specific gravity 
of a solid in a mass. 

Specific Gravity of Solids Soluble in 
Watbr. — Weigh a piece of sugar, or other 
substance soluble in water ; susi>end it 
from a balance in the usual manner, and 



(Specific Gravity) 



weigh it in turpentine, benzol or petro- 
leum, the specific gravity of which is 
known or has been previously determined ; 
the loss in weight is the weight of an 
equal bulk of the turpentine. Ascertain 
the weight of an equal bulk of water by 
calculation : 

As is the specific gravity of turpentine 
to the specific gravity of water, so is the 
observed bulk of turpentine to an equal 
bulk of water. 

The exact weights of equal bulks of 
sugar and water being obtained, the 
weight of a bulk of sugar corresponding 
to 1.000 of water is shown by a rule-of- 
three sum ; in other words, divide the 
weight of sugar by that of the equal bulk 
of water ; the quotient is the specific grav- 
ity of sugar. The stated specific gravity 
of the sugar ranges from 1.590 to 1.607. 



^=^ 



^ 

Hydrometers and Jar 



Hydrometers. — ^The specific gravity of 
liquids may be ascertained without scales 
and weights, by means of a hydrometer, 
an instrument usually of glass, having a 
graduated stem, and bulb or bulbs at the 
lower part. The specific gravity of a 
liquid is indicated by the depth to which 
the hydrometer sinks in the liquid, • the 
zero of the scale marking the depth to 
which it sinks in pure water. Hydrome- 
ters require a considerable quantity of 
liquid to fairly float them, and specific 
gravities observed with them are less deli- 
cate and trustworthy than those obtained 
by the balance ; nevertheless, they are ex- 
ceedingly useful for many practical pur- 
poses where the employment of a delicate 
balance would be inadmissible. 

Hydrometers are of two kinds : First, 
those which are always immersed in the 



[ 1042 ] 



Chemical Manipulations 



(Hydrometers) 



same depth in still water and the liquid 
to be tried, small weights being used for 
the purpose, as in Fahrenheit's and Nich- 
olson's hydrometers ; and second, those 
which are suffered to rise or sink freely in 
the liquid, as in Syke's and Baum6's. In 
both cases a correction must be made for 
any variation in temperature. 

In conducting technical experiments, 
the hydrometer will often be found of 
great use, even to those who are not chem- 
ists. ITie Baume instrument seems to be 
falling into disuse, a hydrometer having 
a graduated scale in which the gradua- 
tions represent the specific gravity, taking 
its place. A hydrometer jar and two 
specific gravity scale hydrometers should 
be used, one for liquids heavier than wa- 
ter, and one for liquids lighter than wa- 
ter. For special purposes, or if the equip- 
ment of the laboratory is large, a con- 
siderable number of hydrometers may be 
provided. When constructed for special 
pui-poses they often have special names. 
In the catalogue of a prominent manu- 
facturer of chemical apparatus and ma- 
terials we find the following special hy- 
drometers for special purposes. The prices 
run from 75 cents to $2.00, although 
some special types cost more, and some 
are only sold in sets. These special hy- 
drometers are for testing the following 
substances : Alcohol, alkali, ammonia, 
bark (tannometer), battery fluid, beer, 
beer and wort, 'benzine, blood, chlorine, 
eider, coal oil, ether, gasoline, glycerine, 
miilk (lactometer), naphtha, oil, salt so- 
lution (salimeter), silver solution, sugar, 
vinegar, wine and must. If the liquid is 
too warm, the hydrometer jar containing 
it should be cooled to the proper temper- 
ature ; if the temperature has fallen too 
low, the hydrometer jar can be slightly 
warmed with the hand. Many of the 
hydrometers found in the older books have 
either dropped out of use, or are rarely 
used in this country by chemists. The 
Pralles hydrometer is largely used by dis- 
tillers in this country, and by the Govern- 
ment for making alcoholic determinations. 
Twaddell's hydrometer is very often 
employed in tanneries and other technical 
works, especially in England. If work in 
specific gravity is to be performed, a spe- 



(Thermometer Scales) 



cific gravity balance is recommended. The 
tables of specific gravity will be found 
in the chapter on Weights and Meas- 
ures. Tables of specific gravity, and the 
method of using the same, are presented 
herewith. 

Thermometer Scales. 

Much annoyance is caused by the great 
difference of thermometer scales in use 
in the different civilized countries. The 
scale of Reaumur prevails in Germany. 
As is well known, he divides the space 
between the freezing and boiling points 
into 80°. France uses that of Celsius, 
who graduated his scale on the decimal 
system. The most peculiar scale of all, 
however, is that of Fahrenheit, a re- 
nowned German physicist, who in 1714 
or 1715, composed his scale, having ascer- 
tained that water can be cooled under the 
freezing point without congealing. He 
therefore did not take the congealing point 
of water, but composed a mixture of equal 
parts of snow and sal ammoniac, about 
— 14° R. The conversion of any one of 
these scales to another is very simple, 
and easily made. To change a tempera- 
ture, as given by Fahrenheit's scale, into 
the same as given by the centigrade scale, '^ 
subtract 32° from Fahrenheit's degrees, 
and multiply the remainder by 5-9. The 
product will be the temperature in centi- 
grade degrees. 

To change from Fahrenheit's to Reau- 
mur's scale, subtract 32° from Fahren- 
heit's degrees, and multiply the remain- 
der by 4-9. The product will be the tem- 
perature in Reaumur's degrees. 

To change the temperature, as given by 
the centigrade scale, into the same as 
given by Fahrenheit, multiply the centi- 
grade degrees by 9-5 and add 32° to the 
product. The sum will be the tempera- 
ture by Fahrenheit's scale. 

To change from Reaumur's to Fahren- 
heit's scale, multiply the degrees on Reau- 
mur's scale by 9-4 and add 32° to the 
product. The sum will be the tempera- 
ture by Fahrenheit's scale. 

For those who wish to save themselves 
the trouble we have calculated the fol- 
lowing comparative table. 



C1048] 



Chemical Mardpulations 



(Thermometer Scales) 



(Thermometer Scales) 



COMPARATIVE SCALES OF THERMOMETER, 



c. 


R. 


F. 


C. 


R. 


F. 


C. 


R. 


F. 


-30 


-24.0 


-22.0 


14 


11.2 


57.2 


58 


46.4 


136.4 


-29 


-23.2 


-20.2 


15 


12.0 


59.0 


59 


47.2 


138.2 


-28 


-22.4 


-18.4 


16 


12.8 


60.8 


60 


48.0 


140.0 


-27 


-21.6 


-16.6 


17 


13.6 


62.6 


61 


48.8 


141.8 


-26 


-20.8 


-14.8 


18 


14.4 


64.4 


62 


49.6 


143.6 


-25 


-20.0 


-13.0 


19 


15.2 


66.2 


63 


50.4 


145.4 


-24 


-19.2 


-11.2 


20 


16.0 


68.0 


64 


51.2 


147.2 


-23 


-18.4 


-9.4 


21 


16.8 


69.8 


65 


52.0 


149.0 


-22 


-17.6 


-7.6 


22 


17.6 


71.6 


66 


52.8 


150.8 


' -21 


-16.8 


-5.8 


23 


18.4 


73.4 


67 


53.6 


152.6 


-20 


-16.0 


-4.0 


24 


19.2 


75.2 


68 


54.4 


154.4 


-19 


-15.2 


-2.2 


25 


20.0 


77.0 


69 


55.2 


156.2 


-18 


-14.4 


-0.4 


26 


20.8 


78.8 


70 


56.0 


158.0 


-17 


-13.6 


1.4 


27 


21.6 


80.6 


71 


56.8 


159.8 


-16 


-12.8 


3.2 


28 


22.4 


82.4 


72 


67.6 


161.6 


-15 


-12.0 


5.0 


29 


23.2 


84.2 


73 


58.4 


163.4 


-14 


-11.2 


6.8 


30 


24.0 


86.0 


74 


59.2 


165.2 


-13 


-10.4 


8.6 


31 


24.8 


87.8 


75 


60.0 


167.0 


-12 


-9.6 


10.4 


32 


25.6 


89.6 


76 


60.8 


168.8 


-11 


-8.8 


12.2 


33 


26.4 


91.4 


77 


61.6 


170.6 


-10 


-8.0 


14.0 


34 


27.2 


93.2 


78 


62.4 


172.4 


-9 


-7.2 


15.8 


35 


28.0 


95.0 


79 


63.2 


174.2 


-8 


-6.4 


17.6 


36 


28.8 


96.8 


80 


64.0 


176.0 


-7 


-5.6 


19.4 


37 


29.6 


98.6 


81 


64.8 


177.8 


-6 


-4.8 


21.2 


38 


30.4 


100.4 


82 


65.6 


179.6 


— 5 


-4.0 


23.0 


39 


31.2 


102.2 


83 


66.4 


181.4 


-4 


-3.2 


24.8 


40 


32.0 


104.0 


84 


67.2 


183.2 


-3 


-2.4 


26.6 


41 


32.8 


105.8 


85 


68.0 


185.0 


-2 


-1.6 


28.4 


42 


33.6 


107.6 


86 


68.8 


186.8 


- 1 


-0.8 


30.2 


43 


34.4 


109.4 


87 


69.6 


188.6 





0.0 


32.0 


44 


35.2 


111.2 


88 


70.4 


190.4 


1 


0.8 


33.8 


45 


36.0 


113.0 


89 


71.2 


192.2 


2 


1.6 


35.6 


46 


36.8 


114.8 


90 


72.0 


194.0 


3 


2.4 


37.4 


47 


37.6 


116.6 


91 


72.8 


195.8 


4 


3.2 


39.2 


48 


38.4 


118.4 


92 


73.6 


197.6 


5 


4.0 


41.0 


49 


39.2 


120.2 


93 


74.4 


199.4 


6 


4.8 


42.8 


50 


40.0 


122.0 


94 


75.2 


201.2 


7 


5.6 


44.6 


51 


40.8 


123.8 


95 


76.0 


203.0 


8 


6.4 


46.4 


52 


41.6 


125.6 


96 


76.8 


204.8 


9 


7.2 


48.2 


S3 


42.4 


127.4 


97 


77.6 


206.6 


10 


8.0 


50.0 


54 


43.2 


129.2 


98 


78.4 


208.4 


11 


8.8 


61.8 


55 


44.0 


131.5 


99 


79.2 


210.2 


12 


9.6 


53.6 


56 


44.8 


132.8 


100 


80.0 


212.0 


13 


10.4 


55.4 


57 


45.6 


134.6 









To change the temperature as given 
by the centigrade scale into the same 
as given by Fahrenheit, multiply the 
centigrade degrees by 9-5 and add 32 
deg. to the product. The sum will be 
the temperature by Fahrenheit's scale. 

To change from Reaumur's to Fahr- 



enheit's scale, multiply the degrees on 
Reaumur's scale by 9-4 and add 32 
deg. to the product. The sum will be 
the temperature by Fahrenheit's scale. 
For those who wish to save them- 
selves the trouble we have calculated 
the preceding comparative table. 



i 1044 J 



Weights and Measures 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



LINEAR MEASURE. 



.3 
13 
72 

1,000 

3 

4 

9 

12 

18 

3 

2i 

5 

2 

5i 

66 

4 

40 

220 

8 

1,760 

5,280 



barleycorns, or 

lines, or 

points, or 

mils (mi.) , 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

feet 

feet 

feet 

yards 

yards 

feet, or 1 j 

rods J 

poles, or 

yards 

furlongs, or. . . 
yards, or } 1 

miles 1 



1 inch (in.) 

palm 

hand 

span 

foot (ft.) 

cubit 

yard (yd.) 

military pace 

geometrical pace 

fathom 

rod, pole, or perch 

Gunter's chain 

1 furlong (fur.) 

mile 
league 



The hand is used to measure horses' height. 
The military pace is the length of the ordinary 
step of a man. One thousand geometrical 
paces were reckoned to a mile. 

LAND MEASURE (lINEAR). 

7.92 inches 1 link 

100 links, or 1 

66 feet, or [ ^ ^hain (ch.) 

22 yards, or f 

4 poles J 

10 chains 1 furlong (fur.) 

80 chains, or I 1 mile 

8 furlongs / 

LAND MEASURE (SQUARE). 

144 sq. inches... . 1 square foot (sq. ft.) 
9 square feet. . 1 square yard (sq. yd.) 

30 i sq. yards 1 sq. pole, rod, or perch 

16 sq; poles 1 square chain (sq. ch.) 

1 of n ^'*- P°^^^' °'' 1 1 sq. rood 
1,210 sq. yards ; ^ 

4 roods, or. . . . 

10 sq. chs., or... 

160 sq. poles, or. } 1 acre* 

4,840 sq. yds., or., 

43,560 sq. ft 

640 acres, or. . . . I i o^ rn\]p 

3,097,600 sq. yds / ^ ^q. mile 

30 acres 1 yard of land 

100 acres 1 hide of land 

40 hides 1 barony 

* The side of a square having an area of an 

acre is equal to 69.57 linear yards. 

CUBIC MEASURE. 

1,728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot 

27 cubic feet 1 cubic or solid yard 

l^RY MEASURE, U. 8. 

Cu. In. 

2 pints 1 quart (qt.) = 67.20 

4 quarts 1 gallon (gal.) = 268.80 

8|urZ'."".::::}ip-k =537.60 

4 pecks 1 struck bushel = 2150. 42 



LIQUID MEASURE, U. S. 

Cu. In. 

4 gills 1 pint (O.) = 28.875 

2 pints 1 quart (qt.) = 57.75 

4 quarts 1 gallon (gal.) =231 

63 gallons 1 hogshead (hhd.) 

2 hogsheads 1 pipe or butt 

2 pipes 1 tun 

apothecaries' liquid measure. 

Apothecaries' or Wine Measure is used by 
pharmacists of this country. Its denomina- 
tions are gallon, pint, Auid ounce, fluid 
drachm, and minim, as follows: 
Cong. O. F. Oz. F. Dr. Minims 

1 = 8 = 128 «= 1,024 = 61,440 
1 = 16 = 128 = 7,680 
1 == 8 = 480 

1 = 60 

1 
The Imperial Standard Measure is used by 
British pharmacists. Its denominations and 
their relative value are: 

Gal. Quarts. Pints. F. Oz. F. Dr. Minims 
1 = 4 = 8 == 160 = 1,280= 76,800 
1 = 2 = 40 = 320= 19,200 
1 = 20 = 160= 9,600 
1 = 8= 480 

1= 60 

The relative value of United States Apothe- 
caries' and British Imperial Measures is as 
follows; 

r-Imperial Measure.-^ 

U.S. M 

Apothe- 
caries' 
Measure. 
1 Gallon = 
1 Pint = 
1 Fl 
1 Fl 



^O P -i 



83311 Gallon, or 6 13 

83311 Pint, or 16 

Oz. = 1.04139Fl. Oz..or 1 
Dr. = 1.04139 Fl. Dr. or 



1 Minim =1.04139 Minim, or 



2 22.85 
5 17.86 

19.86 

1 2.48 
1.04 



OLD wine and spirit MEASURE. 

Imperial 

4 gills or quarterns. . . 1 pint Gals. 

2 pints 1 quart 

4 quarts (231 cu. in.) . 1 gallon = .8333 

10 gallons 1 anchor = 8.333 

18 gallons 1 bunlet = 15 

31i gallons 1 barrel = 26.25 

42 gallons 1 tierce = 35 

IStS "■:;::: }"°^'-«-'- ^^.s 

126saUons.or 1 1 pipe oi- 

2 hogsheads, or. . . } butt 
1| puncheons J 

2 pipes or ] j |,,„ 

3 puncheons / ^ ^""^ 

Apothecaries' Weight is the official standard 

of the United States Pharmacopa?ia. ^ In 
buying and selling medicines not ordered by 
prescriptions avoirdupois weight is used. 
Lb. Oz. Dr. 



105 



210 



Scr. 



12 


= 


96 


= 


288 


^ 


5760 


1 


== 


8 


= 


24 


= 


480 






1 


— 


3 
1 


= 


60 
20 



IJ1046] 



Weights and Measures 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES—Continued 



Avoirdupois Weight. — Lsed for 
all goods except those for which 
apothecaries' weight are employe<^I. 



Gross 
or Long 
Ton. Cwt. 
1 - 20 = 
1 = 



Qr. 

80 
4 
1 



Lb. 

2,240 

112 

28 

1 



Short 
or Net 
Ton. Cwt. 
1 = 20 == 
1 = 



Oz. 

.35,840 

1,792 

448 

16 

1 



weighing 
troy and 



Dr. 

673,440 

28,672 

7.168 

256 

16 



Lb. 

= 2,000 

= 100 

= 25 

1 



Oz. 

32,000 

1,600 

400 

16 

1 



Dr. 

512,000 

25.600 

6,400 

256 

16 

The "short" ton of 2,000 lbs. is used com- 
monly in the United States. The British or 
"long" ton, used to some extent in the United 
States, contains 2,240 lbs., corresponding to a 
cwt. of 1 12 and a quarter of 28 lbs. 

Troy Weight. — ^Used by jewelers and at the 
mints, in the exchange of the precious metals. 
Lb. Oz. Dwt. Or. 

1 = 12 = 240 == 5760 
1 = 20 = 480 

1 = 24 

700 troy gra^ins = 1 lb. avoirdupois. 
175 troy pounds = 144 lb. avoirdupois. 
175 troy ounces = 192 oz. avoirdupois. 
437J troy grains = 1 oz. avoirdupois. 
1 troy pound =.8228 + lb. avoirdupois. 

The common standard of weight by which 
the relative values of these systems are com- 
pared is the grain, which for this purpose may 
be regarded as the unit of weight. The pound 
troy and that of apothecaries' weight have 
each five thousand seven hundred and sixty 
grains; the pound avoirdupois has seven 
thousand grains. 

The relative proportions and values of these 
several systems are as follows: 

Troy. Avoirdupois. 

Oz. Dr. 

1 pound equals 13 2.65 

1 ounce equals 1 1.55 

1 dwt. equals 0.877 

Troy. .—Apothecaries'.— ^ 

Lb. Oz. Dr. Sc. Gr. 

1 pound equals 1 

1 ounce equate 10 

1 dwt. equals 1 4 

1 grain equals 1 

Apothecaries'. .Avoirdupois. 

Oz. Dr. 

1 pound equals 13 2.65 

1 ounce equals 1 1.5f 

1 drachm equals 2.19 

1 scruple equals 0.73 

Apothecaries'. -Troy.— > 

Lb. Oz. Dwt. Gr. 

1 pound equals 1 

1 ounce equals 1 

1 drachm equals 2 12 

J. scruple equals 20 



Avoirdupois. ^T^oy.-^ 

Lb. Oz. Dwt. Or. 

1 long ton equals 2722 2 13 8 

1 cwt. equals 136 1 6 16 

1 quarter equals 34 6 16 

1 pound equals 1 2 11 IB 

1 ounce equals 18 5^ 

1 drachm equals 1 3H 

Avoirdupois. ^-Troy.— 

Lb. Oz. Dwt. Gr. 

1 short ton equals 2430 6 13 8 

1 cwt. equals 1216 6 16 

1 quarter equals 30 4 11 16 

Avoirdupois. --.Apothecaries'.— ^ 

Lb. Oz. Dr. Scr. Gr. 

1 pound equals 12 4 2 

1 ounce equals 7 17i 

1 drachm equals 1 7^-^ 

DIAMOND MEASURE. 

16 parts =1 grain = 0.8 troy grain. 
4 grains =1 carat = 3.2 troy grains. 

TIME. 

The unit of time measurement is the same 
among all nations. Practically it is 1/86400 of 
the mean solar day, but really it is a perfectly 
arbitrary unit, as the length of the mean solar 
day is not constant for any two periods of 
time. There is no constant natural unit of 
time. 

1 minute =60 seconds. 

1 hour =60 minutes, 3600 sec- 

onds. 
1 day =24 hours, 1440 minutes, 

86,400 seconds. 
1 sidereal day =86164.1 seconds. 

1 sidereal month =27.321661 mean solar 

days (average). 
1 lunar month =29.530589 mean solar 

days (average). 
1 anomalistic month = 27.544600 mean solar 

days (average). 
1 tropical month =27.321582 mean solar 

days (average). 
1 nodical month =27.212222 mean solar 

days (average.) 
Mean solar year =365 d. 5 h. 48 m. 46.045 
s. with annual varia- 
tion of 0.00539. 
The change in the length of the mean side- 
real day, i.e., of the time of the earth's rota- 
tion upon its axis, amounts to 0.01252 s. in 
2400 mean solar years. 

ANGULAR MEASURE 
60 seconds = 1 minute 
60 minutes = 1 degree 
60 degrees = 1 sextant 
90 degrees = 1 right angle or quadrant 
360 degrees = 1 circle 

GEOGRAPHICAL MEASURE 
6087,15 feet = 1 geographical mile 

1.15287 statute miles ■= 1 geographical 
mile 
60 geographical miles = 1 degree of 

longitude at the Equator 
69.168 statute miles = 1 degree of lon- 
gitude at the Equator 
360 degrees = circumference of earth 

at the Equator 



£10463 



VTeiffhts and Meai^ures 



DECIMAL SYSTEM— WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



A melet is one ten-millionth «->f Ui? distance 
from the equator to the North Pole. 




The metric system, formed on the meter a« 
the unit of length, has four other leading units, 
all connected with and dependent upon this. 
The are, the unit of surface, is the square of 
ten meterj. The liter, the unit of capacity, 
is the cube of a tenth part of the meter. The 
stere, the unit of solidity, has the capacity of 
a cubic meter. The gram, the unit of 
weight, is the weight of that quantity of dis- 
tilled water at its maximum density which 
fills the cube of a hundredth part of ihe meter. 
Each unit has its decimal multiple and sub- 
multiple, that is, weights and measures ten 
times larger or ten times smaller than the 
principal unit. The prefixes denoting the 
multiples are derived from the Greek, and 
are rfeca, ten ; Acdo, hundred; A;i7o, thousand ; 
and myria, ten thousand. Those denoting 
sub-multiples are taken, from the Latin, and 
are deci, ten; centi, hundred; tnilli, thousand. 



Relative Value. 


Length. 


Surface. 


Capacity. 


Solidity. 


Weight. 


10.000 . . . 


Myriameter 

Kilometer 

Hectometer 

Decameter 

Meter 

Decimetijr 

Centimeter 

Millimeter 










1 ,000. . . . 




Kiloliter 

Hectoliter 

Decaliter 

Liter 

Deciliter 

Centiliter 

Milliliter 


Dekastere 

Stere 

Decistere 


Kilogram 


100. . . 


Hectare 


Hectogram 


10 


Decagram 


Unit 


Are 

Deciare 

Centiare 


Gram 


0.1 , 


Decigram 
Centigram 


0.01 


0.001 




Milligram 



APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENTS OF THE FRENCH (METRIC) AND 
ENGLISH MEASURES. 



I yard H meter, 

I I meters , 12 yards. 



To convert meters into yards Add Mh. 

- ft. 3* inc 

40 inches (1,6 per cent less). 



1 meter=l.l yd.; 3.3 ft -j f A 



inches slpisth less). 



1 meter, by the Standards Commission =39.38203 inches. 

1 meter, by the Act of 1878 = 39.37079 inches. 

1 foot. . i 3 decimeters (more exactly 3.048). 

1 inch 25 millimeters (more exactly 25.4). 

1 mile 1.6 or li kilometers (more exactly 1.60931) 

I kilometer. f of a mile. 

1 chain (22 yards) 20 meters (more exactly 20.1165). 

5 furlongs (1.100 yards). 1 kilometer (more exactly 1.0058). 

1 square yard f square meter (more exactly .8^61 ). 

i square meter \ jO* square feet. 

^ . I U square yards. 

1 square mch. . . 6i square centimeters (more exactly 6.45) 

1 square mile (640 acres) 260 hectares (0.4 per cent less). 

1 acre (4840 square yards) 4000 square meters (1.2 per cent more). 

1 cubic yard f cubic meter (2 per cent more). 

1 cubic meter 1^ cubic yards (l| per cent less). 

1 cubic meter. 35i cubic feet (.05 per cent less). 

1 cubic meter of water 1 long ton nearly. 

1 kilogram 2.2 pounds fully. 

1,000 kilograms I , , ^ , 

1 metric ton f ^ ^^^g ton nearly. 

I long hundredweight 51 kilograms nearly. 

1 United States hundredweight 45^ kilograAis nearly . 



11047] 



Weights and Measures 



ass 



• IMC-lOO'* 



»C .,).... 



22 

II 
III. 

ass 






toco e>» 






SOOOC* to kO -^ O .-1 (M •«*< Tt< CO O CO OM 



• • too 
e-io — »- 



00 oeo^oooo 



•«*<Tt<COOCO 

toeoiO' " 
o •-* 

e^oeo< 



II II II u II II u II tt II II II n II II u II . II 11 n II II II II II (t II u 









1=11 



Ills: I 'bis 5 

aoacM « oopmop^ 



.5" • ^>.a 



I. . . 

p. : . : 



^■H 



gt^ ^ sSgSl al 
rwicra ja Qoaoa "o « 



cot>- ootoeo lOO'^o^ 
03cor^Oco-< ^u5t — ' 



<N(NtO^C* 

^ '»<eoocot^ 



i to coo 



) -"t 00 CO "5 1^ eous'^e^os O1 
(too'^coeo '»<eoocot^ i>-« 



II II II II II II II II II II II II II I) li II » II II II n fl 



11 II 



fl fl 












«i- r= ^fl« 



4) a 

a.s- 



« 5- • - 



«- «J 



' *hj' QK 



«5 

^1 %. 



a a 
ia i 



a 



o JsJow o 




1048 



Weights and Measures 



STEAM PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE, 



Pressure 


Corresponding 


Pressure 


Corresponding 


Pressure 


Corresponding 


in Lbs. per 


Temperature, 


in Lbs. per 


Temperature, 


in Lbs. per 


Temperature, 


Sq. In. 


Fahrenheit. 


Sq. In. 


Fahrenheit. 


Sq. In. 


Fahrenheit. 


10 


192.4 


65 


301.3 


140 


357.9 


15 


212.8 


70 


306.4 


150 


363.4 


20 


228.5 


75 


311.2 


160 


368.7 


25 


241.0 


80 


315.8 


170 


373.6 


30 


251.6 


85 


320.1 


180 


378.4 


35 


260.9 


90 


324.3 


190 


382.9 


40 


269.1 


95 


328.2 


200 


387.3 


45 


276.4 


100 


332.0 


210 


391.5 


50 


283.2 


110 


339.2 


220 


395.5 


55 


289.3 


1 120 


345.8 


230 


399.4 


60 


295.6 


1 130 


352.1 


240 


403.1 



Degree of Fahr. 

2,786 

1,996 

1,947 

1,873 

1,750 

1,000 

980 

941 

773 

644 

640 

630 

617 

600 

518 

442 

380 

356 

315 

302 

257 

256 

239 

238 

221 

220 

218 

216 

214 

213 or (213.5). 
212 



TABLE OF TEMPERATURE. 
Degree of Fahr. 



Cast iron melts (Daniell). 
Copper melts (Daniell). 
Gold melts. 
Silver melts (Daniell). 
Brass (containing 25% of 

zinc) melts (Daniell). 
Iron, bright cherry red (Poil- 

let). 
Red heat, visible in daylight 

(Daniell). 
Zinc begins to burn (Daniell). 
Zinc melts (Daniell). 
Mercury boils (Daniell), 662 

(Graham). 
Sulphuric acid boils (Ma- 

grignac), 620 (Graham). 
Whale oil boils (Graham). 
Pure lead melts (Rudberg), 
Linseed oil boils. 
Bismuth melts (Gmelin). 
Tin melts (Crichton). 
Arsenious acid volatilizes. 
Metallic arsenic sublimes. 
Oil of turpentine boils 

(Kaure). 
Etherification ends. 
Saturated sol. of sal ammo- 
niac boils (Taylor). 
Saturated sol. of acetate of 

soda boils. 
Sulohur melts (Miller), 226 

(Fownes). 
Saturated sol. of nitre boils. 
Saturated sol. of salt boils 

(Paris Codex). 
Saturated sol. of alum, carb. 

soda, and sulph. zinc, boil. 
Saturated sol. of chlorate and 

prussiate potash, boil. 
Saturated sol. of sulph. iron, 

sulph. copper, nitrate of 

lead, boil. 
Saturated sol. of acetate 

lead, sulph. and bitar- 

trate potash, boil. 
Water begins to boil in 

glass. 
Water boils in metal, barom- 
eter at 30". 



211 Alloy of 5 bismuth, 3 tin, 2 

lead, melts. 

201 Alloy of 8 bismuth, 5 lead, 3 

tin, melts (Kane). 

207 Sodium melts (Regnault). 

185 Nitric acid 1.52 begins to boil. 

180 (about). . . Starch forms a gelatinous 
compound with water. 

176 Rectified spirit boils, benzol 

distils. 

173 Alcohol (sp. gr. ,796 to .800) 

boils. 

151 Beeswax melts (Kane), 142 

(Lepage). 
150 Pyroxylic spirit boils (Scan- 
Ian). 
145 White of egg begins to coag- 
ulate. 

141.8 Chloroform, and ammonia of 

.945, boil. 

132 Acetone (pyroacetic spirit) 

boils (Kane). 

122 Mutton suet and styracin 

melt. 

116 Bisulphuret of carbon boils 

(Graham). 

115 Pure tallow melts (Lepage), 

92 (Thomson). 
.... Spermaceti and stearin of 

lard melt. 
.... Phosphorus melts (Miller). 

98 Temperature of the blood. 

95 Ether (.720) boils. 

95 Carbolic acid crystals 

come an oily liquid. 

88 Acetous fermentation 

water boils in vacuo. 

77 Vinous ferm. ends, acetous 

ferm. begins. 

64.4 Oil of anise liquefies. 

59 Gay Lussac's Alcoomttre 

graduated at. 

55 Sirups to be kept at. 

30 (about). ., Olive oil becomes partially 
solid. 

32 Water freezes. 

5 Cold produced by snow 2 

parts and salt 1 part. 

— 37.9 Mercury freezes. 

— Cooley. 



112. 
111. 



be- 



[ 1049 



Weights and Measures 





WEIGHT 


IN POUNDS PER 


MILE 


OF COPPER WIRE. 




Num- 


Roeb- 


Bir- 


Brown 

& 
Sharpe. 


English 
Legal 


Num- 


Roeb- 


Bir- 


Brown 

& 
Sharpe. 


English 
Legal 


ber. 


ling. 


ham. 


Stand- 
ard. 


ber. 


Hng. 


ham. 


Stand- 
ard. 


0000 


2,466 


3,286 


3,375 


2.555 i 


14 


102 


110 


65 


102 


000 


2,092 


2,884 


2,677 


2,210 1 


15 


83 


83 


52 


83 


00 


1,750 


2,305 


2,123 


1,933 1 


16 


64 


68 


41 


65 





1,504 


1,846 


1,684 


1,682 


17 


47 


53i 


33 


50 


1 


1,278 


1,437 


1,335 


1,437 


18 


35 


38 


26 


37 


2 


1,104 


1,287 


1,058 


1,216 


19 


27 


28 


20i 


26 


3 


950 


1,071 


839 


1,012 


20 


19 ■ 


19 ■ 


16i 


16i 


4 


808 


904 


665 


860 


21 


16- ■ 


16- 


13 


5 


684 


773 


528 


718 


22 


12^ 


12 - 




12^ 


6 


588 


657 


418 


588 


23 


10 


10 


8i 


9i 


7 


500 


517 


332 


495 


24 


8- 


7-- 


6i 


6* 


8 


419 


435 


263 


409 


25 


6^ 


6 


5ir 


9 


350 


350 


209 


332 


26 


5 


5 


4 


5 


10 


291 


287 


166 


263 


27 


4i 


4 


3i 


4 


11 


230 


230 


131 


215 


28 


4 


11 


2i 


Si 


12 


176 


190 


104 


173 


29 


3f 


2 


3 


13 


135 


144 


83 


135 


30 


3i 


2i 


11 


2* 



WIRE 


GAUGES. IN 


DECIMAL PARTS 




OF AN 


INCH 




Num- 






Bir- 


Eng- 


Old 


ber of 


Roeb- 
ling. 


Brown 


ming- 


lish 


Eng- 


Wire 


& 


ham 


Legal 


lish, 


Gauge. 


Sharpe. 


or 


Stand- 


or Lon- 








Stubs. 


ard. 


don. 


000000 


0.46 






0.464 




00000 


0.43 






0.432 




0000 


0.393 


0.46 


0.454 


0.4 


0.454 


000 


0.362 


0.40964 


0.425 


0.372 


D.425 


00 


0.331 


0.3648 


0.380 


0.348 


0.38 





0.307 


0.32495 


0.340 


0.324 


0.34 


1 


0.283 


0.2893 


0.3 


0.3 


0.3 


2 


0.263 


0.25763 


0.284 


0.276 


0.284 


3 


0.244 


0.22942 


0.259 


0.252 


3.259 


4 


0.225 


0.20431 


0.238 


0.232 


3.238 


5 


0.207 


0.18194 


0.22 


0.212 


3.22 


6 


0.192 


0.16202 


0.203 


0.192 


3.203 


7 


0.177 


0.14428 


0.18 


0.176 


0.18 


8 


0.162 


0.12849 


0.165 


0.16 


0.165 


9 


0.148 


0.11443 


0.148 


0.144 


.148 


10 


0.135 


0.10189 


0.134 


0.128 


0.134 


11 


0.12 


0.09074 


0.12 


0.116 


0.12 


12 


0.105 


0.0S081 


0.109 


0.104 


0.109 


13 


0.092 


0.07196 


0.095 


0.092 


0.095 


14 


0.08 


0.06408 


0.083 


0.08 


0.083 


15 


0.072 


0.05706 


0.072 


0.072 


0.072 


16 


0.063 


0.05082 


0.065 


0.064 


0.065 


17 


0.054 


0.04525 


0.058 


0.056 


0.058 


18 


0.047 


0.0403 


0.049 


0.048 


0.049 


19 


0.041 


0.03589 


0.042 


0.04 


3.04 


20 


0.035 


0.03196 


0.035 


0.036 


0.035 


21 


0.032 


0.02846 


0.032 


0.032 


0.0315 


22 


0.028 


0.02534 


0.028 


0.028 


3.0295 


23 


0.025 


0.02257 


0.025 


0.024 


0.027 


24 


0.023 


0.0201 


0.022 


0.022 


0.025 


25 


0.02 


0.0179 


0.02 


0.02 


0.023 


26 


0.018 


0.01594 


0.018 


0.018 


0.0205 


27 


0.017 


0.01419 


0.016 


0.016^ 


0.01875 


28 


0.016 


0.01264 


0.014 


0.0148 


0.0165 


29 


0.015 


0.01125 


0.013 


0.0136 


0.0155 


30 


0.014 


01002 


0.012 


0.012^ 


0.01375 


31 


0.0135 


0.00S93 


0.010 


O.OllG 


0.01225 


32 


0.013 


0.00795 


0.009 


0.0108 


0.01125 


33 


0.011 


0.00708 


0.008 


0.01 


0.01025 


34 


0.01 


0.0063 


0.007 


0.0092 


0.0095 


35 


0.0095 


0.00561 


0.005 


0.008^ 


0.009 


36 


0.009 


0.005 


0.004 


0.0076 


0.0075 



TABLE INDICATING SIZE, WEIGHT, 

AND LENGTH OF IRON AND STEEL 

WIRE. 



Gauge 

Num- 
bers. 


Diam- 
eter, 
Ins. 


Wight 
of 100 
Feet. 
Lbs. 


Wight 

of One 

Mile, 

Lbs. 


Feet 

in 2000 

Lbs. 


Area, 

Square 

Ins. 


3-0 


.362 


34.73 


1834 


5,759 


.102921 


2-0 


.331 


29.04 


1533 


6,886 


.086049 


1-0 


.307 


25.00 


1318 


8,00C 


.074023 


1 


.283 


21.23 


1121 


9,425 


.062901 


2 


.263 


18.34 


968 


10,905 


.054325 


3 


.244 


15.78 


833 


12,674 


.046759 


4 


.225 


13.39 


707 


14,936 


.039760 


5 


.207 


11.35 


599 


17,621 


.033653 


6 


.192 


9.73 


514 


20,555 


.028952 


7 


.177 


8.30 


439 


24,906 


024605 


8 


.162 


6.96 


367 


28,734 


.020612 


9 


.148 


5.80 


306 


34,483 


.017203 


10 


.135 


4.83 


255 


41,408 


.014313 


11 


.120 


3.82 


202 


52.356 


.011309 


12 


.105 


2.92 


154 


68,493 


.008659 


13 


.092 


2.24 


118 


89,286 


.006647 


14 


.080 


1.69 


89 


118.343 


.005020 


15 


.072 


1.37 


72 


145.985 


.004071 


16 


.063 


1.05 


55 


190,476 


.003117 


17 


.054 


0.77 


41 


259,740 


.002290 


18 


.047 


0.58 


31 


344,827 


.001734 


19 


.041 


0.45 


24 


444,444 


.001320 


20 


.035 


0.32 


17 


625,000 


.000962 


21 


.032 


0.27 


14 


740,741 


.000804 


22 


.028 


0.21 


11 


952,381 


.000615 


23 


.025 

.023 

.020 

.018 

.017 

.016 

.015 

.014 

.0135 

.013 

.011 

.010 

.0095 

.009 


0.175 
0.140 
0.116 
0.093 
0.083 
0.074 
0.061 
0.054 
0.050 
0.046 
0.037 
0.030 
0.025 
0.021 


9.24 

7.39 

6.124 

4.91 

4.382 

3.907 

3.22 

2.851 

2.64 

2.428 

1.953 

1.584 

1.32 

1.161 




.000491 


24 




.000415 


25 




.000314 


26 




.000354 


27 




.000227 


28 




.000201 


29 




.000176 


30 




.000154 


31 




.000143 


32 




.000132 


33 




.000095 


34 




.000078 


35 




.000071 


36 




.000064 



[ 1050 ] 



Weights and Measures 



APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE VARIA- 
TION IN RESISTANCE AT 
ABOUT 20° C. (68° F.) 



Metal or Alloy. 


1°C. 


1°F. 


Platinum Silver (1 pt. Plati- 
num to 2 pts. Silver), hard 


0.031 

0.044 
0.072 
0.354 
0.365 
0.365 
0.365 
0.377 
0.387 
0.428 
0.5 


0.017 


German Silver, hard or an- 


0.024 


Mercury . . 


040 


Bismuth, pressed. . ... 


0.197 


Gold, annealed 


0.203 




0.203 


Tin, " 


0.203 


Silver annealed. . . 


209 


Lead, pressed 


215 


Copper, annealed. . 


238 


Iron (about) 


0.278 



HEAT AND ELECTRICAL 
CONDUCTIVITY. 



Substances. 


Heat 
Conductiv- 
ity. 


Electrical 
Conductiv- 
ity 


Silver.. . . . . 


100.0 

73.6 

53.2 

23.6 

19.9 

14.5 

12.0 

11.9 

8.5 

6.4 

6.3 

1.8 


100.0 




73.3 


GoM. .■.'.*.::::;:;: 


58.5 


Brass 


21.5 


Zinc 




Tin 


22.6 


Steel 




Iron . 


13.0 


Lead 


10.7 


Platinum 


10.3 








1.9 







RESISTANCE AND WEIGHT TABLE. 

American gauge for cotton and silk-covered and bare copper wire. — The resistances are 
calculated for pure copper wire. 

The number of feet to the pound is only approximate for insulated wire. 







Feet per Pound. 


Resistance, Naked Copper. 


No. 


Diameter. 




















Cotton 


Silk 


Naked. 


Ohms per 


Ohms per 


Feet per 


Ohms per 






Covered. 


Covered. 


1,000 Feet. 


Mile. 


Ohm. 


Pound. 


8 


. 12849 
.11443 
. 10189 






20 
25 
32 


.6259 

.7892 
.8441 


3.3 
4.1 
4.4 


1600 
1272 
1185 


0125 


9 






0197 


10 






.0270 


11 


.09074 
.08081 






40 
50 


1.254 
1.580 


6.4 
8.3 


798 
633 


0501 


12 


42 


46 


.079 


13 


.07196 


55 


60 


64 


1.995 


10.4 


504 


.127 


14 


.06408 


68 


75 


80 


2.504 


13.2 


400 


.200 


15 


.05707 


87 


95 


101 


3.172 


16.7 


316 


.320 


16 


.05082 


110 


120 


128 


4.001 


23 


230 


.512 


17 


.04525 


140 


150 


161 


5.04 


26 


198 


.811 


18 


.0403 


175 


190 


203 


6.36 


33 


157 


1.29 


19 


.03539 


220 


240 


256 


8.25 


43 , 


121 


2.11 


20 


.03196 


280 


305 


324 


10.12 


53 


99 


3.27 


21 


.02846 


360 


390 


408 


12.76 


68 


76.5 


5.20 


22 


.02535 


450 


490 


514 


16.25 


85 


61.8 


8.35 


23 


.02257 


560 


615 


649 


20.30 


108 


48.9 


13.3 


24 


.0201 


715 


775 


818 


25.60 


135 


39.0 


20.9 


25 


.0179 


910 


990 


1,030 


32.2 


170 


31.0 


33.2 


26 


.01594 


1,165 


1.265 


1,300 


40.7 


214 


24.6 


52.9 


27 


.01419 


1,445 


1,570 


1,640 


51.3 


270 


19.5 


84.2 


28 


.01264 


1,810 


1,970 


2.070 


64.8 


343 


15.4 


134 


29 


.01126 


2,280 


2,480 


2,617 


81.6 


432 


12 2 


213 


30 


.01002 


2,805 


3,050 


3,287 


103 


538 


9.8 


338 


31 


.00893 


3,605 


3,920 


4,144 


130 


685 


7.7 


539 


82 


.00795 


4,535 


4,930 


5,227 


164 


865 


6.1 


856 


33 


.00708 




6,200 


6,590 


206 


1033 


4.9 


1357 


34 


.0063 




7,830 


8,330 


260 


1389 


3.8 


2166 


35 


.00561 




9,830 


10,460 


328 


1820 


2.9 


3521 


i6 


.005 




12,420 


13,210 


414 


2200 


2.4 


5469 



C 1051 J 



Weights and Measures 



SIZES OF DRY PLATES. 



3iX4i inches 

4 X5 ■' 
4iX5| 

4iX6i 

5 X7 
5 X8 

6iX8i 



8X10 inches 
10X12 
11X14 
14X17 
16X20 
17X20 
18X22 
20X24 



SIZES IN FRANCE AND GERMANY. 

6iX 9 cm 2.5X 3. G inches 

9 X12 " 3.6X 4.7 

12 X15 " 4.7X 5.9 

13 X18 •* 5. IX 7.0 



12 X20 

15 X21 

15 X22 

18 X24 

21 X29 

24 X30 

27 X33 

27 X35 

30 X40 

40 X50 

50 X60 



4.7X 7.8 

5.9X 8.2 

5.9X 8.6 

7. OX 9.4 

8.2X10.6 

9.4X11.8 

10.6X12.9 

10.6X13.7 

11.8X15.7 

15.7X19.6 

19.6X23.6 



SIZES IN ITALY. 
9X12 cm 3. 6X 4.7 inches 



12X16 
12X18 
13X18 
12X20 
18X24 
21X29 
24X30 
27X33 
30X36 
40X50 
50X60 



4.7X 6.3 
4.7X 7.0 
5. IX 7.0 
4.7X 7.8 
7. OX 9.4 
8.2X10.6 
9.4X11.8 
10.6X12.9 
11.8X14.1 
15.7X19.6 
19.6X23.6 



Air. — The following data are useful in cal- 
culations relating to air: 

1. To find the quantity of nitrogen by vol- 
ume corresponding to 1 volume of oxygen, 
multiply by 3.770992. 

2. To find the quantity of oxygen by vol- 
ume corresponding to 1 volume of nitrogen, 
multiply by 0.2G51S2. 

3. To find the quantity of nitrogen by 
weight corresponding to 1 part by weight of 
oxygen, multiply by 3.313022. 

4. To find the quantity of oxygen by 
weight corresponding to 1 part by weight of 
nitrogen, multiply by 0.301S39. 

5. To find the quantity of nitrogen by vol- 
ume corresponding to 1 part by weight of oxy- 
gen, multiply by 2.G365411. 

6. To find the quantity of oxygen by vol- 
ume corresponding to 1 part by weight of 
nitrogen, multiply by 0.2730071. 

7. To find the quantity of nitrogen by 
weight corresponding to 1 part by volume of 
oxygen, multiply by 3.G629154. 

8. To find the quantity of oxygen by 
weight corresponding to 1 part by volume of 
nitrogen, multiply by 0.3792848. 

To Test Air for Sewer Gas. — Saturate 
unglazed paper with a solution of 1 oz. of pure 
lead acetate in half a pint of rain water; let it 
partially dry, then expose in the room sus- 
pected of containing sewer gas. The presence 
of the latter in any considerable quantity soon 
darkens or blackens the test paper. 



Table of Decimal Equivalents.— Of Sths, 16ths, 32(18, 
and 64ths of an inch. 



= .015625 

= .03125 

= .046875 

= .0625 

= .078 

" .09375 

= .109375 

= .125 

= .140625 

= .15625 

= .171875 

= .1875 

= .203125 

= .21875 

= .234375 

= .25 

= .265625 

c- .28125 

= .296875 

- .3125 



= .34375 

= .359375 

= .375 

= .390625 

= .40625 

= .421875 

= .4375 

= .453125 

= .46875 

= .484375 

= .50 

- .615625 
= .53125 
» .546875 
=3 .5625 

- .578125 
= .59375 
=• .609475 

'• •= .625 

#1 - .640625 

li - .65625 . 



.671875 

.6875 

.703125 

.71875 

.734375 

.75 

.765625 

.78125 

.796875 

.8125 

.828125 

.84375 

.859375 

.875 

.890625 

.90625 

.921876 

.9375 

.953125 

.96875 

.984375 



C10523 



INDEX 



Abolithe Cement 301 

Absinthe 226 

Absorbent Cotton 933 

Academy Board 129 

Accidents and 

Emergencies 5-16 

See also Fire Extin- 
guishers. 

Acid Burns 6 

Acid Phosphates 208 

Acid-Proot Cements, . . .272, 334 

paste 336 

Acid Stains 337 

Aconite Poisoning. ..,,... 15, 16 

Adhesive Plasters 963 

Adhesives 271-336 

fireproof 327 

gelatine 318 

paper 922,925 

waterproof 333 

See also Cements; Glue; 
Lutes; Mucilages; 
Pastes; Putty. 
Agates, Coloring and 

Polishing 571 

Agriculture 25-69 

See also Butter- Cheese; 
Fertilizer; Flowers; 
Fruit; Grain; Green- 
houses; Horse; Milk; 
Poultry; Sheep; Soils; 
Trees; Vegetables. 
Agricultural Machinery, 

Varnish for 663 

Agricultural Pests. See 
Insecticides. 

Aich's Metal 90, 93 

Air Baths (Chemistry.1008-1015 
Alabaster: 

cement for 301 

cleaning 337 

golishing, coloring 571 
ata Metal 79,91 

Albumen 933 

stains, removing 368 

Aihumenized Paper 688 

Alrarezzas,composition for 944 

Alcohol 933 

absolute 934 

cement resisting 301 

denatured 934 

deodorizing 934 

dilution 224 

distilling 1021 

grain 934 

paste resistirlg 336 

percentage in liquors . . . 224 

percentage in wine 251 

proof spirits 935 

solid 935 

wood spirits 935 

Alcoholic Beverages 224-269 

Ale, Ginger 197 

mulled 242 



Alfenide 91 

Algiers Metal 83, 111 

AUzarine Ink Stains 337 

Alkali Burns 6 

Alkaline Stains 392 

Alloys 61-120 

annealing 65 

density of , 62 

electric resistance alloys. 119 
fusible, for silvering 

glass 121 

fusibility of 66-67, 75-78 

nature of 61 

non-magnetic 81, 98 

non-oxidizable alloy. .. . 119 
preparation and proper- 
ties 62 

proportions in arts and 

manufactures, table . . 67 

soft alloy 119 

used for solders 828 

See also Aluminum; Bis- 
muth and Cadmium; 
Copper; Gold; Iron; 
Lead; Manganese; 
Platinum; Silver; Tin; 
Tungsten; White 
Metal; Zinc. 
Alum: 

burnt 935 

chrome 936 

Aluminized Zinc 74 

Aluminum: 

allovs 434 

alkali metals 68 

antimony , '^S 

arsenic ,.J 

bearing metal 68 

bismuth 68 

boron bronze 70 

brass 70 

bronze 68 

bronze, soldering. . ,825, 831 

cadmium 68 

cast iron 71 

chromium 68 

cobalt 68 

copper 68, 70 

ferro-aluminum 71 

gold 71,97 

mdium 71 

iron 71-72 

lead 72 

magnesium 72 

manganese 73 

mercury 73 

metalloids 73 

molybdenum 73 

nickel 73 

silver 73, 107 

silver substitute 110 

steel 71 

tellurium 73 

tin 73 

[ 1053 ] 



Alummunr 
alloys: 

titanium 73 

tungsten 73 

uranium 73 

vanadium 74 

wrought iron 71 

zimalium 74 

zinc 74 

blackening 434 

brazing 511 

cleaning 337 

cleaning for coloring .... 433 

copper plating on 466 

coppering 434 

etching 948 

gold plating 468 

paint 635 

plating with 461 

polishmg 338 

soap 811 

soldering 831, 832 

Allspice Essence 170 

Almond: 

balls (toilet) 840 

burnt 548 

burnt, ice cream 552 

essence 171 

ice cream 552 

rose 548 

soap 799,815 

Amalgams 120-128 

dental 282 

Amber: 

bending and molding. 572, 573 

cement for 287, 572 

etching 572 

imitation 672 

polishing and working. . 573 

Amber Varnish 654 

Ambroisie Sherbet 654 

Amethyst, Polishing 673 

Ammonia, Cloudy 338, 875 

household 338 

soap 799 

toilet water 874 

Ananas, Creme de 227 

Anatomical Preparations, 

Amalgam Alloys for. . . . 121 

specimens, cement for. . 331 
Anchovy: 

butter 767 

catsup 752 

essence 767 

sauce 767 

Angelica Essence 171 

Ang9stura Bitters 227 

Aniline: 

Bronzing Fluid 624 

Inks 909 

removing from print- 
ing pads 371 

pencils 926 

advent 936 



Index 



Aniline: 

stains 339,368 

varnish 654 

Animal Fibers, Bleaching. 339 

Animal Glue, Bleaching. . . 339 
Animals. See Insecticides; 
Veterinary Medicine; 
also names of animals. 

Animals, Stuffed, Cleaning 339 

Anise Essence 171 

Aniseed Cordial 227 

Anisette 227 

Annealing 509 

Antidotes for Poisons 14 

Anti-Friction Metal Ill 

Antimony, Plating with... 462 
Antimony Alloys: 

copper 101 

silver 107 

.\ntipyrine Poisoning 16 

Anti-rust Paper 922 

Antiseptics 936 

mouth wash 857 

smelling salts 874 

soaps 810,817 

terebene soap 818 

See also Disinfection, 
Ants, Extermination. . .559, 562 

Aphides, To Destroy 559 

Aphtite 79 

ApoUinaris: 

artificial 168 

lemonade 204 

Apple: 

brandy, imitation 228 

champagne syrup 238 

essence 171 

essence, artificial 174 

ice 554 

jam 743 

.iam with blackberries . . 743 

jelly 743 

marmalade 744 

poor grades, using 25 

sauce, cider 745 

syrup 182 

toddy 238 

wine 259 

Apricot: 

essence 171 

essence, artificial 174 

ice 554 

jam 744 

phosphate 209 

sherbet 554 

syrup 182 

Aquafortis 936 

Aquamarine, Polishing. . . 573 

Aqua-Regia 937 

Aquariums : 

cements for 273 

putty for 336 

shells, cleaning 593 

Argasoid 79 

Argentan 79, 80, 81 

Argentin Ill 

Argiroide 79 

Aristo Collodion 693 

Armenian Cement 287, 288 

Aromatic Bitters 228 

Arrack 227 

punch, imitation 244 

Arrowroot 218 

Arsenic: 

poisoning 15, 16 

rat poison 566 

soap 810 



Arsenic Alloys: 

copper 78 

silver , . . . . 107 

Art and Artists' 

Materials...., 129-166 

See also Castings; Draw- 
ing; Engraving; Mod- 
eling; Photographs: 
Plaster Casts; Statu- 
ary. 

Artificial Stone 279 

Asbestos 893 

acid-resisting 937 

cement 272 

composition 944 

paints 637 

paper 893 

uses of 937 

Ash Cement 300 

Ashberry Metal Ill 

Asphalt 937 

varnish 654, 663 

Asphyxia 5 

carbonic acid gas 7 

Astronomical Drawing 

Paper 134 

Atropine Poisoning 15 

Autotiobiles. See Tires. 

Awnings, Waterproofing. . 898 

Axes, Tempering 616 

Axle -Bearings, Phosphor 

Bronze for 87, 91 

Axle-grease 616 

stains, removing 423 

Babbitt Metal Ill 

Babcock Milk Test 42 

Bicchus Cup 239 

Badigeon Cement 302 

Bags, Leather, Restoring... 595 

Bakelite 937 

Baking Powder 774 

Balances: 

cleaning 339 

laboratory 995 

Balloon Varnish 654 

Balls, Silvering 505 

See also Billiard Balls. 

Bamboo, Varnish for 655 

Banana: 

drink 196 

essence 171 

ice cream 552 

ice cream and bananas . . 203 

oil 624 

syrup 183 

Bandoline 850 

Banjo, Cleaning Vellum of. 425 
Barbers' Preparations. 
See Shaving Prepara- 
tions. 

Barium Amalgams 120 

carbonate 566 

Barley Water 218 

Barometers: 

paper 937 

storm glass 970 

tubes, cleaning 339 

Barrels. See Casks. 

Basket Varnish 655 

Bath Metal 94 

Bath Preoarations 837 

Battery Preparations 937 

Baucher's Alloy , 113 

Baudoin's Alloy 79 

Bay Leaf 766 

rum 862 

rum substitute 877 

Beach Shoes, Dressing for. 602 

[ 1054 ] 



Bead for Liquors 224 

Beans: 

canning , - , , 759 

pickleci. 751 

Beards, False, Fixing 886 

Bearing Metals 111-113 

copper zinc 91 

phosphor bronze 87 

Beauty Cream. See Creams. 

Bed Bugs, To destroy 660 

Bed Feathers, Cleaning. . . 357 
Bed Linen. See Linen. 

Bee Stings 23 

Beef, Pickle for 762 

marrow soap 800 

tea 213 

Beer: 

essence 179 

non-alcobolic 193-195 

stains 421 

Beeswax, Bleaching 339 

Beetles, To destroy 660 

Beets, Canning 768 

Bell Metal 82 

solder for Ill 

Belladonna Poisoning 18 

Belting: 

cement for 289 

cleaning 381 

dressing for 595 

grease 618 

rubber, dressing for. . . . 786 

slipping, to prevent. . . . 595 

which side to run 596 

Belts, cleaning 381 

military 382 

Benedictine 227 

Benzine: 

cement, to resist 302 

cleaning preparations. . . 339 

coloring green 940 

deodorizing 939 

extinguishers 897 

incombustible 340, 940 

jelly 340 

Bergamot Essence 171 

Berlin Bitters 228 

Beryl (Aquamarine), 

Polishing 573 

Beverages 167-269 

alcoholic. 224-288 

foam 186 

for the sick 218 

hot 213-218 

Bibra's Fusible Alloy 77 

Bi-chromate Silver Process 689 

Bicycles, Paint for 636 

See also Cycle Oil; Tires. 

Bidery 118 

Bill Sticking Paste 321 

Billiard Balls: 

celluloid 780 

composition 944 

Billiard Cloth, Cleaning ... 368 

Birch Beer 193 

essence 171 

Bird Cages, Paint for 636 

Birdlime 25 

Bird Skins: cleaning.... 356 
Birds: 

care of 521 

food 521 

remedies 521 

seed 521 

tonics 521 

Birmingham Platinum... . 79 

Bishop 238 

225 



Index 



Bismuth: 
alloys: 

cadmium. . . • 75-78 

bronze 75 

casting alloys 77 

fusible alloys 75 

silver... 107 

amalgam 120 

plating with 462 

solder 826 

Bisque, Cement for 302 

Bisque Ice Cream 552 

Bisulphide of Carbon, ce- 
ment resisting 302 

prisms, cement for. . . 307 

Bitters 227 

Block Prints 701 

Blackberries: 

beverages 238 

brandy 228 

canning 740 

essence 171 

frapp6 197 

jam 744 

jelly 744 

syrup 183 

Blackboards 928 

cleanmg 340 

paint for 636 

Blackings: 

collapsible tubes 604 

harness 599 

pastes and creams 604 

shoe 602 

stick polish 605 

stove 533 

treer's blacking 605 

Bladders, To prepare 940 

Blankets, Cleaning 340 

See also Wool. 

Bleaching 337, 341 

animal fibers 339 

animal glue 339 

bristles 346 

coral 354 

cork 946 

cotton 354 

delicate fabrics 341 

fats 400 

feathers 356 

flannel 359 

gutta percha 368 

hair 850 

horsehair 368 

ivory 379 

leaves 382 

linen and calico 348, 354 

oils 400 

Panama hats 403 

powder 341 

prints 158 

rosin 407 

sailcloth 412 

silk . 413 

the skin 839 

wood 429 

wool 430 

zinc 431 

Bleeding. See Hemor- 
rhage. 

Blood Stains: 

removing 342, 368, 421 

on parchment 404 

Blotting Paper 907 

filtering paper for 923 

substitute 907 

Blueprints 699 



Blueberries: 

canning 740 

essence 171 

Bluing 383 

Bobierre's Metal 92, 94 

Bohemian Cream 202 

Boilers: 

cements for 291, 292 

covering , . 940 

fusible metals for 76 

incrustations, remedies. 941 

paint for 636 

Boker's Bitters 228 

Bone: 

bending and bleaching. . 573 

cement for 288, 302 

cleaning 379,574 

dyeing 581 

hardening and polishing. 574 

polishing 580 

preparing and cleaning. . 942 

Bookbinders' Leather, 

Gloss 596 

Bookbinders' Paste 326 

Books: 

cleansing 342 

gilding 129 

varnish for 656 

Boots: 

green, polish for 606 

rubber, cement for 299 

top liquid 605 

See also Blackings; 
Shoes. 

Borax Soap 800 

Boron Bronze 70 

Botanical Specimens, 

Cement for 330 

Bottles: 

caps, varnish for 656 

cements 302 

cleansing 342 

rubber stoppers, cleaning 343 
stoppers, fitting and re- 
moving 507 

stoppers for varnish bot- 
tles 656 

wax for 532 

See also Labels; Sealing 
Wax. 

Bourbon, Imitation 238 

essence 225 

Bourbonne's Alloy 73 

Bows. See Violin Bows. 

Boxes, Paper, Paste for. . . 323 

Bran Tea 218 

Brandied Fruits 744 

Branding Stock 25 

paint for 636 

Brandy 228 

bitters 228 

essence 225 

punch 244 

smash 238 

Brass 92 

aluminum brass 70 

annealing 509 

antique finish 438 

blackening 434 

bluing , 435 

bronzmg by immer- 
sion 435,436 

brown color on 435 

castings, pickling 346 

cementinw glass to 294 

cements for 291 

cleaning 343 

cleaning for coloring. . . . 433 

[ 1055 ] 



Brass 92 

coloring 434 

curling 436 

dipping 433 

dipping acid for 461 

dulling 436 

etching 948 

fine 95 

fly specks, removing. . , . 344 

frosting 436 

gas fixtures, cleansing. . 361 

gilding 436,479 

gold-colored 95 

gold plating on 469 

green color on 437 

mstruments, cleaning. . . 371 

iridescent 437 

iron coated with 444 

lacquer for 632 

malleable 95 

mottling 437 

movements, polishing. . . 346 

old, polishing 345 

ornaments 96 

oxidizing 441 

patina 437 

plating with 462-465 

polishing 344, 345, 361 

red 97,438 

refinishing 361 

rolled 96 

sheet 96,97 

silvering 438, 483, 484 

solder for 97, 111, 825, 833 

steel color 438 

tinning 485 

varnish for 656 

violet 438 

white 97,438 

yellow 97 

See also Bronze; Metal 
Polishes. 

Brazing. 510 

Breath Perfume 857 

Brewers' Cement 273 

Brickwork : 

concrete 276 

efflorescence 942 

enamel paints for 627 

mildew, removing 346 

paints, waterproof 643 

pointing for 274 

Brilliantines 850 

Bristles: 

bleaching of 346 

cement for 273 

cleaning 347 

dyeing 451 

Bristol Brass 92, 94 

Britannia Metal Ill, 114 

cleaning 346 

nickeling 475 

solder for 833, 834 

Broadcloth, Cleaning 346 

Bromide Paper .* . . . 694 

Bromil Process 711 

Bronze 83-90 

acid resisting 84 

aluminum-bronze 68 

bismuth bronze 75 

boron-bronze 68 

cleaning 346, 347 

deoxidized 97 

etching 948 

gilded, imitation, 

detecting 347 

gilding 479 

manganese bronze 104 



Index 



Bronze 83-90 

manganese-tin 105 

nickel bronze 81 

oxidized, cleaning 347 

pencils 926 

phosphor bronze 86-90 

platinum alloys 105 

powder, size for 439 

rust, prevention 439 

statuary 85 

tungsten bronzes 117 

See also Brass. 

Bronzing 623 

antique 438,466 

application 624 

baths 465 

brass, by immersion. . . . 436 

copper 440 

copper and iron soap 

for 802,811 

iron 444 

leather 596 

statuettes, models, etc . . 130 

steel 439 

size for 139 

zinc 448,449 

Bruises. See Contusions. 
Brushes: 

cleansing 347 

varnish, preserving 347 

varnish for 656 

Brushing Clothing 351 

Bubble Liquid, Soap 800 

Buckskin Leather: 

restoring 605 

tanning 609 

Buffalo: 

hides, to soften 601 

horns, coloring 578 

moths, to destroy 560 

Building Cements 274 

Bulbs. See Electric Light 
Bulbs 

Bullet Metal 103 

Burgundy Cup 239 

punch 245 

Burns and Scalds 6 

Burnt Almonds 548 

Burnt Wood 130 

Bushing metals, propellers 113 
Butter Making and Pre- 
serving 27-32 

coloring 29 

mottles, remedy 28 

packing 29 

preserving paper 924 

substitutes 30 

testing ., 31 

Buttermilk, Artificial 38 

Buttons: 

brass, coloring 438 

brass for O'^ 

metals for '^^''^'^i 

mother of pearl 590 

platine „81 

Cabbage, Pickled 752 

Cabinet Punch 225 

Cabinetwork: 

polishes 541 

varnish for 656 

Cables, Coating for 944 

Cacao : ^„ , 

Crfimede 231 

essence 172 

Cachous 857 

Cadmium: 

alloys 68, 75—78 

amalgam 122 



Cadmium: 

platmg with 466 

Calamus, Essence 172 

Calcination 1038 

Calcium Sulphide 942 

Calico, Bleaching 348 

Calin 103 

Calisaya 195 

phosphate 209 

syrup 183 

tonic, hot 213 

Cameos: 

cutting 574 

shell 593 

Camera Bellows, Repairing 312 

Camp Vinegar 772 

Camphor 942 

factitious 943 

soaps 801,810,820 

Camphor Ice 841 

Canada Balsam Cement. . . 298 

Canaries, Care of 521 

Candles 797-799 

grease, removing 348 

trickling, to prevent.. . . 798 
Candy. See Confectionery. 
Cane Seated Chairs, clean- 
ing 348 

Canes : 

polish for 544 

varnish for 669 

Cannel Coal, polishing. . . . 574 
Canning Fruit: 

methods and utensils . 735-739 

receipts 739-741 

Canning Vegetables .... 755-760 

Canoes, Paper 961 

Cans: 

how to open 758 

solder for tops 833 

Cantaloupe and Ice Cream. 203 
Canvas : 

fireproofing 893 

mildew, prevention 348 

painting, preparation 

for 130 

paints for 637 

waterproofing 898 

See also Awnings; Sail- 
cloth. 

Canvas Shoes, Cleaning. . . 609 
Caoutchouc: 

artificial rubber 784 

lubricant 614 

Cap Cements 285 

Faraday's 294 

Capillaire Syrup 183 

Caramel : 

Italian cream caramels.. 549 

maple caramels 550 

preparation of 765 

Caraway : 

brandy 229 

cordial 232 

essence 172 

Carbograph , 710 

Carbolic Acid: 

poisoning 15, 18 

soap 801,810 

Carbolineum 943 

Carbon, Preparation for 

Batteries 937 

Carbon Paper 922 

Carbon Printing 707 

Carbonated Drmks: 

ginger ale 197 

water 167 

[ 1056 ] 



Carbonic Acid Gas, poison- 
ing 7 

Carbonization 1040 

Cardamon Essence 172 

Cardboard, Waterproof 

Glue for ,. 335 

Cards, Gilding 131 

See also Playing Cards. 

Carnelian, Working 574 

Carpet Bugs, To destroy . . 560 
Carpets : 

cleaning 348 

dry cleaning 349 

preservation of 522 

soaps for 801 

sweeping 349 

vacuum cleaning 349 

Carragheen Adhesive 317 

Carriages : 

axle grease 617 

leather, dressing for. . . . 596 

preservation of 350 

tops, to clean 382 

varnish for 657 

waterproofing covers. . . 899 
See also Wagons. 

Carrots, Canning 759 

Cart Grease 618 

Carton-Pierre 131 

Carved Wood, Polishes for. 541 

Cascara Sagrada Wine . . . 266 

Case-Hardening 511 

Casein 943 

cements 280,291 

mucilage 331 

varnish 657 

Casks and Barrels: 

cement for 273, 302 

cleaning 350 

wood taste, removing... 351 

Cassia Essence 172 

Cassis, Creme de 232 

Cast Iron. See Iron. 

Castile Soap 801 

Castings: 

amalgam for small 

statues, etc 121 

bismuth alloys for 77 

brass 94 

brass, pickling 346 

brittania metal for 114 

bronze for 84 

compositions for 132 

composition to fill holes . 944 

fossils 961 

molds for ...141-143 

paper casts 143 

plaster 153-156 

staff for 970 

See also Flowers; Fruit; 
Iron; Steel; Toys; 
Type- 
Castor Oil Soap 801 

Casts. See Castings; 

Plaster Casts. 
Catawba: 

brandy 230 

champagne 260 

punch 245 

syrup -238 

Catechu Essence 172 

Caterpillars, Destroying. . . 561 

Catsups.... k 752 

Cattle: 

diseases and remedies. . . 49 
See also Branding. 
Cauliflower: 

canning 759 



Index 



Cauliflower : 

pickled. 752 

Cedar Wood, Stain to 

imitate 648 

Ceilings, Repairing 522 

Celeri, Creme de. 232 

Celery : 

compound 764 

essence 172 

phosphate 209 

syrup 183 

vinegar " 772 

Cellars, Damp 522 

Celluloid ...779-783 

cement for 280 

cleaning . . , . . 351 

collars, cleaning. ....... 351 

coloring finished articles. 780 

designs on, producing. . . 780 

dyeing 451 

glass substitute 781 

hardening and softening. 781 

. incombustible 781 

ink for writing on 911 

polishing 781 

printing on 781 

prints on, mounting. . . . 719 

soap for 801 

solvents for 782 

substitute for 782 

varnish 657 

working 783 

Cement Pipe 302 

Cements 271-336 

acid resisting 272, 334 

alcohol resisting 301 

applying, rules for 271 

benzine and petroleum 

resisting 302 

bisulphide of carbon re- 
sisting 302 

black 302 

brown 302 

building 274 

Canada balsam 298 

casein 280,283 

Chinese blood cement. . . 303 

Chinese cement 302 

colored 303 

concrete. 276 

crocus cement 303 

damar 298 

Davy's 303 

diamantkitt 303 

diamond • . 303 

egg 303 

Evan's 304 

fireproof 327 

gutta percha 783 

flexible 304 

French 304 

gas resisting 304 

glass cement, 

284, 286, 304, 308 

Gram-Rutzon's 304 

Grouville's oil cement. . . 304 

Hagar's 304 

heat resisting i . 335 

Hensler's 305 

Hoenle's 305 

household cement. . . .303, 305 

Jannin's 305 

jewelers 287 

leather 289 

lime 305 

litharge 305 

Marteaux and Robert's . 305 

mastic cement 305 



Cements 271-336 

mechanics 290 

metallic 306 

Mohr's 306 

mortar 277 

Muirhead's 306 

oil and sulphur cements . 306 

oil resisting 334 

parabolic 306 

pavements 278 

Pew's 307 

plaster 307 

quicklime 307 

roads and pavements . . . 278 

rubber 298 

Scheibler's 307 

Schottler's 307 

Siemen's 307 

slag 307 

soft cement , . 307 

soluble glass 308 

Stephenson's .......... 308 

stick cement 283 

Tolu balsam 298 

transparent cement, 

283, 298, 303 

vegetable 308 

waterproof 302, 303, 332 

white 308 

zeiodite 308 

See also Glues; Lutes; 
Mucilage; Paste; also 
names of special ma- 
terials; i.e., Amber; 
Bone; etc.: or names 
of objects; i.e., Boilers; 
Cisterns; Lenses; etc. 
Ceramics. See Pottery. 

Centrifugation 1024 

Chain Lubricant 618, 619 

Chalk: 

prepared 943 

tailor's 943 

Chalk Drawings, Fixing. , . 135 

Chalk Plates 729 

Chamois Skin, Cleaning. 351, 365 
Champagne: 

cider 221 

cup 239 

imitation 238, 260 

manufacture of 249 

Chapped Skin 839 

Charcoal: 

making 944 

poisonmg 8 

Chartreuse 232 

Chatham Artillery Punch. 245 

Checkerberry 213 

Cheese Cement 285 

Cheese Making. 32 

at home 34 

Chemical Apparatus, 

Cement 286 

Chemical Fire Extin- 
guishers 896 

Chemical Laboratories. 

See Laboratories. 
Chemical Manipulations, 

979-1041 
comminution of sub- 
stances 998 

drying and dessicating. . 1007 
precipitation and sepa- 
ration 1022 

solution and extraction . 1003 

vaporization 1015 

Chemical Substances: 

prices 980-987 

[ 1057 [ 



Cherry: 

bitters 228 

bounce 238 

canning , . - 1 . 740 

cider 222 

cordials 232 

cream 203 

essence 172 

essence, artificial 174 

ice 555 

ice cream 652 

Cherries : 

jam 744 

pickled 753 

phosphate 209 

phosphate syrups 183 

preserving 744 

sundae 212 

syrup 183 

wine 261 

wine essence 225 

Chewing Gum 647 

Chickens. See Poultry. 

Chicken Cream 213 

Chilblains 8 

Chilli Vinegar 772 

Chimneys: 

cleaning 522 

fire in, extinguishing. . . . 896 

varnish for 667 

See also Lamp Chimneys. 
China. See Porcelain; 
Pottery. 

Chinese Cement 302 

Chinese Silver 108 

Chip, Bleaching 422 

Chloral Poisoning 18 

Chlorides 622 

Chloroform Poisoning. . . .15, 18 
Chocolate : 

and ice cream 203 

egg 196 

frappe 197 

hot 213 

ice cream 552 

paste for flavoring 651 

phosphate 209 

syrup 184 

with milk 196 

Chop Suey Sundae 212 

Chow Chow, Tomato 766 

Chromium Amalgam 122 

Chromium Glue 311 

Chrysocale 94 

Chrysochalk 100 

Chrysorin 102 

Chuck Cement 290 

Chutney 753 

Cider 219-224 

artificial 220 

boiled 745 

canning 221 

clearing 222 

cup 239 

preserving 222 

punch 211,245 

sparkling 223 

vinegar 772 

Cider Casks, Cleaning 350 

Cigarettes, Scenting 971 

Cigars: 

maturing and flavoring. 971 

spotting 972 

Cinchona: 

essence 172 

syrup 184 

wine 266 



Index 



Cinnamon: 

essence , 172 

syrup , 185 

Cisterns, Cement, Air and 

Water-tight 291,302 

Citrate of Magnesia 957 

Citron Essence 172 

Clam Juice 196 

hot 214 

Clamps for Laboratory 

Use 992 

Claret: 

cup 240 

egg 196 

glace 199 

lemonade 205 

mixed drinks 239 

mulled 242 

punch 211,245 

syrups 187 

wine 261 

wine essence 225 

Clarification (Chemistry).. 1023 

Clark's Alloy 79 

Cleansing 337-431 

dry cleaning 337, 802 

spotting, or stain re- 
moval 419 

See also names of 
Fabrics, Objects, or 
Stains. 

Cliche Metal 77 

Clocks and Watches: 

cement for clock faces . . 303 

cleansing 351 

lubricants for 618. 621 

Cloissonne 102 

Cloth. See Textile 
Fabrics. 

Clothes, Brushing 351 

Cloves, Essence 172 

Coaches. See Carriages. 

Coal, Cannel, Polishing 574 

Coal Buckets, Varnish for. 657 

Coal Gas Poisoning 8, 18 

Coal Oil. See Kerosene. 
Coats. See Raincoats. 

Cobalt. Plating with 466 

Cobalt Copper 78, 79 

Coca: 

drinks 239 

malt 206 

phosphate 209 

syrup 185 

wine 261 

Coca-Kola Syrup 185 

Cocaine Poisoning 15, 18 

Cock Metal 79 

Cocktails 241-245 

Cocoa: 

essence 172 

mint 196 

Cocoanut Oil Soap 801 

Cod Liver Oil Soap 801 

Coffee: 

brandied 239 

cold 196 

essence 173 

frappe 197 

hot : 215 

ice cream 552 

liqueur 232 

punch 211 

roasting 760 

stains 352,421 

syrup 185 

Coffins, Varnish for 657 

Cog Wheel Grease 619 



Cognac... 232 

essence.... , 225 

Coins and Medals: 

alloys for ,... Ill 

brass for 93 

cleaning 352 

impressions 131 

SWISS, composition of . . . 108 
Cola. See Kola. 

eolation 1023 

Cold Creams 841 

843 

801 

theatrical 886 

Collodion: 

aristo collodion 693 

cement 303 

emulsion 674 

printing out paper 693 

varnish 657 

wet 673 

Collotype 730. 

Colognes 863-871 

coloring for 864 

Color: 

mixing pigments 131 

See also Dyemg; Paints. 

Color Filters 720 

tri-color 725 

Color Photography 720-725 

Colored Fabrics: 

restoring color 337, 352 

soap for 802,812 

stains, removing 337, 369 

Colored Lights 964 

Coloring Beverages 169 

Coloring of Metals 433-449 

Coltsfoot Rock Candy 549 

Combs: 

cleaning 353 

lacquer for 634 

marking rubber 789 

tortoise shell, reviving. . 594 
Comminution of Sub- 
stances 998 

Compositions 132. 944 

printing rollers 965 

Concrete . 276 

floors 278 

Condensed Milk 38 

Confectionery 548 

Contagion. See Disin- 
fection. 

Contusion, Chemical 998 

Contusions (Bruises) 8 

Cookery. See Canning; 
Preserving; Pudding 
Preparations; Salad 
Dressing; Sauces; 
Spices. 

Cooper's Pen Metal 106 

Copal Polish 541 

Copal Varnish 658 

Copper: 

alloys 78-103 

aluminum 68-70 

antimony 101 

arsenic alloys 78 

blanched 78 

cobalt copp)er 78, 79 

gold 98 

gold like alloy 101 

iron 78 

lead alloys 79 

nickel 79 

phosphor 82 

silver 108 

tin 82 

[ 105S ] 



Copper: 
alloys : 

white, • 79 

zinc 90-92 

amalgam 122 

annealing 509 

blacking 439 

bluing 440 

bronzing 440 

browning 441, 446 

cements for 291 

cleaning. . . .' 343,353 

cleaning for plating 460 

coloring of 439 

dipping 433 

etching 948 

gilding 479 

green coloring 441 

hardening 512 

iridescent 437 

iron plating on 472 

lacquer for 634 

oxidizing 441 

plating 466 

flowers, insects, etc. . . 467 

iron 478 

platinizing 481 

polishing 344, 354 

retinning 485 

red coloring 442 

silvering 442, 484 

soldering 825, 830 

steel gray 442 

whitening bath 433 

Copper Chromate Process . 689 

Copper Engraving: 

varnish for 659 

Copper Halftones, clean- 
ing 353 

Copper Plate Engravings: 

bleaching 136 

cleaning 353, 369. 403 

Coppering Aluminum 434 

Copying Inks 911 

stains, removing 369. 421 

Copying Paper 132 

See also Transfer Paper. 

Copying Pencils 926 

Coral: 

cleaning 354,575 

cutting and polishing. . . 676 

imitation 576 

stringing 576 

Cordials 226-238 

definition of 233 

fining for 233 

Coriander Essence 173 

Cork: 

artificial 946 

bleaching 946 

boring 946 

cement for 303. 315 

cementing to metal 296 

cleaning 354 

labels on 328 

laboratory apparatus. . . 991 

paper 923 

powdering 946 

reducing size 946 

rubber, to cut and bore.. 786 

working 945 

Cork Carpet. See Lino- 
leum. 

Cork Metal 119 

Corn: 

canning 758 

fertilizers 36 

Corn Cures 839 



Index 



Corrosion, Anti-corrosion 

Paint 635 

Cosmetics and Creams. . . . 840 

cosmetic gloves 843 

jelly 845 

See also Face Paints: 
Perfumeir; Theatrical 
Paints; Toilet Prep- 
arations. 
Cotton: 

absorbent 933 

bleaching 354 

cleaning stains. .337, 360, 365, 
399, 401, 420. 423 

dyeing 456 

fertilizers 36 

gilding 132 

waterproofing 899 

Court Plaster 848, 849 

Cows' Horns, Polishing . . . 578 

Cowslip Wine 262 

Crabapples : 

canning 740 

jelly 745 

syrup 185 

Cranberry : 

essence 173 

phosphate 209 

Crape, Restoring 354 

Crayons 907 

See also Chalk. 

Cream 39 

creamade 203 

drinks. 196 

puflf 203 

punch 245 

syrups 185 

whipped cream 193 

Creams. Toilet 840-848 

Creamometer 43 

Cr6me de Menthe 235 

Creases in Paper, To re- 
move 135 

Crockery. See Pottery. 

Crocus Cement 303 

Crucibles, Cement for 303 

Crystal, Working 576 

Crystallization 1033 

Crystoleum 717 

Cucumber: 

catsup 752 

cream 843 

ice cream and 203 

pickled 753 

preserved 754 

vinegar 772 

Cue Tips, Cement for 303 

Cumin Essence 173 

Cupro-Ferro-Manganese. . . 104 

Cupro-Manganese 104 

Cups (Liqueurs) 239 

Curasoa 233 

Curling Brass 436 

Curling Fluid. Hair 850 

Currant: 

canning 740 

cream 196 

essence 173 

ice 555 

jam 745 

jelly 745 

syrup 185 

wine 262 

wine essence 225 

Currie Wine 262 

Curry Powder 764, 766 

Curry Vinegar 772 



Curtains: 

coloring 385 

washing 384 

Custard: 

for ices 655 

powder 767 

Cut Glass, Cleansing 363 

Cutlery: 

cement for 303 

cleaning 381 

etching 950 

hardening 513 

polishing 378 

putty for 336 

tempering 516 

Cycle Oil 619,961 

Cyclostvle Ink 916 

Cylinder Oil 619 

Damar Cement 298 

Damar Varnish 658 

Dampness: 

dampproof compositions 899 

in cellars 522 

preserving wood from. . . 977 

whitewash for walls 670 

Damsons : 

bottled 746 

jam 746 

jelly 746 

wine 262 

Dandelion Beer 193 

Dandruff 850 

Dantzic: 

brandy 230 

eau de vie de 233 

D'Aicet's Fusible Alloy ... 75 

Dates, Stufifed 212 

Davy's Cement 303 

Decoction 1006 

Decolorization 1025 

Decrepitation 1039 

Deflagration 1039 

Delatot's Alloy 94 

Delmonico Ice Cream 652 

Delta Metal 95 

Dentistry: 

alloys 106.109,122 

cements 281 

metallic 306 

wax 972 

See also Instruments; 
Teeth. 

Depilatories 849 

hides 597 

soaps for 885 

Desiccation 1007 

Detannation of Wme 256 

Developers: 

acetone developer 679 

adurol 677, 695, 698 

amidol 677, 695. 698 

azol 677,695,698 

Beach's pyro-potash 680 

blueprints 702 

bromide paper 695-698 

catechol 677 

collodion emulsion 675 

color process 723 

Cramer's developer 681 

development after fixing 682 
developing and fixing 

combined 682 

diamine 677 

dianol 677 

dry plates 675 

edinol ...677,695,698 

eikooogen 677 

[ 1059 ] 



Developers: 
ferrous citro-oxalate 

developer 677 

gelatine printing out 

paper 693 

glycin 678 

halftones, wet collodion 

for 674 

Hoover's developer 681 

hydroquinone. . .678, 693, 695, 
698, 726 

Imogen 678 

kachin 678,698 

metol 678, 679, 695, 698 

ozotype and kindred 

processes 708 

paper negatives 677, 681 

photo mechanical dry 

plates 726 

platinum paper 706 

positives and ferrotypes. 674 

powders 678 

pyro developer 679, 680 

pyro potash developer. . 676 

rodinal 681, 696, 698 

satropol 681 

tank development 681 

time development 675 

transfers, developers for. 674 

self-developing plates. .. 681 

stand development 681 

wet collodion 674 

Dextrine 317 

property of 319 

Dialysis 1033 

Diamantkitt Cement 303 

Diamond Cement 303 

Diamonds, Powder for Lap- 
idary and Jeweler. . 576, 577 

Diaphanie Varnish 668 

Digestion (Chemistry) 1006 

Dipping Acid for Electro- 
Plating 461 

Disinfection 622 

household 523 

instruments 524 

odorless 524 

paint for 637 

sick room 525 

soap for 802 

See also Fumigation. 

Dislocations 9 

Distillation: 

apparatus 1017 

perfumed waters 874 

perfumes 860 

Dogs: 

bites, remedies 9 

diseases and remedies . . 50 

insecticides 561 

Domestic Economy. See 
Household Formulas. 

Door Plates, Composition 

for 944 

Drafting: 

conventional sections. . . 132 

paper 134 

Dragon's Blood, Facti- 
tious 946 

Drains: 

pipes, cleaning 534 

testing 526 

sinks, cleanliness 632 

Draughting. See Draft- 
ing. 

Drawing: 

inks 912.917 

instruments, cleaning, 372, 40S 



Index 



Drawing; 

paper 134-135 

transparent .135, 161 

See also Drafting. 
Drawings: 

fixing 135,136 

mounting 136 

varnishing 136, 665 

See also Tracings. 

Driers (Paint) 623, 625 

Drills: 

hardening 513 

lubricator 619 

tempering 516 

Drinks. See Beverages. 

Drowning 9 

Druggists' Show Bottles . . 968 

Drumhead Parchment. . . . 147 

Dry Cleaning 337 

soap 802 

Dry Rot, Preventing 977 

Drying (Chemistry): 

hot air baths or closets . . 1008 

mechanical methods 1007 

Dubonnet 233 

Dummies, Wax, Repairing 141 

Dust Absorbent 527 

Dusting, Oiled Cloth for. . 526 

Dyeing 451-457 

aniline solvent 936 

hair 851 

leather 597 

Dynamos: 

oil for 619 

varnish for 661 

Dysiot 91 

Earache 11 

Earthenware. See Pottery. 

East India Punch 245 

Easter Egg Dyes 451 

Ebonite 787 

Ebony: 

ebonizing 648 

polishing 541 

varnish for 659 

Edulcoration 1022 

Eels, Smoking 763 

Eggplant, Cannmg 759 

Eggs: 

age of, to tell 760 

cements made of 303 

drinks 195. 196 

egg flip 240,243 

egg nog 241 

egg sour 195 

hot 215 

lemonade 205 

phosphate 195.209 

dyes for 451 

packing 760 

powder 767 

preserving 761 

shampoo 852 

stains on silver. ....... 415 

weight of 48 

Elder Wine 262,263 

Electric Light Bulbs, color- 
ing 626 

Eleotno Apparatus and 
Appliances: 

cap cement 285 

insulating paper 924 

insulating varnish.. ... . 661 

resistance alloys 119 

varnish for 659 

Electro-Coppering. See 

Copper. 
Electro-Gilding See Gold 



Electrometallurgy 459-487 

Electroplating 459-4/8 

dipping acid 461 

metals deposited 461-478 

pickling path ^61 

scratch-brushing 461 

wastes, to recover 478 

Electrotyping 459 

n o n-c onducting ma- 
terials 467 

Electrum 79 

Elutriation 1003 

Embalming Fluids 946 

Emergencies and 

Accidents 6-24 

Emery: 

cementing to wood 301 

cleaning 356 

paper 677 

wheel 577 

Emulsions and Emulsify- 
ing 1034 

Enamels and Enamelmg: 

cementing nickel to. . . . 295 

colors 946 

gold 98 

inks for writing on 912 

leather, enameled, polish 606 

paints 627 

gold 624 

photo prints 719 

solders 831,834 

stains, removal 420 

Enamel Process for Photo • 

Engraving. 727 

Enfleurage 860 

Engines, Paint for 637 

See also Bearing Metals. 

English Metal 114 

Engraving; 

filling for plates 964 

re-engraving prints 166 

wax 141 

See also Etching; Copper 
Engraving; Photo-En- 
graving. 
Engravings; 

bleaching 136 

cleaning 136. 353, 355, 406 

mounting 159 

pastes 331 

transferring 163 

Envelope Gum 321 

Erhardt's Type Metal 117 

Erman's Fusible Alloy.. . . 76 
Essences and Extracts: 

alcoholic beverages 225 

beverages 170-180 

distilling 1020 

perfumes 864 

soap 802 

Etching: 

cutlery 950 

glass 492 

with glue 494 

halftones 728 

metals 948-949 

ivory... 683 

resists 949 

tools 950 

Ether Glue 312 

Ether Varnish 659 

Eucalyptus Mouth Wash.. 858 

Eucalyptus Smelling Salts. 874 

Eukesis 885 

Evans' Cement 304 

Evans* Dental Cement. ... 281 
Evaporation. . . . 1006, 1015-1017 

[ 1060 ] 



Explosives. See Gun- 
cotton 

Expression (Chemistry) . . . 1005 
Extinguishers See Fire 

Extinguishers. 
Extracts. See Essences 

and Extracts. 

Eye, Foreign Bodies in. .. . 11 

Eyebrow Pencil ......... . 886 

Eyeglasses, Cleanmg 383 

Faber Pencils 926 

Fabrics, Sensitizing 690 

See also Colored Fab- 
rics; Textile Fabrics. 
Face: 

ache 11 

bleaching 839 

paints. 

black eyes 886 

f;rease paints 887 

ining pencils 888 

nigger black 887 

rouge 882 

theatrical 886 

powders 880 

See also Cosmetics; Skin 

Facing Putty 274 

Facsimiles. See Prints. 

Fainting 11 

Fans, Varnish for 659 

Faraday's Cap Cement 294 

Fats, bleaching 400 

Feathers : 

cleaning 356 

dyeing 451 

Felt Hats: 

cleaning 357 

dyeing 454 

waterproofing 899 

Fences: 

preserving wood 977 

whitewash for 671 

Fennel Essence 173 

Fenton's Metal Ill 

Fermentation of Wine. . . . 257 

Ferro-Aluminum 71 

Ferro-Argentan 79 

Ferro-Manganese 103 

Ferro-Prussiate Paper. .. . 699 

Ferrotypes, Varnish for. . . 659 

Fertilizers 35 

FeuilleMorte 98 

Figs: 

preserving 746 

souffle 203 

wine 264 

Filbert Ice Cream 553 

Files: 

alloys for 85 

hardening 513 

sharpening 950 

Fillere for \^^d 301, 628 

Fibns: 

opaque, for etching. .... 949 

stripping 685 

Filtration 1025-1031 

water 535 

Fining Wines 257 

Fire Extinguishers; 

charging 896 

chemical 896 

liquid 897 

powders and pastes .... 897 

Fire Gilding 479 

Fire Silvering 481 

Firearms. See Guns. 

Fireproofing 893-896 

adhesives 327 



Index 



F'rep oofing 893-896 

burnettizing. 976 

cements 293 

fabrics 734.894 

ink 893,912 

paints .637,641 

paper 893 

roofs 893,896 

tents 893 

theatrical scenery 895 

walls 895 

whitewash 671 

wicks 895 

woods 895 

Fish; 

bait 950 

bones in throat 12 

fertilizers 35 

glue 311.727 

poisons 11 

smoking 763 

lines, waterproofing. . . . 899 

nets, preservation of . . . . 358 

Fixtures. See Gas Fix- 
tures; Lighting Fix- 
tures; Metal Polishes 

Flannel: 

bleaching, ironing and 

shrinking 359 

Flash Light Preparations. 733 

Fleas on Animals 561 

Flies: 

animal pests 562 

house pests 561 

Floating Soaps 803 

Floors: 

cement for 274 

cleansing 359 

color, to restore 360 

concrete 276,278 

ink spots, to remove. . . . 360 

oil dressing for. . 527 

oil stains, to remove. . . . 360 

paint, to remove 360 

papier mache covering 144 

parquet, cleaning 360 

putty for 325 

stains for 527 

waterproofing 899 

wax for 527 

waxed, to clean 360, 811 

See also Linoleum; Mat- 
ting; Oilcloth; Wood. 

Florida Water 875 

Flour, Self Raising 775 

Flower Pot Labels 328 

Flowers: 

artificial 944 

cement for specimens . . . 330 

color, to preserve 951 

coloring 951 

fertilizers 36 

preserving 952 

stuccoed 156 

wax 136 

worms in flower pots . . . 562 
See also Plants. 

Fluor-Spar, Polishing 578 

Fly Specks, Removing: 

brass 344 

bronze 347 

gilt frames 362 

Foam Extract 173, 186 

Fontainemoreau's Bronzes 84 

Food. See Canning; Pre- 
serving; also names of 
Foods. 

Foot Powders 849. 881 



Foot Walks 279 

Formaldehyde 522 

Fossils, Casts of 961 

Foul Air, Inhaling 12 

Foundry Facings 953 

Fractures 12 

Frames. See Picture 
Frames. 

Frappes 197 

nut 553 

sherry 243 

Freckles: 

imitation •••• 887 

removing 849 

Freezing: 

first aid 12 

mixtures 953 

preventing 953 

Fringe, Cleansing 360 

Frost on Windows 428, 536 

Frosting: 

brass 436 

glass 496 

mirrors 496 

silver 415, 447 

steel 446 

Fruit: 

artificial, composition for 944 

brandied 744 

canning 735-741 

crystallizing 549 

ecuelle for rupturing oil 

vessels 175 

essences, artificial 173 

frozen 554-558 

blend 196 

glace 199 

ices 555 

ice cream 553 

juices, ice cream flavor- 
ing 551 

preservation of 186 

lemonade 205 

phosphate 209 

preserving 741, 751 

pricker 736 

pudding, frozen 555 

punch 187,211 

stains 337, 360, 421 

wax 138 

trees, fertilizers 36 

See also Grafting; Trees. 
Fuel: 

cement 307 

kindlings 530 

laboratory 996 

Fuller's Earth 361 

Fulling Soaps 805 

Fumigation: 

paper 871 

pastilles 871 

powder 872 

See also Disinfection. 

Fungi on Trees 562 

Funnel Paints 638 

Fur: 

cleansing 361 

moths, prevention 565 

preserving 598 

rugs. See Goatskin; 
Sheepskin. 

tanning skins 609 

Furniture: 

bruises in 538 

cleaning 429 

gold and black, stain for 646 

papier m^ch6 144 

varnish for 660 

[ 1061 ] 



Furniture: 

polish 540 

chemical 641 

copal 641 

creams 538 

French polish 541 

gold and white. ..... . 545 

imitation 542 

oil 539 

paste 540 

piano polish 542 

rags 543 

red 542 

re-polishing 543, 544 

rubbings 543 

white 544 

See abo Tables; Stains; 
Wood; Woodwork. 
Fusible Alloys. See Alloys. 

Fusion (Chemistry) 1037 

Gall, To Decolorize 954 

Galvanizing 486 

aluminized zinc baths. . 74 

Gape, Remedy 48 

Gardening. See Ferti- 
lizers; Flowers; Plants. 

Garnets, Working 578 

Gas: 

bags, cement for 304 

cement for resisting. . . . 304 

fixtures, cleansing 344, 361 

refinishing 361 

See also Metal Polishes, 

leakage, detection.. . . . . 528 

mantles, making 528 

meters, freezing of 528 

meters, reading 529 

pipe, strength of 529 

retorts, cement for 304 

stove, cleansing 361 

Gas Suffocation: 

carbonic-acid 7 

sewer gas . 12 

symptoms 22 

Gaslight Papers 698 

Gasoline Cleaning Prepara- 
tions 339 

Gear and Pinion Grease. . . 619 

Gedge's Metal 93 

Gelatine: 

insoluble 954 

iridescent 955 

molds 142 

mucilage 318 

paste 331 

printing out paper 691 

sheets 955 

Gems. See Precious 
Stones. 

German Silver 79-81 

electric resistance alloy. 119 

manganese 102 

polishing 365 

solder for 826, 829 

substitute 81, 105 

white alloy Ill 

Geisnein's Alloy 124 

Gherkins 754 

vinegar for 773 

Gilding 138 

books 129 

brass 436, 469, 479 

bronze 479 

cards 131 

china 157 

cleaning 346, 362 

cotton 132 

fire gilding 125 



Index 



Gilding , . 138 

glass , . 497 

glass lettering 498 

granite 139 

imitation, detecting. . . . 347 

imitation gold moldings 660 

iron 126, 446 

ivory 583 

lead 471 

leather 599 

marble 140 

mercury 480 

metals 95 

oil gilding 138 

paper 142 

picture frames 150 

quicksilver process 124 

signs 159 

silver 447 

size for 138,644 

solutions 468 

steel 446,471,480 

varnish 446, 660 

water gilding 447, 479 

wax 139,479 

wood 166 

See also Gold; Picture 
Frames. 

Giu 233 

cocktail 241,244 

essence 225 

Hollands 234 

punch 245 

rickey 241 

sloe gin 243 

Ginger: 

ale 197 

beer 198 

brandy 230 

essence 174 

gingerade 199 

hot 216 

phosphate 209 

pop 199 

preserved green 746 

syrup 187 

vinegar 772 

water ice 55^5 

wine 264 

Glaces 199 

Glacialine 41 

Glass 489-508 

balls, silvering 505 

bending 489 

blowing 489 

boring 491 

breakmg 489 

cement 304 

cements for. 282, 284, 306, 312 

bismuth alloy 77 

brass to glass 294 

iron to glass 295 

metals to glass 294 

porcelain to glass .... 286 

rubber to glass 299 

waterproof. 334 

chipping 494 

cleansing 362 

framed glass 363 

curved glass silvering.. . 505 

cutting glass 490 

cutting table 490 

drawing on 139 

drilling 491 

engraving, varnish for. . 659 

etching 492.494 

frosting 496 

gilding 497,498 



Glass 489-508 

globes, cleaning. 363 

molds, casting 103 

grinding tube 497 

f round glass 497 
ettering and label- 
ing 328,498,912 

lute Tor 315,316 

matt glass 498 

opaque. . 498, 644 

paint stains, to remove. 363 

paper 923 

paper ornaments on, 

fixing 322 

pearls, fixing to 589 

pencils for sketching on . 131 
platinum deposits on. . 499 

polishing 413, 578 

powdered 500 

prints on, mounting. .333, 719 

transferring 163 

riveting 283 

sand blasting 493 

scratches, to remove. . . . 364 

silvering 500, 505, 506 

soldering 834 

splitting 490 

staining 607 

stoppers, fitting and re- 
moving 508 

substitute for 508, 781 

tube cutter 489 

tuning glasses. 508 

varnish 660 

varnish for , 660 

writing on 508 

See also Eyeglasses ; 
Electric Light Bulbs; 
Lamp Chimneys; 
Lenses; Show Bottles; 
Windows. 

Glissade Powder 527 

Globes, Silvering 506 

Gloves: 

cleaning 364, 365 

dyeing 452 

powder 881 

Glue 308-313 

bleaching animal glue. . . 339 
bookbinders' and sta- 
tioners' 326 

Chinese glue 302 

chromium 311 

cloth to iron 296 

cracking, to prevent 309 

elastic 312 

ether 312 

fireproof 327, 335 

fish 311,727 

frozen 312 

hardening 309 

isinglass 312 

label glue 327-330 

liquid 309.311 

marine glue 312, 315 

parchment 313 

photographic mount- 
ants 331.332 

powdered 313 

quick setting 311 

rubber 313 

Russian 311 

Spaulding's 311 

stains, removing 368, 421 

stratena 313 

strength of a joint 309 

stick glue. 319 

transparent. 333 

[ 1062 ] 



Glue 308-313 

tungstic 313 

veneering 313 

waterproof 311, 312, 336 

See also Cements; 
Pastes; al&o names of 
materials and objects. 
Glycerine: 

creams and lotions 844 

.ielly. 845 

soap 804 

Gnats on Stock 562 

Goatskin Rugs, Cleaning. . 364 
Gold: 

Alloys 97 

aluminum -gold 71 

bronze 84, 100 

colored gold 98 

coloring 442 

copper 100 

dry coloring 442 

French gold 102 

platinum 106 

wet coloring 442 

amalgam 124 

cleamng 365, 831 

enamehng gold 98 

ink 912 

imitation 99-103 

lace, cleaning 366 

leaf, affixing to paper. . . 923 

imitation 101 

mosaic 92, 102. 624 

paint 624 

waterproof 644 

plating 468 

brass 469 

dead luster 479 

fire and wet processes . 479 

red ormolu 479 

yellow ormolu 479 

polishing 366, 578 

red 99 

ring gold 99 

sealing wax 928 

size ... 644 

solder containing 830 

soldering 825, 826, 834 

test for 955 

varnish 660 

See also Gilding; Metal 
Polishes 

Gold Cordial 234 

Golden Fizz 195,241 

Gongs, Metal for 83 

Gooseberries : 

canning 740 

essence 175 

artificial 174 

jam 746, 749 

jelly 747 

preserved 746 

vinegar 772 

wine 264 

Gophers, To Exterminate. 562 

Graduates. Chemical 993 

Grafting Wax 25 

Gram-Rutzon's Cement. . . 304 
Granite: 

gilding 139 

monuments, repairing. . 274 

stains on, removal 366 

Granolithic Pavement. . . . 279 

Granulation 1015 

Grape- 

canning 740 

insect pesta 561 

CUD 202 



Index 



Grape: 

essence 175 

artificial 174 

ice 555 

icecream 553 

jam 747 

elly 747 

uice 200-203 

hot 216 

lemonade 202 

malted 202 

marmalade 747 

nectar 202 

phosphate 209 

punch.. 202,211 

sherbet 202,555 

stains on carpets 349 

syllabub 202 

syrup 187 

wine 265 

Grass, Extermination of . . 59 

grass stains 366, 421 

gravel walks 279 

Gravity, Specific 1040 

Grease Proofing Boxes. . . . 955 
Grease Stains, Cleansing: 

before painting 638 

fabrics 366, 420 

floors 360 

machinery 392 

marble 393 

paper 403 

parchment 405 

prints 406 

silk 415 

Greaseless Cold Cream. . . . 843 

Grebe Skins, Cleaning .... 357 
Greengages: 

jam 747 

preserved 747 

Grenades, Hand 896 

Grenadine Syrup 187 

Grinding and Pulverizing, 

Chemical. 999 

Grinding Glass Tubes 497 

Grinding Mills, Chemical. . 999 

Ground Glass 497 

Grouville's Oil Cement 304 

Guaiacum Varnish 661 

Guano 35 

Gum. See Chewing Gum. 

Gum Arabic 318 

Gum Silver Process 689 

Gumbo, Canning 759 

Gumdrops 549 

Gummed Paper 322, 922, 925 

Gun: 

cleaning 357 

barrels, bluing 444 

barrels, bronzmg 445 

metal 86 

blacking 443 

bluing 443 

Vust, preventives 408 

shells, cleaniqg 344 

springs, tempering. . .516, 517 

varnish 661 

Guncotton 955 

Gutta Percha: 

bleaching 368, 783 

cement 298, 304, 783 

composition 944 

dental stopping 281 

distinguished from India 

rubber 783 

dyeing 453 

liquid 783 

melting 784 



Gutta Percha: 

substitute 784 

varnish 661 

Gypsy Moths 561 

Hagar's Cement 304 

Hair Dyes, Shampoos, and 

Tonics 850-854 

pomades 879 

Hair Brushes: 

cement for 273 

powder 855 

Halftones. Etching 728 

Hamilton's Metal 102 

Hams, Curing 762 

Hands: 

cleansing from stains 368 

whitening 839 

See also Skin. 
Harness: 

blackings 599 

cleaning 368 

restoring 600 

varnish for 661 

waterproof dressing 601 

wax 601 

Harper's Fusible Alloy 76 

Harvey Sauce 768 

Hats. See Felt Hats; 
Panama Hats; Silk 
Hats; Straw Hats. 

Hay, Weight of 26 

Haystacks, Covering 26 

Hazelnut Ice Cream 553 

Heat Treatment of Metals, 

509-519 
Heating Plants, Non- 

Freezing Fluids 953 

Hektograph 907 

ink 913 

Heel Polish 606 

Hemorrhage from WoUnds 23 

Hemp Rope. Grease for. . . 619 
Hens. See Poultry. 

Hensler's Cement 305 

Herbs : 

drying 759 

sauce 768 

soup herb essence 760 

vinegar 772 

Hides: 

depilating , 597 

tanning 610 

working of 601 

Hinges, Creaking, To Pre- 
vent 529 

Hock 265 

cup 240 

syrup 187 

Hoenle's Cement 305 

Hog Cholera 52 

Hollands 234 

Romberg's Alloy 78 

Honey: 

almond cream and 844 

artificial 774,955 

clarified 775 

soap 805 

wine 265. 266 

Hoof cement 305 

Hop beer 193 

Horn: 

cement for 288 

cleaning 379, 801 

coloring and staining . . 578 

I>ol''shing 580 

softenmg 580 

waste, utilizing 580 

welding 580 

[ 1063 ] 



Horology. See Watches 
Horsehair: 

bleaching 368 

dyeing 454 

Horseradish: 

bottled 764 

catsup 752 

flavoring 766 

pickled 754 

vinegar 773 

Horses : 

diseases and remedies. . .53-55 
feed, comparative value 53 

hoof cement 305 

Horticultural Ink 913 

Hose: 

cement for 299 

repairing 791 

rivets for 88 

rubber to soften 790 

Hot Air Pipes, Cements for 291 
Household Formulas . . . 521-545 

Hydrau'ie Cement 274. 314 

Hydroeraphic Paper 924 

Hypo Eliminators 682 

Ice: 

keeping 529 

powder 955 

slipping on 12 

weight, estimating 529 

Ice Cream: 

bases 550 

beverages 203 

malted milk 208 

coloring 550 

cones 550 

flavoring 551 

fruit juices 551 

making and freezing 551 

receipts 552-554 

Ichthyol Soap 810 

Ignition (Chemistry) 1036 

Imperial Syrup 187 

Impression Wax 141 

Incandescent Lamps: 

bulbs, coloring 526 

cement for filaments 305 

Incense 872 

Incineration 1040 

Indelible Ink 913 

drawing inks 912 

stains, removing 369 

Indelible Pencils 926 

India Ink 914 

stains, removing 370 

India Rubber. See 
Rubber. 

India Rubber Varnish 661 

Indium-Aluminum 71 

Industrial Soaps 805 

Infusion (Chemistry) 1006 

Infusorial Earth 881, 956 

Ink.. 908-922 

acid-resisting, carbon. , . 910 

aniline 909 

black 909,911,917 

blue 909.910 

blue-black. . .910, 911, 917. 921 

bottles, cleaning 369 

brown 910 

cancelling postage 

stamps 910 

carmine 916 

copying 911 

erasers 369-371 

fireproof 893, 912 

frostproof 912 

gluten 912 



Index 



Ink 908-922 

gold 912 

green 913 

horticultural 913 

indelible 913 

indestructible 914 

India 914 

marking 915 

mimeograph 915 

neostyle 916 

oil, to remove from 916 

papyrograph 916 

paste 916 

powder 919 

preserving 916 

purple 916 

red 909, 911, 916, 917, 921 

ruling 917 

shading 917 

solid 919 

stains 421 

books, cleaning 342 

carpets 349 

engravings 406 

fabrics 337,369-371 

floors 360 

marble 394 

silver 415 

wood 371 

stencil 921 

sympathetic 917 

typewriter. 921 

vegetable ink 922 

violet 912,921,922 

white 922 

yellow 922 

Inlaid Work: 

cleaning 344 

pearl on metal 589 

Insects and Insecticides. 559-569 
bites, protection and 

remedies 560 

cement for mounting. . . 330 

house 563 

Instruments: 

cleansing 371 

rust, to prevent 411 

steriUzing 372, 524 

Insulation: 

cement 305.944 

electric conductors 955 

paper 924 

varnish 661 

wood 956 

Intensifiers and Reducers 

for Negatives 684 

Invalids, Beverages for. . . 218 
Iodine: 

poisoning 16, 19 

stains on paper , 404 

Iridescent metals 437 

Irish Whisky 238 

Iron: 

alloys 103 

aluminum-iron 71, 72 

copper-iron 78 

silver 109 

amalgam 126 

annea'ing 509 

blacking 443 

bluing 444 

brassmg 444 

brazing 510 

browning 446 

case-hardening 511 

cement for 291 

cloth to iron 296 

glass to iron 295 



Iron: 

cement for 291 

linoleum to iron 297 

stone to iron 295 

tiles to iron 296 

cleaning 434 

for plating 460 

copper-plating 467 

finishing 373 

galvanizing 487 

gilding 126,446 

grinding 373 

hardening 512 

labels on 329 

lacquer for 634 

mold stains 369, 394, 421 

paints for 638 

pickling bath for 374, 461 

pipes, coating for 900 

plating 471 

platinum plating on. . . . 476 

polishing 375,446 

protecting 375 

putty for steam joints. . 292 

silvering 481, 484 

soap 802,811 

soldering 825, 830, 834 

underground, rust pre- 
vention 410 

varnish for 661, 664, 667 

welding to steel 518 

See also Boilers; Ma- 
chinery; Metal 
Polishes; Metals; Rust. 

Iron Malt 207 

and phosphate syrup. . . 187 

Irrido Platinum 106 

Isinglass: 

cement 293 

glue 312 

Ives Tripak Color Photog- 
raphy 724 

Ivory: 

bleaching 580 

cement for 287. 288, 303 

cleaning 379, 581. 942 

dyeing 581 

etching 583 

gilding 583 

hardening 583 

imitation 583 

miniature painting 584 

photographing on 690 

polishing 584 

silvering 485 

softening 585 

working 580 

Ivy, Poison 13 

Jacoby's Alloy 113 

Jade. Polishing 586 

Jams 743-751 

Jannin's Cement 305 

Japan: 

bronze 84 

shakdo 99 

silver 108 

varnish 662 

Japans and Japanning, 

623, 629-631 

Jars. See Cans. 

Javelle Water 390 

Jellies: 

methods of making 742 

receipts 743-751 

wild fruits for 751 

Jelly Cosmetics 845 

Jet: 

cement for 288 

[ 1064 ] 



Jet: 

cleaning 380 

turning and polishing . . . 586 
Jewelry: 

cement for 287, 288, 306 

Vienna metal cement. 123 

cleaning 380 

gilding l)rass for 469 

gold alloys for cheap 101 

gold for 98 

lacquer for brass 633, 634 

putty for 591 

rouge for polishing. . .395. 407 

soldering fluid 824 

stage jewelry alloys. ... 115 
See also Gold; Precious 
Stones; Silver. 

John Collins 241 

Journal Boxes, Alloys for. . 112 
Julep: 

mint 238,242 

pineapple 243 

Juniper Berry Essence. . . . 175 

Junket Tablets 767 

Kallitype 700 

Kalsomine 630 

Keene's Cement 277 

Kerosene, Deodorizing.. . . 956 

See also Petroleum. 
Kid Gloves. See Gloves. 

Kid Leather Dressing 606 

Kieselguhr 956 

Kindlings 530 

Kingston's Metal 113 

Kirschwasser 234 

Kissingen Water, Arti- 
ficial 168,169 

Knives. See Cutlery. 

Kohlrabi, Canning 759 

Kola: 

drinks 241 

essence 175 

hot 216 

phosphate 209 

malt 207 

syrup 187 

wine 266 

Krafft's Allov 78 

Kustitien's Metal 114 

Labels : 

anatomical 331 

enamel letters to glass, 

cementing 286 

glass, lettering 498 

ink, for bottles 912 

metal letters, cementing 295 
natural history speci- 
mens 330 

on cork 328 

on flower pots 328 

on glass 328 

on metal 329 

on minerals . 330 

on nickel 329 

on stone 329 

on tin 329 

pastes and mucilage 

for 327-330 

porcelain letters to glass, 

cementing 286 

varnish for 662 

wooden, preservation. . . 26 

zinc 26 

Laboratory Apparatus... 987-998 

burners 997 

cement 286 

centrifuge ,... 1024 

clampa 993 



Index 



Laboratory Apparatus. . 987-998 

coating tools 411 

cork work 991 

distilling apparatus 1017 

drying closets 1008 

emulsifier 1035 

filters 1025-1031 

fuels 996 

graduates 993 

grinding mills 999 

measuring liquids 993 

retortstands 992 

scales 994 

strainer 1023 

syphons 991 

tables, varnish to pro- 
tect 662 

wash bottle 990 

wire for 987 

Lac Varnish 662 

Lace: 

black, to revive 381 

cleaning 381 

gold and silver, clean- 
ing 366,381 

mildew, to remove 381 

washing 381 

Lacquers and Lacquering, 

623. 631-635 

colorless 634 

removing coatings jf , . . 401 

tools 668 

transparent 635 

wax 670 

Lactometers 43 

Lampblack 956 

Lamps : 

brittania metal for 114 

chimneys, t o prevent 

breaking 530 

globes, to clean 363 

petroleum cement 294 

putty for 336 

wicks, fireprooflng 895 

See also Incandescent 
Lamps. 

Lantern Slides: 

diagrams for 135, 716 

photography 714-716 

Lapidary Arts 571-594 

Lapis Lazuli, Working 586 

Lard, Making and Preserv- 
ing 956 

Laundry 383-392 

bleaching 341 

colored fabrics, soap for, 

802,812 

flannel, washing 359 

muslins and piques. . . . . 353 

red-bordered towels, etc 385 

soaps 806 

washing preparations.. . 388 

Lavender: 

essence 175 

water 876 

Lawns: 

ants, to destroy 559 

fertilizers 36 

weed extermination. ... 59 

Lead: 

alloys 103 

aluminum 72 

copper-lead 79 

silver 109 

amalgam 126 

cleanmg 434 

cleaning for plating 460 

etching 949 



Lead; 

gilding 471 

pencils 926 

plating 472 

polishing 392 

printing paper 711 

soldering 825 

welding 518 

Leather 595-61 1 

bags, to restore 595 

bookbinders' 596 

bronzing 596 

carriage 596 

cement for 289, 307 

cementing to metal. . .297, 663 

cementing to wood 300 

cleaning 381 

dyeing 597 

enameled, cleaning 382 

gilding 599 

gloss for 596 

hardening 599 

mouldy, to clean 382 

oil stains, removal 382 

polishing 601, 606 

preserving and restoring 601 

saddles, cleaning 382 

silvering 599 

softening preparations. . 609 

straps, polishing 609 

varnish 663 

aluminum soap 811 

waterproofing 601, 900 

See also Belting; Boots; 
Chamois Skin; Gloves; 
Harness; Shoes. 

Leaves: 

bleaching 382 

copying 952 

preserving 952 

skeleton, to make 952 

Lechesne 81 

Lemarquand's Alloy 81 

Lemon: 

beer 194 

brandy 230 

drinks 204 

essence 174, 175 

frappe 197 

ice 555 

ice cream 553 

juice, preservation 205 

marmalade 747 

phosphate 209 

pickled 754 

sour 195 

squash 205 

syrup 188 

wine 266 

Lemonade: 

artificial 204 

egg 195 

for the sick 218 

grape 202 

hot 216 

Lenses: 

cement for 286, 306 

cleaning 382 

rust, removing 383 

Lettering. See Etching; 
Gilding; Labels; Sil- 
vering; Signs. 

Levigation 1002 

Lice: 

on animals 661 

on human beings 563 

on plants 563 

Licorice Syrup 188 

[ 1065 ] 



Life Casting 142, 155 

Light Filters 720. 725 

Lighting Fixtures, Clean- 
ing 344 

See also Brass; Gas 
Fixtures. 
Lightning, First Aid to 

Injured 13 

Lights, Colored 964 

Lilac Water 876 

Lima Beans, Canning 759 

Lime: 

cements 305 

paints 639 

Vienna 957 

See also Quicklime. 
Limes: 

drinks 206 

essence 175 

juice, hot 216 

pickled 754 

tablets 549 

Linen: 

bleaching 348, 354 

blistering, to prevent. . . 385 

dyeing 456 

mildew, cleaning 399 

polishing block 388 

scorched, to restore 385 

stains, cleaning. .360, 420, 423 
See also Shirts. 

Lining Metal for Car Boxes 1 12 

Linoleate 625 

Linoleum: 

cementing to iron 297 

cleaning 392 

compositions 531 

dressing 631 

laying. . . : 392 

Linseed: 

mucilage 319 

oil cement 293 

oil varnish 663 

tea 218 

Lip Salve 865 

Lipowitz's Fusible Alloy. . 76 

Lipowitz's Metal Castings. 77 

Liqueur Cream Ice 565 

Liqueurs. See Liquors. 

Liquid Smoke 763 

Liquors: 

alcoholic 226-244 

bead for 224 

coloring of liquors 232 

mixed drinks 238-244 

percentage of alcohol . . . 224 

Listerine 855 

Litharge Cements 305 

Lithographic Paper: 

preparation of 139 

transfer 162 

Lithographs: 

cleaning 403 

varnish for 663 

Lithography, Photo 731 

Locusts, Remedy 663 

Loving Cup 240 

Lubricants 613-621 

asphaltum 616 

axle grease 616, 617. 618 

caoutchouc. 614, 617, 618. 620 

cleaning oils 613 

for ebonite 788 

graphite 617 

lanoline 616 

lead soap 614 

liquid 615 

mineral 616, 619 



Index 



Lubnoanta 613-621 

naoathalene 614 

olive oil. 619 

palm oil. . . . 614, 617, 618, 621 

paraffine oil 615 

piston rod 620 

purifying oils 613 

rosin 615 

soap greases 614 

solid 614,620 

sulphur 617 

tallow 614,619 

testing oils 614 

vaseline 615, 616 

See also names of Ma- 
chines or parts to be 
lubricated. 

Lumifere Process 722 

Luminous Paints 639 

See also Calcium Sul- 
phide. 

Luminous Paper 924 

Lutecine 81 

Lutes 313 

Lye 809,817 

Macaroon Ice Cream 653 

Mace Essence 175 

Maceration 1005 

Machinery: 

antifriction metals Ill 

brass for 93 

cleaning 392 

enamel paints for 628 

friction polish 377 

lubricants 620 

metals 87,91,95 

non-freezing fluids for. . 953 

oils 620 

patterns, varnish for. . . 665 

polishing 377 

varnish for 663 

See also Iron; Journal 
Boxes; Lubricants; 
Rust. 

Macht's Metal . 95 

Mackintoshes. See Rain- 
coats. 

Madeira wine 266 

essence 225 

Magnesia, Citrate of 957 

Magnesium: 

aluminum and 72 

amalgam 126 

electro deposition of . . . 472 

Magnets, Red Paint for,... 640 

Magnolia Metal 103 

Mahogany: 

cement for 301 

spots on, to remove .... 430 

stains 649 

varnish for 663 

Maillechort 81 

Malachite, Working 586 

Malmsey 266 

Malt: 

beverages. 206 

brandy... 231,229 

essence 176 

malted food 77 

malted milk 207 

hot 216 

syrup 188 

wine cordial..... 207 

Manganese: 

allovs 104-5 

aluminum 73 

argentan 81 

bronze 104 



Manganese: 

alloys^-German silver. . 105 

steel 105 

tin 105 

tin and zinc bronze. . . 105 

tin bronze 105 

amalgams 126 

soap 811 

Manganin 119 

Mange, Remedy for 50 

Mangoes: 

chutney 753 

preserved 748 

Manhattan Cocktail 242 

punch ^46 

Manicure Preparations. . . . 856 

Manna for Birds 521 

Mannheim Gold 101 

Manures 35 

Manuscripts, cleaning 

Grease Spots 403 

Maple: 

and ice cream 203 

beer 194 

caramels 550 

frapp6 197 

ice cream 553 

syrup 188 

artificial 188 

Maplewood, Polish for 544 

Maps: 

backing 139,140 

colors for 140 

relief maps 140 

varnish for 664, 659 

Maraschino: 

fruit punch 246 

liqueur 224 

Marble: 

artificial 140 

cement for 277, 287 

cleaning 393, 394, 395 

discolored 393 

gilding 140 

imitation, polishing 587 

ink for writing on 921 

photographing upon. . 690, 691 

soda fountain, care .... 394 

varnish for 666 

working . 586 

Marine Glue 312, 315 

Marine Paint 640 

Marking Ink 915 

stains, removing 370, 421 

stencil inks 921 

Marking Pencils 927 

Marlie's Alloy 119 

Marmalades 743-751 

Marshmallow: 

and ice cream 203 

syrup 188 

Marteaux and Robert's 

Cement 305 

Martial Regulus 119 

Martini Cocktail 242 

Martin's Cement 274 

Massage Cream 846 

Mastic Cement 305 

Serbat's 307 

Mastic varnish. 665 

Matches: 

manufactured ....... 957-960 

stains on marble. 394 

Matrix Paste 322 

Mats. See Pugs. 
Matt: 

glass 498 

varnish 660,664 

[ 1066 ] 



Matting, To Clean 396 

May Drink 242 

May Wine Essence 225 

Mayonnaise Dressing 769 

Mead 208 

essence 176 

wine 266 

Measuring Liquids 993 

Meat: 

poisonous, remedy 13 

preserving .. 762 

smoking 762 

Mechanical Drawing 133 

Mechanics', Varnish for... 664 
Medals: 

metal for 84,95 

See Coins and Medals. 

Medicated Bath Powders. 837 

Medicated Wines 266 

Medicinal Soaos 809 

tar 818 

Meerschaum; 

cement for 287 

imitation 587, 588 

mending 587 

pipes, cleaning and color- 
ing 587 

Mellott's Fusible Alloy. ... 67 
Melon: 

essence 176 

artificial 174 

ice cream 532 

pickled 754 

Mending Tissues 305 

Menthe, Creme de 235 

Menthol Preparations 857 

cream 884 

tooth cream 890 

Mercurial Soap 810 

Mercury : 

aluminum and 73 

gilding 480 

salts, poisoning 16 

Metal Stamps. See 
Stamps. 

Metallic Cement 306 

Metallic Soaps 802, 811 

Metalline 78 

Metalloid and aluminum. . 73 
Metals: 

anti-friction Ill 

cement for 290, 308 

cork to metal 296 

glass to metal 294 

leather to metal 

296, 297, 663 

rubber to metal 299 

stone to metal 294 

wood to 297 

cleaning 395-399 

for coloring 433 

coating metals 478 

coloring of 433-449 

dipping 433 

beat treatment of 509-519 

ink for marking 915 

labels on 329 

letters, cementing 295 

lutes for 315 

oxidation, to prevent. . . 408 

pickling 433 

plating, non-electric. . . . 478 

polishes 395 

cloths for polishing.395, 407 

hard metals 398 

Jewelers' rouge 395 

liquid 395 

pastes and pomades.. 397 



Index 



Metals: 

polishes 395 

powders 398 

red paste 397 

sharp polishes 398 

soaps 398 

tin 424 

tube polish 399 

white paste 398 

varnish for 664 

waterproof cements ... . 334 
See also Alloys; Bearing 
Metals; Brass; Copper; 
Electrometallurgy; 
Gold; Instruments; 
Iron; Machinery; 
Nickel; Pewter; Rust; 
Safes; Sheet Metal; 
Silver; Soldering; 
Steel: Zinc. 

Metheglin 242 

Mica: 

cement for 306 

pamts 641 

pulverizing 960 

Mice, Destruction of 563 

Microscopists' Cement 297 

Mildew, preventing and 

removing 399 

brickwork 346 

canvas 348 

cotton goods 399 

engravings 3£6 

lace 381 

linen 399 

paper 404 

stones 422 

silk 400 

Milk 38 

condensed 38 

dried 39 

drinks 196 

lemonade 205 

orange 208 

pasteurization of 39 

punch 246 

preservation of 41 

stains 352 

testing 41-43 

Mille Fruit Ice Cream .... 553 

Mimeograph Ink 915 

Minargent 81 

Mince Meat 775 

Mill Picks. Hardening 513 

Mineral Lubricating Oils. . 616 

Mineral Milk 196 

Mineral Waters. Artificial. 167 
Minerals: 

artificing in 571 

cement for 330 

labels on 330 

splitting, diamond 

powder for 577 

Miniature Painting, Ivory 

for 584 

Minofor 81 

Mint. 

cordial 235 

cream 196 

ginger 199 

julep 238,242 

phosphate 188, 210 

punch 211 

rose 196 

syrup 188 

vinegar 773 

Mira Metal 79 



Mirrors: 

alloy for coating 106 

frosting 496 

metal for 89 

re-silvering , 506 

silver amalgams for. . . . 127 

silvering 500 

tin amalgams for 127 

tinfoil alloys 114 

varnish for back 507 

Mixed Drinks 238-244 

Mixed Metals. See Alloys. 

Mock Turtle Bouillon 216 

Mocking Birds. Food. 521 

Modeling; 

clay 141 

engravers' wax 141 

mastic cement for 305 

paste 321 

repairing wax dummies. 141 

sculptor's putty 141 

waxes 141 

See also Molds. 

Models. Alloy for 86 

Mohr's Cement. 306 

Molasses Beer 194 

Moldings: 

composition for 945 

gold, varnish for 660 

picture frame 152 

Molds 141 

gelatin 142 

paraffin 142 

wax 142 

See also Plaster Casts; 
Plaster of Paris. 

Moles Destruction of 564 

Molybdenum, aluminum 

and 73 

Monongahela Whisky 238 

Monuments. See Marble. 

Mordant Varnish 664 

Morocco Leather, Clean- 
ing 382 

Morphine Poisoning 16 

Mortar 277 

cleaning 394 

waterproof 278 

Mosaic Gold 92, 102, 624 

Mosaic Silver 81 

Moselle 267 

cup 240 

Mosquitoes, Prevention 

and Remedies 564 

Mother of Pearl: 

buttons 590 

cement for 288 

imitation 590 

inlaying 589 

iridescent 590 

polishing 591 

working 590 

Moths, Prevention of 564 

Mottled Soaps 812 

Mould: 

in cellars 522 

odor, to remove 430 

Mountants. See Prints, 

Mourning Stationery 924 

Mousset's Silver Alloys. . , 109 

Mouthwashes 857 

Mucilages 317 

casein 331 

dextrine 317 

elastic 319 

gelatine mixture 318 

ffum arabic 318 

abel mucilage 327-330 

[ 1067 ] 



Mucilages 817 

linseed 319 

photographic m^ount- 

ants 331 

preserving 321 

stick 319 

tragacanth 319 

Mulberry: 

essence 176 

wine 267 

Mulled Ale 242 

Mulled Claret 242 

Mulled Wine 267 

Muntz's Metal 92, 95 

Muscadine Syrup 191 

Muscatel Wine 267 

Mushrooms 13 

catsup 752 

cultivation 26 

pickled 755 

preserved 759 

powder 759 

Music Printing, Type 

Metals for 117 

Musical Instruments, Al- 
loys for 117 

Muslins, Laundering 353 

Mussel Shells, polishing. . 588 

Mustache Fixing Fluid. 852, 886 
Mustard: 

bath 838 

German 763 

French 763 

preparing 763 

spiced 764 

tarragon 764 

vinegar 773 

wine 763 

Musty Casks, Cleaning. . 350 

Nail Polish 856 

Naphtha: 

Polish 664 

soaps 813 

Naphthaline, deodorizing.. 960 
Natural History Speci- 
mens 960 

cement tor 330 

cleaning stuffed animals. 339 

Naturalists' soaps 814 

Nectar. 

alcoholic 235 

syrup 189 

Nectarines: 

essences 176 

preserved 748 

Needles, anti-rust Paper. . 922 
Negatives; 

clearing negatives 682 

developers 675-682 

drying of 684 

fixing negatives. 682 

hardening negatives. . . . 682 

intensifiers 674, 675, 684 

reducers 685 

retouching 686 

silver stains 683 

spotting 686 

stain removers 683 

stripping films 685 

unvarnishing 685 

varnishes for 685 

Negus 242 

Neogen 96 

Neostyle Ink 916 

Nesselrode Pudding 556 

Nets: 

fishing nets, preservation 858 

varnish for 664 



Index 



Neuf chatel Cheese 33 

Neuralgia 11 

New York Brandy 231 

Newspaper pictures, trans- 
ferring 164 

Newton's Fusible Alloy . . 76 

Newton's Metal 78 

Nickel: 
alloys 

aluminum and 73 

bronze 81 

copper-nickel 79 

manganese steel 119 

platinum 106 

silver 109 

silver, copper and zinc 108 

blackening 446 

cementing to enamels. . 295 

coloring 446 

iridescent 437 

plated ware, coloring. . . 439 

plating 472 

dipping acid 461 

non-electric 481 

pickling bath 461 

re-nickeling 475 

solutions 474 

polishing 400 

rust, removal 400, 410 

solder for 834 

See also Metal Polishes. 

Nickelin 119 

Niello 109,482 

Nigger Black Face Paint. . 887 

Nipples. Rubber. Piercing. 789 

Nitrate of Silver Stains. . . 368 

Nitric Acid Stains 368, 400 

Norfolk Punch 246 

Normandy Cider 223 

Nose Putty 888 

Noyau 235 

cream ice 656 

Nuremberg Gold 97 

Nut: 

Bamboo souflBe 203 

frappe 553 

fruit syrup 189 

sundae 212 

Nutmeg Essence 176 

Oak: 

darkening 539, 650 

stain 650 

varnish 664 

Oatmeal: 

soap 814 

water 218 

Oats. Fertilizers 36 

Oil: 

bleaching 400 

lamp oil 961 

stains 400 

on floors 360 

on le<ither, removing.. 382 

on paper 404 

waterproofing 900 

See also Lubricants. 
Oil Colors See Paints. 

Oil Paintinfe,s, Cleaning.. . . 403 
Oilcloth: 

cleaning 392 

dressing 531 

paint for 641 

waterproofing 901 

Oilskins, Waterproofing. . . 901 

Okra, Canning 759 

Olive Oil: 

facsimile 769 

factitious 769 



Onions, Pickled 755 

Onions' Fusible Alloy 75 

Onyx, Working 589 

Opals: 

cutting 589 

restoring 400 

Opaque Glass 498 

Opaque Screen 967 

Opium Poisoning 19 

Optical Instruments: 

blackening 435 

lacquer for brass 633 

varnish for 664 

Opticians' Cement 286, 306 

Orange: 

bitters 228 

brandy.. 231 

cider 222 

crgme de 235 

drinks 196,203,206 

essence 176 

artificial 174 

flower water 876 

frapp6 197 

frozen 556 

ice 556 

ice cream 553 

marmalade 748 

phosphate 210 

phosphate syrup 190 

punch 211 

syrup 189 

vinegar 773 

wine 267 

Orange trees, fertilizer 36 

Oreide 92.102 

Organic Specimens, 

Cements for 331 

Organs: 

pipe metal for 115 

varnish 664 

Orgeat: 

punch 246 

syrup 100 

Ormolu 102 

Oroide. See Oreide. 

Ostrich Feathers, Cleaning 357 

Ottos 859 

Oxalic Acid Poisoning. ... 15, 20 
Oxgall: 

clarifying 954 

soap 814,815 

Oxidized Bronzes, Clean- 
ing 347 

Oxidizing: 

copper 441 

silver 447 

Oyster Broth 217 

Ozobrome Process 709 

Ozotype Process 708 

Packfong 81 

Packing Paoer 924 

Pads. Pastes for 326 

Paintings: 

canvas prepared for. . 130 

cleaning 403 

glass 499 

varnish for 665 

See also Color 

Paints 635-645 

aluminum paint 635 

anti -corrosion paint. . . . 635 

asbestos 637 

black 636 

brushes, cleaning 637, 400 

cleanina: woodwork, etc . 402 

colors 641 

for enamel 627 

f 1068 1 



Paints 635-645 

colors , 641 

for luminous paint.... 639 

proportions 637 

destroying, 637 

disinfecting 637 

driers , 623, 625 

enamels 627 

fireproof..., 637,641 

grease spots, to clean . . . 638 

Rme 639 

luminous 639 

marine 640 

mica paint 641 

mixing paints 641 

non-poisonous color. .. . 643 

oil colors 641 

oil paint, substitute for. 642 

outdoor work 642 

red oxide of iron 642 

removing coatings of . . . 400 

rubber 642 

silicate 642.643 

sizes for 645 

temperature indicating. 643 
stains: 

on glass, to remove. 363, 428 

on parchment 405 

on clothing 401.420 

theatrical 886 

tungsten 643 

vessels, cleaning 400 

washable 643 

water paint 643 

waterproof 643, 644 

See also names of objects 
or materials to be 
painted. 

Palladiotype 707 

Palladium: 

alloys, gold 99 

plating with 475 

Palm Soap 815 

Panama Hats, Cleaning.. . 403 

Paper: 

adhesive 922 

anti-rust, for needles. . . 922 

bags, paste for 322 

boxes, paste for 323 

canoes 961 

carbon 922 

casts 142 

chemically prepared. . . . 923 

cleaning 403 

copying 132 

cork 923 

filtering 923 

fireproof 893 

gilding 142 

glass 923 

gold leaf, to affix 923 

greasev, to write on 923 

gummed 322 

bydrographic 924 

insulating 924 

iodine stains, removing. 404 

iridescent 924 

issue paper 924 

lithographic 139 

luminous 924 

mildew stains, removing 404 

oil stains 404 

packing 924 

painted 924 

papyrine 924 

paraffi ne 924 

paste for 324 

ornaments on glass . . 322 



Index 



Paper: . 

phenyl 924 

powder 961 

preserving, for butter, 

etc 31,924 

safety 925 

silverware, wrapping . . . 925 

splitting paper 925 

testing 925 

tracing 161 

transfer 162 

transferring pictures to. 165 

varnish for 665 

waterproofing 901, 924 

waxed 925,961 

See also Blotting Paper; 

Drawing Paper; 

Parchment Paper; 

Photographic Papers; 

Tissue Paper; Wall 

Paper. 

Paperhanging 531 

Easte for 323 
ee also Wall Paper. 

Papier Mache 143-145 

cement for 306 

cleaning 404 

Papyrine 924 

Papyrograph Ink 916 

Parabolic Cement 306 

Paraffine: 

cleaning 404 

deodorized 961 

molds 142 

oil grease • 615 

paper 924 

Parasites (Aphides) 559 

Paravaseline 616 

Parchment 145-148 

blood stains 404 

cementing to polished 

surface 147 

cleaning 404 

coloring 146 

drumhead 147 

glue 313 

grease stains 405 

imitation 147, 148. 924 

liquid 148 

paint stains 405 

paper parchmentized 148, 689 

pasting 148 

scal'ng, to prevent. .... 148 

size 645 

smoothing 148 

tea stains 405 

transparent 148 

vegetable 148 

waterproofing 902 

Parfait amour 235 

Parian Cement. 274 

Paris Metal 81 

Parisian Alloy 81 

Parquet Floors. See 
Floors. 

Parsley 766 

preserving 759 

Parsnips, canning 759 

Passe-Partout Framing. . , 148 

Pastamack 838 

Pastes 319-324 

acid resisting 336 

alcohol resisting , 336 

bookbinders' and sta- 
tioners' 326 

fireproof 327 

labels 327-330 

library paste. 319 



Pastes 319-324 

pasting machine paste... 322 
photographic mount- 
ants .... .331, 333, 718-720 

powder 323 

preserving... 321 

starch paste 331 

tissue paper and tin- 
foil 324 

waterproof 336 

Pasteboard : 

cement for 302, 306 

to metal 297 

dyeing 454 

Patent Drawings 150 

Patent Leather Dressing . . 606 

Patina 437,448 

Patterns: 

composition for 945 

varnish for 665 

Pavements and Roads. .278-279 

Peach : 

^^randy 231 

•"^ canning 741 

cordial 235 

drink 196.203 

essence 176 

artificial 174 

ice 556 

ice cream 554 

syrup 190 

wine 267 

Pears; 

canning 741 

dnnks 242 

essence 174, 177 

pickles, sweet 748 

preserved 748 

sauce, cider 745 

syrup 190 

water ice 656 

cleaning 405, 589 

deterioration 589 

fixing to glass 589 

inlaying on metal 589 

shell 592 

working 589 

See also Mother of Pearl. 

Peas, Preservmg 759 

Pegamoid 945 

Pen Metal, Cooper's 106 

Pencils 926 

colored, for glass 131 

indelible oil crayons. . . . 907 
Peppermint; 

cordial 235 

essence 177 

Pepsm: 

phosphate 210 

syrup 185. 188 

wine 267 

Pepso-Curacoa Syrup 190 

Percolation 1031 

Perfumes 858-873 

boquets 861, 865 

colognes 863 

definition of terms 861 

distillation 860, 1020 

enfleurage 860 

essences and extracts 
arranged alphabeti- 
cally by odors. 861, 864-871 

maceration 860 

percolation 1031 

program, perfuming. . . . 872 

sachet powders 872 

solid... 863,869 

[ 1069 ] 



Perfumes 858-873 

toilet waters 874-878 

Perri 242 

Perspiration, Remedies. . . 879 

Peruvian Bitters 228 

Pestles, Cement for 306 

Pests. See Insecticides. 
Petrolatum Stains, Re- 
moving 406 

Petroleum : 

brass polish 346 

cement to resist 302 

deodorizing 961 

fire extinguishers 897 

soaps 815 

stains on marble 394 

See also Kerosene: 
Lamps. 

Pew's Cement 307 

Pewter' 

alloys for 114. 115 

cleaning 406 

solder for 825, 834 

Pharaoh's Serpents 963 

Philadelphia Ice Cream. . . 554 

Philochome 852 

Phosphate: 

dental cements 281 

drinks 208 

cherry syrups 183, 184 

egg 195 

hot 217 

mint syrups 188 

orange syrup 190 

syrup 190 

Phosphor Bronze 86-90 

Phosphorescent sulphide. . 942 

Phosphorus Poisoning 16 

rat poison 567 

Photo-Engraving Formu- 
las 726-729 

Photo-Aquatinting 732 

Photographic Papers : 

albumenized 688 

blue print paper 699 

bromide 693, 694 

citrate paper 712 

collodion printing out. . . 693 

ferro prussiate 699 

gaslight 698 

gelatine printing out 

paper 691 

home made 687 

lead printing paper 711 

oxalite silver printing 

paper 711 

parchmentized papers . 689 

platinum 702 

self-toning papers 693 

silver papers 687 

Photography 673-734 

mounting pastes. 331. 333. 718 
-720 
positives and ferrotypes 

by wet collodion 674 

varnish for trays 665 

See also Black Prints; 
Blue Prints; Color- 
photography; De- 
velopers; Negatives; 
Photographic Papers; 
Plates; Printing Pro- 
cesses; Prints; Sen- 
sitizing; Toning Bath; 
Transferring. 

Photogravure 782 

Photo-lithography 7d 1 

Piano Polish 542 



Index 



Piano Strings, Hardening. 514 

Piccalilli 755 

Pickles 751-755 

vinegar for pickling 773 

Pickling Bath 461 

See also names of metals. 

Picture Frames 150 

composition for 152, 945 

gilding 150-152 

gilt, cleaning .152, 362 

moldings, composition 

for 152 

regilding 152 

varnish for 659 

Pictures. See Engrav- 
ings; Ferrotypes; 
Lithographs; Paint- 
ings; Prints. 

Pie Plant. See Rhubarb. 

Pigeons' Food 47 

Pigments. See Color. 

Pillow Feathers, Cleaning . 357 

Pinchbeck 92, 102 

Pineapple: 

cider 222 

cordial 235 

egg and 195 

essence 177 

artificial 174 

frapp6 197 

frozen 556 

glac6 199 

grape juice and 202 

ice 556 

ice cream 554 

ice cream and 204 

julep 243 

lemonade 205 

marmalade 748 

phosphate 210 

preserved 748 

punch 211 

sherbet 556 

sundae 212 

syrup 190 

wine 267 

Pipe: 

cement pipe 302 

cements for 291 

See also Gas Pipe; Meer- 
schaum; Steam Pipes; 
Stove Pipes; Tobafcco 
Pipes. 

Pipettes 994 

Piques. See Cotton Fabrics. 

Pistachio: 

essence 177 

hot 217 

ice cream 554 

punch 211 

syrup 190 

Piston Rod Grease 620 

Pitch 963 

stains 421.423 

Plants: 

fertilizers 36 

insects on 559, 563, 565 

See also Flowers; Leaves. 

Plaster Casts: 

bronzing 154, 802, 811 

carved articles 154 

hardening 154 

life casting 142, 155 

lubricant for molds 157 

marbling 155 

mending 155 

modeling 153 

paraffine molds for. .... 142 



Plaster Casts: 

polishing 156 

silvering 156 

stuccoed flowers 156 

transparent 156 

varnish for 665 

washable 156 

Plaster Cement 307 

Plaster of Paris: 

hardening 156 

retarding setting of 156 

substitute 132 

See also Plaster Casts. 

Plastering, interior 531 

Plasters : 

adhesive 963 

corn 840 

Plates, Engraved, FiUing. 964 

Plates Photographic : 

chalk plates 729 

cleaning 364 

sen=!itizing 673-675 

under exposure 677 

See also Negatives. 

Plat'ne 81 

Plating: 

electro-plating 459-478 

non-electric 478-487 

See also names of metals 
to be deposited. 

Platinoid 81, 119 

Platinor 102 

Phtino-Uranotype 707 

Platinum: 

alloys 105-107 

bronze 105 

copper 103 

gold 106 

nickel 106 

silver 107 

amalgam 126 

Birmingham platinum. 79 

deposits on glass. . . 499 

plating 475 

copper 481 

silver 448,481 

printing process 702 

solder containing 831 

soldering 825 

to gold 834 

Playing Cards, Varnish for. 665 

Plums: 

canning 741 

essence 177 

artificial 174 

jam 746,747,749 

jelly 746.749 

preserved 746, 747, 748 

spiced 749 

Plumbers' Cement 293 

Plumbers' Solder 825 

Plush, cleaning 425 

Pointing for Bricks 274 

Pointing for Buildings. . . 275 

Poison Ivy 13 

Poisons: 

antidotes and 14-20 

medicinal and fatal 

doses, table 17 

rat 566 

Pole-Indicating Paper, 

Electric 939 

Polishes: 

furniture 538-545 

leather 601 

metal 395-399 

rags for polishing 407, 543 

rouge for buff wheels. . 407 
[ 1070] 



Polishes: 

shoe 602 

stick polishes, for shoes. 605 

stove 633 

Vienna lime ; . 957 

water polishing 427 

wheels, polishing 427 

whiting 428 

window 428 

wood 430 

Pollack's Cement 293 

Pomades 879 

Pomegranate Essence 177 

Pop, Ginger 199 

Porcelain: 

breaking, to prevent 530 

cement for 285, 296, 334 

cleaning 351 

electro typing on 467 

lutes for 315 

riveting 283 

soldering 834 

See also Pottery. 

Porphyrization 1001 

Port Wine 267 

essence 225 

Portland Cement 275 

Postage Stamps: 

cancelling ink 910 

mucilage 321, 323 

Postal Card Photography . 712 

Potassium, amalgam of . . . 126 
Potatoes: 

fertilizer 36 

preserving 759 

rot prevention 26 

solidifying 964 

Potin 96 

Potpourri 872 

Pote and Pans: 

cement for 293 

iron, cleaning 377 

metal for 79 

Pottery: 

cement for crockery . 284, 334 

cleaning crocks and jars. 355 

gilding 157 

glaze for 157 

photography, ceramic. . 713 

varnish for earthenware 659 
See also Porcelain. 

Pounce 964 

Poultry 45 

diseases 48 

eggs, weight of 48 

feeding 45,46 

to increase laying. ... 47 

rat extermination 568 

Powder, Toilet 880-882 

bath 838 

dusting powder 881 

face 880 

foot powders 849, 881 

glove 881 

mfant 881 

meal preparations 881 

prickly heat 882 

sachet 872 

shampoo. 853 

shaving 884 

styptic 880 

talcum 88^ 

theatrical 888 

tooth 889 

Precious Stones: 

artificial 573 

cleaning 406 

lapidary art 571-594 



Index 



Precipitation 1022 

Preserving 735-751 

eggs 760 

fiSBt 741-751 

for exhibition purposes . 751 

meat 762 

paper 31,924 

selection and prepara- 
tion 737 

untensils 735 

Prickly Heat 882 

Prince's Metal 92, 103 

Prince's Punch 246 

Printed Matter, preserving 158 
Printing: 

on celluloid 781 

on rubber 791 

pads, removing aniline 

ink 371 

printers' varnish 666 

rollers, cleaning 965 

composition 965 

stains, removal 371 

See also Type. 
Printing Processes, Pho- 
tographic: 
bichromate-silver pro- 
cess 689 

blue prints 701 

bromoil 711 

carbograph 710 

carbon printing 707 

color photography. . . 718-725 
copper chromate process 689 

damp paper 706 

green printing process. . 710 
gum silver processes .... 689 

ozobrome 709 

ozotype 708 

platinum 702 

Prints: 

bleaching 158 

burnishing 717 

cleaning 406 

coloring 716 

dry mounting 719 

mountants 331 

old, reproducing. ...... 159 

photographic 693, 718-720 

re-engraving 166 

size for 159 

spotting 716-718 

transferring to glass, 

wood, etc 163-166 

varnish for 664, 665 

See also Engravings. 

Prisms, cement for 307 

Process Work. See Photo- 
Engraving. 
Programs, Perfuming .... 872 

Prune Syrup 190 

Prunelle Cordial 236 

Prussic Acid Poisoning. . .19, 20 

Ptomaine Poisoning 16 

Pudding Preparations 767 

Pulleys, Cementing Paper 

to 297 

Pulverization of Chemical 

Substances 998-1003 

Pumice Stone Soaps 815, 816 

Pumpkin, Preserving 759 

Punches 210 

alcoholic 244-247 

egg and milk 196 

essence 225, 226 

fruit 187 

grape 202 

hot punch 246 



Punches 210 

iced punch 246 

water ice 557 

Punctures, Cement for; . . . 300 

Purl 243 

Purple of Cassius 966 

Putty 324 

facing putty 274 

jewelers' _. . 591 

removing from Win- 
dows 406.428 

waterproof 336 

wood putty 325 

Putz Pomades 397 

Pyrotechny 964 

Pyroxyline 673,674 

Quartz, Working 576, 591 

Quassia Essence 177 

Queen's Metal Ill, 115 

Quicklime: 

cement 307 

preserving 966 

Quince: 

canning 741 

cider 223 

essence 177 

flip 196 

jelly 749 

liqueur 236 

marmalade 749 

preserved 749 

Quinine Wine 266, 267 

Railway: 

axle grease 617 

gear and pinion grease . . 619 
fining metal for car box . 112 
sleepers, preserving ce- 
ment 301 

Rain Coats : . 

preserving 790 

waterproofing 899 

Raisin: 

cider 223 

vinegar 773 

wine 268 

Raspberry: 

and currant jelly 750 

brandy 231 

canning 741 

cordial 236 

drinks 206 

essence 178,226 

artificial 174 

frozen 557 

gin 233 

ice 557 

jam 750 

phosphate 210 

punch 212,246 

raspberry ade, hot 217 

sherbet 557 

sour 195 

syrup 191 

vinegar 773 

wine 268 

Ratafia: 

cream 557 

fiqueur 236 

Rats, Destruction of 565 

Razor Strop Paper 967 

Red Birds, Food 521 

Red Lead 292 

Red Wine 268 

Reducers and Intensifiers 

for negatives 685 

Reduction (Chemistry) . . . 1039 

by granulation 1002 

Regent's Punch 246 

[ 1071 ] 



Registers, Britannia Metal 

for 114 

Relief Maps 140 

Reliefs, Photographic 708 

Rennet 767 

Resistances, Alloys for. . . . 11^ 

Resorcin Poisoning 20 

Retorts: 

lute for 316 

stands for 992 

Retouching Negatives 686 

Revolvers. See Guns. 

Rheotan 119 

Rhubarb: 

canning 741 

cordial 236 

essence 178 

jam 750 

marmalade 750 

orange jam and 750 

wine 268 

Ribbons. Silvering 159 

Rice Water 218 

Rifles. See Firearms. 

Ring, Removal of 20 

See also Precious Stones. 

Rivet Metal 84,88 

Roaches, Extermination. . 568 
Roads and Pavements. 
See Pavements and 
Roads. 

Rock Candy 549 

Rock Crystal 576 

Rollers, Metal for 96 

Roman Cement 275 

Roman Punch 247 

ice 557 

Roofs: 

cement for 275 

covering 532 

fireproot paper 532 

fireproofing 893 

paint 642 

for zinc 644 

slate 532 

tar paper 532 

tiles, coating for 532- 

waterproofing 902 

zinc for 448 

Root Beer 194 

essence 178 

Ropes, preservation 407 

See also Hemp; Wire. 
Rose: 

cordial 236 

cream 196 

^ essence. 178 

mint 196 

syrup 191 

water 877 

Rose's Alloys 78 

Rose's Fusible Alloy 76 

Rosewood Stain 651 

Rosin: 

bleaching 407 

for violin bows 942 

oil lubricant 615 

stains, removing 401 

varnish 666 

Rosinate Driers 626 

Rouge: 

for buff wheels 407 

jewelers' and machinists* 967 

theatrical paints 887 

toilet 882 

Royal Muscadine Syrup.., 191 

Royal Punch Essence 226 

Rubber 784-795 

:^^oAe]ar 872, 



Index 



Rubber • 784-795 

cements 298-300,315 

composition 94S 

formulas for processes 
and uses alpha- 
betically arranged. . 784-795 

glue 313 

mountings, to clean 382 

paint made of 642 

stoppers for bottles, 

cleansing 343 

varnish for 666, 794 

See also Stamps. 
Rugs. See Goatskin; 
Sheepskin. 

Ruling Inlcs 917 

Rum Essence 226 

Ruolz Silver 108 

Russet leather, cleaning . . 382 

Russian Glue 311 

Rust: 

cements 292 

firearms, cleaning 358 

on bronze, prevention. . 439 

on fabrics 412 

on instruments 372 

on lenses 383 

on marble, removing. . . 394 

on metals 408-412 

on nickel 400 

on screws 413 

on tin 424 

on windows 428 

paint to prevent 638 

paper 411 

roof paints 644 

See also Metal Polishes. 

Rye Whisky 238 

Sachet Powders 872 

Saddles: 

leather, cleaning 382 

paste 290 

Safe Enamel 628 

Sago 219 

Sailcloth: 

cleaning 412 

paints 642 

waterproofing 903 

See also Canvas. 

Salad Dressing 768 

, French 769 

mayonnaise 769 

Salmon, Smoking 763 

Salt, To prevent caking of . 765 
Salts: „„„ 

bath 838 

smelling salts 857, 873 

Salves. See Corn Cures; 
Cosmetics; Lip Salves. 

Sand Balls 817 

Sand Blasting Glass 493 

Sandstone: 

cement for 275 

to copper 291 

Sangaree 243 

Syrup 191 

Sanitation. See Dismfec- 
tion; Drains. 

Sapphire, Working 591 

Saratoga Vichy, Artificial. 169 

Sard 592 

Sarsaparilla: 

beer 194 

essence 178 

syrup 191 

- - 178 



Sateen, Photographic 

Printing on 713 

Satin: 

cleaning 41;* 

shoes, cleaning 609 

Satin-wood: 

polish for 544 

stain 651 

Sauces 767 

Sausage Seasoning 765 

SauterneCup 240 

Savonettes (Washballs) . . . 820 

Savory Spice Essence 178 

Scalds and Burns 6 

Scales, Laboratory 994 

See also Balances. 
Scalp. See Dandruff. 

Schaefer's Fluid 514 

Scheibler's Cement 307 

Schottler's Cement 307 

Scorch Stains 385, 421 

Scotch Whisky 238 

Scouring Balb 368, 817 

Scrap Books: 

paste ff^ 

pastiing, prmts m lo9 

Scratch Brushes 461 

Screen, Opaque 967 

Screw Gages, Tempenng. . 516 
Screws: 

hardemng o|* 

rusty 413 

Sculptor's Putty 141 

wax 1*^ 

Sculpture. See Statuary. 
Seal Engraving: 

cement • ^°| 

diamond powder for o7b 

Sea Foam 853, 854 

Sea Water, Laundry Soap 

for 806 

Sealing Wax.. 927-928 

bottle cements 302, 5d2 

stains, removal 421 

varnish..... 666 

without a light 928 

Seaweeds, cleaning. ...... 41^ 

Sections, Conventional 133 

Seed.Bird... 621 

Seidlitz Powders. .... . . . . 967 

Selters Water, Artificial. • . 169 

Seltzer Lemonade 205 

Senna Wine 269 

Sensitizing: 

fabrics 690 

papers'. . . .686-691, 699-707, 
^ *^ 712, 713 

plates 6^3-675 

Serbat's Mastic 30/ 

Serpentine, Working ,o o^ 

Sewer Gas Poisoning ^^^'A^t 

Sewing Machine Oil 620 

Sewing Thread, Dressing 

for 971 

Shading Inks 917 

Shakdo. 99 

Shampoos ^^^-855 

Shandy Gaff •• 243 

Shaving Preparations . . 883-885 
Shawls, Woolen, Cleaning. 431 

Sheathing Metal 84, 96 

Sheep: _ 

branding ^g 

dips 568 

Sheepskins: 

cleaning 4ld 

tanning olO 

[1072] 



Sheet Brass 96 

Sheet Iron, Varnish for. . . 661 
Sheet-metal, lacquer for. . 634 

Shellac Cement 307 

Shells: 

cameos 593 

cement for 288, 33 1 

mussel, polishing 588 

silvering 159 

working 592-593 

Sherbet 196, 554-558 

grape 202 

syrup 19* 

Sherry: ^^„ 

cobbler 243 

essence 226 

flip 196 

frapp6 243 

wine 269 

Shingles, Fireproofing. . . . 896 
Ships: 

paint for 640,642 

funnels 638 

sheathing metal 84, 94, 95, 

96, 103 
varnish for bottoms of . . 661 

Shirts, Laundering 385 

Shock, Remedy 5, 20 

from contusions 8 

^boes: 

blacking 602 

brown dressing 605 

buckskin, restoring 605 

cement 290.299 

cleaners ^ 605 

polishes 6^2-609 

russet shoe polish 607 

tan shoe polish 607 

treeing composition. . . . 608 

waterproofing . 608 

white canvas and satin, 

to clean 609 

See also Boots. 

Shot Metal 103,104 

Shovels, Varnish for 666 

Show Bottles, Druggists . . 968 

Show Cases, Polishing 413 

Show Windows. See Win- 

Shrub 243 

Sideraphite 103 

Sidewalks ^"^ 

Siemen's Cement -^"^ 

Sifting (Chemistry) 1001 

brass, black letters for. . 656 

enamel process 656 

filling cement 307 

gilding letters on 159 

glass lettering 498 

si-efor. 645 

varmsh for ooo 

Silicate of Soda 969 

SiHeate Paints 642 

water paint o4i 

Silicon Bronze °° 

Silk: . .,, 

black, renovating 415 

bleaching • • 41^ 

cleansing 41*. g^* 

alkali stains 337 

coffee, tea and milk. . 362 

fruit and wine • 360 

grease spots 415, 420 

mildew 400 

tannin 423 



Index 



Silk: 

dyeing 457 

handkerchiefs, to Iseep 

white 415 

hats, renovating 415 

photographing on 713 

soaps lor brightening. . . 805 

waterproof varnish 903 

Silver: 

aUoys 107-111 

aluminum 73, 107, 110 

antimony 107 

arsenic 107 

bismuth 107 

copper 108 

iron 109 

lead 109 

nickel 109 

nickel and zinc 108 

platinum 106 

sterling 108 

substitutes 110 

tin 109 

zinc 109 

amalgam 126 

blackening 447 

browning 447 

burnishing 447 

cleaning 415 

egg stains 415 

filigree work 416 

ink stains 415 

plated ware 416 

etching 949 

frosting 415, 447 

gilding 447 

ink 917 

inks for writing on 917 

lacquer for 634 

mosaic silver 81 

oxidizing 447 

plating. See silvering. 

platinizing 448, 481 

polishes 447 

liquid 416 

pomade 417 

powders 417 

soaps 417 

preservation 417 

red color 448 

slate gray color 448 

solder containing 829 

soldering 111.826 

stains on fabrics 418 

varnish for 666 

water gilding 447 

Silver Fizz 243 

Silver Nitrate Stains 418 

Silver Sour 243 

Silvering: 

balls 505 

brass 438,484 

cold plating 482 

contact plating 481 

copper 442, 484 

dead lustre 482 

de-silvering 482 

electro-plating 476 

fire silvering 125, 126 

glass 500 

hot method 484 

iron 481,484 

ivory 585 

leather 599 

nielled silver 482 

non-electric 481 

plaster models 166 



Silvering: 

ribbons 159 

rubbing, or cold plating 482 

shells 159 

silver bronze powder. . . 625 

silver leaf laymg 160 

size for 160 

steel 484 

table for 607 

wet plating 483 

Silverware, Paper for 926 

Similor 101 

Sinks; 

cleanliness 532 

Sizes 644 

bronze powder 439 

bronzing 139 

for prints and pictures. . 159 

gilding 138 

gold 644 

painters ' 645 

parchment 645 

ivory 645 

sign work, size for 645 

silver 160 

Skin: 

bleaching 839 

chapped 839 

eruptions, medicinal 

soaps 810 

foods 847 

See also Cosmetics. 

Skins, Animal: 

depilating 597 

paste for 323 

preserving 598 

See also Birds; Cham- 
ois Skin; Goatskin; 



Slag Cement 307 

Slate: 

artificial 928 

polishing 594 

roofs 532 

Slicing (Chemistry) 998 

Sloe Gin 243 

SmelUng Salts 873 

menthol 857 

Smoke: 

cleaning walls 427 

liquid 763 

prevention 533 

Smoking: 

eels or salmon 763 

meat 762 

Snake Bite 21 

Snow, Sham 969 

Soaps 799-821 

balls, mottled 813 

bubble liquid 800 

carpet 348 

dental 891 

deodorizing fat for per- 
fumed 802 

disinfecting 802 

dry cleaning 802 

essence 802 

floating 803 

French 803 

industrial 805 

laundry 806 

leaves 807 

liquid 807, 813, 817, 818 

lye 809 

manufacturing without 

boiling 808 

marble dust 815 

medicinal . 809 



799-821 

niottled 812 

naturalists 814 

pastes 815 

polishing 398 

powdered 815 

preserving soap grease. . 804 

shampoos 862 

shaving 886 

surgical 817 

textile 805 

transparent 804, 818 

See also Soft Soaps; 
Washing Compounds. 
For special ingredients 
or perfumes see chap- 
ter on Soaps alpha- 
betically arranged. 

Soda, Silicate of 969 

Soda Fountain, Care of . . 394 

Soda Water, Foam 186 

Sodium Amalgam 127 

Soft Soaps 817 

black soap 800 

for textiles 805 

hardening 817 

lye 809 

medicinal 811 

Solders and Soldering. .823-832 

block 823 

cold soldering 833 

cone 824 

enamel solder 834 

fats 824 

fluids 824 

glass 834 

hard solder 225, 828 

lead amalgam for 126 

pastes 824 

plumber's solder 826 

powders 824 

soft alloy 119 

soft solder 823, 825, 827 

See also name of Metal 
to be Soldered. 

Soles, stain for 607 

Solferino 244 

Soluble Glass. See Silicate 
of Soda. 

Soluble Glass Cements 308 

Solution, Chemical 1003 

Soot, Prevention 533 

Sorel's Alloy 118 

Sorel's Dental Cement 282 

Soups, Herb Essence 760 

Soy 762,768 

Spanish Bitters 228 

Spaulding's Glue 311 

Spearmint Essence 178 

Specific Gravity 1040 

Specimens, cement for. 330. 331 

Speculum Alloys 90 

Speculum Metal 89 

Spices 764 

essence 178 

mixed 765 

Spirit Cement 308 

Sponge: 

bleaching 418 

cleansing 419, 886 

rubber 792 

Spoons, Brittania metal 

for 114 

Spotting, or Stain Re- 
moval 419 

Spotting Negatives 686 

Spotting Prints 716 



[1073] 



Index 



Spouts, Britannia Metal 

for 114 

Sprains 21 

Springs: 

hardening 614 

phosphor bronze for. ... 87 

tempering 516 

Spruce: 

beer 195 

essence 179 

Squash : 

canning 760 

preserving winter squash 759 

Squill. Rat Poison 567 

Stacks, Paint for 643 

Staff 970 

Stage Jewelry. Alloys for. . 115 

Staining Glass 507 

Stains: 

for floors 527 

for wood 645-652 

on fabrics, removal of . . . 420 
See also name of Stain, 
i.e. Coffee, Silver, etc; 
or name of Fabric or 
article, i.e. Iron, Mar- 
ble, Silk, etc. 

Stamping Powder 970 

Stamps; 

ink for 919 

metal, transferring writ- 
ing to 166 

rubber 792 

Stanniol 114 

Starch, laundry 386 

uninflammable 388 

Stationery, Mourning 924 

Statuary ; 

amalgam for . 121 

bronze for . 85 

cementing 307, 308 

metal for 96 

paper casts . 142 

varnish for 666 

See also Marble; Model- 
ing; Plaster Casts. 

Steam Baths (Chemistry). 1006 

Steam Boilers. See Boilers. 

Steam Pipes, Covering for. 633 

Steel: 

aluminum-steel 71 

annealing .... 509 

blacking 443 

bluing 444 

removing 444 

brazing 511 

bronzing 439 

burnt, restoring 970 

cleaning 434 

for plating 460 

copper plating 467 

coppering 446 

etching 949 

finishing 373 

wheels for 378 

frosting 446 

gilding 446, 471, 480 

grinding 373 

hardening 612, 613 

lacquer for 634 

manganese steel 105 

polishing 376, 378, 446 

rust preventives 408, 410 

silvering 484 

softening . 516 

soldering 825, 830. 835 

straightening 515 

tempering 515 



Steel: 

varnish for 661 

welding to iron 518 

wheels for finishing 378 

See also Metal Polishes. 

Stencil Inks 921 

Stencil Paints 642 

Stephenson's Cement 308 

Stereotype Metal 115, 117 

Stereo typers' Paste 324 

Sterlin 110 

Sterro Metal 94, 96 

Stock; 

branding 25, 636 

insecticides 562 

Stopp i ng ou t Varnishes . . . 667 

Stomach Bitters 228 

Stone: 

artificial 279 

cement for 274, 293, 307, 

308, 315 

iron in stone 295 

mason's cement 275 

metals to stone 294 

repairing 276, 301 

wood to stone 301 

cleansing 422 

ink for writing on 921 

labels on 329 

mildew, cleaning 422 

preserving compositions 903 

Stopcocks, Alloy for 119 

Stoppers: 

glass, fitting 507 

removing 608 

rubber, to soften 791 

Storm Glasses 970 

Stove Pipes. 

cleaning 633 

varnish for 657 

Stoves: 

blackings and polishes . . 633 

cementfor 292 

paint for 643 

rust, to prevent. ....... 411 

See also Gas Stoves. 

Straining (Chemistry) 1023 

Straps, Polishing 609 

Stratena Glue 313 

Straw : 

bleaching 422 

dyeing 464 

Straw Hats: 

bleaching 422 

dyeing 454 

stiffening 423 

varnish for 667 

Strawberry; 

cordial 237 

drink 196,197 

essence 174, 179 

artificial 174 

frozen 557 

ice 667 

ice cream 664 

jam 760 

jelly 750 

phosphate 210 

preserved 760 

punch 212 

sundae 213 

syrup 192 

vinegar 773 

wine 269 

String Beans, Canning .... 760 

Stripping Films 685 

Strontium Amalgam 127 

Strychnine Poisoning 16, 20 

[ 1074 ] 



Strychnine rat poison .... 667 

Stuccoed Flowers 156 

Stumps, Destroymg 970 

Sublimation 1040 

Submarine Works, Paint 

for 642 

See also Sheathing 
Metal. 

Succotash, Canning 760 

Suffocation. See Asphyxia; 
Gas. 

Sugar Stains 368, 421 

Sulphur Soap ; . . 811 

Summer Squash. See 
Squash. 

Sun-Bronze 79 

Sunburn Remedies 886 

Sundaes 212 

hot ' 217 

Sunstroke 22 

Surgical Instruments. See 
Instruments. 

Surgical Soaps 817 

Sweeping: 

compound 970 

dust absorbent 627 

methods ', . 349 

Swiss Pudding 657 

Swords, Varnish for 379 

Sympathetic Inks 917 

Syphons 991 

Syrup Gage 737, 739 

Syrups 180-193 

chocolate 214 

cost of 182 

for canning 737 

preparation 180 

simple syrup 191 

table of amount obtained 

from sugar and water 182 
Table Linen. See Linen. 
Tables; 

cementing cloth or 

leather to tops 300 

varnish for 667 

Tablets: 

paste for 326 

press for making 327 

Tacks, Tinning 486 

Talcum Powder 882 

Tallow: 

bleaching 422 

candles 798 

Tahni 99 

Tan, Removing 849 

Tangerine Phosphate 210 

Tannin: 

stains 423 

varnish 667 

Tanning: 

furs 609 

hides 610 

mats 610 

Tapes, Saturating 971 

Tapestry : 

cleaning 423 

papers 427 

Taps: 

alloys for 116 

tempering 617 

Tar: 

paper, for roofs 532 

soap 818 

shampoo 864 

stains 421,423 

varnish , 667 

walks 279 

Tarnish, Prevention of . . . 344 



Index 



Tarragon Vinegar 774 

Tattoo Marks, Removing. 886 
Taxidermy, Preparations 

for 971 

Tea: 

chests, lining 103 

essence 179 

frappe 197 

hot 217 

ice 557 

stains 352,421 

on parchment 405 

syrup .' 192 

Tectonum 608 

Technical Chemistry. See 

Chemistry, Technical. 

Technical Substances, 

Prices 980-987 

Teeth: 

. care of 888 

pastes for 890 

powders 889 

soap 891 

washes 888 

" See also Dental Cements. 

Telegraph and Telephone 

Wires, Silicon Bronze 

for 89 

Tellurium, Aluminum and. 73 
Temperature Indicating 

Paint 643 

Tempering: 

furnaces 509 

steel 515 

Terra Cotta: 

cement for 276 

varnish for 667 

Textile Fabrics: 

black, cleaning 340 

restoring 353 

cement for 303 

metal to cloth 296 

distinguishing 971 

dyeing 455 

fireproo6ng 734, 894 

grease spots 420 

petrolatum stains 406 

photographic printing on 713 

rust stains 412 

silver nitrate stains 418 

soaps for 805 

waterproofing 899, 904 

See also Cotton; Linen; 
Satin: Silk; Woolen 
Fabrics. 

Theatrical Paints 886-888 

Theatrical Scenery, Fire- 
proofing 895 

Thermometer 1043, 1044 

Thread, Sewing, Dressing 

for 971 

Throat, Articles in 22 

removing fish bone 12 

Thymol: 

dentifrice 890, 891 

mouth wash 858 

Ticks on Animals. ...,,.. 561 

Tiers' Argent 107 

Tiles: 

cementing to iron 296 

cleaning 424 

roof, coating for 632 

Timber, Preservation.. .301, 977 
Tin: 

alloys 111-117 

aluminum 73 

lead 114 

manganese 105 



Tin: 
alloys: 

phosphorus 115 

silver 109 

substitutes. ......... 115 

amalgam 127 

cementing to brass 291 

to wood 296 

cleaning, 424. 434 

for plating 460 

ink for 921 

Japanning 631 

labels on 329 

lacquer for 634 

metal for tinning 116 

nickeling 475 

plating 477 

plating, non-electric. .484-486 

amalgam process .... 485 

brass 485 

castings 485 

polishing 424 

rust prevention 424 

soldering Ill, 825 

substitutes for 115 

varnish for 667 

Tinfoil: 

alloys for 114 

cementing to wood 301 

lacquer for 635 

pasting paper on 324 

Trimmmg. 

Tire cements, rubber and 

leather , 300 

Tissier's Metal 97 

Tissue Paper: 

copying ink for 911 

paste for 324 

varnish for 667 

Titanium and Aluminum. . 73 

Toast Water 219 

Tobacco, Flavoring and 

Spotting 971 

Tobacco Pipes, Cleaning. . 424 

Tobm Bronze 97 

Toilet Preparations 837-892 

for specific kinds or pur- 
poses see alphabetical 
arrangement of 
chapter or in Index. 

Toilet Waters 874-878 

coloring for 864, 875 

distillation 874 

perfumed 875 

Tokay 269 

Tomato: 

and onions pickled 755 

canning 760 

catsup 752 

chow chow 765 

drinks 218 

marmalade 761 

pickled 755 

preserved 751 

sauce 768 

Tombac 93, 103 

Tonca's Metal 82 

Tonic Beer Essence 179 

Tonka Bean Essence 179 

Tools: 

hardening 515 

lacquer for 635, 668 

marking 960 

polishing 377 

rust, to prevent 411 

See also Laboratory Ap- 
paratus. 

[1075] 



Toothache , . . 22 

menthol drops 867 

remedies 891 

Tortoise Shell: 

cement for. . , , 289 

combs, reviving 694 

cutting 594 

imitation 578, 783 

Japan, to resemble 631 

polishing 694 

welding 594 

Toning Baths 688 

See also Printing Pro- 
cesses, Photographic. 

Touch Paper 734, 972 

Tournay's Alloy 92 

Tournay's Metal ..... 103 

Tourun-Leonard's Metal. . . 116 
Toys: 

alloys for •. 115 

composition for 945 

paint for 643 

Tracing : 

cleaning tracings 160 

cloth 160 

coloring tracings 161 

drawings 160 

paper 135, 161 

washable 162 

Tragacanth Mucilage 319 

Transferring 163 

engravings 163 

newspaper pictures 164 

ornaments 164 

paper for 162 

photographs to ivory, 

metal, wood. .. 690 

to pottery 173 

pictures to wood 165 

prints 164,165 

silver prints to wood 690 

varnish for 668 

Transparencies: 

collodion emulsion for. . 675 

varnish for 668 

Trappistine 237 

Trees: 

ants, protection from, . . 659 

fungous diseases 562 

insects, protection 

against 668 

mice, protection against 664 

stump destroyer. ...... 970 

wounds 26 

See also Grafting. 

Tripak Color Photography 724 

Trituration 1000 

Trunks: 

paint for 643 

paste for 324 

wood odors, to remove. . 430 

Tubania 120 

Tube Polish 399 

Tubes, rubber, to preserve. 791 
Tungsten: 

aluminum and 73 

bronzes 117 

paints 643 

Tungstic Glue 313 

Tuning Glasses 508 

Turbine Oils 621 

Turkish Cement 289 

Turner's: 

brass 97 

cement 290 

lacquer 668 

Turpentine: 

substitute for 972 



Index 



Turpentine: 

varnish 668 

Tutania 114 

Tutenag 79, 117 

Tutti Frutti: 

ice 658 

sunda« 213 

Type Metals 116 

Typewriter; 

alloys for spacing levers . 110 
ink 921 

Umbrellas: 

varnish . , 668 

waterproofing 904 

silk for 903 

Uranium, Alimiinum and. 74 

Usquebaugh 237 

Vacuum Cleaning 349 

Vanilla: 

cordial , 237 

essence 179 

icecream 654 

syrup 192 

Vaporization 101 5 

Varnishes 652-662 

amber 654, 656 

aniline 654 

asphaltum 654, 663 

black 655 

bottles, stoppers for. . . . 656 

brushes, preserving 347 

caseine 657 

celluloid 657 

cleaning woodwork 402 

collodion 658 

copal 658 

crystal water varnish . . . 669 

damar 658 

dead surface 658 

defects in 658 

dress swords 379 

dull 659 

ether 659 

fatty varnish 659 

flexible 659 

funnels and measures, 

cleaning 425 

glass 660 

guaiacum 661 

gums used in making. . . 653 

gutta percha 661 

india rubber 661 

inflexible 661 

Japan 662 

lac 662,669 

linseed oil 663 

mat varnish 660, 664 

mordant ^ 664 

naphtha 664 

removing coatings ot.401, 424 

rosin 666 

rubber 794 

seahng wax 666 

shellac 666 

silvered mirrors 507 

spirit varnish 652, 667 

stains 401, 420, 424 

tannin 667 

tar 667 

turpentine 668 

veneer liquid 668 

water varnish 669 

waterproof 794,811 

wax 670 

white 670 

wood 430 

See also Enamel Paint; 
Japans; Lacquers; Paints. 



Vegetable: 

butters 768 

canning and preserving 

755-760 

cement 308 

fertilizers 38 

flavoring for meats, etc. 765 

masher 736 

parchment 148 

Veils, Cleaning 425 

Vellum: 

cleaning 405, 425 

coloring 166 

gold ink for 912 

silver ink for 917 

Velvet, Cleaning 425 

Veneer: 

glue 313 

Dquid 668 

Ventilation, Window 637 

Vermin, Extermination of 559 

Vermouth 237 

Vespetro 237 

Veterinary Formulas 49-65 

Vichy: 

artificial 169 

egg 196 

Vici Kid Polish 608 

Vidry 118 

Vienna Metal Cement 123 

Vinegar 771-774 

casks, cleaning 351 

clarifying 769 

making 769 

spiced 773 

toilet 878 

stains, scouring 817 

Violet Syrup 192 

Violet Water 875, 877 

Violin Bows: 

cleaning 426 

rosin for. 942 

Violins: 

cleaning 426 

varnish for 668 

Vulcanite 787, 788, 789 

Wagons: 

transferring pictures to. 165 
See also Carriages;Wick- 
erwork. 

Wainscot Varnish 669 

Walker's Fusible Alloy. . . 75 
Walking Sticks. See Canes. 
Walks, Weed Extermina- 
tion 69 

Wall Paper: 

cleaning 426 

hanging 531 

paste for 323 

varnish 669 

washable 904 

Walls: 

cleaning paint 402 

smoky, cleaning 426 

dampness, preventing. . 534 

fireproofing 895 

See also Kalsomine; 
Plastering. 
Walnut: 

catsup 752 

pickled 755 

vinegar for 773 

preserving 760 

shell stains 423 

wood polish 544 

wood stain 651 



Warne's Alloy H? 

Wash Bottle 990 

Wash balls 820 

Washing. See Laundry. 

Wasp Stings 23 

Waste Pipes. See Drain 
Pipes. 

Wastes 972 

electroplating, to recover 478 
Watch: 

alloys for 98, 107 

drills, hardening 515 

oils 621 

Water: 

bugs, extermination 568 

carbonating 167 

filter 535 

glass cement 284, 293 

ices 554-558 

paint 643 

polishing 427 

softening 535. 838 

varnish 669 

Watermelon sundae 213 

Waterproofing 898-905 

adhesives 333 

boots and shoes 608 

cement 291, 293, 302, 333 

compositions 899 

glues 335 

leather 601 

metallic soaps for 811 

water paint 643 

pastes 336 

putty 336 

varnish 794 

whitewash 672 

Wax: 

bleaching 339, 427 

candles 798 

dental 972 

dummies, repairing 141 

engravers' border 141 

filling for plates 964 

floor 527,811 

flowers 137 

fruit 138 

gilders' 139 

grafting 25 

impression 141 

modeling 141 

lacquer 670 

leather 601 

molds 142 

paper 925, 961 

sheet 973 

varnish 670 

See also Sealing Wax. 
Weather. See Barometers. 
Weeds. Extermination of. . 55-59 
Weights & Measures.. 1045-1053 
Welding: 

fluxes 517 

metals 517-519 

powder 518 

Whalebone 973 

Wheat Whisky 238 

Wheels, Polishing 427 

Whipped Cream Syrup. . . 193 

artificial 193 

Whiskers: 

dye for 851 

false, affixing 886 

Whisky 238,974 

cocktail 244 

essence 226 

punch 247 

sour 244 



Index 



Whisky 238,974 

wheat whisky 238 

White Cement 308 

White Ink 922 

White Metal.. . .90, 111, 112, 115 

for bearings 113 

Whitewash 670-672 

government whitewash . 671 
Wicker: 

cleaning 428 

paints 643 

varnish for 655 

wagon varnish 670 

Whiting, Cakes and Balls. 428 
Wicks: 

fireproofing 895 

snuflfless, for candles.... 799 

Wigs, Wax for 888 

Wild Cherry: 

essence 172 

phosphate syrups 184 

syrups 183 

Windows: 

cleaning 428 

frost on 428, 536 

painted 644 

removing 428 

putty, removing 428 

rust; removing 428 

sweating, to prevent. . 536 

Windsor Soap 820 

Wines and Wine Making247-269 
acid taste, to remove. 254, 256 

age 253,254 

alcoholic percentage of 224, 251 

alcoholizing 254 

bitters 228 

bottling 254 

clarification 254 

coloring matter 255 

cup 240 

detannation of 256 

fermentation 257 

fining 257 

flatness, to remove 258 

formulas 256-269 

imitation 252 

medicated 266 

mellowing 258 

punch 247 

racking 259 

red 268 

sourness 259 

sparkling, creaming and 

briskness 259 

stains, removing . 360, 421, 817 

storing 254, 258 

sweetening. 259 

tartaric acid in, detec- 
tion of 259 

white wine 269 



Wines and Wine M iking 247-269 

See also Liquors. 
Winter Squash. See 

Squash. 
Wintergreen: 

essence 180 

„ syrup 193 

Wire: 

apparatus for laboratory 

use 987 

baskets 735 

brass for 96, 97 

iron, bronzing 445 

rope, preserving 407 

rope ways 621 

rust, to prevent 411 

sieve 736 

soldering steel 835 

Witch Hazel: 

jelly 845 

mouthwash 858 

snow 847 

soap 820 

Wood: 

age, to give the appear- 
ance of 645 

ants and insects in 976 

bleaching 429 

bruises in 538 

cement 300, 306, 307, 308 

metals to wood .... 294, 297 

rubber to wood 299 

tin to wood 296 

waterproof lutes 315 

cleaning woodwork. . .402, 429 

dishes, water-tight 905 

enamel, black 628 

fillers 301, 325, 542, 629 

fireproofing 895, 976 

gilding 166 

heat stains, to remove. . 430 

ink stains, removal 371 

lubricant for 621 

machinery, grease for,617, 621 

odor, to remove 430 

paints, waterproof 643 

polish 538-545 

to restore 538 

preservation of 301, 302, 

974-977 

stams for 645 

tar, varnish for 667 

transferring pictures to. 165 

varnish 670 

waterproofing 335, 905 

white wood varnish 670 

See also Cabinet Work; 
Furniture Polish; 
Paints; Stains; also 
names of Woods. 
Wood's Fusible Alloy 76, 77 



Wool: 

alkali stains 337 

bleaching 430 

cleansing 431 

coffee, tea and milk 

stains 352 

stains 420 

dyeing 455 

fulling soaps 805 

ink stains ^$69 

paint stains 401 

washing compound.. . . . 820 

waterproofing 905 

See also Blankets. 

Worcestershire Sauce 768 

Worms in Flower Pots. .. . 562 

Wormwood Essence 180 

Wounds 23 

Wrinkles, Removing., . .847, 892 
Writing: 

on glass 508 

materials 907-929 

transferring to typemetal 166 
Wrought Iron. See Iron. 

Xylonite, Designs on 780 

Yeast: 

brewers' 775 

homebrewed 776 

preserving 776 

Vienna 777 

„ wine 269 

Zeiodite Cement 308 

Zeltlinger Cup 240 

Zimalium 74 

Zinc: 
alloys : 

bronzes Hg 

manganese-tin 105 

nickel us 

silver 108, 109 

amalgam 128 

blacking | . 448 

bleaching 431 

bronzing 448, 449 

bronzing electro-brassed 465 

cement 308 

dental 282 

, glass 308 

cleansing for plating. . . . 460 

copper plating 467 

galvanizing iron with . . 486 

hardening 515 

lacquer for 635 

patina 443 

painting 644 

plati ng, electric 478 

silvering 434 

soldering 825 

tinning 486 

white cements 308 

Zumatic Driers 627 



1 1077 J 






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L&S 32 



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